Introduction To Forestry and Natural Resources

INTRODUCTION
TO FORESTRY
AND NATURAL
RESOURCES
DONALD L. GREBNER
Department of Forestry, College of Forest Resources,
Mississippi State University, Mississippi State,
MS 39762, USA
PETE BETTINGER
Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources,
University of Georgia, Athens,
GA 30602, USA
JACEK P. SIRY
Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources,
University of Georgia, Athens,
GA 30602, USA
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Dedication
Donald L. Grebner: To my family members, Ann Kristin, and Wayne, for their persistent and unwavering
Friedrich, Andrew Friedrich, and Karl Friedrich, who love and support.
inspired my dreams and love of international travel. To my Pete Bettinger: To Kelly Bettinger, for never once
mentors, William R. Bentley, Charles Hatch, Benjamin suggesting a career change was necessary. To Jack
Hoffman, and Gregory S. Amacher, for not giving up on Chappell and other field foresters we have known, for
me and helping me grow as a forestry and natural helping us understand.
resource professional. Finally, to my wife, Brenda, and Jacek P. Siry: To my children, Victoria and Maximilian.
children, Karl, Daniel, Amanda,
Preface
Introduction to Forestry and Natural Resources arose be derived from forests. In Chapter 5, we highlight wildlife–
through a desire to produce an introductory text on forestry habitat relationships and discuss important issues such as
and natural resource management for freshmen college edge effects and habitat management strategies. In
students. However, anyone with an interest in learning Chapter 6, we introduce the concept of ecosystem
about these wide-ranging professions for the first time may services and provide a context for further discussion
find this book enjoyable. Our professional experiences in regarding ecological concerns. In Chapter 7, we focus first
North America, South America, Europe, Asia, and Oceania on the evolution of forest recre ation and then describe the
provide us with regional, national, and global perspectives importance of recreational interests as a nontimber natural
on forestry and natural resource management, and these resource on the land scape. In Chapter 8, we provide a
experiences have guided us in the writing of this book. summary of the basic forest measurement techniques and
Throughout the book we have included numerous practical the technology commonly employed in collecting
examples to help reinforce key concepts of the application information that will eventually help guide management
of forestry and natural resource management in various decisions in forested landscapes. This discussion includes
locations around the world. One challenge encountered in topics ranging from the measurement of tree crown sizes
writing a book of this scope is to adequately cover the vast and tree ages to the use of global positioning systems and
array of biolog ical, social, and economic factors affecting satellite imagery. In Chapter 9, we provide a synopsis of
forests and their natural resources while not creating a text tree anatomy and physiology, covering topics such as tree
that is too dense for newly initiated and beginning practi cell composition, sap flow, and photosynthesis. In Chapter
tioners. Along these lines, we made a concerted effort to 10, we describe forest dynamics, which includes
balance the depth and scope of topics presented. We treatments of forest communities, succession,
hope readers of this text will be inspired to delve more disturbances, gradients, and niches. In Chapter 11, we
deeply into topics that interest or concern them, or into provide an outline of common forestry and natural
issues that they face in their daily lives. We apologize in resource practices for managing forested landscapes and
advance for any omissions or errors found within the text. provide a discussion of the diversity of practices employed
They are solely our own. in meeting forest objectives around the world. In Chapter
Introduction to Forestry and Natural Resources is 12, we introduce basic harvesting systems for forested
divided into 18 chapters, two appendices, and a glossary. landscapes and describe the various systems in brief so
In Chapter 1, we provide an introduction to human kind’s that resource managers will gain an under standing of the
interaction with forests and the natural resources methods used to extract commodities from forested areas.
commonly associated with forested areas. In Chapter 2, In Chapter 13, we introduce the application of economic
we provide a description of the varied forest regions theory in forestry and natural resource management
around the world and then concentrate on the socioeco decision-making, since key components of many public
nomic and political issues that have influenced forest and private decisions involve costs, revenues, and returns
development in selected countries. This discussion is on investment. In Chapter 14, we discuss various types of
segmented by continent, although, given the potential forest distur bances, ranging from wind and volcanic
scope of this chapter, we could not provide a summary of activities to insects and diseases. In Chapter 15, we
every country. Our intent is not to downplay the summarize the types of forest policies and external
importance of those countries not mentioned, as many of pressures that can influence the management of forested
them play important roles in the development and use of landscapes and, although each country will have a set of
forests and natural resources. In Chapter 3, we outline pertinent poli cies that guide forest management, to
common objectives of forest landowners and the typical illustrate the complexity and scope of these, we provide
constraints that they face. The differences in management only a few
challenges by ownership type should be carefully
considered, as these set the tone for forest
management activities. In Chapter 4, we describe the wide
variety of timber- and nontimber-based products that can xi
xii PREFACE
North American examples. In Chapter 16, we introduce regions of the world in which they are found. In the second
the concept of urban forestry and the role it can play in the appendix, we provide a list of important forestry and
health and welfare of forests within towns, cities, and natural resource organi zations around the world. These
metropolitan areas. In Chapter 17, we describe a portion organizations are orga nized by continent. Finally, we
of the vast realm of conservation and profes sional ethics, provide a glossary of many of the technical terms
emphasizing the importance of these to our profession. mentioned throughout the book and, as with the forestry
Finally, in Chapter 18, we highlight numerous potential and natural resource organizations appendix, this list is
career paths for forestry and natural resource graduates. not intended to be exhaustive.
Of course, the list we provide of careers mentioned is not Many of the figures provided in this book are from our
exhaustive, yet it should provide readers with an indication personal digital libraries or from those of friends and
of the type of respon sibilities each professional group colleagues. We would like to acknowledge and thank
accepts. several individuals for providing us with photo graphs used
Two appendices are included with this book. In the first, in this book. These generous individuals include Stephen
we list the Latin and common names for the various flora C. Grado, Andrew J. Sańchez Meador, Kathy Freeman,
and fauna mentioned in the book, orga nized by the typical A. Taylor Hall, Thomas O’Shea, Starling Childs, Samantha
Langley-Turnbaugh, Florian Geyer, Robert Crook, David like to thank Krista Merry for developing several of our
W. Wilkinson, Joshua P. Adams, Dawn M. Grebner, Kelly figures. We would also like to thank several individuals
A. Bettinger, Francisco Vilella, Douglas J. Marshall, who provided important informa tion for developing the
Gustavo Pere´z-Verdıń, Zachary A. Parisa, Walter Sekot, manuscript and figures. These individuals include Armin
Shukui Niu, Enoki Yoshio, Christina E.H. Cooper, Jodi Offer, David L. Evans, Jar rod H. Fogarty, Omkar Joshi,
Roberts, Lynn Sheldon, J. Taylor Thomas, David Hobson, Andrew W. Ezell, Andrew J. Londo, Stephen C. Grado,
Hugh Bigsby, David Jones, Dirk Stevenson, Amy Castle Zhaofei Fan, Isabelle Fahimi, Jeff Hatten, Dave Godwin,
Blaylock, Jon D. Prevost, Stacey Herrin, Tibor Pechan, Francesco Carbone, Federica Alisciani, Olga Pechan,
Tor Schultz, Jack Chappell, Rich Reuse, Jean-Luc Richard Campbell, Duffy Neubauer, Matt Elliott, Ikuko
Peyron, Matt Elliott, Brenda F. Grebner, Joshua Russell, Fujisaki, Gabi Geyer, Scott Roberts, Robert K. Grala,
Catherine Kirk, Mike Strange, James Jones, Rachel Karen Brasher, Laurie Grace, and Nancy Thomas. We
Billingham, Brian Reed, Joe Burnam, Jason Kinsey, Wes would also like to apologize to anyone whom we may have
Sprinkle, Andrew McCarley, Michael Brown, Todd Tietjen, inadver tently forgotten to mention.
Tracy Daily, Cliff Anderson, Maralyn Renner, Pete Fule´, The goal of this work was to provide readers with a
and Jim Willcut. We would also like to acknowledge that global and comprehensive overview of the exciting fields
additional digital imagery was used from sources such as of study that center on forests. Although the development
Bugwood.org, Mississippi State University, process was difficult at times, we were and continue to be
the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, excited to have this opportunity to portray the challenging
PresentationMaps, the US Forest Service, the US Geolog image of evolving for ested landscapes to those interested
ical Survey, the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric in forestry and natural resource management.
Administration, the US Natural Resources Conservation Environmental, social, and economic structures constantly
Service, Wikimedia Commons, and Wikipedia. The photo change and continuously present us with a complex set of
credits for these images can be found in the figure forest and natural resource problems. Fortunately,
captions throughout the text. numerous approaches have been successful in
We would like to take a moment to acknowledge and addressing many of these issues, whether they are
thank a large group of people who made this effort silvicultural, mathe matical, or social in nature. We hope
successful. First, we would like to thank Brenda F. that our brief intro duction to forestry and natural resource
Grebner for her tireless efforts in critically reviewing the management will enhance your enthusiasm to delve more
text. Second, we would like to thank A. Taylor Hall for his deeply into these fascinating fields.
efforts in proofreading, converting measurement units, D.L.G.
developing appendices, and assisting with the P.B.
development of the instructor’s manual. Third, we would
J.P.S.
CHAPTER
1
A Brief History of Forestry and
Natural Resource Management
OUTLINE
1.1 What Is Forestry and Natural Resource and natural resources due to stresses placed upon them. The role
that forests and natural resources play in our lives will continue to
Management? 2 1.2 What Are Forests? 3 1.3 Why
evolve with human development and our expanding use of the
Are Forests Important to Humans? 7 global landscape. Once perceived as an obstacle to development,
the importance of forests to various cultures and many of the
1.4 A Brief History of Human Interaction with Forests 9 products forests provide are now well understood. A perplexing
concern that must be addressed by current and future land
1.4.1 The Forest Extraction Perspective 10 managers involves addressing the needs of an ever-increasing
human population without depleting or destroying natural
ecosystems. Healthy forests are necessary not only for providing
opportunities for future generations but also for maintaining
biodiversity, ensuring species survival, meeting human consumptive
needs, and addressing national security issues. The management of
forests and natural resources requires knowledge that transcends
Abstract disci plines as diverse as anthropology, biology, business,
With the population of the human race now exceeding 7 billion chemistry, ecology, economics, engineering, entomology,
individuals, there is an increasing concern for the world’s forests
geography, geology, history, hydrology, mathematics, physics, environmental, and social problems.
psychology, and sociology. Obviously, becoming an expert in all of
these fields is asking too much of an individual. However, it is impor
tant to obtain a broad understanding of the manner in which these OBJECTIVES
fields complement one another with respect to forestry and natural
resources. With a broad background in these areas, forest and Forest ecosystems have been placed at the center of
natural resource managers will be able to understand contentious and global debates concerning carbon
sequestration, climate change, and biodiversity (Gallardo et al.
2003). With a growing awareness of the role forests play in the
1 Introduction to Forestry and Natural Resources global carbon cycle, including the possibility of reducing
1.4.2 The Forest Renewability and Management carbon emissions and increasing carbon seques tration
Perspective 13 through forest growth processes, a broad segment of human
society has developed an interest in forest and natural
1.5 Forests in the Current World Political and resource management. Forests not only represent many of the
Environmental Context 15 most diverse ecosystems on Earth, they also serve as refuges
for many species and provide sustenance and employment for
1.6 Human Developmental Pressures on Forests 17
a large portion of the human pop ulation (Food and Agriculture
Summary 18 References 19 Organization of the United Nations 2010). Forests also provide
a number of inherent values (i.e., aesthetic, religious, and
simply by their exis tence) that are important to a wide range
of societies around the world. This introductory chapter was
designed to provide an overview of some of the very broad
how their management actions affect the character of natural and themes
human systems and can assist in addressing complex economic,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-386901-2.00001-4 Copyright 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2 1. A BRIEF HISTORY OF FORESTRY AND NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

in forestry and natural resource management in order to set 50–100 years, and therefore an understanding of the
the stage for more in-depth analyses of forest uses and history of forestry and natural resource management helps
values later in the book. At the completion of this chapter, develop a context for deeper investigations into the
readers should understand associated environmental, social, and managerial issues.
In addition, past experiences can help foresters and
• what forests are and why they are important to humans; •
natural resource managers develop methods for
the progress of human use of forests from ancient to modern
addressing complex forest and natural resource problems.
times;
The problem posed in this section of the book is very basic
• the differences between the extractive perspective of
and is perhaps the motivation for individuals to read a
forest resources and the renewal and managed
book such as this one. The field of forestry may appear to
perspective;
some to involve only the trees growing on an area of land,
• how the practice of forestry and natural resource
while the field of natural resource management may
management is viewed in the current political and
appear to involve everything else that is found in that area.
environmental context; and
In reality, the fields of forestry and natural resource
• the issues affecting forestry and natural resource
management are intertwined, often involving multiple
management as they relate to human developmental
types of resources and a diverse suite of expected
pressures and the juxtaposition of wildlands and
outcomes. The terms forestry and natural resource
developed areas.
manage ment have existed for a very long time; however,
As we noted, this chapter sets the stage for more their
comprehensive examinations of many of the issues asso definitions have evolved owing to shifts in human
ciated with the practice of forestry and natural resource perspectives toward natural resources. Chiras et al. (2002)
management. The development of a broad understanding of defined a natural resource as “any component of natural
these issues will be of great benefit to new and experi enced environment, such as soil, water, rangeland, forest,
professionals as they encounter and address complex wildlife, and minerals that species depend on for their
management problems during their careers. welfare.” With the exception of minerals and petroleum
resources, we address many of these components in this
book. Natural resource management is thus the
management of these resources for consumption,
1.1 WHAT IS FORESTRY AND NATURAL conservation, and preservation purposes. Management
RESOURCE MANAGEMENT? inherently involves forming decisions regarding the use of
resources, including forming decisions to do nothing at all.
Accord ing to the Society of American Foresters, forestry
Throughout history, forests have been revered and is defined as “the profession embracing the science, art,
championed through poems, proverbs, stories, and fairy and practice of creating, managing, using, and conserving
tales. Some societies once believed, and some may still, forests and associated resources for human benefit and in
that forests are a gift from a higher power (Zyryanova et a sustain able manner to meet desired goals, needs, and
al. 2010).Many people will agree that the role of humans values” (Helms 1998). Forestry is, therefore, the art,
within the natural environment has changed over the last science, and business of managing forests to achieve a
diverse set of goals that range from timber production to temporal scales. Each field also involves the examination
ecosystem services. From these definitions, it seems that of trade-offs among manage ment alternatives, which are
natural resource management is broader in scope than inherent in planning, orga nization, policy development,
forest management (perhaps a valid conclusion), yet and public relations activities.
forests are natural resources, and forestry empha sizes Forestry is usually considered different from arboricul
the management of these to address conservation, ture, as the former deals with collections of trees while the
preservation, and consumptive objectives defined by latter deals with individual trees (Pinchot 1900). However,
humans. These objectives can involve providing wood urban forestry concepts seem now to bridge the gap
products, promoting the development of wildlife habitat, between the management of large collections of trees and
maintaining or improving water quality, seques tering individual trees. In a broad sense, forestry and natural
carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere, and facilitating resource management can each be used to manage land
spiritual experiences. In other words, the field of forestry to meet the various needs of humans and other species,
can involve the management of natural resources other and each can be viewed as fields of expertise in which
than trees. Both fields, if one concludes that they are profes sionals must implement the actions necessary to
different, still share a number of common characteristics. maintain or enhance biodiversity and ecosystem
For example, each field involves broad management processes. While this seems all-encompassing, it is not
principles that rely on economics and ecology, and each necessarily so, since management practices vary from
involves actions that can be applied at various spatial and region to region based
1.2. WHAT ARE FORESTS? 3
on differing social and economic conditions and on 1.2 WHAT ARE FORESTS?
differing policies. Further, the objectives and constraints of
managing forests and natural resources may change from What are forests? may seem an odd question to ask,
one landowner (or land management organization or but it is one that must be addressed in order to inform the
government) to the next. As a result, we are likely to find context and background of this book. The word forest is
that certain resources are managed for a single purpose said to arise from the Latin words foris (outdoors) and for
(e.g., to produce timber, to maintain wildlife habitat, or to estis (unenclosed open ground or woods). Quite some
provide recreational experiences), while other resources time ago, Allen (1938) expressed the obvious to an early
are managed for multiple purposes (e.g., to produce some generation of natural resource managersdforests are
level of income while also improving wildlife habitat quality essential to human existence. A forest is a source of food,
and providing recreational oppor tunities) (Anderson and fuel, shelter, and material, and, beyond that, it is a place
Smith 1976). While some may find the idea controversial, within which people can travel and enjoy outdoor expe
practical forestry involves both the use and the riences. Many have attempted to categorize land as either
preservation of forests, as was noted by Pinchot (1905) forest or some other land use class. For example, the
over 100 years ago. Society of American Foresters defines a forest as an
The role and importance of forests to human society ecosystem with a dense and extensive tree cover that
continue to evolve. At one point in recent human history, varies by species composition, structure, age class, associ
forestry in Europe was associated with the protection of ated processes, and which commonly includes meadows,
Royal herds of deer. At other points in recent human streams, fish, and wildlife (Helms 1998). The Food and
history, forestry concentrated on the extraction of wood Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2004), a
chiefly for the development of housing material and leading international source of information on agricul tural,
military equipment, such as ships. The use of forestry forestry, fisheries, and rural development, defines a forest
practices should not imply that forests will disappear; in as an area of land covering at least 0.5 hectares (ha; 1.2
fact, the Sihlwald Forest in Switzerland was managed for acres [ac]) containing trees taller than 5 meters (m; 16.4
timber production for nearly 1,000 years (Roth 1902), yet feet [ft]) and having more than 10% of the area covered by
within the last 25 it has become a forested, recreational tree canopies. This definition also comprises land areas
park. It is clear that there are differences in opinion recently reforested or currently understocked with trees
regarding how forests and natural resources should be and areas that are expected to achieve these thresholds
used. At times, these opinions can be traced to differences over time. Bamboo (e.g., Bambusa spp. and others),
in human political or socioeconomic conditions and, at palms (e.g., Elaeis spp.), and other types of plan tations
other times, these opinions can be based on differences in (e.g., rubberwood [Hevea brasiliensis] or cork oak
educational backgrounds. For example, German forestry [Quercus suber]) used primarily for forest production or
profes sionals perceive changes in nature as predictable protection purposes are also included in this definition of
and long lasting; thus, they tend to view nature in a forests, as long as the criteria (land area, tree heights, and
manner differently than the general public (Storch 2011). canopy cover) are met. The same definition applies to
The following section of this book provides a basic histor windbreaks, shelterbelts, and corridors of trees, provided
ical background on human views of forests and natural these are at least 20 m (66 ft) wide. For better or for
resources, with examples from ancient to modern times. worse, this definition excludes land uses that are designed
Human interaction with forests, and the associ ated predominantly for agricultural or urban purposes, such as
perceptions of forests and natural resources, has led to a fruit tree plantations or city parks, although urban forests
number of opportunities and challenges world wide. These are discussed in greater detail in Chapter 16.
broad views on the value and use of forests have, in many Forests can be established by humans and can be
ways, helped shape the development of modern forestry naturally regenerated after disturbances (e.g., hurri canes,
and natural resource management. fires, or logging operations). Tree seeds can also be
dispersed by wind and animal action, and these may
facilitate the establishment of trees in formerly open areas. which humans derive numerous economic, environmental,
In fact, forests are continually changing due to and social values.
environmental factors, natural disturbances, and human Forests can be located close to rivers or streams, and
interactions. In essence, forests are constantly changing when these types of water bodies flow through them they
systems of vegetation (at a slower pace in some areas may be considered riparian forests (Figure 1.2), as
and at a faster pace in others) that provide a wide variety opposed to upland forests that are found further away
of functions. A forest can there fore be described as a from water bodies. However, a forested area of a few
living community of trees (Figure 1.1) within which plants dozen hectares will usually have some type of
and animals reside, reproduce, and forage, and from
FIGURE 1.1 Deciduous forest community in Indiana, United States. Photo courtesy of Donald L. Grebner.
stream (perennially flowing, intermittent, or ephemeral)

flowing through it. Forests can be found next to large
bodies of water, such as lakes or oceans (e.g., coastal
forests; Figure 1.3), or high in the mountains (cloud forests,
montane forests, or alpine forests; Figure 1.4). Forests can
be found on flat lands (e.g., the flatwoods of Florida)
or steep terrain (e.g., the Sierra Nevada or the mountains
of Hawaii; Figure 1.5). Forests can also be found in arid
environments (e.g., the xeric forests of northern Mexico
and the southwestern United States; Figure 1.6) and in
standing bodies of water (e.g., the bottomland forests in
the swamps and bayous of the southern United States;
Figure 1.7). Some forests thrive in moist environments
(e.g., forests along the southern coast of Chile) and
humid environments (e.g., forests in the Congo and
Indonesia), while others have adapted themselves to
heavy snow accumulation during winter (e.g., forests
in Siberia, eastern Asia, and northern North America;
Figure 1.8). Forests can currently be found in every
continent on Earth except in Antarctica, although forests
also existed there millions of years ago (O’Hanlon 2004).
The growth rate of forests varies considerably, from the
fast-growing pines and eucalypts (Eucalyptus spp.) of
the southeastern United States and South America, to
the slower-growing spruce and fir forests of northern
Canada, Scandinavia, and Russia. Forests sometimes
grow next to cities and towns or are scattered across
the countryside (Figure 1.9) and intermixed with agri
cultural land. Even though the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (2004) defines
a forest as being as small as 0.5 ha, in developed areas
forests might be considered as small as 2 ha (about
5 acdimagine a rectangle containing approximately
FIGURE 1.2 Riparian and upland forests along the Sacramento River in oped areas they might be as expansive as 400,000 ha (1
northern California, United States. Photo courtesy of Kelly A. Bettinger. million ac) or more.
five American football or soccer fields), yet in undevel
1.2. WHAT ARE FORESTS? 5
For simplicity’s sake, many people think forests are
composed primarily of trees. However, a forest is a
collection of woody, shrubby, and herbaceous vegeta tion
that can extend vertically from a few centimeters off the
ground to as much as a hundred meters (about 330 ft) or
more vertically (e.g., the redwood [Sequoia sem pervirens]
forests of California). This collection of vegeta tion can be
comprised of trees of various ages and shrub, vine, and
herbaceous material distributed in either a random or
systematic pattern over a defined land area. To grow,
forest vegetation uses light energy from the sun and
nutrients and water from the Earth. Light may be
intercepted by the canopy (leaves and needles) of the
trees but may also infiltrate through gaps in the canopy to
the shrubby or herbaceous vegetation below.
States. Photo courtesy of Kelly A. Bettinger.
FIGURE 1.3 Windswept coniferous forests at Cape Perpetua, Oregon,
United States. Photo courtesy of Kelly A. Bettinger.
As a result, some interior forest areas are very dark and
forbidding (a value statement) while others are very open
and park-like (another value statement) owing to the
presence or absence of gaps in the tree canopy. Forest
vegetation absorbs carbon dioxide (CO2) from, and emits
oxygen (O2) to, the atmosphere. Forest vegetation also
holds soil in place and prevents it from washing away
during severe storms containing heavy rainfall. A forest
can also contain the structure necessary to meet the
nesting, roosting, and foraging requirements of numerous
wildlife species. Some of the more common species
dependent on forests include animals, both big and small
(Table 1.1). The size and location of a forest can
significantly influence the types of wildlife that reside there.
Some animals, such as deer, prefer forests composed of
patches of trees inter woven with agricultural fields and
open areas. Other animals, such as chipmunks, have
habitat requirements that are smaller in scale and perhaps
linked to other resources (such as the character of the
FIGURE 1.4 Alpine forests around Mount Baker, Washington, United
soil). Therefore,
FIGURE 1.5 Forests located on the steep mountain slopes of Maui, Hawaii, United States. Photo courtesy of Donald L. Grebner.
FIGURE 1.6 Pine forests in the arid environment of New Mexico, United States. Photo courtesy of Donald L. Grebner.
forests can be viewed as factories storing carbon, gener

ating oxygen, and providing shelter and subsistence to
a variety of animals, including humans.
Local climatic conditions can be affected by the
amount and character of forest vegetation. For example,
within a dense, closed-canopy, mature forest, air
temperatures will generally be cooler in the summer
and warmer in the winter than the surrounding areas.
Humidity will also be higher there owing to lower
evaporation rates, and soils will be less subject to frost
owing to the insulating effect of forest litter and organic
matter. The influence of trees on erosional processes is
significant, as the branches and leaves (or needles) of
trees act to mitigate the physical impact of rain through
interception processes. Once precipitation reaches the
ground, forest litter and organic matter will absorb
some of the water, mitigating surface runoff and facili
tating seepage into the soil. Water will then move
downward through forested soils at a slower rate
than if it were moving laterally over bare ground.
This downward movement of water through forest
soils may allow suspended sediments to be filtered
prior to the groundwater entering a stream system. In
some areas of the world, the condition and character
of forests can also help reduce the rate of snow melting,
which may prolong the period of runoff and facilitate
seepage of water into the soil system. Forests that
provide shade to aquatic systems can also help mitigate
stream temperatures and thus provide a higher quality
habitat for certain fish species during the summer.
of Kelly A. Bettinger.
Forests within riparian areas may also act as sources of
FIGURE 1.7 Baldcypress (Taxodium distichum) forest in the Oke coarse woody debris for aquatic systems, which can result
fenokee National Wildlife Refuge, Georgia, United States. Photo cour tesy in the development of both food sources
1.3. WHY ARE FORESTS IMPORTANT TO HUMANS? 7
FIGURE 1.8 Boreal forests of interior central Alaska, United States. Photo courtesy of Kelly A. Bettinger.
FIGURE 1.9 Landscape view from the Waldsteinburg (also known as the Red Castle), Fichtelgebirge, Oberfranken, Germany. Photo courtesy of Donald
L. Grebner.
and shelter (pools) for fish populations. Within devel oped TO HUMANS?
areas, whether urban, suburban, or rural residen tial areas,
forests can abate noise pollution generated by vehicles, As noted in the previous section, forests are areas
neighbors, and nearby businesses. In arid regions, forests, where humans and other species of animals and insects
planted as windbreaks, may be able to mitigate the drying can forage and take shelter (Figure 1.10). Since the birth
effect of winds and reduce the detrimental effects of blown of humankind, forests have played an important role in the
soil and snow, thus protecting crops, livestock, and homes. survival of our species. The forest canopy provides cover
Further, the presence of forests can often enhance during hot days or rainstorms, and individual trees have
property values, and trees are frequently used as barriers traditionally been used as a source of buil ding materials
designed to reduce glare and reflection from structures for shelters in which people can protect themselves. In
made of glass or concrete (Anderson and Smith 1976). addition, wood has always been a critical source of energy
Therefore, while some simply view forests as collections of for heating and cooking. Even today, about half of the
trees, these systems of vegetation provide a multitude of global wood harvest is consumed for energy purposes
functions (water filtration, noise abatement, etc.) that (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
humans and other species favor. 2010). The woody material of trees
1.3 WHY ARE FORESTS IMPORTANT
8 1. A BRIEF HISTORY OF FORESTRY AND NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENTTABLE 1.1 Examples of Wildlife
Found in Forested Areas
Specific Example
Broad Group Common Name Scientific Name
Deer White-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus Mule deer Odocoileus hemionus
Elk Rocky Mountain elk Cervus canadensis Red deer Cervus elaphus
Bear American black bear Ursus americanus Brown bear Ursus arctos
Moose (Figure 1.10) Eurasian elk Alces alces Beaver North American beaver Castor canadensis Eurasian
beaver Castor fiber
Otter Northern river otter Lontra canadensis Southern river otter Lontra provocax
Bobcat Bobcat Lynx rufus Fox Red fox Vulpes vulpes Gray fox Urocyon cinereoargenteus
Wolf Gray wolf Canis lupus
Snake Eastern diamondback rattlesnake Crotalus adamanteus
Frog European tree frog Hyla arborea Salamander Red salamander Pseudotriton ruber Worm Earthworm Arctiostrotus
vancouverensis Rabbit Forest rabbit Sylvilagus brasiliensis Eastern cottontail Sylvilagus floridanus
Chipmunk Eastern chipmunk Tamias striatus Siberian chipmunk Eutamias sibiricus
is amenable to the creation of many simple and useful

tools, some of which can be fashioned or created with
relatively little effort. For example, young trees were
once the main source of material for the creation of prim
itive spears, bows, and arrows used for hunting animals
(e.g., elk or deer) or for the creation of rudimentary
baskets used to transport edible berries and roots.
Among others, insects, birds, and fur-bearing animals
found in forests provide protein for human consump
tion. The fur from some wildlife species was, and still
is in some parts of the world, viewed as an important
source of clothing. Over time, humans became adept at
using all parts of hunted wildlife species, either as
consumable food or as tools used to enhance their lives.
For instance, the stomach linings of some animals were
FIGURE 1.10 Moose in the Kenai National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska, once commonly used to make water jugs, small bones
United States. Photo courtesy of Kelly A. Bettinger. were once sharpened and used as needles, and large
1.4. A BRIEF HISTORY OF HUMAN INTERACTION WITH FORESTS 9
bones were once used as weapons for hunting or for self
defense. Uses such as these may continue in some areas
of the world.
Forests have also provided humans with many types
of plants used for medicinal or consumptive purposes.
The World Resources Institute (2010a) recently pub
lished a short list of medical drugs that are produced
from forest plants: two examples are taxol and quinine.
Taxol is a mitotic inhibitor used to treat ovarian can
cer and is derived from the bark of the yew tree (Taxus
brevifolia) of the Pacific Northwest of North America.
Quinine is an alkaloid used to reduce fevers and to treat
malaria, lupus, and arthritis. Natural sources of quinine
are trees of the genus Cinchona of South America. The
complete list of forest plants that can be used by humans
for nutritional consumption is extensive and includes a homes (Figure 1.11), as a fuel for cooking, and as a base
large array of edible berries, nuts, leaves, shoots, roots, for making potash and pearl ash (Williams 1989). Potash
and mushrooms. For example, edible berries in North could be used not only as a fertilizer but could also be
America include blackberry, blueberry (Vaccinium spp.), used in manufacturing processes, such as in the
dewberry (Rubus spp.), huckleberry (Gaylussacia spp.), production of bleached textiles, glass, gunpowder, and
raspberry, and salmonberry, all of which are popular soaps. Further, during the colonial period in North
nutritional sources for humans and other animal species America, the British Navy reserved large white pines
(e.g., bears). (Pinus strobus) having a diameter at breast height of 61
Following the arrival of early colonists in North America, cm (24 in) or greater for potential use as masts for their
forests provided free forage or feed for animal stock. This ships. This reserve became known as the Broad Arrow
forage included acorns, beechnuts, chestnuts, grasses, Policy and was extended to all of America by 1729
and roots and shoots of various plants (Williams 1989). (Cubbage et al. 1993). During the early develop ment of
Settlers used wood as a material to create fences and North America, other products derived from forests
included cordage, mask, resin, rosin, tar, and turpentine. future, but it seems likely that nontimber benefits of
Some of these were further used to make lubricants, forested areas will become increasingly valued (McIntosh
paints, polishes, roofing materials, soaps, and varnishes 1995).
(Smith 1940, Williams 1989).
Over the last 100 years, a wide variety of wood prod
ucts have been produced from wood, including pulp and
paper, books, newspapers, magazines, sticky notes,
1.4 A BRIEF HISTORY OF HUMAN
folders, personal hygiene products, and toilet paper.
INTERACTION WITH FORESTS
Construction materials produced from forests include
lumber, plywood, oriented strand board, and other engi Forests provide many resources that are useful to
neered woods. Recently, there has been significant humanity’s survival, and the need for natural materials to
interest in using wood to produce energy pellets and liquid support human life has led to the ongoing contraction and
fuels such as butanol, ethanol, and syngas (Perez-Verdin expansion of forested areas around the world. As the
et al. 2009). Other forest products that world population surpasses 7 billion, forested areas face
FIGURE 1.11 Cabins such as this, in the Watoga State Park in West the difficult burden of meeting our increas ing recreational
Virginia, were built by colonial settlers of the United States in the early (Figure 1.12), conservational, and consumptive needs.
twentieth century. Photo courtesy of Kelly A. Bettinger. Some may argue that our reliance on forest resources to
meet these needs may be irrational and that changes in
are more important to us today than in earlier times (e.g., societal values (e.g., increasing funding to expand
100 years ago) include sequestered carbon, recrea tional forested areas, lowering expecta tions, or finding other
opportunities, aesthetic values, wilderness experi ences, ways to meet our needs) may be necessary. Mather
and wildlife habitats. The types of products or services (1990) introduced a convenient conceptual model that can
facilitated by forests are extensive, and this discussion has be used to evaluate the rela tionship of humans to forests
provided only a few examples of the broad range of and how this relationship may change over time. This
important products derived from forests. In Chapter 4, we model suggests that when nonindigenous humans interact
will delve further into the products and other inherent with and control forests for the first time, they tend to view
values derived from forests. It may be impossible to forest and natural
predict the pressures that will be applied to forests in the
a natural process, since resources may be considered

to have little value owing to their initial abundance.
As human communities grow, forests and other natural
areas may be converted to agricultural use or may be
managed to provide better habitats for wildlife species
used as food sources in those communities. For instance,
as early European settlements were established, forests
and natural areas were converted to agricultural fields
to grow food from seeds acquired from other communi
ties across the European continent (Williams 1989).
When early European explorers traveled across what is
now the southern United States, forested landscapes
were often described as having park-like characteristics,
primarily due to the frequent fires initiated by aboriginal
FIGURE 1.12 Day hikers along a trail near Mount Rainier, Washington, their depleted state. A society’s perception of this common
United States. Photo courtesy of Kelly A. Bettinger. trend (from consumption to conservation) may be viewed
either positively or negatively. Although Mather’s (1990)
resources as unlimited. This perspective eventually leads conceptual model is simple, it illustrates how forest
to a philosophical contraction regarding the value of management perspectives may change over time in rela
forested areas, since initially people have little regard to tion to changes in human needs and concerns. In addi
sustaining the resources over the long term. A society in tion, the evolution of human perspectives regarding the
general views the unlimited resource perspective in a use of natural resources, as portrayed in this simple
favorable light because of the need for materials related to model, can influence the development and evolution of the
basic human survival (e.g., food, fuelwood, and building forestry and natural resource professions. Ulti mately,
materials). Although warnings may arise, the potential there are two main perspectives on the use of forests that
problems of overconsumption may be overlooked given shape societal views of the resource: the forest extraction
the abundance of the resource. Over time, as a human perspective and the forest renewability and management
society begins to deplete the forest and natural resources perspective.
under their control, they become more concerned with
resource reduction and destruc tion and may then take 1.4.1 The Forest Extraction Perspective
action (e.g., conservation, reduced consumption, or
importing goods) to address local issues. As conservation In a developing area, the initial depletion of forests and
measures are put into place, at some point local forest natural resources may be viewed by some as
growth will recover and forested areas will expand from people in order to develop the forage necessary for
potentially consumable wildlife populations (Walker 1991). During the Classical Era (eighth century BC to fifth century
Over human history, numerous factors have contributed to AD), the Greek and Roman societies were heavily
changes in the character and condition of forests and dependent on wood from forests as a source of fuel
natural areas, as well as the natural resources that rely on (Meiggs 1982, Perlin 1989, Westoby 1989, Mather 1990).
the vegetative structure and protection provided by Greek city-states harvested wood from local forests to
forests. These factors include human population growth, make charcoal, which was then used for home heating
influences of religious beliefs, iron ore smelting, political purposes as well as cooking and toolmaking (Mather
instability, poorly designed governmental policies, warfare, 1990). As city-states grew, more forest area was depleted,
fluctuations in international trade, and a general lack of while animal grazing was allowed unchecked in the
land tenure, along with changes in climatic conditions. remnant forests. Greek city-states, such as Athens,
Humans have been affecting the landscape since as far eventually had to import wood and charcoal from locations
back as 1.4 million years ago during the time of Homo as far away as Macedonia (i.e. at least 350 kilometers
erectus (Westoby 1989). Archeological evidence indicates [km] or 217 miles [mi]). Wood was also important for the
that humans used fire for cooking purposes and possibly Greek navy’s need to build a fleet of ships large enough to
for influencing the types of vegetation found on the defeat Per sia’s navy during a series of military conflicts in
landscape. Mesolithic peoples during the Bronze Age the fifth century BC (Meiggs 1982). These ships, called
(3300–1200 BC) used stone axes and saws for forest triremes, were a type of galley ship that used a series of
clearing but also used forests to graze their domesticated wooden oars for propulsion (Figure 1.13). Alexander the
animals, which led to the clearing of large areas of forests. Great of Greece (fourth century BC) required wood for
building
FIGURE 1.13 Greek trireme. Photo courtesy of Matthias Kabel, through Wikimedia Commons, from a model located at the Deutsches Museum,
Munich, Germany.
ships that were used to explore new and unknown terri wood to build corduroy (wooden) roads (Figure 1.14), in
tories and expand his empire (Meiggs 1982). Similar part to help defend settlements. During the Roman Era,
patterns of forest use were observed during the rise of the forests were constantly depleted during times of war for
Roman Empire, as wherever Roman settle ments existed, the produc tion of weapons such as siege engines, for the
forests were cleared. Roman officials viewed the forested smelting of swords and spears, and for shipbuilding
landscape north of the Alps as a limitless resource (Perlin purposes (Meiggs 1982, Perlin 1989). Both Greek and
1989). At one point, the Roman government implemented Roman governments were aware of the potential for
incentive programs giving landowners land tenure if they resource depletion, and in some ways they implemented
cleared 20 ha (about 50 ac) of forestland (Westoby 1989), governmental control over resources in an attempt to
in part because the Roman navy needed wood to build minimize the rate of depletion and to maintain fiber
ships in their pursuit of defeating the Carthaginian Empire supplies (Westoby 1989). For example, the Roman
(Meiggs 1982). One location, known today as modern government attempted to recycle items such as glass
Spain, was largely deforested by the Roman Empire because of the diminished wood supplies needed to
because of both their need to build ships and to support manufacture it (Perlin 1989). In essence, these early
the metallurgy of gold, silver, and iron using fuelwood societies viewed forests as strategic assets, yet unfortu
(Perlin 1989). Another location, southern England, was nately the dry Mediterranean environment posed a difficult
once covered by small farms dedicated to the export of challenge for forest reestablishment via natural means.
food to major Roman cities (Perlin 1989, Westoby 1989). The resulting topsoil loss from erosio nal processes
Efforts further afield led to the clearing of forested areas associated with these land uses still creates problems
not only for the production of agricultural and metallurgical today (Butzer 2005). In fact, the Fertile Crescent of the
products, but also for the elimination of hiding cover used Middle East, an area composed of parts of Iraq, Israel,
by the Picts and Scots during border raids. Roman and Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, and Syria, is still unable to
other governments of this era also used large amounts of respond well to deforestation because of existing climatic
conditions (Diamond 2005). Great Britain responded better
to the effects of deforestation, in part due to the more
favorable rainfall patterns in northern Europe (Westoby
1989).
Forests in western and central Europe were largely
converted to agricultural lands by the twelfth and
FIGURE 1.14 Excavation of an ancient corduroy road near Ora

nienburg, Germany. Photo courtesy of Saxo, through Wikimedia
Commons.
thirteenth centuries (Laarman and Sedjo 1992). The M aori, settled there about 800 years ago, and their
remaining forests experienced intensive grazing, which activities led to the removal of 50% of the forested area
subsequently degraded their inherent productive capacity. and the extinction of several flightless bird species
Through the fourteenth century, the expansion of ore (Forestry Insights 2005). When European immigrants
smelting and glassmaking processes greatly depended on began to settle in New Zealand in the late eighteenth and
fuelwood as the main source of energy. The construction nineteenth centuries, large areas of the remaining native
of basilicas (large public buildings) also played an forests were felled to facilitate agricultural produc tion as
important role in forest depletion from the tenth century to well as to provide wood commodities for export, to support
the fourteenth century (Westoby 1989). By the sixteenth gold mining enterprises, and to build
century, entire mountain ranges were deforested, and this homesteads (Owen 1966). This extractive perspective of
depletion of forestlands led to greater levels of soil forests continued through the nineteenth century but
erosion, which fostered land slides and abnormal flooding eventually the public became increasingly concerned with
events (Laarman and Sedjo 1992). Deforestation spread the status and condition of the diminishing resource.
to eastern Europe by the seventeenth century, primarily Although the extractive perspective was prevalent in
due to the spread of wheat production and the conversion the North American colonies since before the 1800s
of forests and other natural lands to support agricultural (Perlin 1989), it accelerated after about 1810. About this
practices. During the eighteenth century, the North time, large sections of the American population began to
American colonies, Brazil, and the Caribbean islands emigrate from their settlements along the eastern
became the centers of wood supply (Perlin 1989), partly seaboard in search of new homesteads west of the
due to the Napoleonic Wars in Europe. The British Navy Appalachian Mountains (Williams 1989). This led to a
was very dependent on imported wood from Baltic nations process of forest clearing for the purpose of small-scale
in eastern Europe (Perlin 1989), but Napoleon eventually agricultural production (Figure 1.15). In some cases, it
blockaded this resource. As a result, Britain had to look for required a family’s entire generation to clear a tract of land
alternative sources of wood fiber and, as we mentioned for agricultural purposes (Williams 1989). Between 1810
earlier, their quest for alternative wood supplies stretched and 1860, the United States trans formed from an
from eastern North America to India, Australia, and other agricultural economy to a more commercial one, leading to
Pacific Islands. Even as recent as the late nineteenth widespread and common place forest clearing for
century, some areas of Europe were entirely dedicated to domestic fuel and construction lumber use. Clearing
charcoal, fuelwood, and lumber production (Ericsson et al. methods involved both clearcut ting and girdling of trees,
2005). and if the removal of stumps were necessary, this process
When the first Australian state of New South Wales could require nearly 5 person-weeks per ac using the
was founded in 1786, forests were viewed as obstacles to technology of the time (Williams 1982). As forests were
growth (Rule 1967). From the first arrival of Europeans in being cleared for agricultural purposes during this period
Sydney Cove, forests were cleared for settlements and for of growth, the United States entered the Industrial
agricultural purposes, and wood derived from these Revolution, which required enormous amounts of wood
forests was used for a wide variety of purposes, such as products for metal production and mining enterprises
cooking, home building, shipbuilding, and toolmaking. An (Williams 1989). Various technological innovations, such
important local tree species, the Australian red cedar as the iron plow (or plough) and the steam engine (used
(Toona ciliata), was also heavily exported. For the next both in trains and boats), facilitated the reduction in
100 years, an extensive pattern of forest clearing and forested areas and an increase in the speed of wood
woodcutting extended throughout Australia, from removal from forests (Perlin 1989). In the early 1900s,
Tasmania to Queensland and western Australia (Carron Green (1908) noted that the supply of mature white pine
1985). New Zealand followed a similar pattern of forest was decreasing rapidly in the northern and Lake States
development. New Zealand was the last large landmass and that most of the land of good quality was destined for
settled by humans. Polynesian immigrants, later known as agricultural uses. After the American Civil War and into the
early twentieth century, the need for wood in various the globe, and forest clearing became a major issue in
industrial processes led to a wave of exploitation that countries such as Australia, eastern Asia, India, New
began in the Lake States and then moved to the southern Zealand, South Africa, and the United States (Laarman
region and eventually to the West Coast (Williams 1989) and Sedjo 1992). The pattern of rapid declines in forested
after the completion of transcontinental railroads and areas was similar in eastern Europe. For example, in
associated feeder lines (Hessburg and Agee 2003). Ukraine, total forested area declined by about 30% during
By the late nineteenth century, vast forested areas a 100-year period, primarily as a result of economic
were being utilized for human consumptive needs across activity in the latter half of the nineteenth century (Nijnik
and van Kooten 2000). In the mid-1900s, technological
FIGURE 1.15 Old farms and agricultural areas where deciduous forests once stood in West Virginia, United States. Photo courtesy of Kelly A.
Bettinger.
change brought gasoline-powered crawler-tractors and per yeardan area larger than Slovakia
chainsaws to ground-based logging operations, which or Costa Rica (Food and Agriculture Organization of the
increased the efficiency of logging and thus enhanced United Nations 2010). South America and Africa continue
productivity (Hessburg and Agee 2003). With appropriate to account for the vast majority of global forest area loss.
forethought, forest management practices can be applied
to regenerate and reestablish new forests after logging
operations. However, in some cases reestab lishment 1.4.2 The Forest Renewability and
does not occur (causing deforestation) and in other cases Management Perspective
land uses change after trees are removed. Despite the
In describing the history of Kielder Forest in northern
growing public concern over forests and natural resources
England, McIntosh (1995) suggested that the role of
in many developed countries, the pattern of deforestation
forestry in England changed in the mid-twentieth century
and land use changes continued into the twentieth century
from one of managing strategic reserves of timber and
in developing countries such as Brazil, Indonesia, and the
facilitating employment for rural people to managing
Philippines (Kummer 1991). In a recent estimate of the
forests for a broader set of values (timber production,
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
wildlife conservation, and recreational opportunities).
(1997), approxi mately 180 million ha (445 million ac) of
Numerous examples such as this can be found at local,
forests were lost between 1980 and 1995, which
regional, and national levels in North America and other
represents an area larger than Mexico or Indonesia. In the
continents. According to Mather’s conceptual model, as a
1990s, 16 mil lion ha (40 million ac) of forests were lost
society increasingly utilizes the resources of its forests,
annually. Since 2000, the pace of global deforestation has
some members of that society become increasingly
slowed to about 13 million ha (32 million ac) of forests
concerned by forest resource deple tion and the loss of
each year (Food and Agriculture Organization of the
intrinsic values. Even though a few historical examples of
United Nations 2010). While Brazil and Indonesia have
this evolution in perspective were provided earlier, this
managed to reduce their deforestation rates, Australia has
concept is as relevant today as it was in earlier times
lost vast swaths of forests to severe droughts and fires. At
(Perlin 1989). Unfortunately, while forests are widely
the same time, forest area gains through natural forest
considered a renewable resource, the reestablishment of
regeneration and large-scale forest restoration efforts in
forests through natural or artificial means has not always
countries such as China, which has embarked on a
been successful (Figure 1.16). For example, tropical Asian
massive forest plantation development effort, have
forests are part of a cultural landscape complex, and
reduced the net global forest area loss. The annual rate of
humans living there use traditional agriculture-based
loss is now estimated to be 5.2 million ha (13 million ac)
management of the land (shifting agriculture), which some
view as an obstacle to effective forest conservation efforts
(Ramakrishnan 2007). With regards to the Mediterra nean the wasteful destruction of timber in rural America
experience, some widespread natural reforestation did (Williams 1989). By the mid-1800s, novels and poems
occur at various points of time, especially following the fall written by American authors such as James Fenimore
of the Roman Empire (Westoby 1989). Unfortu nately, the Cooper and William Cullen Bryant were published, and
combination of arid or semiarid climatic conditions and the these helped romanticize the beauty, virtue, and wildness
frequent misuse of the land led to extensive soil erosion, of the American forest (Williams 1989). In 1873, a report
which resulted in many formerly forested sites becoming by Franklin B. Hough warned that the overuse of forest
infertile and subsequently diffi cult to reestablish with a resources by Mediterranean countries had resulted in a
forest of any type. This combi nation of conditions is also negative effect on the environment that should serve as a
evident within The Fertile Crescent in the Middle East warning to the United States (US Forest Service 2004). By
(Diamond 2005). the late 1800s, the need to train foresters to address the
Other parts of the world clearly followed the trajectory shortage of timber was being emphasized by Franklin B.
of Mather’s conceptual model. For example, three loca Hough and, later, by Gifford Pinchot. By the mid-1900s,
tions that experienced widespread forest renewal after the timber harvesting in the Pacific Northwest began to slow
perceived depletion of the original resource became a because most of the original old-growth forest on private
concern were western and northern Europe, North land had been harvested and nontimber forest resource
America, and Oceania. The renewal of European forests is values were rising. The value of habitat for protecting the
believed to a be result of several factors, including the northern spotted owl (Strix occidentalis caurina), and
migration of rural populations to urban areas, the affores endangered species, is one example.
tation of agricultural lands, the intensification of agricul In New Zealand, public concern for the loss of forest
ture, and the conversion to nonwood energy (Laarman and natural resources led to many advances in the affor
and Sedjo 1992). In the United States, widespread forest estation of old pasturelands. In conjunction with the
renewal was due to several similar factors, and is also perceived need to afforest vast areas, numerous planting
believed to include the abandonment of agricultural fields trials of a variety of exotic tree species were conducted
in the Northeast (Figure 1.17), the afforestation of cotton throughout the country. Today, there still stands a
and tobacco lands in the South, advances in fire magnificent redwood forest in Rotorua, on the North Island
suppression, and decreases in per capita consumption of of New Zealand, a legacy of the early tree species trials
timber products (Laarman and Sedjo 1992). from the late 1890s (Rotorua District Council 2010).
In the United States, concern about forest renewal Between 1925 and 1935, nearly 400,000 ha (about 1 mil
began about 200 years ago. In an early example from lion ac) of land were planted with exotic tree species in
1818, President James Madison expressed concern over New Zealand. Since then, the main emphasis has
concen
trated on afforesting pasturelands with radiata
FIGURE 1.16 Planted area in southern Georgia, United States, where FIGURE 1.17 Onset of the reversion of former agricultural lands to forest
reforestation success was relatively low. Photo courtesy of Pete Bettinger. vegetation in New England, United States. Photo courtesy of Pete
Bettinger.
1.5. FORESTS IN THE CURRENT WORLD POLITICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT 15
pine (Pinus radiata). Oddly enough, radiata pine was first South Island where no trees had previously existed
planted on the plains near Christchurch on New Zea land’s (Hegan 1993) because, while deforestation was occurring
elsewhere, this part of New Zealand was desperate for can be saved.
wood. In the latter half of the twentieth century, World leaders, concerned with the continued deple tion
governmental reform led to a distinct classifica tion of of Earth’s natural resources, gathered at the 1992 United
forests for two purposes: wood production and the Nations Conference on Environment and Development (or
preservation of native forests (Birchfield and Grant 1993). the Earth Summit) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The theme of
The renewability perspective of forests combined with the meeting centered on the contri bution of forests toward
the greater value placed on products they generate has achieving sustainable develop ment. One outcome of the
led to stable levels of forestland area in some coun tries, meeting was a set of Forest Principles for protecting the
and even positive growth in countries located in the world’s forests. Following the Earth Summit, numerous
temperate regions of the world. Even though many tropical countries developed criteria and indicators (C&I) to
countries continue to experience the negative aspects of measure and monitor successes in achieving sustainable
deforestation and expanding human popula tions, a forest management (SFM) goals: criteria represent forest
significant amount of research and international values that one desires to sustain while indicators
collaboration has been focused on the afforestation and measure the prog ress toward sustaining these values.
reforestation of denuded landscapes. In countries such as The Montreál Process, initiated by the government of
Brazil, forests created through afforestation and refor Canada in 1993, is the largest of the resulting C&I initia
estation efforts are an increasingly important aspect of the tives, encompassing 60% of the world’s forests, 35% of
national economy. Interestingly, the Canadian, United the population, and 45% of the trade in wood and wood
States, and Australian experiences with respect to these products (Montreál Process Working Group 2005). The
two philosophies are very similar. Although the policies, Montreál Process criteria include: (1) conser vation of
legislation, and terminology used are different in the biological diversity; (2) maintenance of the productive
development of these countries, similar stages of forest capacity of forest ecosystems; (3) mainte nance of forest
exploitation, wood resource protection, multiple-use ecosystem health and vitality; (4) conser vation and
management, and ecosystem management are evident, maintenance of soil and water resources; (5) maintenance
particularly with regard to public lands (Lane and of forest contribution to global carbon cycles; (6)
McDonald 2002). maintenance and enhancement of long-term multiple
socioeconomic benefits; and (7) development and
maintenance of legal, policy, and institutional frameworks
1.5 FORESTS IN THE CURRENT WORLD for conservation and sustainable manage ment. As is
POLITICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL evident in these criteria, progress toward achieving SFM
CONTEXT seems to be consistent in many ways
Covering nearly one-third of the Earth’s landmasses

(Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
2010), forests are prominently featured in many national
and international developmental and environmental
policies. As described earlier, forests are essential for the
conservation of biodiversity and water and soil resources.
Forests are meeting our needs for wood and nonwood
products and significantly contribute to carbon cycles.
Forests are home to millions of people, whose livelihoods
depend almost entirely on the services they provide, and a
multitude of other animal species (Figure 1.18). Yet, too
often forests are still perceived by humans as an obstacle
to development. It seems clear that a forest renew ability
perspective on the management of these areas could
provide jobs in the logging and wood-processing
industries, facilitate certain forms of food production, and
help alleviate poverty. However, the chief threat
to the health and existence of forests may be, interest FIGURE 1.18 Golden-fronted woodpecker (Melanerpes aurifrons)
ingly, of human origin. Therefore, it may be necessary to located in a riparian forest along the Rio Grande in southern Texas,
first address human population problems before forests United States. Photo courtesy of Kelly A. Bettinger.
with the conservation of biological diversity and other life- all member countries of the United Nations. The United
supporting ecosystem functions within forests. Inspired by Nations General Assembly also declared 2011 as the
the Earth Summit, the United Nations Forum on Forests International Year of Forests in order to promote forest
was established in 2000 and served to promote conservation and sustainable management.
sustainable management of all forests and strengthen the Since the Earth Summit, the world achieved some
political agreements developed to achieve this goal measures of success in reducing the deforestation rate,
(United Nations Forum on Forests Secretariat 2010). although deforestation remains alarmingly high in some
Goals of the United Nations Forum on Forests are to countries. In China, massive tree planting efforts appear
reverse the loss of forest cover, to enhance a wide range successful and have helped to reduce the net global
of forest-related benefits, and to increase the area of deforestation rate. However, only 36% of the world’s
sustainably managed forests. The Forum is composed of forests can be classified as primary forests, which are
composed of native species with no evident human comprehensive legal, policy, and institutional framework to
disturbance (Food and Agriculture Organization of the support SFM and thus fulfill international forest protection
United Nations 2010). Forty million ha (99 mil lion ac) of commitments. A Food and Agriculture Organization of the
primary forests have been lost since 2000, most of which United Nations (2010) report shows that nearly 75% of the
were located in the tropics. While nearly 12% of forests world’s forests are now covered by national forest
are formally reserved for the conservation of biological programs. Throughout the world, forest policy for, and
diversity, in many cases the effectiveness of these administration of, public land is primarily the domain of
conservation efforts is unknown. Forest insect and ministries or departments of agriculture. It is estimated that
disease problems, along with severe wildfires, compli cate about 1.3 million people work for public forest institutions;
conservation efforts. For example, since 1990 the however, this number has been declining in recent years.
mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) has Another 20,000 people work for public forest research
affected 11 million ha (27 million ac) of forests in Canada institutions. Encouragingly, the number of students
(Figure 1.19) and the western United States in a vast worldwide grad uating from university forestry programs is
outbreak traced in part to milder-than-average winters rising and exceeds 60,000 annually (Food and Agriculture
(Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Organi zation of the United Nations 2010). Female
2010). graduates account for about one-third of all students, and
Progress in the development of national forest this proportion is rising as well. These trends should help
programs has been achieved by numerous countries since forestry and natural resource management organiza tions
2000. Many of these programs are designed to enable maintain a professional forest workforce necessary
FIGURE 1.19 Mountain pine beetle damage in E.C. Manning Provincial Park, British Columbia, Canada. Photo courtesy of John Hall through
Wikipedia.
1.6. HUMAN DEVELOPMENTAL PRESSURES ON FORESTS 17
to address increasingly complex forest management manner must be emphasized.
problems. To address these challenges, in 2008 the United
In recent years, the world’s attention has turned to the Nations launched the Collaborative Initiative on Reducing
role of forests in addressing climate change. As trees Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation
grow, they store carbon in biomass through the Programme, known formally as UN REDD or informally as
photosynthetic process. About one-quarter of a tree’s simply REDD (United Nations REDD Programme
green weight is composed of carbon. Due to their vast Secretariat 2009). This effort is designed to create
expanse, forests store more carbon in biomass, litter, and financial values for carbon stored in trees, with the goal of
soils than does the entire Earth’s atmosphere (Food and preventing further losses of forest area and the associated
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2010). increases in carbon emissions. Since benefits of avoided
When forests are lost through develop ment or land use carbon emissions are global, and forest protection costs
change processes, massive amounts of carbon are are usually local, the under lying idea is that rich countries
returned to the atmosphere. Carbon emis sions resulting should reimburse poor countries for their preservation
from forest loss account for about 18% of global efforts. Saving forests from destruction, in addition to
greenhouse gas emissions, more than the emis sions of preventing carbon emissions, yields a range of cobenefits
the entire global transportation sector (14%) and second that include, among others, the conservation of
only to electricity and heat generation (25%) (World biodiversity. An enhanced version of this program,
Resources Institute 2010b). For these and other reasons, REDDþ, reaches beyond deforestation and degradation to
the importance of managing forests in a sustainable encompass conservation and enhancement of forest
carbon storage through improvements in forest hinterland and wildland urban interface. Some general
management. factors that are important in defining the rural-urban fringe
Broad-ranging and multifaceted conservation pro grams include the housing density, the human population density,
such as REDD encounter numerous challenges. For the distance from homes to wildland vegetation, and the
example, in these cases long-term program funding is condition of the current and future wildland vegetation.
uncertain, and when funds are available they flow to In Europe, the rural-urban fringe is generally described
countries with the worst deforestation record. This, in turn, as landscapes where the majority of land is devoted to
may create a moral hazard and induce other countries to some sort of rural use, yet the presence of urban
accelerate deforestation processes in order to induce influences (e.g., shopping centers, manufacturing facilities,
donors to pay them to cease these activities. Furthermore, or dense human housing areas) is obvious. In the United
many countries experiencing rapid defor estation suffer States, three categories of land use have been defined in
from endemic corruption, which raises questions regarding relation to the rural-urban fringe: inter face communities,
how effectively funds will be spent and the extent to which intermixed communities, and occluded communities (US
governments will honor their forest conservation Forest Service, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Bureau of Land
commitments. However, if programs such as REDD Management, Fish and Wildlife Service, and National Park
succeed in making sustain able forestry worth more, then Service 2001). Popu lation density, human structure
there is a good chance density, and proximity to wildland fuels are generally used
that these programs will achieve their broad range of to determine whether land belongs to these groups.
goals. In the rural-urban fringe of North America, the main
concerns are fire behavior potential, at-risk human values,
and the infrastructure to support fire fighting capabilities.
1.6 HUMAN DEVELOPMENTAL Rural-urban fringe areas have become the central focus of
a number of wildland fire policies, particularly in the United
PRESSURES ON FORESTS States (Stewart et al. 2007). Many resource management
organizations are actively working with local communities
As human populations continue to expand outward to help increase the level of awareness of issues
from urban population centers, the ecological, economic, associated with the gradual encroachment of human
and social pressures on outlying forests and natural areas populations into areas that may now or in the future be
will ultimately increase (Figure 1.20) and perhaps come character ized as having a high fire risk. Fire behavior
into conflict with the broad scope of a region’s natural potential is a function of the condition of the landscape and
resource management objectives. The rural urban fringe is the condition of wildland fuels to support large fires, the
a general term for human development near to, or frequency of fires, and the effectiveness of fire fighting
abutting, forested or other natural areas. This area agencies to control fires once they have begun. Therefore,
represents a transition zone between urban and rural land the condition, extent, and proximity of fuel loads to homes
uses. Other names for this transition zone are urban and businesses (Figure 1.21) may
FIGURE 1.20 Development activities in Charlotte, North Carolina, United States. Photo courtesy of Pete Bettinger.
need to be addressed if land development is allowed to values at risk. Concerns about the infrastruc ture
proceed into what were once rural areas. The values at necessary to access water resources and control fires,
risk include personal human possessions, property, and the road systems that provide firefighting equipment
companion animals, and the potential for residents or access, are also important. The location and condition of
businesses within a community to incur economic los ses. these resources may directly affect the ability of firefighting
Ecological values, such as the potential for soil erosion or organizations to control fires within rural-urban fringe
flooding after fires, may also be considered as a set of areas.
early hunting and gathering communities (Ramakrishnan
2007). Forests have consistently provided humans with a
variety of consumable foods and medicines, as well as
wood for cooking and heating and materials for building
shelters and homes. As human settlements have
expanded, forests and their associated natural resources
have increasingly been removed to provide land for
agricultural activities, as well as to provide materials to
support economies, defense activities, and trade. This
phenomenon has occurred consistently around the world.
Generally, forest areas in relatively wet climates that have
experi enced widespread deforestation and degradation
recover well through natural regeneration processes or
through active planting programs. Forest areas in drier
climates, such as countries around the Mediterranean Sea
(e.g., Italy, Greece, and Turkey), fare worse due to greater
human population pressure, steep topography, and
FIGURE 1.21 High-density housing area adjacent to the Jones State
Forest in Texas, United States. Photo courtesy of Douglas J. Marshall,
challenging reforestation issues.
Clemson University, from Marshall et al. (2008). For much of human history, forests and their associ
SUMMARY ated natural resources have been viewed from an extrac
tive perspective. There are many instances where natural
Historically, humans have enjoyed, feared, used, and resources such as timber and wildlife have been used with
little regard to their long-term sustain ability. In both
conserved forests and natural resources. Forests and
ancient and modern times, as human settlements began
natural resources have played important roles in the
to locally and regionally exhaust these resources, public
development and history of human society, dating back to
consciousness toward
REFERENCES 19
sustainability grew. An increased concern for renew ability purpose of the project, which organization funded the
generally leads to the development of policies and project, and where the project is located. Once
technologies aimed at expanding the supply of these developed, share this with another person or group who
resources. Although difficult to tell at times, has done the same, and compare and contrast the two
projects.
(5) Forest development. For either the place where you live
QUESTIONS or a place of interest to you, develop a short report on
the history of its forest development. Locate a person
(1) Your daily life. Write a short essay describing how forests
with intimate knowledge of the area and interview
affect your daily life. Look around your home or school,
and describe things you use that come from a forest. them. You might also rely on both published literature
Also describe those things you use that do not come and anecdotal stories from other people with
from a forest. If you are unsure, place these in an knowledge of the area. You should define a timeframe
“uncertain” category. The Internet may be helpful in and focus on issues relevant to that period in
determining the origin of some products. Of the three developing this overview. In addition, visit the location
categories, which category contains more items? Why? and take a few pictures of relevant resources. Finally,
Is this what you expected prior to beginning this develop a 5e10 slide PowerPoint presentation on the
exercise? forest.
(2) Daily news. Examine either the paper copy or the Internet today’s forests are a by-product of numerous landscape
version of your local newspaper and identify articles that changes, either natural or anthropogenic. The manner in
discuss forestry or natural resources. Perform this task which human societies have valued forests and natural
for five business days, or Monday through Friday. resources does in fact change. Today, our general
Develop a short, professional perspective of the role of forests is complicated, in part, by
PowerPoint presentation that illustrates the sources of increased international trade and greater inter actions
these stories and the topics discussed. Describe how between dispersed communities through advances in
many articles you found, and whether the topics varied communication technology. As a result, emerging conflicts
throughout the week. between developing areas and devel oped countries
(3) Criteria and indicators. Locate a land management regarding the use of forests and natural resources are real
organization that has developed a resource and continue to grow (Vogt et al. 2010).
management plan based on C&I. Either arrange a As you may have gathered, the main focus of many
meeting (in person or over the phone) with one of the sections of this book is North American or European
land managers knowledgeable about the plan or obtain forestry and natural resource management in countries
the plan itself. In a one-page memorandum format, where ample documentation of forest management
develop a briefing that summarizes the use of the C&I in activities is available. This limitation is recognized and,
guiding the management of the land. admittedly, we very likely have missed valuable knowledge
(4) REDD programs. Perform an Internet search and locate a arising from countries that have not yet played a significant
description of a recently developed REDD project. In a role in the global wood products market. Further, valuable
short report, describe the stakeholders involved, the knowledge disseminated through non-English sources,
journals of limited circulation, and unpublished reports has
likely been overlooked. These types of omissions should Anderson, D.A., Smith, W.A., 1976. Forests and forestry. The Interstate
not be seen as a dismissal of the significant role that Printers & Publishers, Inc, Danville, IL, 432 p.
Birchfield, R.J., Grant, I.F., 1993. Out of the woods: The restructur ing and
forestry and natural resource management has played in sale of New Zealand’s state forest. GP Publications, Wellington, New
countries such as Venezuela (Kammesheidt et al. 2001), Zealand, 250 p.
for example. An individual pursuing a career in forestry Butzer, K.W., 2005. Environmental history in the Mediterranean world:
and natural resource management is likely to encounter a Cross-disciplinary investigation of cause-and-effect for degradation
number of interesting and challenging developments and soil erosion. Journal of Archaeological Science 32, 1773–1800.
Carron, L.T., 1985. A history of forestry in Australia. Australian National
facing the conservation and use of forests and natural University Press, New South Wales, Australia, 355 p. Chiras, D.D.,
resources, and prior examples of these are likely be found Reganold, J.P., Owen, O.S., 2002. Natural resource
in other regions of the world. conservation, eighth ed. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ,
642 p.
Cubbage, F.W., O’Laughlin, J., Bullock, C.S., 1993. Forest resource
policy. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY, 562 p. Diamond, J., 2005.
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CHAPTER
2
Forest Regions of the
World OUTLINE
2.1 North America 25 2.1.1 United States of America 26 2.4.5 Russian Federation 52 2.4.6 Spain 53 2.4.7
2.1.2 Canada 32 2.1.3 Mexico 33 United Kingdom 54
2.2 Central America 34 2.2.1 Costa Rica 35 2.2.2 2.5 Asia 55 2.5.1 China 56 2.5.2 Indonesia 58 2.5.3 Japan
Guatemala 36 2.2.3 Honduras 37 2.2.4 Nicaragua 38 59 2.5.4 Republic of Korea (South Korea) 59
2.2.5 Panama 39
2.6 Africa 60 2.6.1 Democratic Republic of the Congo 61
2.3 South America 40 2.3.1 Argentina 42 2.3.2 Bolivia 42 2.6.2 Ghana 62 2.6.3 Nigeria 64 2.6.4 South Africa 65
2.3.3 Brazil 43 2.3.4 Chile 44 2.3.5 Colombia 45 2.6.5 United Republic of Tanzania 66
2.3.6 Peru 46 2.3.7 Venezuela 46
2.7 Oceania 67 2.7.1 Australia 68 2.7.2 New Zealand 69
2.4 Europe 47 2.4.1 Austria 48 2.4.2 Belarus 48 2.4.3 2.7.3 Papua New Guinea 70
Finland 50 2.4.4 Germany 51
Summary 70 References 72
Abstract
Around the world, forest regions vary according to their level of
plant, animal, insect, and fungal species diversity, their soil and
topographic complexity, and their developmental history. The natural resource management and understand how current
fundamental practices for managing forests and natural resources management practices and policies may vary from one conti nent
can be applied anywhere on the globe, but differ ences in forest (or subcontinental region) to the next. Understanding the
character may require modifications to these practices to best meet developmental history of forests and natural resources of a country
the needs and demands of each location. Having an understanding will also help us to understand the opportunities and challenges
of forested regions around the globe allows us to develop a broader posed for foresters and natural resource managers in these areas.
perspective on forestry and This knowledge may also allow us to speculate on how the
developmental situation in another country may have evolved had
the initial endowment of resources and developmental
circumstances been different.
21 Introduction to Forestry and Natural Resources
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-386901-2.00002-6 Copyright 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
22 2. FOREST REGIONS OF THE WORLD

In summary, developing a broad understanding of forests and OBJECTIVES
natural resources in parts of the world other than our own may
broaden our perspectives and facilitate greater opportu nities for A broad perspective on the distribution, composition,
employment as our careers develop. development, and use of forests around the world is a
necessary foundation for fully understanding the challenges characterizations of forests are used and very generally
facing forestry and natural resource manage ment. This is suggest that forests are composed of
increasingly important today, given the continued expansion of
• either softwoods (e.g., pines) or hardwoods (e.g., oaks) or
human populations and the ominous threat of global climate
change. The world’s total amount of forest area has been both;
estimated to be around 4 billion hectares (ha; nearly 10 billion • either coniferous (e.g., pines, cedars, cypress) or deciduous
acres [ac]). While the rate of deforestation may currently be trees (e.g., oaks, hickories, poplars) or some mixture of
high in some areas of the world, deforestation is slowing down tree species;
on a global level due to large-scale afforestation programs • trees that have either needles or leaves, in either pure or
(planting trees on previously nonforested land) and the natural mixed stands; and
expansion of forests. However, gains in forest area have • trees that are either gymnosperms (or naked seed plants,
mainly been achieved in higher global latitudes (temperate since their seeds are not enclosed during pollination) or
and boreal forests), while losses continue to be incurred in angiosperms (where the seeds are contained in fruits) or,
tropical latitudes (Food and Agriculture Organization of the again, some combination of these.
United Nations 2010). In developed countries, domestically
produced forest products and imported forest products from a
In describing forests of the world, we could use an
wide variety of forest regions are used in the everyday lives of
ecological approach to address the broad floristic provinces
people. In developing countries, people directly rely on immedi
that correspond to widespread climatic and physiographic
ately accessible forests for their daily consumptive needs and
conditions. For example, United States forests can be
for generating income. It is indeed an understate ment to note
categorized into three broad classes: coniferous (West
that in every country one can identify a need for the
Coast, Alaskan, and interior west forests), mixed coniferous
conservation and preservation of forest values. Some of the
issues facing forestry and natural resource management are
and deciduous (southern and southeastern forests), and
specific to a certain locale or culture. Ultimately, the regional,
deciduous (northeastern, midwestern, and Lake States
national, and interna tional issues that affect forests and
forests). In this case, the outward appearance
natural resources are rooted in the social, political,
(physiognomy) and structural con dition of forests are
environmental, and economic fabric of society. The challenges
widely used in a relatively broad sense to describe the type
that social, political, environmental, and economic issues pose
of forest found in a region.
for forests and natural resources is therefore highly pertinent
Using an ecological approach, forests can also be
to the conservation and use of forests and natural resources. classified by their major ecological community, or biome
Upon completion of this chapter, readers should be able to (Figure 2.1). Three major, broad types of forest biomes are
understand found on Earth: boreal, temperate, and trop ical. While
geographical latitude plays a significant role in defining
• the historical aspects of forest use and development on where these biomes occur, elevation and climate also do.
different continents; For example, the boreal forest (Figure 2.2), or taiga, is
• some of the social, political, environmental, and generally found in areas with relatively short, warm
economic forces that have shaped the current summers, and long, cold winters. Boreal forests compose
composition and distribution of forested areas in a the largest of the three biomes and are situated in North
number of nations; and America, Europe, and Asia, as well as in a small strip of
• the range of tree species that inhabit various forested areas South America along the Andes Mountains. Boreal forests
and the timber and some of the nontimber forest products are associated with (or are in proximity to) high and low
(NTFPs) that are available for internal and exportable Arctic tundra conditions as climates get colder (generally in
uses. higher latitudes), and a transition from northern to southern
The evolutionary development of natural forests around the boreal forests occurs as climates get warmer (generally in
world is a function of climatic, edaphic (a general term related lower latitudes). Tundra encompasses treeless areas near
to soil characteristics), and dynamic plant relationships, and the polar deserts, where air temperatures are below
these help explain why a certain type of forest is growing in a freezing for about 7 months of the year, and where
certain area (Barnes et al. 1998). Several common, basic continuous permafrost is present in the soil resource.
Vegetation in a boreal forest is simple and
2. FOREST REGIONS OF THE WORLD 23
FIGURE 2.1 Major biomes of the Earth. Photo courtesy of Ville Koistinen, through Wikimedia Commons.
usually consists of hardy, coniferous tree species in the can accommodate forests, because of harsh environ
overstory, low-growing ericaceous shrubs (e.g., blue mental conditions, tree growth is generally slower here
berries, cranberries, and heather), and a thick ground than in other areas of the world.
layer of lichens and mosses (Hicks 2011). The length of a The temperate forest biome (Figure 2.3) covers
typical tree-growing season in a boreal forest is generally approximately one-fifth of the available land areas in the
less than 4 months, but varies depending on whether the mid to upper latitudes and is generally situated in areas
forest is situated in the northern or southern boreal zone. with a well-defined, yet relatively mild, winter season.
Precipitation often arrives in solid form (snow or ice) in Eastern North America, western and central Europe,
boreal forests, rather than liquid form. These forests eastern Asia, and parts of Australia, New Zealand, and
generally have a continuous covering of snow in the Patagonia all host temperate forest biomes. Temperate
winter, but there is no contin uous permafrost present in biomes are productive and dynamic ecosystems that
the soil resource (Hicks 2011). However, the soil continuously change in response to climatic variation,
resources found in this biome are generally shallow and of diseases, and human alterations of the landscape (Willis
poorer quality than soil resources that might be found in 2011). Seasonal variation is determined mainly by
other biomes. In addition, the decomposition rate of forest changes in air temperature, and air temperature extremes
litter and coarse woody debris is fairly slow. Moisture is are greater in this biome than those that might be
fairly abundant in boreal soils; thus, peat bogs (or mires) experienced in the tropical biome. Over the course of a
are common throughout the biome. While this biome year, air temperature extremes may range from 30–30 C
( 22–86 F). During winter, forests in this biome enter
dormancy. This phase of the year involves the cessa tion
of tree growth, the loss of old leaves and needles through
abscission (a total loss in the case of decid uous trees),
and a series of biochemical changes that protect trees
from frost damage, drought, and starva tion (Willis 2011).
The soils of temperate forests are generally richer in
nutrient content than boreal forest soils, and the
decomposition rate of forest litter and coarse woody debris
(CWD; which varies by tree species) is generally more
rapid. Temperate deciduous and temperate coniferous
forests are characterized as experiencing precipitation
events that are spread rela tively evenly throughout the
year. Subdivisions of temperate forests are based not only
on changes in topography, but also on differences in the
intensity and timing of climatic events. For example, dry
FIGURE 2.2 White spruce (Picea glauca) forest in central Alaska, United conif erous forests are generally found at higher
States. Photo courtesy of L.B. Brubaker, US National Oceanic and elevations,
Atmospheric Administration, through Wikipedia Commons.
FIGURE 2.3 Temperate coniferous forests along the Columbia River in (Figure 2.4), situated in terrestrial areas within the trop ical
the western United States. Photo courtesy of David W. Wilkinson. zone of the planet, at lower latitudes around the equator.
In terms of plant and animal life, tropical forests are some
of the most complex and diverse areas on the planet.
where annual precipitation is low: moist coniferous or However, in comparison to boreal and temperate biome
deciduous forests are found in areas lower in elevation, forests, the soil resources found in tropical forests may be
where there is a wet winter and a dry summer. poor and the decomposition rate of forest litter and CWD
Mediterranean forests have precipitation events mainly in is fairly rapid. Interest in tropical forests is great because
the winter months, the extent of which may be limited. they contain an immense gene pool. Tropical forests have
The tropical biome contains a variety of forest types survived changing climates and geological upheavals and
have expanded their ranges (e.g., across land bridges) mangroves) need to be very salt-tolerant, given their
when opportunities became available (Morley 2011). proximity to saltwater bodies. Tropical lowland evergreen
Tropical forests generally have two seasons: rainy and forests are perhaps the richest and most luxu rious of all
dry. The availability of electromagnetic energy for plant communities in the world. These forests are found in
photosyn thesis (i.e., daylight) is very consistent, and year- tropical areas that are relatively wet all year round. These
round variations in air temperature are minimal. The forests are composed of a dense, evergreen tree canopy
average air temperature range is generally 20–25 C (68– and multiple layers of vegetation that form distinct
77 F), rarely falling below 18 C, and these parts of the vegetative strata. These forests have been characterized
through books and movies as the jungle (Morley 2011).
world are basically frost-free. Subdivisions of tropical
rainforests are determined partly by the amount and Other types of forests are found in the transition zones
duration of precipitation that occurs and partly by physical between the three main biomes. Cloud forests, for
habitat conditions. For example, monsoon rainforests have example, are often found in tropical or subtropical areas,
a prolonged dry season and a short rainy season, where there is consistent low-level cloud cover that hangs
whereas seasonal rainforests have a short dry period in the sky at about the maximum height of the forest
every year. In contrast, evergreen rainforests generally do canopy. These forests are characterized as having a
not have a dry season. Semi-evergreen rainforests have a significant amount of mossy vegetation, and many are
longer dry season than evergreen located in Central and South America, Africa, and Asia.
FIGURE 2.4 The Amazon rainforest, as seen from the Alto Madre de Montane forests, on the other hand, are situated along
Dios River, in Peru. Photo courtesy of Martin St. Amant, through mountain ranges, and can be characterized as boreal,
Wikimedia Commons. temperate, or tropical, depending on the prevailing climate
of the region. Savannas are grassy ecosystems that may
contain a variable density forest of trees that are widely
rainforests, and some of the canopy is occupied by spaced; thus, the tree canopy does not completely close.
deciduous tree species. Mangrove forests are a form of Savannas can be found in any biome and repre sent a
tidal forest situated in brackish wetlands between land and transition between closed-canopy forests and prairies or
sea, in river deltas, and along sheltered coast lines. The deserts. Finally, steppe forests are generally transition
tree species found in these tropical forests (e.g., zones between boreal and temperate biomes. Examples
of these include the quaking aspen
2.1 NORTH AMERICA 25
(Populus tremuloides) forests of Canadian prairie prov in order to adequately de scribe the actors, events, and
inces and the birch (Betula spp.) and aspen groves of the issues related to the management of the environment.
Daurian forests between Siberia and Mongolia. Steppe However, although explorations of deeper issues in
forests contain not only a park-like stands of trees but also forestry and natural resource management are left for
a grassy understory. others to pursue, this chapter should broaden the reader’s
An ecological approach is very useful for de scribing perspective on the use and care of forests in different
the natural forests of the world, and we allude to these regions of the world.
biomes as individual countries are dis cussed in the next
section of this chapter. We struc tured the remainder of
the chapter in a geographic manner to provide a synthesis 2.1 NORTH AMERICA
of forests in countries based on the continent with which
they are typically associated. Five countries (Brazil, The history of forests in many parts of North America
Canada, China, the Russian Federation, and the United has been shaped by the advances and retreats of ice
States) contain more than half of the world’s total forest sheets from the most recent ice age, the use of land by
area, while over 50 countries are less than 10% forested indigenous people, and the colonization of land by
(Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Europeans and others. Approximately 20,000 years
2010). This chapter focuses on only a few of the major ago, an ice sheet 3–4 kilometers (km; 1.9–2.5 miles [mi])
and perhaps topically interesting (from a forestry per thick stretched from the North Pole southward, covering all
spective) countries located within each continent. Although of Canada and most of the northern United States from
in general this chapter provides a positive, objective view Maine to Washington and as far south as Illinois, Indiana,
of forest regions of the world, the use of land and the Iowa, New Jersey, Ohio, and Pennsylvania. This last
management of forests have been associated with their period of glaciation stripped the landscape of all
fair share of recent political and environmental vegetation and lowered sea levels. The period also led to
controversies. As an introduction to forestry and natural the formation of the Bering land bridge, which was
resource management, we allude to and briefly discuss instrumental in connecting human populations in Asia with
some of the various conflicts, challenges, and national the unpopulated American continents. As the ice sheets
forest policies of select countries. Forest and natural receded, plant and wildlife species spread into the empty
resource po licies arise from political, social, lands via natural processes such as animal defecation,
environmental, and economic problems. The following water, and wind. In addition, the sea level rose and the
sections describe some of these issues; however, delving Bering land bridge disappeared, leaving the American
deeply into the vast array of socioeconomic and political continents with human occupants.
contro versies that face forest management throughout the Among the different indigenous groups of North
world is beyond the scope of this book. For example, America were nomadic and agrarian-based tribes. The
critical social and political issues and events have shaped nomadic tribes, which were basically hunter-gathers,
the profession of forestry in Thailand (Usher 2009) and, included the Cheyenne, the Sioux, and agrarian-based
while these are intriguing, they require extensive treatment
communities such as the Hopi and Navajo of the south measles, and smallpox), which killed approximately 80%
western United States and the Iroquois of the north of the existing indigenous human population (Lewy 2004).
eastern United States. Indigenous populations depended When European settlers began to colonize land in what
to a great extent on the forests and the natural resources is now the United States and Canada, they believed they
that they encountered. For instance, in the south western had found an endless sea of forests that could be used to
United States, indigenous communities were often build ships and heat homes, and land on which they could
concentrated near pinyon-juniper (Pinus edulis, Juniperus grow agricultural crops. With the decline of the indigenous
spp.) forests because pinyon seeds were an important part populations, due both to infectious diseases and to
of their diet. Further, diaries from early European explorers intermittent wars with European settlers, many indigenous
indicate that large populations of indigenous people lived lands devoid of trees reverted back to a natural forested
near the Mississippi River owing to the vast available state, enhancing the image of an endless sea of forests.
areas of cultivable farmland. South eastern indigenous Colo nists from Europe generally had a different
groups were also known to burn large areas of the perspective on how forests and natural resources should
forested landscape in efforts to improve wildlife habitat be managed and utilized than did indigenous people, who
quality (Lavender 1958). Unfortunately, explorers and managed forests and natural resources under an informal
early colonists exposed vulnerable native populations to communal model. European settlers brought
several infectious diseases (such as chicken pox,
with them a system of private property rights and more
sophisticated agricultural and forest management tech
nologies that transformed the landscape much more
quickly than indigenous methods did. At one time in the
development of North America, trees from New England
forests were removed not only to create agricultural land,
but also to produce exports that would enhance the
shipbuilding industry in England and the sugar industry in
Barbados (Perlin 1989). More recently, both
developmental issues (aesthetics, housing, recreation,
water, etc.) and external trade with other countries (e.g.,
China and Japan) have influenced the amount of pressure
placed on North American forests.
A large portion of North America is too arid to support
natural forest growth (Figure 2.5). However, North
American forests are diverse, ranging from the tropical
forests of Mexico and the Caribbean, to the temperate
forests of the eastern and western United States, and the
boreal forests of Canada and Alaska. Canada and the
United States each have over 900 mil lion ha (over 2.2
billion ac) of land area, and each is currently about one-
third forested (Table 2.1). The other main North American
country, Mexico, is also about one-third forested. Table
2.1 provides data for areas that the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (2010) considers to be FIGURE 2.5 Satellite image of North and Central America. Photo
courtesy of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Reto
integrally tied to the continent of North America. In our Sto¨ckli, and Robert Simmon, through Wikipedia.
geographical approach to describing the forested areas of the world, we
discuss Central American countries separately in the next
section. Broadly speaking, the Food and Agri culture
Organization of the United Nations estimates that, as a
whole, North and Central American countries experienced
negligible forest area change over the 5-year period from
2005 to 2010.
2.1.1 United States of America

The United States of America (Figure 2.6) contains
about 916 million ha of land (about 2.264 billion ac), 33%
of which is forested (Table 2.1). In the early develop ment
of the country, fire was used extensively in forested areas
by both indigenous people and early settlers to remove
cover, provide firebreaks, facilitate hunting activities, and
improve the condition of grassy vegeta tion (Lavender
1958). From the early fifteenth to the late nineteenth
centuries, forests both assisted and hindered the
settlement of the United States by nonin digenous people.
Forests provided early settlers with fuel and building and conser vation of forests and natural resources
materials, clothing, food, and medi cine, yet were also became a signifi cant issue. More recently, the rate of
cleared for agricultural and grazing purposes (Anderson change in forested areas of the United States over the
and Smith 1976). As settlers moved west across the 2005–2010 period was slightly positive (Table 2.1).
United States, early pioneers consid ered forests as an Of the forested land in the United States, about 57% is
impediment to progress and, since agricultural uses of the privately owned (Food and Agriculture Organization of the
land predominated, little thought was given to the United Nations 2010), yet land ownership patterns vary
conservation of natural resources (Muhn and Stuart 1988). across the country, from high percentages of private land
The clearing of land for agricultural uses increased from in the eastern and southern states to rela tively even
about 1700 to 1860 and then began to decline; however, percentages of state, federal, and private land in some of
fuelwood use peaked in the United States around 1875 the western states. Private land in the United States is
(Birdsey et al. 2006). Forest harvesting activities began in managed by company foresters, consul tants, or the
the north eastern states and Lake States, then shifted to landowners themselves. Most of the larger companies
the southern states, and finally moved to the western have, or are seeking, forest certification through programs
states by the early twentieth century. Eventually, such as the Sustainable Forestry Initia tive, which is
segments of the public grew concerned over the described in Chapter 15. A large number of private
exploitation of forests in numerous regions of the country, landowners also belong to the American Tree
TABLE 2.1 Demographic and Physiographic Data for North and Central Americaa
Country Population 2008 (1,000 ha) Forest Forest Area 2005e2010 (%) GDP (PPP) 2008b
Human (million) Total Land Area Cover (%) Annual Change Per Capita (1,000 US$)
Total Land Area (1,000 ac)
Belize < 1 2,281 5,636 61 0.68 6.7 Canada 33 909,351 2,247,006 34 e 29.1 Costa Rica 5 5,106 12,617 51 0.90 11.2 Cuba 11 10,982 27,137 26
1.25 9.5 Dominican Republic 10 4,839 11,957 41 e 8.1 Guatemala 14 10,843 26,793 34 1.47 4.8 Honduras 7 11,189 27,648 46 2.16 3.9 Mexico
109 194,395 480,350 33 0.24 14.6 Nicaragua 6 12,140 29,998 26 2.11 2.7 Panama 3 7,443 18,392 44 0.36 12.5 United States of America 312
916,193 2,263,913 33 0.13 46.4
Other countries or territories (28)c North and Central America (total)b

26 9,149 22,607 26 0.11 8.3 536 2,093,911 5,174,054 33 e 33.4
a
That are more than 20% forested and have more than 3,000,000 ac (about 1,214,100 ha) of forest.
b
Gross domestic product (GDP) expressed as purchasing power parity (PPP).
c
Excludes Greenland and Saint Pierre and Miquelon.
Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2010).
a wide variety of forest management systems. State

lands are managed by representatives (foresters and
natural resource managers) employed by each state.
Each state also develops its own goals and objectives
for state-owned forests, and these too are guided by
certain aspects of applicable federal and state regula
tions. Federal lands (e.g., the Forest Service and Bureau
of Land Management [BLM]) are managed by federal
foresters and natural resource managers. A number of
federal regulations guide the development of goals,
objectives, and plans for federal forests in the United
States. Other types of landowner groups can also be
found in the United States, and these are described in
more detail in Chapter 3.
In 1905, Gifford Pinchot became the first chief of the
US Forest Service under President Theodore Roosevelt.
Pinchot was a great advocate of conservation for forests
and their natural resources. He championed sustainable
management of forests and coined the term conservation
ethic. His perspective on the use of forests clashed with
aspects of some federal and state regulations, private
FIGURE 2.6 Countries in North America. Modified image from
PresentationMaps.com. landowners are relatively free to employ
those of preservationists such as John Muir, but Pinchot
Farm System. Aside from the need to comply with certain was instrumental in the early development of the US
National Forest System. Since the early twentieth century, policies and agencies to support the notion of sustainable
the United States has developed a series of national forest management (SFM). For instance, the
US National Park Service was created in 1916 to manage
national parks and other historically significant areas for
conservation, education, and recreation purposes. Further,
the BLM was formed in 1946 by the merger of the Grazing
Service and General Land Office, two enti ties within the
US Department of Interior (Muhn and Stuart 1988). This
agency now administers about 109 million ha (270 million
ac) of forest and rangeland in the United States. The US
Forest Service administers about 78 million ha (about 193
million ac) of predomi nantly forested land. Finally, both
the US Environmental
Protection Agency and the Department of Energy, neither
of which directly manages land, currently have programs FIGURE 2.7 Young and mature pine stands, as viewed from above, in
southern Alabama, United States. Photo courtesy of Pete Bettinger.
that promote increasing carbon sequestration by forests
(Birdsey et al. 2006).
Forests of the southern United States, which encom
species, and uncertainties in timber markets (Wear and
pass a broad area ranging from Virginia to Texas, are
Greis 2011). Of the forestland in the southern United
naturally considered temperate broadleaved (decid uous)
States, over 68% is owned by private individuals and
forest areas and subtropical forest areas. Histori cally,
families (perhaps as family farms), around 19% is owned
naturally regenerated native coniferous forests could be
by forest companies and corporate entities, and over 12%
found in areas where natural or anthropo genic events
is owned and managed by various local, state, or federal
allowed successional stages to revert to states where
public agencies. Each landowner can have its own distinct
conifers could capture resources and compete effectively
objectives and constraints, as we will see in Chapter 3.
with deciduous trees. In this regard, fire was one of the
The larger landowners and the national forests in this
main tools used by early settlers and Native Americans.
region have usually developed long term management
During the first part of the twentieth century, fire was also
plans, yet very few private land owners have developed
the predominant tool used in the management of land in
these. Some states and local governments have
the southern United States, and was widely used to
developed policies and regulations that govern forestry
reduce tree stocking and enhance range conditions for
activities but, for the most part, forest management
livestock (Birdsey et al. 2006). With the onset of fire
activities are guided by state-level, voluntary best
prevention policies, the development of pine plantations,
management practices in the southern United States. The
and the establishment of forests on marginal agricultural
generation of commercial forest prod ucts from the
lands, the broad-scale use of prescribed fire is now
southern United States is very high, making it one of the
limited. Forests of the southern United States now consist
most competitive markets in the world (Table 2.2).
of a broad array of coniferous and deciduous forests,
Coniferous tree species are mainly used as pulpwood (for
some managed very intensively and others very lightly.
pulp and paper) and sawlogs (for lumber and other solid
The pine plantation forests (Figure 2.7) of this region are
wood products) and, while deciduous tree species are also
among the most productive in the world. Seventy five
used mainly for pulpwood and sawlogs, these species are
percent of the pulpwood produced in the United States
the main fuelwood sources for households equipped to
arises from the southern states (Johnson et al. 2011b).
utilize wood stoves.
Some important tree species that are grown, harvested,
In the northeastern and Lake States regions of the
and exported both to other regions of the United States
United States, forests are generally temperate broad
and internationally include loblolly pine (Pinus taeda),
leaved forests with some boreal forests in the higher
slash pine (Pinus elliottii), longleaf pine (Pinus palustris),
elevations and latitudes. Forests generally regenerate
and shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata). In addition, southern
forests contain numerous commer cially important naturally on harvested or disturbed lands and on marginal
hardwood tree species (e.g., black walnut [Juglans nigra], agricultural lands. However, these forests (Figure 2.8) are
maples, oaks, and yellow-poplar [Liriodendron tulipifera]) generally managed less intensively than forests in the
that support furniture indus tries in states such as southern states (Birdsey et al. 2006). In Maine and
Mississippi, North Carolina, and Tennessee. northern New England, one can find forests composed of
Forests of the southern United States face several tree species such as American beech (Fagus grandifolia),
challenges in the future, including those related to climate balsam fir (Abies balsamea), eastern white pine (Pinus
change, human population growth, invasive strobus), paper birch (Betula papyrifera), sugar maple
(Acer saccharum), white spruce
TABLE 2.2 Roundwood Output in the Southern United States, (56%) is the highest of any eastern state, and this is nearly
2009, by Product (1,000 Cubic Meters) evenly divided among state, county, and
Product Hardwood federal ownership. Forty-four Minnesota is privately owned,

Softwood (Coniferous) (Deciduous) Total percent of forestland in 37% by nonindustrial
Sawlogs 46,499 17,439 63,938 Veneer logs or bolts 11,452 972 12,424 15% of the forestland in Michigan (Miles et al. 2011).
Pulpwood 71,334 25,851 97,185 Composite panels 7,146 218 7,364 The central United States is composed of temperate
broadleaved forest areas, and oak forests encompass
Poles and posts 1,312 8 1,320 Other 3,049 591 3,640 Fuelwood 1,256
over 50% of the timberland in the region (Chapman et al.
10,639 11,895 Total 142,048 55,718 197,766 Source: Johnson et al. 2011a. 2006). As in other areas of North America, Native
Americans influenced forest cover types through the use
of fire to clear land for agricultural purposes and to drive
(Picea glauca), and yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis), wildlife game species during hunts (Drury and Runkle
grown in even-aged or uneven-aged, mixed species 2006). Lumber production activity began in earnest in this
stands. In the Midwest and Lake States of the United region in the mid-nineteenth century. In the late nineteenth
States, one might find forests composed of American elm century large expanses of forests in this region were
(Ulmus americana), black ash (Fraxinus nigra), black cleared for charcoal production purposes and the
spruce (Picea mariana), jack pine (Pinus banksiana), production of pig-iron (Williams 1982). Most of these areas
paper birch, quaking aspen, red pine (Pinus resinosa), and regenerated naturally and, today, typical forests in the
sugar maple, tamarack (Larix laricina). When managed for central states are composed of overstories of black cherry
commercial purposes, even-aged forests have rela tively (Prunus serotina), black walnut, oaks and hickories, red
long rotation lengths (80–100 years) compared to forests maple (Acer rubrum), sugar maple, white ash (Fraxinus
of the southern United States (20–40 years). Forestland americana), and yellow-poplar. American beech, blackgum
ownership varies by state, but private owner ship of land (Nyssa sylva tica), and maples can found in the midstory
dominates the northern region of the country. As an of the forest canopy, and maples and sassafras
example, in Maine, 93% of the forestland is privately (Sassafras albidum) may be prevalent in the understory
owned, by individuals, corporations, timber land (Chiang et al. 2008). As an overstory tree species, yellow-
investment organizations, and real estate invest ment poplar prefers lower slopes and sheltered coves, while
trusts, otherwise known as a REITs, (McCaskill et al. oaks are more abundant in unglaciated areas with drier
2011). In Minnesota, public forestland ownership conditions and thinner soils (Widmann et al. 2009).
However, in some areas, younger forests are composed of
overstories of maple tree species (Drury and Runkle
2006). Northern hardwood forests also occur in some
areas of the central United States, and these may typi
cally be represented by overstories of American beech
and sugar maple. In both types of forests, maples could
very likely be the dominant understory tree species
(Widmann et al. 2009).
The influences of agriculture, expanding deer popu
lations, fire, grazing, insect and disease outbreaks, and
periodic seed crops can affect the future composition of
forest ecosystems in the central states (Drury and Runkle
2006). In fact, fire suppression in the last 80 years or so
has favored fire-sensitive tree species over fire-adapted
oaks, and in many areas oaks are being replaced by
shade-tolerant, fire-intolerant tree species. Other important
causes of forest disturbance include droughts, ice storms,
insects and diseases (e.g., Dutch elm disease), land use
FIGURE 2.8 Forested landscape during the fall season in Maine, United changes, and logging, followed perhaps by abandonment
States. Photo courtesy of Samantha Langley-Turnbaugh. of the land (Widmann et al. 2009). In some areas of the
landowners, and about 7% by corporations. Corpora tions central states, recent losses of forestland to develop
also own about 10% of the forestland in Wisconsin and mental land uses (e.g., urban areas) have been more
than offset by gains in forestland from the reversion of early twentieth century, this region had a long history of
abandoned farmland to forests (Widmann et al. 2009). As forest fires and unregulated grazing activities (Chapman et
with other regions, the distribution of land owner ship al. 2006). The understory and midstory vegetation of these
varies by state. For example, private family forest forests usually consists of dogwood (Cornus florida),
landowners own about 75% of the forestland in Indi ana hickories, and oaks. The overstory vege tation may consist
(Woodall et al. 2011) and about 85% of the forest land in of black oak (Quercus velutina), white oak (Quercus alba),
Iowa (Nelson et al. 2011). In Ohio, 12% of the forestland is and perhaps shortleaf pine. However, since fire
publicly owned, 73% is owned by private individuals and suppression activities began around 100 years ago,
families (over 336,000), and 15% is owned by blackgum, dogwood, eastern hophornbeam (Ostrya
corporations, nonfamily partnerships, Native American virginiana), and red maple have become increasingly
tribes, nongovernmental organiza tions (NGOs), clubs, important and abundant tree species in these forests
and other nonfamily private groups (Widmann et al. 2009). (Chapman et al. 2006). The influence of fire on forest
The Ozark Mountains are situated in an area between composition has always been closely associated with the
the southern United States and Lake States (mainly anthropogenic use of the land (Guldin 2008), which
Arkansas and Missouri), where temperate broadleaved changes as human settlement patterns change. For
forests naturally reside. Oak-hickory forests are the example, prior to 1820 the mean fire frequency was about
dominant vegetation type in this area. Throughout the once every 5–20 years. Yet between 1820 and 1920, the
frequency was once every 2–5 years due to the migration Dakota. In the drier southwestern and interior western
of American Indians from the eastern states to Oklahoma United States, one may find grand fir (Abies grandis),
and, after 1920, the frequency has risen from once every subalpine fir or Rocky Mountain fir (Abies lasiocarpa),
10 years to once every 80 years or more in some areas lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), pinyon pine (Pinus
(Guyette et al. 2006). Forest composition continuously quadrifolia), and ponderosa pine (Pinus pon derosa)
changes and, as upland oak hickory forests in this area forests and forests composed of other tree species that
mature, large-scale oak decline and mortality has are adapted to arid climates, including an inland variant of
increased, a process closely associated with disease, Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii). Wildfire and the
drought, forest succession, stress, and other factors (Fan suppression of fire have shaped the historical and current
et al. 2011). character of the forests of the interior western United
Wood utilization reached its peak in 1899 in the Ozark States. In addition, recent outbreaks of the western spruce
Mountains, which supported the industrialization of the budworm (Choristoneura occidentalis) have cause
area. By 1920, much of the original mature forest cover massive defoliation and dramatically changed the
had been harvested for wood products and a period of structure and vegetation dynamics of vast areas of interior
forest recovery began (Guldin 2008). Fire control was one northwest forests.
of the main tools used in the recovery process, although In the Pacific Northwest states (Alaska, Oregon, and
the forest succession reaction is, as we noted a moment Washington), it is common to find Douglas-fir, red
ago, complex. Since about the 1940s, the Missouri Ozark
forests have experienced a demand for products and
services that range from lumber to wildlife
habitat and water. In the Ozarks and other areas of the
United States, a number of state-level and federal poli cies
have been implemented over the last 70 years to enhance
the value of forests, physically protect some watersheds,
and generally promote forest vigor and health (Guldin
2008).
In the western United States, two general types of
forests exist: wet forests and dry forests. The wet forests
(Figure 2.9) are those generally to the west of the
Cascade and Sierra Nevada mountains. The dry forests
(Figure 2.10) are those generally to the east of these
ranges, due to the orographic lifting of air masses over the
mountains. As air from the Pacific Ocean travels east
across the landscape and gains altitude, it cools and the
air masses lose water content through precipita tion.
These temperate, and relatively dry montane forests can
be found in Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, New FIGURE 2.9 Coniferous forests in Yamhill County, western Oregon,
United States. Photo courtesy of M.O. Stevens, through Wikimedia
Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming, with minor amounts in South Commons.
forestlands and, of the public land harvest, about two-
thirds came from state rather than federal lands (Warren
2011). The land ownership distribution is skewed more
toward public ownership in this region of the country than
in the eastern United States. For example, in Washington
State, about 44% of the forests are controlled by the
federal government and about 13% are owned by the
state. The remaining 43% are owned by private
individuals, corporations, timberland management
organizations, and REIT (Campbell et al. 2010).
In northern California, one might find Douglas-fir,
redwood (Sequoia sempervirens), and western redcedar
forests in temperate coastal forests. Ferns, salmonberry,
and thistle can be found in the understory of these lush
forests. Douglas-fir, true firs, Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi),
lodgepole pine, ponderosa pine, and sugar pine (Pinus
lambertiana) forests are generally found in the inland
northern forest areas of California. Southern California is
quite different and composed of Mediterranean vegeta tion
and forests, where the climate is generally very dry during
the summer months. These areas range from the Central
Valley and Sierra Nevada foothills to the central coast
ranges of California, and south to Mexico (Fenn et al.
2011). Southern California forests are diverse, and blue
oak (Quercus douglasii), brittlebush (Encelia spp.), coastal
sagebrush (Artemisia californica), manzanita (Arc
found in the understory. Chaparral and oak woodlands are

FIGURE 2.10 Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) forests in south
central Washington, United States. Photo courtesy of Pierre Nordique,
widespread throughout the Mediterranean forest areas of
through Wikimedia Commons.
California. These areas are composed of evergreen
shrublands that contain, among those mentioned earlier
and other plant species, big-leaf maple (Acer macrophyl
alder (Alnus rubra), Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis), and
lum), boxelder (Acer negundo), ceanothus (Ceanothus
western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), forests in the
spp.), and perhaps Oregon ash (Fraxinus latifolia) (Fenn
coastal areas, along with other tree species such as
et al. 2011). Sudden oak death, caused by the fungus Phy
Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia). These forests are also
tophthora ramorum, is of great concern for oak species in
characterized as temperate, montane forests. Bracken
California and other states.
fern (Pteridium aquilinum), salal (Gaultheria shallon),
A large portion of the forested area in California can be
salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis), sword fern (Polysti chum
described as being composed of mixed conifers, and over
munitum), thistle (Cirsium spp.) and vine maple (Acer
circinatum), among other plant species, are commonly half is managed by the federal government. Public
found in the understory of these forests (McIntosh et al. ownership of California’s forests was about 60% in 2005:
2009). Douglas-fir is the dominant tree species found in nonindustrial private landowners owned about 26% of the
plantations, and is managed in a manner similar to loblolly forestland and private corporations owned about 14%.
pine in the southern United States, although with a few Most of the merchantable wood volume is located in the
notable exceptions with regard to site preparation (rarely northern part of the state. Over the last 50 years, timber
mechanical), planting method (mainly by hand), the use of harvest levels have been declining grad ually on both
interme diate treatments such as precommercial thinning, federal and private land. Of the tree species that are
and longer even-aged rotation lengths (35–55 years). The harvested, most are conifers: Douglas fir (27%), true firs
Pacific Northwest is a very productive timber-growing (21%), ponderosa pine (18%), and redwood (16%).
region, and timber harvest levels over the last 40 years Recently, it was estimated that forest growth in California
reached a peak in the late 1960s and early 1970s, but hit substantially exceeded harvest rates (Christensen et al.
a low point in 2009. In 2010, 68% of the timber harvest in 2008).
these two states arose from private In Alaska, coniferous and mixed species boreal forests
tostaphylos spp.), and other plant species are typically are generally located in the central part of the
state, along with large expanses of tundra, and montane however, some of this land is also (or was recently) used
and boreal coniferous forests are located in the southeast for sugarcane production, and perhaps now lies fallow
part of the state. The boreal forest of Alaska occupies an (Whitesell et al. 1992). Coastal forests are very diverse
area that spans from the Pacific Ocean to the Canadian and may consist of alahe’e (Psydrax odorata), hala
border, and has perhaps the most severe climate (Pandanus tectorius), and kopiko (Psychotria hawai
conditions in the world, with air temperatures as low as 70 iensis), or numerous other native tree species and species
C and annual precipitation rates that rarely exceed 50 cm. introduced from Polynesia (Mascaro et al. 2008). Mesic
As a result, few tree species can be found here; some of forests on the windward slopes of mountains consist of
these include balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera), species such as koa (Acacia koa), one of the few endemic
Alaska white birch (Betula neoalaskana), Kenai birch tree species that dominate the montane forests of Hawaii
(Betula kenaica), quaking aspen, black spruce, white (Baker and Scowcroft 2005). Koa is also commonly found
spruce, and tamarack (Anderson and Brubaker 1994, in wet forests along with ‘ohi’a lehua (Metrosideros
Liang 2010). Since about 1990, the boreal forests of the polymorpha) and many other tropical tree species.
Kenai Peninsula and inte rior Alaska have experienced Further, of the native tree species, koa is perhaps the
significant spruce beetle (Dendroctonus rufipennis) most ecologically and economically important. Currently,
outbreaks (Boucher and Mead 2006). Forests in southeast forestry operations in Hawaii are limited, although there
and south-central Alaska contain Alaska yellow-cedar are areas managed as commercial forest plantations and,
(Chamaecyparis nootkatensis), Sitka spruce, western along with short-rotation fiber planta tions, agroforestry is
hemlock, and western redcedar (Thuja plicata) at low also being considered. High
elevations; mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) at density biomass plantations have been tested in Hawaii
higher eleva tions; and some areas of aspen, birch, and using eucalypt (Eucalyptus spp.) (Whitesell et al. 1992)
Barclay’s wil low (Salix barclayi), black spruce, and white and loblolly pine (Harms et al. 2000) tree species, and in
spruce (Barrett and Christensen 2011). The economies some cases greater growth potential can be attained here
and communities of southeast Alaska are diverse and than in these species’ native environments.
affected by forest management direction, and while
southeast Alaska has an abundant supply of forest
resources, they are primarily controlled by the federal
government (Crone 2005). Most (about 75%; over US$100 2.1.2 Canada
million) of the forest product exports from Alaskan forests The 10 provinces and three territories of Canada
are to Asian countries, and most of these are in log form, amount to a little over 909 million ha of land (2.247 billion
from private forestlands (Roos et al. 2011). ac), of which about 34% is forested (Table 2.1). The
The islands of Hawaii contain over 200,000 ha of forests of Canada represent about 10% of the total world
potential commercial forestland, currently consisting of forest area, an area similar to that of the United States.
extensive coniferous, deciduous, and mixed forests; Canada is said to be represented by at least 10 major
forest regions (Drushka 2003), including the extensive
boreal forest that stretches the entire width of the country,
and the Great Lakes forests of the southern and eastern
half of the country. A large portion of the unforested land
in Canada lies in the northern territories, where the climate
is too harsh to support forest growth. Further, the prairies
of the central prov inces generally lack the moisture
necessary to support natural forest growth. The dominant
tree species of the boreal forests are black spruce, white
spruce, and tama rack. The Acadian forests of New
Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island (Figure
2.11) contain a mixture of coniferous and deciduous trees,
including aspen, eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis),
white pine, red maple, sugar maple, jack pine, red pine,
oaks, black spruce, red spruce (Picea rubens), white
spruce, tama rack, yellow birch, and others. Forests of the
Rocky Mountain region of Canada are composed primarily
FIGURE 2.11 Forested coastline, Nova Scotia, Canada. Photo courtesy
of conifers and aspen. In areas west of the Rocky Moun of Dylan Kereluk, through Wikimedia Commons.
tains, mainly the province of British Columbia, the
montane and alpine forests are composed of Douglas-fir,
grand fir (Abies grandis), western hemlock, western red Nearly 2,000 railroad ties were needed per kilometer of
cedar, and other conifers (Drushka 2003). railroad track, and these needed to be replaced every 3 or
Prior to widespread development of the country, 4 years prior to advancements made in the develop ment
aboriginal people shaped the Canadian landscape by of wood preservatives (Drushka 2003). In the early
setting fires in order to develop meadows that would twentieth century, agricultural uses of the land, primarily in
attract the wildlife necessary to meet basic consump tive the eastern forests, reduced the amount of forest cover
needs. Once widespread development of the country and served to fragment the forests. Petro leum
began around the seventeenth century, fires initiated by exploration, well sites, and access roads have served to
steam engines had a significant role in shaping the fragment some of the western forests. Forest
structure of the forests. Large volumes of wood were conservation efforts began in the early twentieth century,
harvested in the early development of the country to but were temporarily hampered by World Wars I and II.
support the buildings, docks, and ware houses needed to Currently, over half of the country’s forests are actively
support the burgeoning fur and fishing industries. Early managed and, as in the western United States, firefighting
forest policies concerned the reservation of trees for their policies have inadvertently contrib uted to the character of
potential use for masts and spars of ships. The use of these forests and have raised forest health concerns
wood was prevalent in the early colonization of Canada, (disease problems, high forest densities, high fuel loads,
as settlers required about 30 cords of firewood each and insects). Canada has had the highest area of insect
winter, and about 500 split rails per hectare to fence fields disturbance among world countries over the past 5 years,
for livestock production. As with the development of the with extensive outbreaks of the mountain pine beetle
United States, the early predominant view of forests by (Dendroctonus ponderosae) and forest tent caterpillar
colo nists was that they impeded the development of the (Malacosoma disstria) (Food and Agriculture Organization
landscape (Drushka 2003). of the United Nations 2010). SFM is now a pervasive
Forest policies in Canada in the mid-nineteenth century theme in Canadian forestry and by the end of the twentieth
provided the mechanisms for the development of century most forest companies had or were seeking
temporary leases and licenses for timber harvesting certification through one of the main forest certification
activities, with much of the land remaining in the control of schemes (Drushka 2003), which are described in Chapter
the federal government or individual provinces. Some land 15.
was eventually transferred from the Crown to indi viduals
to promote settlement. About 92% of the forested areas in
Canada are currently publicly owned (Food and 2.1.3 Mexico
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2010). The Mexico is located on the southern border of the United
majority of commercial forestland in Canada that is States (Figure 2.6). It has a land base of about 194 million
controlled by federal or provincial governments is licensed ha (480 million ac), with forests covering about 33% or
to companies, and representa tives of these companies about 64 million ha (about 158 million ac). The forest types
develop management plans that are guided by provincial found in Mexico vary from tropical rainforests to
forest policies. The Cana dian Forest Service is a research subtropical temperate forests. The trop ical rainforests are
and policy organization of the government that is currently found on slopes near the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific
acting to promote both the sustainability of Canadian Ocean, the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and the southern
forests and the economic competitiveness of the Canadian Yucatań Peninsula. Recent changes in the area of forest
forestry sector. cover have been slightly negative (Table 2.1), mainly due
The development of railroads in the late nineteenth to wildfires and the conversion of forestland to agricultural
century further shaped the structure of the forests, as uses. The forests of Mexico are very diverse; for example,
railroads required large volumes of wood for the devel across the country one can find 72 species, varieties, and
opment of bridges and the production of railroad ties.
forms of pines (Figure 2.12). Other tree species
FIGURE 2.12 Pine forests in Mexico. Photo courtesy of Gustavo Perez-

Verdin.
found in more temperate areas of Mexico include Mexican tive access to portions of land since colonial times, and
beech or haya (Fagus mexicana), oaks, sweet gum ejidatarios are members of cooperatives called ejidos
(Liquidambar styraciflua), and various coniferous species (Bocco et al. 2001). In 1917, in response to a strong
of cypress, fir, juniper, and pine. In the tropical regions, agrarian reformist presence related to the Mexican Revo
broadleaved and semideciduous trees are more common, lution that began in 1910, the common property ejido
and tree species found here include breadnut (Brosimum system of land tenure was established. This system
alicastrum), balche´ tree (Lonchocar pus violaceus), caoba applied to land in which the Mexican federal govern ment
or mahogany (Swietenia macro phylla), cedro rojo once held title. A typical ejido has a small center village
(Cedrela odorata), guava (Terminalia oblonga), sapodilla and is surrounded by agricultural land and forests. The
(Manilkara zapota), and white olive (Terminalia amazonia). agricultural lands are assigned to individ uals, while the
Forest plantations (eucalypts, pines, and teaks [Tectona forests are held in common trust. An ejido manages the
spp.]) have also become common throughout the country. forested area for forest products and services detailed in
About 90% of the forest production in Mexico arises plans submitted for approval to the Environment and
from coniferous and deciduous forests located in the Natural Resources Secretary. The ejida tarios are
temperate climate zones, mainly in the states of Chiapas, generally male heads of households, and the right to
Chihuahua, Durango, Guerrero, Jalisco, Michoacan, and become an ejidatario is passed down through patrilineal
Oaxaca. Tropical and subtropical forests, located in the family lines. Selected agricultural lands within an ejido are
states of Campeche, Chiapas, Oaxaca, Quintana Roo, given to individual ejidatarios for cultivation. In 1991, with
Tabasco, and Yucatan, are about the same size, but the enactment of a new agrarian law and an amendment
account for only about 10% of forest production. Most of to the Mexican Constitution, ejidatarios can, with the
the softwood and hardwood timber produced in Mexico is approval of the ejido, lease or sell land to individuals or
consumed within the country (US Forest Service 2000). corporations (Kiernan 2000).
Forest policy at the federal level is currently guided by the
Secretarıá del Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales
(Environment and Natural Resources Secretary), formed 2.2 CENTRAL AMERICA
in 1995, and the Comisioń Nacional Forestal (the
Mexican National Forestry Commission), formed in 2001. The political and economic history of Central America
Although about a quarter of the forested areas in (Figure 2.13) is integrally linked to the developmental
Mexico are privately owned (Food and Agriculture history of neighboring countries to the north and the
Organization of the United Nations 2010), land tenure can evolution of various European countries who once acted to
also consist of comuneros or ejidatarios. Comuneros expand their empires across the Atlantic Ocean. The Food
are members of ethnic groups who have acquired collec and Agriculture Organization of the United
FIGURE 2.13 Countries in Central America. Modified image from PresentationMaps.com.
2.2 CENTRAL AMERICA 35
Nations (2010) groups countries in this area with those of in) per year. Tree species in these areas are mainly
North America, but because of its location it was important deciduous and cactus is common in some forested
to discuss countries located here separately. Unlike understories. Some of the common tree species found
Canada and the United States, this region of North here include guanacaste tree (Enterolobium cyclocarpum),
America was not adversely affected by the last ice age mata ratoń (Gliricidia sepium), and pochote (Pachira
period. When the first European explorers found these quinata). In the Atlantic forests, the average annual rainfall
lands, they discovered a vast indigenous human is over 400 cm (157.5 in) per year, and there is no
population. The two largest groups were the Aztecs and discernible change in season throughout the year. Some
the Mayans. Although the main center of those civi common tree species found in this ecoregion
lizations was located in Mexico, which we discussed in the include rosewood (Dalbergia retusa) and Spanish elm or
previous section, the influence of these groups extended Ecuador laurel (Cordia alliodora). Montane forests include
throughout the countries of Belize, Costa Rica, El tree species such as Caribbean pine (Pinus cari baea) or
Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama. pino costanero. A complete history of each country in the
These indigenous people formed mainly agrarian-based region would be too extensive for this book. Therefore, our
societies that had a similar impact on forests and natural discussion of Central American countries focuses briefly
resources as did the indigenous groups that were located on only five: Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras,
in the United States and Canada prior to European Nicaragua, and Panama.
settlement.
Prior to the arrival of the European settlers, approxi
mately 90% of the land base (50 million ha or about 123.5 2.2.1 Costa Rica
million ac) in Central America was still forested. With the Costa Rica (the rich coast in English) is a small country
arrival of the Spanish and British settlers, large areas of covering an area of about 5.1 million ha (about 12.6 million
forestlands were converted to agriculture to support ac), wedged between Nicaragua to the north and Panama
growing colonial civilizations. Later, many areas were to the south (Figure 2.13). The human pop ulation of the
converted to agricultural crops, such as bananas, coffee, country is essentially an agrarian society focused primarily
and sugarcane that would be exported to the United on the production of agricultural commodities such as
States and Europe. In the 1980s, it was noted that bananas, coffee, pineapples, sugar cane, and beef. Local
forested areas had declined to about 20 million ha (about legend suggests that Christopher Columbus named the
49.4 million ac), partly due to the expansion of cattle area the rich coast on his last voyage, despite the fact that
ranches (Myers and Tucker 1987). It is not uncommon few mineral resources could be found on these lands.
today to drive along the Pan-American Highway and see Costa Rica was part of the Spanish Empire until 1821, the
large areas of pasture lands that are burned annually in an end of the Mexican War for Independence. It was then
effort to remove dead and decaying grassy vegeta tion. considered a province of the Federal Republic of Central
Since the end of the twentieth century, expanding human America for almost two decades until it proclaimed itself a
populations have applied pressure to the exist ing forests sovereign country in 1838.
and natural resources, despite attempts by several About 45% of the land in Costa Rica is under control of
national governments to create forest protection areas. the Costa Rican government, and about 55% is privately
The forests of Central America are diverse and, while owned. Although 70% of the country’s economy is based
most are broadly considered tropical rainforests, there are on agriculture, the landscape is ill suited for most forms of
numerous ecoregions that span this isthmus, including the agriculture because of the mountainous terrain. Lowland
dry tropical forests, the moist Atlantic forests, the Chiapas areas on the Caribbean coast, Guanacaste, and the
highlands, the montane forests, the pine-oak forests, and southern portion of Puntare nas have been sites of
the Sierra Madre. The dry trop ical forests stretch from the extensive cultivation of exported commodities (bananas,
Pacific coast of Mexico south to northwestern Costa Rica. beef, and pineapples). Coffee is typically grown in the
The average rainfall in these areas is below 200 cm (78.7 highlands around the central valley where the capital city
of San Jose´ is located. Costa Rica’s forests (Figure 2.14) laurel, mahogany, oak, and other tree species found in
have declined from about 75% of the total land area in Costa Rica. The wide variety of NTFPs include chicle (a
1940 to about 39% in 2000, primarily due to demands for gum from which Chiclets were named), ipecac (which
agricultural land and forest resources. The Food and induces vomiting), medicinal plants, and rubber. About
Agriculture Organi zation of the United Nations (2010) two-thirds of the roundwood produced is used within the
estimates that forest cover now stands at about 51%, with country for fuelwood purposes. Efforts to conserve forests
forest area increasing by about 1% per year (Table 2.1). outside of protected areas began in the 1970s (Pool et al.
Commercial wood products are derived from cedar, 2002). Natural forest management has been promoted in
Costa Rica through programs of the US
literacy rates (Pool et al. 2002). Along with the creation

of 26 national parks, there has been an extensive effort
to promote nontimber products such as ecotourism.
Recognition of the potential of ecotourism has allowed
this area of work to surpass agriculture as the leading
earner of foreign exchange (Pool et al. 2002). The
national government has enacted numerous progressive
policies (including a National Forest Policy in 2000) to
promote conservation and sustainable ecotourism
opportunities, particularly within the national park
system (e.g., birdwatching, climbing volcanoes, and
visiting tropical forests). In 2001, over 1.1 million people
traveled to Costa Rica, which generated US$1.1 billion in
tourism revenue (Dasenbrock 2002).
2.2.2 Guatemala
Ancient Mayan civilizations were once prevalent
throughout Guatemala. The Mayan lowlands were char
acterized by shifting agriculture and terraced cultivation
and, although little of the forested areas were removed,
the original cover was said to have been greatly altered
by the fifteenth century (Myers and Tucker 1987). Euro
pean influence began with Spanish colonists arriving in
the sixteenth century. As with other Central American
countries, Guatemala gained independence in 1821
and was briefly a part of the Federal Republic of Central
America. During a good portion of the twentieth
century, the Guatemalan government was embroiled in
turmoil due to a number of coups and disputed elec
tions. Guatemala has suffered from nearly four decades
Costa Rica differs from other countries in the region by
FIGURE 2.14 Natural deciduous forests in Limoń province, Costa Rica. its advanced economic and social progress that has
Photo courtesy of Donald L. Grebner.
enhanced health care services, living standards, and
of internal conflict, partly due to inequalities in land
ownership and income between the rural, indigenous
Agency for International Development (Pool et al. 2002) population and the urban population. Natural resources in
and, as with other Central American countries, NGOs and Guatemala are threatened by continued social and
local associations have been important in this regard. political problems, pressure from cattle and petroleum
Since the 1990s, Costa Rica has been assertive in interests, and illegal logging (Pool et al. 2002). Large scale
promoting reforestation programs and developing official deforestation began in Guatemala in the 1970s as a result
forest protection areas. These forest protection areas have of a land colonization plan developed by the government.
typically served as buffer zones for the numerous national This accelerated in the 1980s as large numbers of people
parks found in the country. There is even one private sought refuge in the rural areas during the Guatemalan
preserve, Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve, created in Civil War (International Tropical Timber Organization
1951 by 44 Quakers from Alabama, who settled the area 2006).
(Monteverde Costa Rica Cloud Forest Nonprofit Guatemala is nearly 11 million ha (about 26.8 million
Organizations 2006). The reserve is located on the ac) in size and is currently about 34% forested (Table 2.1).
Continental Divide and contains a cloud forest that is About 52% of the forests are privately owned, but
home to over 2,000 plant species, hundreds of bird and ownership rights are still obscure in some places in the
mammal species, such as the resplendent quetzal aftermath of the civil war, which formally ended in 1996.
(Pharomachrus mocinno), and amphibians, such as the About 42% of the forests are controlled by the
golden toad (Bufo periglenes). government, and indigenous communal lands (ejidales)
have a special status by law. Nearly 60% of the forests manufacture of cabinets and the development of chemical
(Figure 2.15) are located in the Peteń region (a flat low- extracts, dyes, gums, and
lying region that borders Mexico) and provide wood for the
dependent on sustained economic returns, secure land
titles, and clear land tenure policies (Pool et al. 2002).
Therefore, some local communities struggle with
responsive leadership at a variety of levels, and the
success of these programs may be problematic (Larson
2008).
2.2.3 Honduras
Honduras is located between Guatemala and
Nicaragua (Figure 2.13) and is the second largest country
in the region, with a land base of about 11 million ha
(about 28 million ac). Forests cover about 46% of the
FIGURE 2.15 Forests in the Peteń region of Guatemala, near Tikal. Honduras are cloud forests, coniferous forests, decid uous
Photo courtesy of R. Harrison, through Wikimedia Commons. forests (Figure 2.16), dry forests, and mangrove forests.
The International Timber Trade Organization (2006)
indicates that tree species found below 700 meters (m;
oils. However, most (86%) of the domestic roundwood about 2,300 feet [ft]) in elevation include Caribbean pine
production is burned for fuelwood and about 7% is used in (or pino costanero) and Mexican yellow pine (or pino
the manufacture of charcoal (Pool et al. 2002). The forest ocote), which are commonly referred to as Hon duran
area of Guatemala has been declining by about 1.5% per yellow pines (Pool et al. 2002). Above 1,500 m (about
year over the last 5 years (Table 2.1). The main 4,900 ft) and up to 1,900 m (about 6,200 ft) in eleva tion,
commercial tree species found in the Peteń region are mixtures of Caribbean pine, pino rojo (Pinus tecunu manii),
cypress, oaks, Mexican yellow pine (Pinus oocarpa), and thinleaf pine can be found (International Timber Trade
smooth-bark Mexican pine (Pinus pseudostro bus), Organization 2006). Above 2,000 m (about 6,600 ft),
thinleaf pine (Pinus maximinoi), and Spanish cedar Hartweg’s pine or pino de Me´xico (Pinus hartwe gii),
(Cedrela odorata). Coniferous forests can also be found smooth-bark Mexican pine (or pinabete), Mexican white
throughout Guatemala’s highlands. Pines and teaks, along pine or pino blanco (Pinus ayacahuite), and various
with Gmelina arborea (a white teak or beechwood), species of fir are commonly found in mixed stands (Inter
comprise most of the forest plantations in Guatemala. The national Timber Trade Organization 2006).
Pacific plain of Guatemala was once covered by tropical With the exception of the influence of Mayan culture
moist forests but now has been developed into banana, near the border with Guatemala, Honduran history is
rubber tree, and sugar plantations and cattle ranches similar to that of other countries in Central America.
(International Tropical Timber Organization 2006).
The Forest Law of 1996 requires forest management
plans to be developed by long-term forest resources
users. A 1999 forest policy promoted the concept of
productive management of natural forests in order to both
conserve biodiversity and improve living condi tions of
forest-dependent communities. A formal community
forestry program (Proyecto Fortalecimiento Forestal
Municipal y Comunal) was begun in 2001 to provide
employment to local municipalities and to implement
reforestation measures with the assistance of the National
Institute of Forests (International Trop ical Timber
Organization 2006). Some community managed forest
concessions have been awarded to local villages, and
assistance has been provided by NGOs and the United
States Agency for International Development to improve
the technical capabilities of community forestry managers.
However, as with other areas of the world, local
organizational commitment is essential to increase
participation in these programs and is FIGURE 2.16 Deciduous forest in the mountains of Sierra de Agalta,
country (Table 2.1). Currently, the main forest types in Honduras.
Commons.
Photo courtesy of Dennis Garcia, through Wikimedia

Honduras was part of the Spanish Empire until 1821, and independent in 1838. Honduras was historically a source
then was considered a province of the Federal Republic of of precious hardwoods (mahogany and Spanish cedar)
Central America for almost two decades until it became that were exported for furniture production purposes to the
United States and Europe in the early 1900s (Pool et al. economic, and social benefits of forestry in Honduras. The
2002). Land tenure is a persistent concern in Honduras, hope is that these programs will modernize the agencies
owing to arson, cattle grazing, and squatting obscure and policies that oversee forestry activities and bolster the
property rights claims. One estimate of the distribution of role of the National Forestry Administration. The United
land has about 36% in government control, about 28% in States Agency for International Development’s Forestry
ejidal control (communal land administered by municipal Development Project has assisted the Honduran forestry
govern ments), and about 36% in private ownership sector by providing training and thereby increasing
(Unidad de Reconstruccioń Nacional 1999). technical skills and helping the country to improve
Unfortunately, forestland was lost at a rate of over 3% per harvesting practices (Pool et al. 2002). Collaborations
year in the late twentieth century due to the agricultural such as these are complemented by activities funded
use of land suitable for forests, land clearance for cattle through NGOs and entities such as Scandinavian
ranch ing purposes, and mismanagement that focused governments.
more attention on logging than on SFM (Merrill 1995). The
rate of forest loss for the last 5 years has been about 2%
per year (Table 2.1). The establishment of banana 2.2.4 Nicaragua
plantations was once a major contributor to forest loss.
Nicaragua contains about 12 million ha of land (about
Some agroforestry systems have been developed, but
30 million ac) (Table 2.1) and is characterized by a warm
they rely on exotic species of legumes (e.g., mata ratoń),
tropical climate dominated by moist easterly trade winds.
beech (e.g., Gmelina arborea), eucalypts, and teaks (e.g.,
The topography of the country leads to three distinct
Tectona grandis) (International Timber Trade Organization
regions: a warm Pacific coastal region (Figure 2.17), a
2006).
The Corporacioń Hondurenã de Desarrollo Forestal humid interior mountain region, and a Caribbean lowland
(National Corporation for Forestry Development) was area that has a warm, wet climate. Most of the forests in
established in 1974 with the intent of increasing the Nicaragua are considered tropical rainforests, although
management of the forest sector and preventing exploi several other forest zones have been classified
tation by nondomestic companies (Merrill 1995). However, (deciduous hardwood, evergreen hard wood [largely
inefficient management practices and debt created by inaccessible], lowland pine, and moun tain pine).
military dominated governments has limited the role of the Compared to other Central American countries, a
National Corporation for Forestry Devel opment, which relatively small portion of the land is controlled by the
was decentralized in the late 1980s but remains vital to government (about 11%), while the remainder is mainly
wildfire response and protection (Merrill 1995). In 2007, privately owned. About 96% of
the new Forest Law was enacted, which established the
National Institute of Forest Conservation (Instituto
´
Nacional de Conservacioń y Desar rollo Forestal, A reas
Protegidas y Vida Silvestre) that replaced the National
Corporation for Forestry Develop ment for developing
forest management standards (Brown et al. 2008).
Honduran agencies have supported the develop ment
of social agroforestry cooperatives in some communities
with the intent that these communities would actively
protect forests from problems associ ated with illegal
logging, overgrazing, shifting agricul ture, and wildfires.
Most cooperatives operate within forests owned by the
government or within ejidal forests (Jones 2003). The
Honduran government took steps to promote reforestation
in the early 1990s by making large areas of government-
owned land
accessible to private investors (Merrill 1995). This
privatization of forests may help intensify the use of forest FIGURE 2.17 Cloud forests on the island of Ometepe, in Lake
resources, yet restrictions on exports are affecting growth Nicaragua, Nicaragua. Photo courtesy of Adrian Sampson, through
in some industries. Since 2000, sustainable development Wikimedia Commons.
programs have been funded to increase the ecological,
the roundwood production from Nicaraguan forests is for is similar to other Central American countries. Internal
domestic fuelwood uses (Merrill 1994). In one study of the struggles have also shaped the current manage ment
Masaya region of Nicaragua, virtually all of the fuelwood situation. Spanish conquistadors founded cities on the
was derived from natural forests rather than forest western side of Nicaragua in the sixteenth century and
plantations (McCrary et al. 2005). Transportation issues in used forest resources for shipbuilding purposes. In the
the Caribbean lowlands are prominent and road systems seventeenth century, the British occupied the eastern
are relatively undeveloped, preventing intensive use of the Miskito coast and utilized the big-leaf mahog any
hardwood tree species found there. Large areas of pine (Swietenia macrophylla) and Spanish cedar forest
stands in the northeastern part of the country support a resources found throughout the region. From the seven
small manufacturing industry (Merrill 1994). teenth century until about 1950, large areas of forests in
Nicaragua’s history with regard to natural resource use Nicaragua were converted to coffee plantations; from
about 1950 to 1980, considerable areas of the western Panama is a country comprising about 7.4 million ha of
part of the country were converted to cotton plantations; land (18.4 million ac), of which about 44% is forested
and from 1970 to 1980 cattle production and small-scale (Table 2.1). Panama was once inhabited by indigenous
agriculture influenced land conversion on the eastern populations of the Cuevas and Cocle´ tribes until Spain
(Caribbean) side of the country. Lately, tourism has been colonized the isthmus in the sixteenth century, control ling
the fastest growing sector in the Nicaraguan economy this country and others until 1821. Panama then became a
(Weaver et al. 2003). department of Colombia for the next eight decades until it
Before 1979, concessions provided by the Nicara guan declared independence. In a treaty with the United States
government for logging on national lands led to forestry in 1903, Panama granted a zone of land about 16 km (10
practices that degraded the resource. With the Sandinista mi) wide (thence called the Canal Zone) where the
takeover, all concessions were revoked and the Panama Canal would be developed. This zone reverted to
concession system was abolished. The Nicara guan Panamanian control in 1999. The current rate of forest
government then took control of the forestry sector, and loss in the country is about 0.4% per year (Table 2.1), and
the Corporacioń Forestal del Pueblo was developed to deforestation was once said to be most pronounced along
administer timber harvests on public lands. However, the Panama Canal, which may pose long-term water level
income from timber harvests on public land declined issues (Meditz and Hanratty 1989) due to sedimentation
precipitously over the next decade or so. In 1990, after resulting from rainwater runoff. The Panamanian
winning the national elec tion, the Chamorro government government has implemented a program promoting
began to promote an economic role in the forestry sector reforestation prac tices, but the current pace of forest
and created a forestry commission to oversee new depletion exceeds that of replanting. Recent forest losses
investments. Unfortunately, implementation of the process have occurred due to cattle ranching, poor logging
has been complicated by the unclear land tenure rights, practices, shifting cultivation (rozas), and urbanization
particularly in the Atlantic region of Nicaragua (Castilleja (International Tropical Timber Organization 2006).
1993, Weaver et al. 2003). Forests of Panama are diverse (Figure 2.18), and the
Deforestation in Nicaragua was slowed by internal most prevalent forest types in Panama are the semide
conflicts during the 1980s but is said to have resumed ciduous tropical moist forests, lowland submontane
again after these conflicts ended (Weaver et al. 2003). forests, and montane evergreen forests. The tropical moist
Current estimates suggest that the forested area in forests contain cuipo (Cavanillesia platanifolia) and wild
Nicaragua is declining by about 2% per year (Table 2.1). cashew or espave´ (Anacardium excelsum), along with
Several institutions are involved in the control and regu some species of palm. Oak forests can be found in the
lation of environmental activities within the country. Talamanca Mountains, and cativo (Prioria copaifera)
From a forest management perspective, the Nicaraguan forests can be found along rivers on inundated areas.
Forest Authority (Instituto Nacional Forestal) oversees and Caribbean pine and teak comprise over 80% of the forest
approves forest management plans. The Ministerio plantations in Panama. Most of the logging practices
Agropecuario y Forestal addresses laws, policies, and involve some sort of selection system, and about 95% of
regu lations for forest management within Nicaragua and the roundwood produced is used for fuelwood or charcoal.
was instrumental in the development of the National Planting trials of native tree species have provided some
Forest Law (Law No. 462) in 2003 (Brown et al. 2008). insight into their potential for establish ing tree cover,
stabilizing soils, and restoring forests (Wishnie et al.
2007).
Panama passed a Reforestation Incentive Law in 1992
2.2.5 Panama to promote and increase reforestation efforts through tax
incentives and other means. The Forest Law of 1994
FIGURE 2.18 Deciduous forest canopy in Barro Colorado, Panama.
Photo courtesy of Christian Ziegler, through Wikimedia Commons.
provides a framework for SFM and classifies land into

protection and production classes. The General Environ
mental Law of 1998 also promotes the sustainable use of National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Dave Pape, and Reto
natural resources. Decree Law No. 2 (2003) provides Sto¨ckli, through Wikipedia.
forest management guidelines for Panamanian forests
and, while most of the land is owned by the government,
the 1972 constitution recognizes collective landholding southeast, the rainforests of Amazonia in the north central
units known as comarcas (indigenous reserves) (Interna portion of the continent, and the coastal forests of
tional Tropical Timber Organization 2006). Ecuador, Venezuela, and Guyana. The largest areas of
forests designated for the conservation of biological
diversity are found on this continent (Food and Agri culture
2.3 SOUTH AMERICA Organization of the United Nations 2010). Species
richness is relatively high in South America, with over
As with North America, South America (Figure 2.19) 40,000 plant species, hundreds of mammalian, amphibian,
has been heavily influenced by indigenous peoples that and bird species, and millions of insect species living on
crossed Beringia from Asia thousands of years ago. South the continent (Da Silva et al. 2005). Another area of great
America has also been heavily influenced by European species richness is the Gala´pagos Islands, which are part
settlers, primarily arriving from Spain and Portugal. Unlike of Ecuador, located off the west coast of South America.
North America, the last ice age had little effect on this Charles Darwin studied the large number of endemic
continent. The topography of South America ranges from species found here, which inspired his development of the
the relatively steep Andes moun tain range in the west, theory of evolution. One of the famous and unique species
which stretches from Colombia in the north to the southern found in the Gala´pagos Islands is the marine iguana
tip of Chile and Argentina, to the relatively flat coastal (Amblyrhynchus cristatus), which lives and forages in the
areas of Brazil and other countries bordering the Atlantic ocean.
Ocean. The ecoregions of the continent vary from South America includes 12 independent countries
montane and temperate rainforests in the southwest, to (Figure 2.20), as well as French Guiana (a department of
grass savannas in the France) and the Falkland Islands, South Georgia, and the
South Sandwich Islands (all of which are associated
FIGURE 2.19 A satellite image of South America. Photo courtesy of the
2.3 SOUTH AMERICA 41
with the United Kingdom). The land area covers approx
imately 1.8 billion ha (a little over 4.3 billion ac) and hosts
a population of over 385 million people (Table 2.3). South
America as a whole is about 49% forested, and the annual
rate of change in forested areas is currently about 0.4%
per year, a rate which is slower than what was observed in
the 1990s. However, the net loss of forest area in South
America is estimated to be about 4 million ha per year (10
million ac per year) since 2000 (Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations 2010). As with North
America, the colonization of European settlements in
South America led to changes in the land uses that were
employed by indigenous people. As European colo nies
grew, pressure was applied to forested areas to facil itate
agricultural operations, provide sustenance, and produce
timber for domestic and export uses. On a more current
note, although deforestation in the Amazon rainforest is a
continuing problem, afforestation of suitable forest sites in
Chile, Brazil, and other coun tries has greatly expanded
and challenges the timber production potential of other
countries due to faster tree growth and favorable
environmental conditions. Our discussion of South
American countries briefly
FIGURE 2.20 Countries in South America. Modified image from

PresentationMaps.com.
focuses on seven of the largest and heavily forested
countries: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Peru,
and Venezuela.
TABLE 2.3 Demographic and
Physiogra
phic Data
for South
American
Countries
Forest Area
Country Population 2008 (1,000 ha) Forest Annual Change (%) GDP (PPP) 2008a
Human (million) Total Land Area Cover (%) 2005e2010 Per Capita (1,000 US$)
Total Land Area (1,000 ac)
Argentina 40 273,669 676,236 11 0.80 14.3 Bolivia 10 108,438 267,950 53 0.53 4.3 Brazil 192 832,512 2,057,137 62 0.42 10.3 Chile 17 74,880
185,028 22 0.23 14.4 Colombia 45 110,950 274,157 55 0.17 8.8 Ecuador 13 27,684 68,407 36 1.89 8.0 Falkland Islands < 1 1,217 3,007 0 e
b
35.4 French Guiana < 1 8,220 20,312 98 0.04 e Guyana 1 19,685 48,642 77 e 3.1 Paraguay 6 39,730 98,173 44 0.99 4.7 Peru 29 128,000
316,288 53 0.22 8.5 Suriname 1 15,600 38,548 95 0.02 7.4 Uruguay 3 17,502 43,247 10 2.79 12.7 Venezuela 28 88,205 217,955 52 0.61 12.8
South America (total) 385 1,746,292 4,315,088 49 0.41 10.4
a
b
No data available.
2.3.1 Argentina Viceroyalty of Peru, a Spanish colony. Argentina declared

independence from Spain in 1816 but, through various
Argentina is the second largest country in South conflicts (internally, and with Brazil and Chile), did not
America, about 274 million ha in size (about 676 million enact a constitution until the mid-1850s. Since gaining
ac), yet is only about 11% forested (Table 2.3). It is independence, Argentina has had periods of unstable
bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east and the Andes leadership and economic prob lems, and has employed a
mountain range to the west and is composed of 23 states. variety of approaches for governance that range from
The Inca Empire once ruled part of northern Argentina, neoliberal to protectionist (Gulezian 2009).
and among the various indigenous people who inhabited There are four major biophysical regions in Argentina.
the remainder of the country were the Guaranı´, Mapuche, The first, the Pampas, is an area of grasslands and plains
and Sanavirones. European explorers arrived to settle in the center of the country, which forms the main
Argentina in the early sixteenth century, and the current agricultural area of the country. Over time, a good portion
composition of the country was once part of the of the forested area that once stood in the central part of
the country has been converted to agricultural use. Soy (Table 2.3). About 70% of the roundwood produced from
has become one of the major exports, and Argentina has Argentine forests is consumed within the country, and the
an extensive livestock industry that is centered in the remaining 30% is exported as various wood products.
Pampas. The second major biophysical region, Patagonia, Brazil, Chile, South Africa, Spain, and the United States
is a colder and drier place that is located in the southern are the most important export markets for wood. Forest
part of the country and shared with Chile. Patagonia policies in Argentina prohibit the development of natural
contains Tierra del Fuego, and the dominant vegetation in forests yet promote the development of forestry sectors
this area is characterized as shrubs and grasses. The third (Rubio 2006). The 2007 Forest Law (Ley de Bosques)
major biophysical region is an area of subtropical dry reinforced the coun try’s desire to manage its natural
forests in the northern part of the country, where most of forests in a sustainable manner (Gulezian 2009).
the commercial
2.3.2 Bolivia
Prior to settlement of the country by people of Euro
pean descent, Bolivia was part of the Inca Empire. Bolivia
was colonized by Spain in the sixteenth century, and silver
eventually became the main commodity derived from
Bolivian mines. The country declared independence in
1809 but did not formally became an independent republic
until 1825. At various times in its history Bolivia had direct
access to the Pacific Ocean but, as a result of military
struggles with Peru and Chile, it is now a land-locked
country (Figure 2.20). Bolivia has three biogeographic
zones: a high altitude, treeless area in the Andes
Mountains; forested valleys on both sides of the Andes
Mountains that may also be associated with grass
FIGURE 2.21 Tucuman region of northwestern Argentina. Photo savannas; and tropical forest lowlands to the east that
courtesy of Susana Mutti, through Wikimedia Commons. form part of the Amazon basin. With a total land area of a
forestry activity is located. Deciduous and semidecidu ous little more than 108 million ha (about 268 million ac),
forests are found throughout this region; however, carob around 53% of Bolivia is currently consid ered forested
(Prosopis spp.) and palm grow naturally here, and pine (Table 2.3).
and eucalypt plantations are also prevalent in this region. Most of the forested area in Bolivia is located in the
The fourth major biophysical region contains areas eastern tropical forest lowlands (Figure 2.22). This area
adjacent to the Andes mountain range in the western part contains a wide variety of broadleaved evergreen and
of the country (Figure 2.21). Here, broad leaved evergreen semideciduous forests, and tree species that include big-
and semideciduous tree species are common in forested leaf mahogany, Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa), guanandi
areas. (Calophyllum brasiliense), rubber tree (Hevea
Nearly 80% of Argentine forests are privately owned brasiliensis), and sandbox tree (Hura crepitans). The
(White and Martin 2002). The current rate of forest change forested valleys along the Andes mountain chain
in Argentina is estimated to be about 0.8% per year ultimately transition into alpine tundra, yet can include tree
species such as curupay (Piptadenia
(about 2.057 billion ac), of which forests cover about 62%
(Table 2.3). Brazil was home to a number of indig enous
tribes prior to colonization by Portugal at the beginning of
the sixteenth century. During colonization, the important
exports from Brazil were gold and sugar. The country
became independent in 1822, although Portuguese
continues to be the official language. Brazil is now
composed of 26 states and one federal district, and across
these are five broad forest types which include Amazon
rainforest, Atlantic rainforest, central cerrado grass
savanna, arid caatinga, and the Pantanal (International
Timber Trade Organization 2006). Defor estation has been
an important issue across Brazil; however, since the late
2000s the rate of forest loss due to deforestation has been
significantly reduced to about 0.4% per year, as
compared to the activity of the 1990s (Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2010). The
Amazon region has received
macrocarpa), laurels (Lauraceae spp.), mahogany (Melia
FIGURE 2.22 Forests and forested wetlands around a small lake in ceae spp.), urundel (Astronium urundeuva), walnut
eastern Bolivia. Photo courtesy of Pete Bettinger.
(Juglans australis), and Andean alder or aliso (Alnus acu
minata). In areas where plantations can suitably be twentieth century, much concern has been raised over the
established, blue gum (Eucalyptus globulus) and patula clearing of Amazon rainforests for agricultural and
pine (Pinus patula) are the two tree species that comprise livestock uses (Morton et al. 2006). The broadleaved
the majority of forest plantations. Brazil nut, cacao, and evergreen and semideciduous forests of the tropical
palm hearts are the main NTFPs derived from Bolivian rainforests and the central plains of southern and eastern
forests (International Tropical Timber Organization 2006). Brazil have been the most affected by deforestation.
Recent estimates of forest loss are in the order of 0.5% In Brazil, there is a large and active forest manage
per year (Table 2.3) owing to planned and unplanned ment program that involves harvesting native and plan
human settlement activities and agricultural activities. tation forests. Some common native species harvested in
Large soybean plantations are prevalent in some areas, Brazil include cambara or cedrinho (Erisma uncinatum),
and smaller-scale farmers also cause forest loss through cow tree or amapa (Brosimum utile), faveira (Parkia spp.),
slash-and-burn agricultural practices (International guanandi, and jatoba´ (or guapinol; Hymenaea cour baril)
Tropical Timber Organization 2006). About 53% of the (International Timber Trade Organization 2006). About
forestland in Bolivia is controlled by the government, about one-third of the total amount of roundwood produced
31% is also publicly owned but has specific user rights, comes from plantation forests. Forest planta tions,
such as those allocated to indigenous people, and about composed of eucalypts (Figure 2.23), pines, or other
16% is privately owned. The 1996 Forest Law introduced species (e.g. yopo [Anadenanthera peregrina]; Figure
the idea of sustainable use and develop ment of the forest 2.24), are mainly located in southern Brazil (Fearnside
resources and helped clarify ancestral rights, although 1999), where the biomes are classed as grass savannas
land tenure issues continue to be impor tant obstacles to or subtropical rainforests. In 2006, it was esti mated that
forest management in Bolivia (White and Martin 2002). there were 2 million ha (4.8 million ac) of pine and 3.3
million ha (8.1 million ac) of eucalypt plan tations in Brazil
(International Timber Trade Organiza tion 2006).
A Forestry Code developed in 1965 is still in effect in
2.3.3 Brazil Brazil, although recent controversial reforms to the code
Brazil is the largest and most populous country in South have been proposed. Since independence was declared,
America. It has a landmass of over 832 million ha most Brazilian forests have historically been controlled by
much attention owing to the rich diversity of plant and the government, and property rights for some forested
animal species found in these tropical rainforests. It is areas in Brazil have been characterized as ambiguous
speculated that many plant and animal species that inhabit (Banerjee and Alavalapati 2010). In 2009, a large portion
these lands have still not been identified. Since the late of the Amazon basin was made available
Mapuche cultures shaped the Chilean landscape mainly

through agricultural activities. In the early sixteenth
century, the Spanish, after discovering what are now
called the Straits of Magellan, eventually colonized the
country after numerous confrontations with the indige
nous population and with other countries seeking the
gold resources that were thought to reside there. Inde
pendence came in 1818 after nearly a decade of attempts
to become autonomous from Spain. The extent of Chile
has varied since colonization, and today Chile has a total
land area of about 75 million ha (about 185 million ac).
Moist temperate and subtropical rainforests composed
of broadleaved or semideciduous tree species dominate
the forested areas, although the country is currently
only about 22% forested (Table 2.3). Of the original
forest area that existed before European settlers ar
rived, approximately 45% remains (Global Forest Watch
2002). Chile, like other countries in South America,
has experienced a period of extensive land conversion
for agricultural and livestock production purposes
(Donoso and Otero 2005). However, the rate of change
in forested area since the late 2000s is about þ0.2% per
FIGURE 2.23 Eucalypt (Eucalyptus spp.) plantation in Brazil. Photo 2.3.4 Chile
courtesy of Denis Rizzoli, through Wikimedia Commons.
Located on the southwestern Pacific coast of South
America (Figure 2.20), Chile is approximately 43,000 km
for privatization to the settlers located there, who some (27,000 mi) long, and the Andes mountain range runs the
suggest have been illegally using the land. A number of length of the country along its eastern border with
NGOs are active in Brazil and apply political pressure for Argentina. Prior to Spanish colonization, Inca and
action on natural resource conservation issues (Inter
national Timber Trade Organization 2006).
(Araucaria araucana), which has edible seeds. The
capital, Santiago, is located in the middle third of the
country, which generally has a temperate climate. This is
also where the majority of the Chilean population resides.
The southern third of the country, which includes
Patagonia, is where the moist temperate and subtropical
rainforests can be found among numerous canals, fjords,
islands, and peninsulas that stretch south to the Straits of
Magellan. The forests in the southern part of the country
(Figure 2.25) are comprised of various coniferous species,
laurels, magnolias, and southern beeches (Nothofagus
spp.). Numerous wildlife species inhabit this area,
including the Andean wolf (Dasycyon hagenbecki);
FIGURE 2.24 Planted yopo (Anadenanthera peregrina) forest in Brazil. Andean fox (Lycalopex culpaeus); the South American
Photo courtesy of Zachary A. Parisa. gray fox or gray zorro Lycalopex griseus); the guanaco, a
year (Table 2.3). camelid (Lama guanicoe); pudu´, a species of deer
The northern portion of the country contains the Puna (Mapudungun pudu´); pumas; and various rodents,
grassland ecoregion, which is extremely arid and boasts rabbits, birds, and lizards.
the driest place on Earth. There is little vege tation in The predominant system of land tenure in Chile is
some of this region except for tola (Proustia pyrifolia) and private ownership (about 75%), and the remaining 25% is
grasses covering the mountain slopes. In the central publicly owned. Although laws allow communal ownership
region of the country, one can find assorted species of of land, it represents a minor system. Conflict with
cactus as well as the monkey puzzle tree or Chilean pine indigenous communities with regard to land ownership
continues today. The Chilean forest sector
Venezuela were once politically tied to Colombia, as was
current-day Panama. Although Colombia is smaller today
than it was immediately after the end of Spanish control, it
is still the fourth largest country in South America and
encompasses about 111 million ha of land (about 274
million ac), of which 55% is forested (Table 2.3). Colombia
has two distinct biogeographic zones: the Andean
mountain zone, which leads to alpine tundra; and the
tropical plains that contain tropical rain forests and grass
savannas. One of the three tropical plains contains a
portion of the Amazon basin and the Orinoco basin in the
southern portion of the country. Another tropical plain is
located in the northern part of the country and faces the
Caribbean Sea (Figure 2.26).
FIGURE 2.25 Forest along a river near Parque Nacional Vicente Pe´rez for this segment of the population (Food and Agriculture
Rosales, Chile. Photo courtesy of Donald L. Grebner. Organization of the United Nations 2003b).
plays an important role in the economy, as a recent esti 2.3.5 Colombia

mate suggested that 13% of the country’s exports arose
from the forestry sector (Food and Agriculture The area represented by present-day Colombia (Figure
Organization of the United Nations 2003b). The largest 2.20) was once inhabited by a number of indige nous
percentage of products is exported to Germany, Japan, groups, including the Muisca and Tairona tribes. Spanish
and the United States. Chile has been active in devel colonization began around the sixteenth century and
oping eucalypt and radiata pine (Pinus radiata) planta ended in the early nineteenth century. Colombia has
tions in the central region of the country for quite some endured periods of unrest and instability over the last 200
time (Scott 1954). In addition to traditional forest products, years, and has been governed under several names,
Chile has also been active in exporting non wood natural including the Viceroyalty of New Granada, the Republic of
resources such as boldo leaves (Peumus boldus), soap Colombia, the Granadine Confederation, and the United
bark tree (Quillaja saponaria), sweetbriar rose (Rosa States of Colombia. Portions of Ecuador and
eglanteria), and wild mushrooms (Global Forest Watch The third tropical plain is located in the western part of the
2002). Forest policy in Chile is guided by the country and faces the Pacific Ocean (International Tropical
Comprehensive Environmental Law of 1994 and a recently Timber Organization 2006).
enacted (2008) Native Forest Law. The latter prohibits the Until recently, the description and registration of land
clearing of native forests for any reason, including the tenure and grants of land in Colombia, as in other coun
establishment of forest plantations. Some support for tries of this region, was vague and this insecurity did not
forest development has been provided by the German encourage people to take care of the land (van Bottenburg
government in an effort to encourage the maintenance of 1952). However, nearly two-thirds of the forestland in
farm families who use SFM to derive economic and Colombia is privately owned and in the last 5 years the
environmental benefits and thus improve living conditions deforestation rate in Colombia has been relatively low
( 0.2% per year). Deforestation is still relatively high in the
foothills of the Andes Mountains, where significant
colonization has recently occurred and where most of the
coca (from which the stimulant cocaine is derived) is
produced. Modern Colombian forest laws date back to the
1950s. The latest forest policy (Polı´tica de Bosques)
stresses sustainable forestry practices and improvements
in the quality of life for the Colombian people. Indige nous
groups and Afro-Colombian communities can now register
their rights to territories that they have historically
occupied (White and Martin 2002). Some of the
broadleaved and semideciduous forests common to
FIGURE 2.26 Forests above the town of Taganga near Santa Marta,
Magdalena, Colombia. Photo courtesy of Juancplanb, through Wikimedia
Commons.
this country are managed under concessions or coopera
tives between the government and the forest industry. A
Green Plan (Plan Verde) was developed in 1998 to
promote reforestation efforts in degraded areas. The
reforestation program is now well developed, and forest
plantations include Caribbean pine, Mexican yellow pine,
patula pine, eucalypts, mangium (Acacia mangium), and
white teak or beechwood. Most of the roundwood
harvested within the country is consumed domestically
(International Tropical Timber Organization 2006), but
some quantities of pulp, paper, and lumber are now
exported (Mendell et al. 2006). Important NTFPs include
palm fruits, rubber, and a neotropical species of bamboo
(Guadua angustifolia) that is used as a building material.
Colombia is one of the most biologically diverse areas in Peru’s forests, and large areas of forests along the foothills
the world and the potential for ecotourism is very good, but of the Andes have been converted to coca plantations.
security problems make the development of these The tropical forests of the Amazon basin include cloud
opportunities problematic (International Tropical Timber forests and other areas considered to be highly biologically
Organization 2006). diverse. From a commercial perspec tive, some of the
more important tree species are ishpingo (Amburana
cearensis), mahogany, marupa (Simarouba amara),
pumaquiro (Aspidosperma macrocarpon), Spanish cedar
2.3.6 Peru or cedro rojo, and Virola spp.
The Republic of Peru is about 128 million ha in size FIGURE 2.27 Countryside surrounding Pampas, in the Huanca velica
region of Peru. Photo courtesy of Digary, through Wikimedia Commons.
(about 316 million ac) and about 53% forested. Over the
past 5 years, the rate of forestland loss has been about
0.2% per year (Table 2.3). The land that now represents About one-third of the country’s forests are privately
Peru was once home to the Inca Empire and the Norte owned and, of the remainder, about 1% is assigned as
communal forests for indigenous people (White and Martin
Chico civilization. As with other South American coun tries,
2002). Peru passed a forestry law in 1975, but the Forestry
in the sixteenth century Peru became part of the Spanish
Empire and obtained independence in the early 1800s. and Wildlife Law (Law No 27,308) passed in 2000 and the
The Amazon region of Peru harbors some of the last General Law of the Environment (Law N o 28,611) passed
uncontacted people in the world, who have chosen to in 2005 now provide (along with other laws) the primary
remain isolated and are referred to by anthropologists as legal bases for environmental compli ance and
indigenous people of voluntary isolation (Portilla and Egu management requirements for Peruvian forests (Portilla
ren 2007). The forests of Peru are home to about 2,500 and Eguren 2007). Although adherence varies for a
native tree species (Portilla and Eguren 2007). The ecore number of reasons (Smith et al. 2006), under these laws,
gions include the dry steppe of the coastal plain (along the timber extraction rights on public lands are assigned
Pacific coast), the temperate Andes highlands (Figure through concessions to logging operators. Currently,
2.27), and the extensive tropical forests in the Amazon revisions to the forest laws are being debated.
basin. In the arid plains along the Pacific coast, cattle
ranches and soybean farms have been developed. Along
the coastal plain are also found hualtaco (Lonop terygium 2.3.7 Venezuela
huasango), huarango or mesquite (Prosopis pal lida), and
mangroves. However, gold mining and petroleum The history of Venezuela, from habitation by indige
exploration have affected the extent and composition of nous people to Spanish colonization, is similar to that of
Colombia. Venezuela has had periods of political and America (Kammesheidt et al. 2001). Forestland area has
economic instability in the twentieth century, some of continued to decrease since the late 2000s at a rate of
which is tied to the development of its petro leum industry about 0.6% per year (Table 2.3). Over 90% of the forest
(Rodrı´guez 2000). Venezuela contains about 88 million ha area in Venezuela is owned by the government and
of land (about 218 million ac) and is now about 52% concessions are provided to forestry companies for the
forested (Table 2.3). Logging efforts beginning around rights to harvest trees on public land. As with other South
1950 were aimed at transitioning land use from forests to American countries, a number of permanent forest estates
agricultural or cattle production. In the 1980s, the annual have been established to protect native forests.
rate of deforestation was among the highest in Latin
2.4 EUROPE 47
The ecoregions of Venezuela are numerous and 2.4 EUROPE
complex. They range from mountain highlands to central
plains (Llanos) and coastal areas that include deltas and The history of modern forests in Europe, as in North
islands located along or within the Carib bean Sea and America, is highly dependent on the role that the last ice
Atlantic Ocean. In the western part of the country, in the age played across the European landscape (Figure 2.29).
area of Lake Maracaibo, the ecosys tems range from arid As the ice sheets advanced south, they scoured the
to tropical over a relatively short distance and can be landscape and destroyed all of the terres trial vegetation.
composed of physiographic groups that some might better The ice sheet covered all of Scandina via, the northern
recognize using the terms high plains, low plains, mesas, half of central Europe, northern Russia, and the British
or Piedmont (Henri 2001). In the Piedmont areas, many Isles. As the ice sheet slowly retreated, vegetation
forests are composed of semideciduous tree species. recolonized the newly exposed landscape. The pioneering
South of the Orinoco River in the eastern portion of the tree species were coniferous because of their greater
country (Figure 2.28) are large expanses of deciduous ability to retain water. Later, broadleaved species spread
forests and plains that contain vegetation that may still be and recolonized the European landscape. Mesolithic
considered precolo nial in character (Rodrı´guez 2000). peoples soon returned to these areas, but they had little
Nearly all of the roundwood produced in Venezuela is impact on the forests (Westoby 1989). Later, stone ax-
consumed in the country, and most (about 70%) is used wielding Neolithic peoples settled the land and cleared
for fuelwood purposes. Cedar, mahogany, and saqui-saqui large areas of forestlands for agricultural purposes. This
(Bombacopsis quinata) have historically been the main clearing was further accelerated by the arrival of the Celts
tree species harvested from native forests to produce and, later, the expansion of the Roman Empire.
lumber products. Cinnamon, cumin, ginger, nutmeg, palm The spread and contraction of forests after this period
nuts, resins, rubber, tonka beans, and other NTFPs are have varied greatly due to ecological conditions, popula
also important. In the dry tropical region of western tion growth, and plague epidemics, as well as social and
Venezuela, forest plantations contain ing Caribbean pine, political unrest. As human populations grew, people
eucalypts, and teak have been developed (Henri 2001). In cleared more land for agriculture but the lands reverted to
terms of natural resource policy, Venezuela passed a forests when whole communities perished as a result of
Forest Law in 1966 (Ley Forestal de Suelos y de Aguas) the black plague (Loude, no date). Numerous wars over
that integrated the uses of forests, water resources, and the past several thousand years contributed greatly to the
soil resources. A 1999 Organic Environmental Law placed degradation of forests, which were used as a source of
jurisdiction of forest management under the Ministry of the raw material for the development of weaponry and
Environment and Natural Resources (International Timber defenses. Some countries, such as the United Kingdom,
Trade Organization 2006). were able to withstand these dramatic changes to their
forested landscape because of their higher annual precip
itation levels. Unfortunately, some Mediterranean coun
tries were unable to withstand the dramatic changes in
forest conditions due to their more arid climate and expe
rienced high levels of soil erosion and subsequent losses
of forested landscapes.
European forests are situated in the temperate and
boreal biomes. The Iberian Peninsula hosts forests char
acterized as having Mediterranean vegetation. The Alps,
Pyrenees, and other mountainous areas host montane
forests. The higher latitudes of Scandinavian countries
host boreal forests as biomes transition from temperate
broadleaved and coniferous to taiga and then to tundra.
Some may argue that European forests are simpler, in
terms of the diversity of tree species, than other parts of
the world. The vegetation in Europe has been managed
fairly intensively for several centuries longer than the
vegetation in America. Nevertheless, their role in the world
forestry sector is critical. Since the 1990s, Europe has
experienced an expansion in forested area (Food and
FIGURE 2.28 Deciduous forests along the Orinoco River in Venezuela.
Photo courtesy of Pedro Gutie´rrez, through Wikimedia Commons. Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2010) and,
while rates of change vary, nearly
FIGUR
E 2.29 Satellite image of Europe. Photo courtesy of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
every country with a significant forest area has had a Austria’s most important agricultural and forestry
positive rate of change since the late 2000s (Table 2.4). objectives were directed toward self-sufficiency of
There are too many countries contained in this region to resources. Austria has since developed a wood products
explore in sufficient depth in this book. Therefore, we will industry to the point that it now exports more products
concentrate on a few (Austria, Belarus, Finland, Germany, than it consumes for development or fuelwood purposes.
Russia, Spain, and the United Kingdom) to provide an The Forest Act of 1975 (amended in 2002) provides
indication of the diversity of forest condi tions and settings guidance for forest management activities. The Forest Act
this region provides. also allows people access to all forests for recreational
purposes, with the exception of hunting, which requires a
permit for a specific hunting district. Austria joined the
European Union (EU) in 1995 and, as with other European
2.4.1 Austria nations, a number of EU regula tions also directly or
Austria is a land-locked, mountainous country in central indirectly affects the management of forests (e.g.,
Europe, bordered by the Czech Republic, Germany, afforestation and protection activities) (Voitleithner 2002).
Hungary, Italy, Liechtenstein, Slovakia, Slovenia, and About 80% of Austrian forests are privately owned, and
Switzerland (Figure 2.30). Of the 8.2 mil lion ha (over 20 the remainder are publicly owned and managed. Small-
million ac) of land area in Austria, 47% is forested (Table scale forestry (managing 200 ha or about 500 ac) and the
2.4). The history of Austria includes periods where the management goals of small forest holdings dominate
country was an integral part of the Roman Empire and the forestry practices (Kvarda 2004). The area of forests has
Holy Roman Empire, and periods where the country was expanded since World War II, due to natural regeneration
associated with Hungary, forming the Austro-Hungarian on abandoned agricultural land and afforestation efforts.
Empire. After World War I, Austria became an Although most of the flat, arable land in Austria is used for
independent republic. The country was annexed by agricultural purposes, since the late 2000s the forest area
Germany during World War II, and was then occupied by in Austria has increased by about 0.1% per year (Table
the Allies for a few years until its sovereignty was restored. 2.4).
Austria is currently a federal state with nine provinces and,
given its location in the Alps, forests (Figure 2.31) are
characterized as cool temperate and boreal (montane or 2.4.2 Belarus
alpine), with varia tions of these according to the elevation
of the land. The forests are composed of various species Belarus is a land-locked country bordered by Latvia,
of European beech (Fagus sylvatica), European larch Lithuania, Poland, Russia, and Ukraine (Figure 2.30) that
(Larix decidua), European silver fir (Abies alba), Norway was once inhabited by Baltic and Slavic tribes. Prior to the
spruce (Picea abies), alders, maples, oaks, and others. sixteenth century, portions of the country
Shortly after World War II, as with other countries,
2.4 EUROPE 49
TABLE 2.4 Demographic and Physiographic Data for European Countries a
Country Human Population Total Land Total Land Area Forest Annual Change GDP (PPP) 2008b
2008 (million) Area (1,000 ha) (1,000 ac) Cover (%) 2005e2010 (%) (1,000 US$)
Forest Area Per Capita
Austria 8 8,245 20,373 47 0.13 37.9 Belarus 10 20,748 51,268 42 0.46 12.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina 4 5,120 12,652 43 e 8.1 Bulgaria 8 10,864
26,845 36 1.47 11.8 Croatia 4 5,592 13,818 34 0.18 17.7 Czech Republic 10 7,726 19,091 34 0.08 24.6 Estonia 1 4,239 10,475 52 0.31 20.7
Finland 5 30,409 75,141 73 e 36.2 France 62 55,010 135,930 29 0.30 33.1 Germany 82 34,877 86,181 32 e 35.4 Greece 11 12,890 31,851 30
0.79 29.4 Hungary 10 8,961 22,143 23 0.46 19.8 Italy 60 29,411 72,675 31 0.88 31.3 Latvia 2 6,229 15,392 54 0.34 16.4 Lithuania 3 6,268
15,488 34 0.37 17.8 Norway 5 30,427 75,185 33 0.78 58.7 Poland 38 30,633 75,694 30 0.30 17.3 Portugal 11 9,068 22,407 38 0.11 23.3
Romania 21 22,998 56,828 29 0.56 13.4 Russian Federation c 141 1,638,139 4,047,841 49 0.01 15.9 Serbia 10 8,746 21,611 31 1.85 10.6
Slovakia 5 4,810 11,886 40 0.01 22.1 Slovenia 2 2,014 4,977 62 0.16 27.9 Spain 44 49,919 123,350 36 1.00 31.7 Sweden 9 41,033 101,393 69 e
37.0 Switzerland 8 4,000 9,884 31 0.38 42.4 Ukraine 46 57,938 143,165 17 0.27 7.3 United Kingdom 61 24,250 59,922 12 0.25 35.5 Other
countries (22) 51 44,162 109,124 12 0.42 32.8 Europe (total) 732 2,214,726 5,472,588 45 0.08 25.6
a
That have over 3,000,000 ac (about 1,214,100 ha) of forest.
b
c
A large portion of the Russian Federation is located in Asia as well.
were governed by Poland and Lithuania. After World War natural resources were among those most ravaged from
I, Poland and Russia governed parts of modern-day activities related to the war, and several decades were
Belarus. In 1939, the country became a republic within the required to rebuild the infrastructure. After the collapse of
Soviet Union, and in 1941 Belarus was embroiled in World the Soviet Union (1991), it became an inde pendent
War II. The country and its country, and of the nearly 21 million ha (a little
FIGURE 2.30 Countries in Europe. Modified image from PresentationMaps.com.
over 51 million ac) that now comprise Belarus, temperate

deciduous and coniferous forests cover about 42%. About
two-thirds of the forests of Belarus are composed of
coniferous tree species (e.g., Norway spruce and Scots
pine [Pinus sylvestris]) and the area of forests has been
increasing at a rate of about 0.5% per year since the late
2000s (Table 2.4).
The forests of Belarus are controlled by the govern
ment, and the Ministry of Forestry is the agency assigned
FIGURE 2.31 Mountain forests of the eastern Alps south of Vienna in

Lower Austria. Photo courtesy of Walter Sekot. (Food and Agriculture Organiza tion of the United Nations
responsibility for the related activities on most of these 2003a). A number of national plans have been developed,
lands. Roundwood is produced mainly from final harvests such as the National Strategy for Sustainable
(54%) and thinnings (35%) (Gerasimov and Kar jalainen Socioeconomic Development of Republic of Belarus, the
2010). For the most part, thinnings and selection harvests Forest Code of 2000, and the National Forest Programme
are allowed in forests located along rivers and lakes, and (Gerasimov and Karjalainen 2010). These were designed
around cities. Extraction of timber from forested areas to promote a sustainable forest industry and to recognize
near the Chernobyl nuclear accident (Figure 2.32) that important environmental and ecological aspects of natural
occurred in 1986 is problematic due to high levels of resource management.
radiation (Krott et al. 2000). These areas represent about
one-quarter of the country’s forests. Of the roundwood
harvested in Belarus, about 43% is used for fuelwood and 2.4.3 Finland
about 25% is exported. Over 80% of the harvested wood
comes from coniferous tree species. NTFPs of importance Finland is located in the northeastern corner of Europe
include berries, birch sap, mush rooms, and turpentine between Sweden and Russia, on a strip of land
2.4 EUROPE 51
FIGURE 2.33 Forests typical of southeastern Finland. Photo cour tesy of

Thomas O’Shea.
Over 75% of the forestland in Finland is privately
owned, mainly by families or family groups. Forest
practices are generally based on even-aged management
principles that utilize a number of intermediate thin nings
(Parviainen et al. 2010). Given their location, Fin land’s
forests have played an important role in supplying forest
products to European markets. This
FIGURE 2.32 Radioactivity warning sign on a hill at the eastern end of has allowed the country to develop a forest sector that
Red Forest, Belarus, which received the highest levels of radiation produces valued-added wood products such as pulp and
following the Chernobyl nuclear power plant accident. Photo courtesy of
Timm Suess, through Wikimedia Commons.
paper, furniture, wood-based panels, and other products
for export. Finland and Sweden are the two largest
it shares with Norway along the northern border (Figure producers of coniferous roundwood in the EU. Finland has
2.30). Although ethnically a different language group, also become a leading developer of forest harvesting
Finland historically was either a member of the Swedish machines, industrial paper-making machines, and
kingdom or the Russian Empire until 1918, when it won innovative sawmilling technologies. Recreational use of
independence. Human settlement spread widely into forests in Finland is free under the Everyman’s Right (right
Finland in the sixteenth century with the advance of slash- of public access), which allows use of land owned by
and-burn cultivation practices (Parviainen et al. 2010). others for bicycling, hiking, horse back riding, skiing
However, Finland is currently a sparsely populated nation (provided these activities do not cause damage),
with over 30 million ha of land (over 75 million ac), of temporary camping, and extraction of some NTFPs such
which 73% is forested and most is considered to be taiga as berries and mushrooms (Parviainen et al. 2010). The
or boreal forests. A recent estimate of the rate of change concept of sustainable management of forests has been
in forestland area indicates that it is neither increasing nor recognized in legislation since the Forest Act of 1886, and
decreasing (Table 2.4). Northern Finland, also known private forest legislation of 1928 and 1966 has also
locally as Lapland, is a region containing tundra and influenced how forests of Finland are managed (Siiskonen
sparsely distributed boreal forests. Southern Finland, 2007). The Forest Act of 1996 now guides and regulates
relatively warmer but cold by United States standards, is silvicultural activities on all Finnish lands. The current law
heavily forested (Figure 2.33) with numerous inland water promotes ecological, economic, and social sustainability of
bodies that rival Minnesota’s 10,000 lakes. Finnish forests forests and natural resources (Hirakuri 2003).
contain many common European tree species, including
birches, larches, pines, and spruces. Finnish wildlife
includes numerous species of birds and mammals such as
the Eurasian eagle owl (Bubo bubo), Tengmalm’s owl 2.4.4 Germany
(Aego lius funereus), martens, whooper swans, elk, Germany is located in central Europe (Figure 2.30) and
reindeer, wolves, and wolverines. contains 16 states covering about 35 million ha
(about 86 million ac). About 32% of the land area is forested areas during the rule of Caesar Augus tus, thus
currently forested (Table 2.4) and the recent rate of preventing the expansion of the Roman Empire into parts
change in forest area has been negligible. Five land of modern-day Germany. Another example includes the
regions are recognized: the Bavarian Alps, Black Forest, fuelwood famines of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries,
the central highlands, the north German plain, and the which shaped the character of European and German
southern German hills. Most of these areas support woodlands over time. Germany was also involved in
temperate broadleaved or coniferous forests, although the several wars over the last 200 years that greatly impacted
higher elevations support montane forests. The state of its natural resources. The current German landscape is
Bavaria has the largest forested area (2.6 million ha or 6.3 therefore a by-product of peaceful and wartime
million ac), Baden-Wu¨rttemberg has the second largest manipulations by humans over many centuries (German
forested area (1.4 million ha or 3.4 million ac), and Federal Ministry of Food, Agricul ture and Consumer
Saarland has the smallest amount of forested area Protection 2007). Land tenure has recently been
(98,458 ha or 243,290 ac) (German Federal Ministry of undergoing a transition in some parts of the country. For
Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection 2010). example, some state-owned lands in eastern Germany are
Historically, German forests have been dominated by reverting to the previous owner ship status (private or
beech and oak forest communities, and currently 60% of public) that existed prior to expro priation in the mid-
German forest area is coniferous and 40% is broad twentieth century.
leaved. The broadleaved forests are composed of tree German concern for agricultural and forest sustain
species such as ash (Fraxinus spp.), English oak ability has significantly altered the current landscape to the
(Quercus robur), European beech, horse-chestnut or point where nearly all of the forested area has been
conker tree (Aesculus hippocastanum), and silver birch influenced by humans’ activities at some point in history
(Betula pen dula). The coniferous forests are composed (German Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture and
spruce, fir, Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), larch Consumer Protection 2007). Increasing demands for
(Larix spp.), and Scot’s pine (Pinus sylvestris). forestlands and wood have led to the planting of
Germany provides a good example of the history of coniferous trees, but efforts are under way to convert the
European forest use and its development. For example, character of current forests to one that represents the
one event of historic importance to forests suggests that natural vegetation found historically on German
Germanic tribes repelled three Roman legions in desolate land. German forests and those who work with them have
been at the forefront of forestry development for a very remain are located in the boreal region of northern Russia.
long time and currently forests are managed for a variety The rate of change in forest area has been negligible in
of commercial and noncommercial uses (Figure 2.34). A the last few years (Table 2.4). Wood removals in Russia
number of German foresters have had important account for only 6% of the world’s total production (Food
influences on the forest sciences. In fact, the and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2010),
environmental concept called sustainable management yet Russia is the largest exporter of roundwood in the
was developed in 1713 by H.C. von Carlowitz, a German world, with European and Asian markets as the main
forester (Niekisch 1992). customers (Solberg et al. 2010). NTFPs of importance
include berries,
2.4.5 Russian Federation

Forests in Russia compose over one-fifth of the world’s
total forest area and, although a good portion of Russian
forests are technically located in Asia, we discuss the
forests of the Russian Federation in this European section.
The Russian Federation (Figure 2.30) covers about 1.638
billion ha of land (about 4.048 billion ac), and about 49%
of the total land area is covered by forests (Table 2.4).
Forest areas in Russia consist of the northern boreal
forest (containing Norway spruce, Scots pine, and
Siberian pine [Pinus sibirica], among others) and the
southern temperate deciduous and mixed forests
(containing alders, aspen, birches, and oaks), although
various ecoregions are found within each of these. Active
forest management is concentrated mainly in the north
European region of the country (Figure 2.35) and the far FIGURE 2.34 Forest trail near the Waldsteinburg, also known as the
eastern region. The majority of old-growth forests that Red Castle, Fichtelgebirge, Oberfranken, Germany. Photo courtesy of
Donald L. Grebner.
2.4 EUROPE 53
forested (Table 2.4). The country is located on the Iberian
Peninsula of western Europe between France to the
northeast and Portugal to the west (Figure 2.30). The
original people who inhabited the Iberian Peninsula were
the Basques, Celts, and Iberians, and through its long
course of history, this area of the world has been ruled by
various Christian, Muslim, and Roman empires and
kingdoms. As already mentioned, countries in the
Mediterranean region have experienced periods of serious
deforestation dating back to ancient times. In Spain,
forestland was not only cleared to facilitate agri cultural
purposes but also to provide fuel for metallur gical
operations as far back as during Roman rule. During the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, Spain was expanding its
empire around the world, and this expan
FIGURE 2.35 Russian forest situated on the northwestern border with

Some forests continue to be privately held through an
Finland. Photo courtesy of Thomas O’Shea. exemption to the 1997 Forest Code. During the period of
Civil War (1917–1923) and during World War II, Russian
forests sustained heavy damage, especially along
mushrooms, pine nuts, turpentine, and a large number of waterways. The 1997 Forest Code promoted the
medicinal plants. sustainable use of forests, and a new Forest Code,
The vast forests of what is now part of the Russian implemented in 2007, facilitates the development of long-
Federation were initially inhabited by ancient Slavs, who term leases to forested areas for production purposes
were hunter-gatherers and fishermen, and Slavic and (Teplyakov et al. 1998). Given the size of the country and
Byzantine cultures influenced what would even tually the vast resources contained within, illegal logging is a
become Russian culture. The importance of forests to the concern in some areas (Torniainen et al. 2006). Lately,
region has been emphasized in many laws dating back wildfire has become a major issue in western Russia as
over 1,500 years. Early Russian laws, beginning in about unusually hot and dry weather precipitated a rash of fires
the fifth century, noted the importance of forests for in 2010.
hunting and obtaining honey. Ownership of land and
property rights was intro duced into legislation around the
twelfth century and was debated through other legislation 2.4.6 Spain
for another 700 years. Since 1918, most forests are Spain currently has a land base of about 50 million ha
considered to be owned by the state and nearly all are (about 123 million ac), of which about 36% is currently
administered by the Forest Fund (Teplyakov et al. 1998). sion led to the clearing of large forested areas to provide
timbers for the development of the Spanish Armada Mesogean or maritime pine (Pinus pinaster), radiata pine,
(Oosthoek 2010). The expansion of the empire eventu ally mixed forests of English oak and sessile oak (Quercus
led to conflicts with other nations. In 1588, Spain tried to petraea), Pyrenean oak (Quercus pyrenaica) (Figure
invade England, but the Armada was destroyed, which 2.36), and European silver fir. European silver fir is
heralded the decline of Spanish supremacy (Oosthoek commonly found in the Pyrenees bordering France. Stone
2010). Currently, the forest area in Spain has been pine (Pinus pinea) is also found in Spain and is commonly
increasing in size (about 1% per year; Table 2.4) with the used to provide edible pine nuts used in salads and other
aid of various governmental assistance programs. culinary dishes. There are few forests in the southern
About two-thirds of the forestland in Spain is privately portion of the Iberian Peninsula, which is characterized as
owned, while the remainder is publicly owned. A small having scrub and other low-lying Medi terranean
portion of the public lands are consid ered community or vegetation. Although the Spanish forest prod ucts sector is
municipal forests. Most of the Iberian Peninsula supports significant and per capita consumption of wood is lower
temperate, Mediterranean vegetation and coniferous here than in other European countries, Spain is a net
forests. A small portion of land along the Pyrenees importer of wood products. NTFPs of importance in Spain
supports montane forests, and a small portion of land include cork, fruits, medicinal plants, mushrooms, and
along the Atlantic Ocean supports temperate broadleaved nuts. Ecotourism is also becoming increasingly important,
deciduous forests. Many forests in Spain are composed of although wildfire is a particular concern in the southern
dwarf beech (Fagus sylvatica), eucalyptus or blue gum, portion of the country. The 2003 Forest Law (Ley 43/2003)
provides
FIGURE 2.36 Pyrenean oak (Quercus pyrenaica) forest in central Spain.

Photo courtesy of Luis Fernańdez Garcıá, through Wikimedia Commons.
the current regulatory framework for the management and

conservation of forests in Spain.
2.4.7 United Kingdom

The history of the United Kingdom (Figure 2.30) is
complex but perhaps no more so than other countries in
Europe. Inhabitants of this island nation included
the original Celts, as well as descendants of Anglo Saxon,
Norman, and Roman invaders. The four coun tries that imported wood for its domestic use, but the shipping
now comprise the United Kingdom (England, Northern blockade associated with World War I under scored the
Ireland, Scotland, and Wales) are the remnants of a much country’s vulnerability with regard to forest resources and
larger British Empire that, at its height in the early a large-scale afforestation program was begun around
twentieth century, included nearly one-quarter of the land 1919 with the passage of the Forestry Act of 1919.
area in the world. Within these four countries, 90% or However, nearly two-thirds of the wood lands in the United
more of the natural forests were cleared by the start of the Kingdom were felled to meet the needs of World War II. As
fifteenth century, as the demand for agricul tural and a result, a renewed afforesta tion program was begun in
rangeland increased, along with an expansion of the 1948 to encourage private landowners to restock their
human population. England, Scotland, and Wales each woodlands (Richards 2003). The recent rate of change in
had 10% of their land composed of forests at about this forest area has been slightly positive (Table 2.4).
time. Plantations of European larch, Norway spruce, and
FIGURE 2.37 Bluebell (Hyacinthoides non-scripta) flowers under a
Scots pine were begun in the seventeenth century, and deciduous forest canopy in Buckinghamshire, England, United Kingdom.
later Douglas-fir and Sitka spruce were introduced from Photo courtesy of Keith Hulbert and Paul Zarucki, through Wikimedia
North America. The United Kingdom relied heavily on Commons.
The four countries of the United Kingdom contain a little Britain (containing England, Scotland, and Wales) is drier
over 24 million ha of land (almost 60 million ac), and than the western portion. As it pertains to forests, the
forests now cover approximately 12% of the land area entire country can be said to support temperate broad
(Table 2.4), three-quarters of which are plantations. leaved and coniferous forests. Currently, about 80% of the
Agriculture dominates the various land uses of the United rural land in the United Kingdom is privately owned and
Kingdom, but the use of land for the extraction of other the remainder is in various public ownership classes. From
resources (e.g., coal, chalk, iron ore, and others) is a forest management perspective, the rural countryside of
important as well. The climate of the United Kingdom is the United Kingdom is urbanizing, and the public in
temperate, and the prevailing winds are from the general now expects rural land to produce multiple goods
southwest; thus, the eastern portion of the island of Great and services (Figure 2.37) (Munton 2009).
2.5 ASIA 55
Community forest programs were begun in the United Aeronautics and Space Administration.
Kingdom in 1989 to help restore derelict portions of the and character of forested areas vary by country. For
urban fringe and promote the creation of jobs (Richards example, eastern Siberia, which is part of the Russian
2003). Interestingly, the area of decid uous forests planted Federation, is still largely forested due to poor infra
annually in the United Kingdom now exceeds the area of structure and a low population density. Older civiliza tions
coniferous forests planted (Richards 2003). However, such as China and India have each experienced similar
most of the roundwood produced in the United Kingdom patterns of forest use due to repeated expan sions and
comes from conif erous plantations. The production of contractions of human settlements over thou sands of
roundwood repre sents about 2% of that produced in years. Burgeoning populations in these countries over the
Europe, including the Russian Federation, and the United past half century have accelerated the need for
Kingdom is essentially a net importer of wood products afforestation and regeneration programs, environmental
(Whiteman 2003). In 2007, A Strategy for England’s programs (such as those aimed to prevent or mitigate soil
Trees, Woods and Forests was developed, which outlines erosion), and resource self sufficiency programs.
priorities for forest resources for the next 50 years in While the loss of forested area is a concern in some
England. Similar policies have been developed in Northern Asian countries, on the whole, the forested area has
Ireland and Scotland to promote sustainable use of the increased in China since 2000 due to massive afforesta
resource. tion efforts (Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations 2010). The forest vegetation and associ
ated wildlife species stretch across numerous ecore gions,
2.5 ASIA ranging from tundra and taiga forests in Siberia to
temperate forests in China, Japan, and Korea, to grass
lands in Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and Uzbekistan, and
Asia (Figure 2.38) is the largest continent on Earth and
tropical forests in India, Indonesia, the Philippines,
its history has gripped the human imagination for
Thailand, and Vietnam. Precipitation patterns range
thousands of years, including periods influenced by
(among others) the Ming Dynasty in China, the Mongolian greatly from the more arid regions in Middle Eastern
hordes led by Genghis Khan, and the Japanese Samurai. countries such as Israel, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and
The continent is the site of the adventures of Marco Polo Turkey to the moist climatic environments found in eastern
along the Silk Road, the Trans-Siberian rail line, Gandhi’s China, Indonesia, Japan, and Thailand.
silent protest (India), and oil production (the Middle East). In the Asian boreal forests, it is common to find tree
Within this continent there are 51 countries that cover species such as the Siberian fir (Abies sibirica). Siberian
about 43.8 million square kilometers (km 2; 11.9 million larch (Larix sibirica), and Siberian spruce (Picea obovata).
Other plants include Siberian ginseng (Eleutherococcus
square miles [mi2]) of land and support over 4.1 billion senticosus) and numerous plant species associated with
people. Given the diverse climatic, developmental, and peat bogs. Wildlife species include brown bears, mink,
topo graphic history of the continental region, the extent moose, reindeer, the Siberian tree frog (Rana amurensis),
and the Siberian tiger. In more temperate forests, it is
common to find tree species such as Japanese cypress
(Chamaecyparis obtusa), Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis),
and Mongolian oak (Quercus mongolica). Wildlife species
commonly found in temperate regions include the golden
snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana), the
Manchurian hare (Lepus mandschuricus), and the giant
panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca), which is currently
endangered. In tropical forests, numerous tree species
exist such as kemenyan (Styrax benzoin), Philippine
mahogany (Shorea almon), and sal (Shorea robusta).
Other plants include the kitul palm tree (Caryota urens)
and nutmeg (Myristica fragrans). Wildlife species may
include the hog badger (Arctonyx collaris), Indian cobra
(Naja naja), or the Sri Lankan elephant (Elephas maximus
maximus). While a good portion of Asia includes the
eastern part of the Russian Federation, which we dis
cussed in the previous section, our discussion of Asian
FIGURE 2.38 Satellite image of Asia. Photo courtesy of the National forests will center on China, Indonesia, Japan, and the
Republic of Korea.
2.5.1 China China are the major regions for collective forest manage
ment enterprises (Rozelle et al. 2003). Some forested
China (Figure 2.39) has one of the world’s oldest lands that are collectively owned have been distributed to
human civilizations, with nearly 4,000 years of docu people through a variety of contractual arrangements
mented history. Shang, Zhou, Han, Wu, Tang, and Song (Chen and Kurokawa 2005), and a 1984 Forest Law,
dynasties ruled the various empires of China from about revised in 1998, legalized private ownership of trees (but
the seventeenth century BC to the thirteenth century AD. not land) (Keliang et al. 2010). However, the 2007
Chinese dynasties were the first to develop paper and Property Law affirms ownership of land to the collec tives,
books, and the first governmental bodies to use and but does not address who actually has control over the
distribute paper money. Other dynasties fol lowed, but land (whether the collectives or individuals given contract
China effectively missed the Industrial Revo lution, and to part of the collectively owned land). The absence of a
intermittent wars and disorder led to economic decline. rural land registry affects management of the land and
After the Chinese Civil War (1947– 1949), a socialist state leaves unsolved the question of prior ownership. As a
developed and since the 1980s a number of economic result, in some areas there is no system that can, by title,
reforms have helped the country to now become the protect a landowner and their forest investment (Ho 2006).
second largest economy in the world. A land reform law China is a vast and diverse country that encompasses
was enacted right after the founding of the People’s over 942 million ha of land (almost 2.3 billion ac) (Table
Republic of China in 1949, which allowed peasant 2.5). The current forest area in China is estimated to be
ownership of land, but in 1956 this changed to collective about 207 million ha (about 511 million ac), which
ownership of land (Keliang et al. 2010). Today, the represents about 22% of the total land area. The largest
majority of land in China is owned by these collec tives forest areas are located in the northeast (formerly called
(townships and villages) and the remainder is controlled Manchuria, now called Dongbei), eight southern prov
by the central or state governments. State forest inces (Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hubei, Hunan,
management is more prevalent in the north eastern Jiangxi, Sichuan, and Yunnan), and mid-China (Shaanxi)
provinces. Southern China and north-central
FIGURE 2.39 Countries in Asia. Modified image from PresentationMaps.com.

2.5 ASIA 57
TABLE 2.5 Demographic and Physiographic Data for Asian Countries a
Country Population 2008 Total Land Area Total Land Area Forest Cover (%) Annual Change Per Capita (PPP)
Human (million) (1,000 ha) (1,000 ac) Forest Area 2005e2010 (%) 2008b (1,000 US$)
Bangladesh 160 13,017 32,165 11 0.18 1.3 Bhutan 1 4,700 11,614 69 0.34 4.8 Cambodia 15 17,652 43,618 57 1.22 2.0 China 1,345 942,530
2,328,992 22 1.39 6.0
Democratic People’s Republic of Korea 24 12,041 29,753 47 2.10 1.8
Georgia 4 6,949 17,171 39 0.09 5.0 India 1,181 297,319 734,675 23 0.21 2.9 Indonesia 227 181,157 447,639 52 0.71 4.0 Japan 127 36,450
90,068 69 0.04 34.1
Loa People’s Democratic Republic 6 23,080 57,031 68 0.49 2.1
Malaysia 27 32,855 81,185 62 0.42 14.2 Myanmar 50 65,755 162,481 48 0.95 1.2 Nepal 29 14,300 35,335 25 e 1.1 Philippines 90 29,817 73,678
26 0.73 3.5 Republic of Korea 48 9,873 24,396 63 0.11 27.7 Sri Lanka 20 6,463 15,970 29 0.77 4.6 Thailand 67 51,089 126,241 37 0.08 8.1 Turkey
74 76,963 190,176 15 1.08 13.4 Viet Nam 87 31,008 76,621 44 1.08 2.8 Other countries (29) 493 1,238,389 3,362,490 3 0.28 7.5 Asia (total) 4,075
3,091,407 7,638,867 19 0.29 6.1
a
That are more than 10% forested and have over 3,000,000 ac (about 1,214,100 ha) of forest.
b
(Ho 2006). Given its size, the physiographic zones within Cultural Revolution (1966–1976), large areas of forests
China are also diverse, ranging from arid deserts to dry were cleared for agricultural production and, by the onset
humid forests. For example, the Xinjiang region of of economic reforms (1978), a large portion of China’s
northwest China is mainly arid, but certain areas can forests were depleted or in poor condition (Hyde et al.
support forest vegetation (Figure 2.40) such as Chinese 2003). More recently, the Chinese govern ment has
aspen (Populus adenopoda). Northern forests are mostly placed a great deal of emphasis on wood supply and high-
temperate coniferous or mixed coniferous-deciduous, profile afforestation projects, such as the Upper/Middle
while some southern forests are lowland subtropical rain Yangtze River Valley afforestation campaign and the
forests or monsoon forests (Ho 2006). A broad expanse of Great Green Wall in Inner Mongolia (Rozelle et al. 2003).
temperate coniferous, semideciduous, and mixed forests These large-scale afforestation programs have allowed
currently resides in southern China. About 61.7 million ha the country to show a positive rate of change in forest
(152.5 million ac) of Chinese forests are planted forests. area, estimated to be about a 1.4% increase per year
Desertification is a serious environmental and social issue since the late 2000s (Table 2.5). Recent reforms have
in the country and, although logging of native forests has stimulated forest management by providing farmers
been banned, the rate of forest loss has been, at times, property rights to trees planted on contracted forestland
high (Chen and Kurokawa 2005). During China’s (Petry et al. 2010).
Hindu, and Islamic cultures. The Dutch colonized

portions of the archipelago for nearly 350 years, then
Japan occupied the country during World War II, after
which Indonesia became independent. Of the 181
million ha of land (nearly 448 million ac), about 52% is
currently forested and the rate of change has been about
0.7% per year since the late 2000s (Table 2.5). Defores
tation has been an important issue for Indonesia;
however, as with Brazil, the rate of forest loss due to
deforestation since the late 2000s has been significantly
reduced compared to the 1990s (Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations 2010). Most of the
forestland in Indonesia is characterized as a tropical
moist forest, consisting of broadleaved evergreen or
semideciduous forest trees. Subtypes of forests include
FIGURE 2.40 Aspen stand in Xinjiang Autonomous Region, China. Olgan larch (Larix olgensis) are among the many tree
Photo courtesy of Shukui Niu. species found in this region (Chen 2006). In the
southwestern region of the country, the main tree species
in these temperate forests are Chinese Douglas fir
Prior to 1950, most of China’s forests were naturally
(Pseudotsuga sinensis), camphor laurel (Cinnamomum
regenerated. Since then, reforestation of cleared areas
camphora), dragon spruce (Picea asperata), nanmu
has been accomplished using Chinese fir (Cunninghamia
(Konishi nathaphoebe, Nantou litsea, Phoebe nanmu and
lanceolata), larch (Larix spp.), and poplar (Populus spp.)
others), teak, Yunnan pine (Pinus yunnanensis), and zitan
(Chen and Kurokawa 2005). Northeast China has one of
(Pterocarpus santalinus). As a country, China is among
the most important forest areas in the country due to the
the top five producers of wood products, particularly fiber
size of the natural forests contained there. Forests are
board, particleboard, and plywood. About two-thirds of the
characterized as mixed broadleaved Korean pine and
roundwood produced is used for fuelwood purposes, and
larch forests. Korean aspen (Populus davidiana), Korean
internal consumption of wood exceeds production; thus,
pine (which is similar to white pine), Mongolian oak, and
the country is a net importer of wood products (Ho 2006).
2.5.2 Indonesia standard of living in the country. Nearly two-thirds of the
roundwood produced is for fuelwood purposes,
Indonesia consists of over 17,000 islands and forms a
large archipelago in Asia (Figure 2.39). The largest of the
islands are Sulawesi, Sumatra, the western half of New
Guinea, and the Indonesian portion of Borneo
(Kalimantan). Indonesia has been a major trade region
since around the seventh century, and Indonesian society
has been influenced over time by Buddhist,
monsoon forests, and montane forests, swamp forests,
and tidal forests (Figure 2.41) (International Tropical
Timber Organization 2006). The largest areas of tropical
peat swamp forests are found in coastal Borneo and
Sumatra, which contain valuable tree species such as light
red meranti (Shorea albida) and ramin (Gonystylus
bancanus) (Brown 1998). In forest plantations, acacias
(Acacia spp.), eucalypts, Sumatran pine (Pinus merkusii),
and teak comprise the majority of species grown. Bamboo,
copal, rattan, and many medicinal plants are a few of the
NTFPs derived from these tropical forests (International
Tropical Timber Organization 2006).
Indonesia experienced a significant expansion in its
economy from the mid-1960s through to the end of the
twentieth century. The petroleum industry, along with
advancements in manufacturing, helped improve the FIGURE 2.41 Tidal forests typical of Indonesia. Photo courtesy of Pete
Bettinger.
2.5 ASIA 59
yet Indonesia is a net exporter of manufactured wood
products (mainly to China, Japan, and Korea). Indi
vidual tree selection cutting is the main silvicultural
technique due to the wide range of species found in
the tropical forests. A 1999 Forest Law defines two types
of ownership, one in which land is registered by title and
the other in which land belongs to the state, although
White and Martin (2002) suggest that nearly all of the
forestland is controlled by the government. Community
forest rights (adata) are also recognized, and the admin
istration of forests for production and protection
purposes has been decentralized to the provinces and
districts within the country. Forest concessions are
granted to companies or cooperatives and, in some
cases, ownership is shared with villagers who have rights forest, 11% is owned by local governments, and 58% is
to the forest resources through cooperatives (Pirard and privately owned. Japan covers over 36 million ha of land
Irland 2007). Given the widespread geog raphy of the (about 90 million ac), of which about 69% is now forested
country and the decentralized administra tion of the forest (Table 2.5). Vast areas of forest were devastated during
resources, illegal logging is seen as a major problem. the conflicts of the mid twentieth century; however, a
Another controversy associated with the rapid large-scale reforestation effort has been very successful
advancement of the Indonesian economy is the issue of and the rate of change in forested area has been
land conversion. As production and expor tation of wood negligible since the late 2000s (Table 2.5). Japan has
products have increased, the area of palm oil and rubber three broad forest regions. One is a subtropical forest
plantations has also expanded (Gellert 2005). zone that includes many species of oak and beech (also
known as stone oak; Lithocarpus spp.) (Figure 2.42) and
other broadleaved and conif erous evergreen tree species.
2.5.3 Japan The second is a temperate zone dominated by beech, fir,
Japan is a nation comprised of over 3,000 islands that and pine tree species, along with several important
form an archipelago in the Pacific (Figure 2.39). The Japanese conifers that include hinoki or Japanese
character of the country has evolved considerably from the cypress, and sugi or Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria
original Jomon culture (hunter-gatherer) that ended japonica). The third broad forest
around 300 BC to shogunates, clans, and dynasties of FIGURE 2.42 Deciduous forest in Japan. Photo courtesy of Enoki
Yoshio.
recent centuries. Currently, Japan is a constitutional
monarchy that has evolved over the last 100 years into the
third largest economy of the world. Reforms in forestland region is a cold zone that includes montane forest species
ownership began at the turn of the twentieth century and such as fir, hemlock, and spruce.
now about 31% of the land in Japan is considered national Japan actually began developing forest plantations in
the late seventeenth century. Currently, about 40% of the 2.5.4 Republic of Korea (South Korea)
forest area in Japan is composed of plantations, and sugi
and hinoki are two of the main tree species currently being The Korean Peninsula (Figure 2.39) has a long and rich
grown for commercial purposes (Fujikake 2007). Although human history dating back nearly 4,000 years. The region
significant efforts have been made to reforest large areas was ruled by several dynasties until 1910, when Japan
of the country, imports of wood into Japan began to rise annexed the peninsula. After World War II, the Korean
significantly in the 1960s due to high silvi cultural and Peninsula was divided into two countries, North Korea and
logging costs, low import prices, and the need for a stable South Korea. Like many other countries around the world,
supply of wood with uniform charac teristics (Iwamoto South Korea has experienced periods of severe
2002). As a result, about 80% of the wood product deforestation. However, unlike many countries that have
demand in Japan is met with imports, mainly from Canada experienced deforestation, South Korea has achieved
and Russia (To´th et al. 2006). Japan enacted a Basic remarkable success in restoring its forests. Deforestation
Forestry Law in 1964 and amended it in 2001 (now the was most rampant in the twentieth century during the
Basic Forest and Forestry Law), aimed to promote Japanese occupation (1910–1945) and the Korean War
sustainable forestry and the development of multi- (1950–1953). Following the war, the impoverished nation
functional forests. relied heavily on its forests for food, fuelwood, and timber.
As a result, vast
expanses of forestland were denuded and, with heavy
monsoon rains, soil erosion became a major problem. One
measure of forest resource conditions, the average
growing stock volume of forests, reached its nadir of only
6 m3 per ha (about 86 ft3 per ac) in 1952 (Chun 2010),
implying that vast areas of forestland were devoid of trees.
The driving force behind forest degradation was a
tremendous demand for fuelwood to meet more than 60%
of the country’s energy needs (Lee 2010). In 1960, an
estimated 42% of forestland area was still unstocked.
Land reform in the mid-twentieth century affected
the land tenure system and currently most of the forest
land in Korea is privately owned. The South Korean
economy has grown significantly since the Korean War
and is now an important economic power in Asia. With
growing wealth, people could afford to switch to coal,
slash-and-burn practices were abandoned, and rural
residents moved to rapidly growing cities, all of which
reduced pressure on the forests and natural resources.
This growth has been overshadowed by an impressive
reforestation effort and, by 2009, the average growing
stock volume of forests had increased consider ably to
103 m3 per ha (about 1,472 ft 3 per ac) as a result of these
efforts. To illustrate the point, while South Korea is about
10 million ha in size (about 24 million ac) (Table 2.5),
between 1946 and 2000 nearly 100,000 ha of land (about
247,000 ac) was planted annually (1% of the
land annually). During this period, nearly 5.3 million ha (13
million ac) was reforested.
Today, diverse forests (Figure 2.43) cover about 63% 1953. The DMZ is roughly 4 km (2.5 mi) wide and 250 km
of the land area of Korea and the recent rate of change is (155 mi) long, crossing coastal areas, high mountains,
about 0.1% per year (Table 2.5). While most of the plains, rivers, and wetlands. It serves as a buffer between
peninsula can be described as an area containing the two countries to prevent further hostilities. This area
temperate deciduous forests, of the forested area about has been closed to civilians since its inception. In addition,
30% is now comprised of plantations, some of which are South Korea maintains the Civilian Control Zone (CCZ)
composed of coniferous tree species. Originally, alder that extends another 10– 20 km (6–12 mi) and in which
(Alnus spp.), black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), pitch human access is extremely
pine (Pinus rigida), and sawtooth oak (Quercus acu FIGURE 2.43 Coniferous forest in the Republic of Korea. Photo
tissima) plantations were created. Since then, chestnut, courtesy of Jacek P. Siry.
hybrid aspen, hybrid poplar, larch, and Korean pine
plantations have also been established (Lee and Lee
2005). While rapid economic growth since the late twen restricted. The combined area of DMZ and CCZ within
tieth century may be straining South Korea’s native South Korea amounts to nearly 98,000 km 2 (37,833 mi2),
environmental resources, the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) 71% of which is forested (Korea Forest Research Institute
seems to be an unlikely exception. Running hor izontally 2010). While this area was heavily damaged during the
across the Korean Peninsula, the DMZ has separated war, since the armistice it has been virtually a no man’s
North Korea and South Korea since the end of the war in land. As a result, it has evolved into a unique nature
reserve teeming with a wide variety of plants, mammals, cradle of mankind. Although human ancestors slowly
fishes, and birds, such as the extremely rare white-naped evolved from the area we now know as the Horn of Africa,
crane (Grus vipio) and red-crowned crane (Grus Africa’s development by today’s standards has been
japonensis). relatively slow. Diamond (2005) asks a basic ques tion:
why did some nations advance faster than others? The
answer largely depends on the initial set of natural
resources available to each country. Therefore, the phys
2.6 AFRICA ical location of Africa influenced the rate of develop ment
on the continent. In contrast, countries located in
Africa (Figure 2.44) is commonly referred to as the
2.6 AFRICA 61
the exploitation and degradation of natural resources such
as gorillas in the mountains of Rwanda. In addition to
political and societal problems, some of the highest
percentages of forest areas burned by wildfire since the
late 2000s were associated with African countries (Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2010),
further complicating the natural resource management
situation on this continent. In this section, we describe five
African countries with important forest resources: the
Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ghana, Nigeria, South
Africa, and Tanzania.
2.6.1 Democratic Republic of the Congo

The Democratic Republic of the Congo is located in the
center of Africa (Figure 2.45) and is considered to be the
most heavily forested country on the continent. It has a
land area of about 227 million ha (about 560 mil lion ac)
and forest cover of 68% (Table 2.6). Former names of this
country are Congo Free State, the Belgian Congo, and
Zaire. Early villages consisted of people of
management of forest and natural resources. These
FIGURE 2.44 Satellite image of Africa. Photo courtesy of the National circumstances have resulted in exten sive deforestation in
Aeronautics and Space Administration.
some parts of Africa, as well as
the Imbonga, Ngovo, and Urewe cultures. Indigenous
pygmy populations and Bantu-speaking cultures also were
Europe and Asia had a competitive advantage in that found in the area this country now occupies. As many as
several species of animals and plants (e.g., wheat) were 250 ethnic groups have been distinguished and named in
domesticated in the Fertile Crescent, the arch of land the country; some of the larger are the Anamongo, the
encompassing Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria. In Kongo, and the Luba. The Democratic Republic of the
addition, since a large portion of the European and Asian Congo was colonized by Belgium in 1885 and gained
continents are located along the same set of global independence in 1960 (US Department of State 2010). It is
latitudes and natural resources were abundant, the trans believed that some of the forested areas in this country
fer of technologies across the landscape was easier. have continuously reproduced and survived since before
Unfortunately, locations further south, such as Africa, the ice age nearly 20,000 years ago. Butler (2006)
had climatic, managerial, topographic, and vegetative indicates that there are more than 11,000 plant species
barriers that made the exchange of technologies more 1,150 bird species, 450 mammalian species, 300 reptile
difficult. Early attempts to domesticate animals were species, and 200 amphibian species that inhabit areas of
largely unsuccessful in Africa, given the abundance of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In general, the
cheetahs, hyenas, lions, and other carnivores. This forests are mostly composed of savannas and tropical
decreased the potential set of transferable technologies rainforests. A closed-canopy, broadleaved, tropical
and slowed the initiation of development of the modern rainforest encompasses the Congo River basin and moist
state of Africa until the period of colonization that began in evergreen and semideciduous forests can be found in the
the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. During west and center of the country (Figure 2.46). Montane
the colonization period, European nations created forests consisting of deciduous broadleaved tree species
territories in Africa from land that they thought they could can be found in the terraces and plateaus of the
control, with little concern for traditional tribal or ethnic mountainous part of the country. Compared to other
boundaries. Unfortunately, many regional and local wars developing countries, deforestation was slow to arrive to
have since occurred, which have acted to delay the this region because of poor infrastructure, but some
development of some African societies. Further, rising forested areas have now been degraded due to slash-and-
birth rates and political unrest have led to governmental burn agriculture.
policies that have not always favored sustainable The state is the sole owner of land in the Democratic
Republic of the Congo, which was reinforced by the Forest have increasingly purchased concessions from the state, a
Code of 2002 (Law 11/2002) (International Timber Trade serious threat to forests in this country
Organization 2006). Although foreign logging companies
FIGURE 2.45 Countries in Africa. Modified image from PresentationMaps.com.
are the periodic wars that have occurred in its recent also being established and species such as cypress, dibe
history. These wars have led to the displacement of ´- tou or African walnut (Lovoa trichilioides), eucalypts, filao
millions of people and resulted in increased degradation of tree (Casuarina equisetifolia), Gold Coast bombax
plant and wildlife populations. Since the end of the last war (Bombax flammeum), kapok (Ceiba pentandra), limba
in 2002, more effort has been expended to protect the (Terminalia superb), sipo, and southern silky oak (Grevillea
country’s forests. Unfortunately, increasing population robusta) are commonly used to establish these plantations.
growth rates are expected to generate greater pressure on In some cases, plantations were established in order to
forested areas over time. Since the late 2000s, the rate of stabi lize the soil and to prevent further erosion
forest loss has been about 0.2% per year (Table 2.6). (International Timber Trade Organization 2006).
Some of the wide variety of tree species located in the
Democratic Republic of the Congo include afrormosia
(Pericopsis elata), bilinga (Nauclea diderrichii), bosse´
(Guarea cedrata), bubinga (Guibourtia pellegriniana), iroko 2.6.2 Ghana
(Chloro phora excelsa), kosipo (Entandrophragma Ghana is a republic that lies on the western coast of
candollei), longhi (Gambeya africana), sapelli Africa (Figure 2.45). Prior to initial contact by Portuguese
(Entandrophragma cylindricum), sipo (Entandrophragma and Dutch explorers in the fifteenth and sixteenth centu
utile), tiama (Entandrophragma angolense), tola ries, Ghana was inhabited by people of the Akan king
(Gossweilerodendron balsamiferum), and wenge´ (Millettia doms. Formerly known as the Gold Coast, Ghana
laurentii) (International Timber Trade Organization 2006).
obtained independence in 1957. Ghana lies near the
For many people of the country, forests are the main
equator and is nearly 23 million ha in size (a little over 56
source of food, fuelwood, and medi cine. Wood products
million ac). Currently, the landscape of Ghana is about
from tola and wenge´ trees are the most valuable export
22% forested, although forest cover is declining at a rate
products. Forest plantations are
of over 2% per year (Table 2.6). Ghana contains tropical
2.6 AFRICA 63
TABLE 2.6 Demographic and Physiographic Data for African Countries a
Country Population 2008 (1,000 ha) (1,000 ac) Annual change GDP (PPP) 2008b
Human (million) Total Land Area Forest Cover (%) 2005e2010 (%) (1,000 US$)
Total Land Area Forest Area Per Capita
Angola 18 124,670 308,060 47 0.21 5.8 Benin 9 11,062 27,334 41 1.06 1.5 Botswana 2 56,673 140,039 20 1.01 13.6 Burkina Faso 15 27,360
67,607 21 1.03 1.2 Cameroon 19 47,271 116,807 42 1.07 2.2 Central African Republic 4 62,300 153,943 36 0.13 0.7 Congo 4 34,150 84,385
66 0.05 3.9 Coˆte d’Ivoire 21 31,800 78,578 33 e 1.7
Democratic Republic of the Congo 64 226,705 560,188 68 0.20 0.3
Equatorial Guinea 1 2,805 6,931 58 0.71 33.9 Eritrea 5 10,100 24,957 15 0.28 0.6 Ethiopia 81 109,631 270,898 11 1.11 0.9 Gabon 1 25,767
63,670 85 e 14.6 Ghana 23 22,754 56,225 22 2.19 1.5 Guinea 10 24,572 60,717 27 0.54 1.1 Guinea-Bissau 2 2,812 6,948 72 0.49 0.5 Liberia 4
9,632 23,801 45 0.68 0.4 Madagascar 19 58,154 143,699 22 0.45 1.1 Malawi 15 9,408 23,247 34 0.99 0.8 Mali 13 122,019 301,509 10 0.68
1.1 Morocco 32 44,630 110,281 11 0.20 4.3 Mozambique 22 78,638 194,314 50 0.53 0.8 Nigeria 151 91,077 225,051 10 4.00 2.1 Senegal 12
19,253 47,574 44 0.47 1.8 Sierra Leone 6 7,162 17,697 38 0.70 0.8 Somalia 9 62,734 155,016 11 1.10 0.6 Sudan 41 237,600 587,110 29 0.08
2.2 Uganda 32 19,710 48,703 15 2.72 1.2
United Republic of Tanzania 42 88,580 218,881 38 1.16 1.3
Zambia 13 74,339 183,692 67 0.33 1.4 Zimbabwe 12 38,685 95,591 40 1.97 0.2 Other countries (26) 285 1,191,958 2,945,328 3 0.43 5.5 Africa
(total) 987 2,974,011 7,348,781 23 0.50 2.8
a
That are more than 10% forested and have over 3,000,000 ac (about 1,214,100 ha) of forest.
b
codified in a number of acts, decrees, laws, regulations,

and statements, and responsibility for developing these
is centralized in the governmental structure (Wiggins
et al. 2004). All of the land in Ghana is held by the
government in trust for the people, although traditional
lands that were previously under control by tribal
chiefs continue to be used by those communities as
long as the resource is not degraded (Owubah et al.
2001). While timber harvesting contracts rather than
concessions are now the norm in the country, illegal
harvesting is still a concern. Although 93% of the
wood harvested in Ghana is for fuelwood purposes,
fromager (Ceiba pentandra), teak, and wawa are common
tree species harvested for industrial purposes. NTFPs
FIGURE 2.46 Forest located along a river in the Democratic Republic of
the Congo. Photo courtesy of Kathy Freeman.
rainforests (Figure 2.47); moist and dry deciduous and

evergreen forests, most of which are located in the
southern part of the country along the Atlantic coast; and
savannas in the central and northern portion of the
country. Common tree species include danta (Nesogordo
nia papaverifera), ebony (Diospyros spp.), guarea (Guarea
cedrata), Lagos mahogany (Khaya ivorensis), makore (Tie
ghemella heckelii), mangroves, mansonia (Mansonia altis
sima), palms, and wawa (Triplochiton scleroxylon)
(International Tropical Timber Organization 2006).
Illegal occupation, land use changes, and wildfire are
all concerns in cutover forest areas. Human population
growth and poverty, along with infrastructure (e.g., road FIGURE 2.47 Tropical forests along Lake Volta, Ghana. Photo courtesy
construction) and economic development pro grams, of Jurgen, through Wikimedia Commons.
that are integrally associated with Ghana’s forests include
contribute to the pressures placed on the country’s forest
and natural resources (International Tropical Timber fruits, honey, medicinal plants, tubers, wild meat, and
Organization 2006). Forest policy is seeds that facilitate the production of marga rine, oils, and
sweeteners (International Tropical Timber Organization
2006).
2.6.3 Nigeria
Nigeria is located in western Africa near the equator coast. In 1960, Nigeria gained independence from the
(Figure 2.45), is a federal republic of 36 states and one United Kingdom. A number of internal conflicts have since
federal capital territory (Abuja), and is the most popu lous troubled the country, and the rich oil reserves of the
country in Africa. Nigeria contains a little over 91 million ha country have both positively and negatively influenced the
of land (225 million ac), and about 10% of this area is course of Nigeria’s natural resource development
forested (Table 2.6). Nigeria has the highest deforestation (Maconachie et al. 2009).
rate of African countries, as nearly 4% of forest has been For the most part, the forests of Nigeria are located in
lost per year since the late 2000s. The area contained the southern half of the country. About 70% of the forested
within Nigeria is thought to have been the homeland of the area is considered savanna and the remainder along the
Bantu people who eventually migrated across the coast is considered tropical rainforest, consist ing of
continent. Indigenous people included the Fulani, Igbo, coastal forests (Figure 2.48), lowland wet forests,
Kano, Nok, and Yoruba, each of which have shaped the mangrove forests, and swamp forests. These are mainly
culture of the country. Colonization by the British Empire broadleaved deciduous forests or broadleaved ever green
occurred early in the twentieth century, although British, forests. The savannas mainly contain riparian forests that
Portuguese, and Spanish explorers had visited the area consist of elolom or subaha (Mitragyna cil iata) and yeye
earlier and developed trade with local tribes along the (Uapaca spp.) tree species. African walnut
2.6 AFRICA 65
85% of the roundwood harvested from Nigeria’s forests is
used for domestic fuelwood purposes. Some of the
important NTFPs derived from Nigeria’s forests include
bark, gum arabic (used in the food products industry as a
stabilizer), leaves, mushrooms, nuts, rattan, resins, and
other medicinal plants (International Tropical Timber
Organization 2006).
2.6.4 South Africa

Although it has less than 1.2 million ha (over 3 million
ac) of forest and is less than 10% forested (thus is not
listed in Table 2.6), South Africa (Figure 2.45) is important
for forestry purposes because the develop ment of forestry
science here is perhaps the most advanced in Africa and
commercial forestry operations are important to the
country’s economy. The topography of South Africa is very
diverse, yet the country generally has a temperate climate.
The interior is mainly flat and arid and supports savannas
and associated trees and grasses. In this area, a number
of agricultural and game-based enterprises can be found
(Shackleton et al. 2007). Forests along the eastern coast
with the Indian Ocean are wet and lush, and forests in the
interior east are composed of mixed tree species and
occupy rela tively dry sites. Mangrove and swamp forests
also occur in small patches along the low-lying areas of
of the forestry sector, and a number of NGOs have also
assisted with the management of forest resources in the
FIGURE 2.48 Kwa Falls along the Kwa River in Cross River State, country. Over 300 tree species found in Nigeria could be
Nigeria. Photo courtesy of Shiraz Chakera, through Wikimedia Commons. utilized, yet only a handful are actually harvested. These
include agba, iroko, ofun (Mansonia altissima), sapele
(Entandrophragma cylindri cum), teak, and English beech,
(Lovoa trichilioides), agba (Gossweilerodendron balsamife the latter mainly from planted forests. While some of these
rum) and Lagos mahogany are characteristic tree species tree species are used to develop lumber and veneer
of the rainforest areas, while iroko, obeche (Triplochiton products, over
scleroxylon), and otutu (Nesogordonia papaverifera) are the eastern coast. There are virtually no forested areas
characteristic tree species of the other coastal forests along the western Atlantic Ocean coast. However, some
(International Tropical Timber Organization 2006). Mediterranean-type forests can be found along the coast
The forests of Nigeria are either locally owned as near Cape Town (Figure 2.49).
communal forests or owned by the state as forest reserves Indigenous Bantu, Khoikhoi, San, Xhosa, and Zulu
(or both in some cases), some of which were delineated tribes once settled the area now known as South Africa.
through the Land Use Decree of 1978. Concessions for Some of these tribes were agriculturists and used iron
forest harvesting activities are awarded by the state, yet tools to manipulate the ground, while others were
illegal logging activities are a concern. A new National
Forestry Policy was adopted in 2008 to address problems
related to the conservation of forest resources. Federal,
state, and local governments admin ister various aspects
FIGURE 2.49 Assegai tree (Curtisia dentata) on the eastern slopes of
Table Mountain, South Africa. Photo courtesy of Abu Shawka, through
Wikimedia Commons.

hunter-gatherers. The Portuguese first reached the
southern tip of Africa in the late fifteenth century. The
Dutch established what would become Cape Town in the
mid-seventeenth century. Once gold and diamond
resources were found, a struggle over control of the area
prompted wars between Britain and Boer colonists (Dutch,
French, German, and Portuguese) that lasted over 20
years in the late nineteenth century and early twentieth
century. In 1931, independence was granted from the
United Kingdom. A transition to democracy began in 1991,
and rising public awareness of environ mental concerns
has since occurred in the current, post-apartheid period
(Tewari 2001). Currently, land in South Africa is about
40% privately owned and 60%
publicly owned. A National Forests Act (Act No. 84 of Arc Mountains. Much of interior Tanzania, however, is
1998) provides measures for protecting and managing composed of grassy savannas that host broadleaved
forests, and prohibits cutting natural forests without a evergreen or deciduous tree species. Mount Kilimanjaro
license. and part of Lake Victoria are contained within this
Among the commercial tree species in natural forests, country’s boundary. Tanzania has a rich and diverse, and
hard pear (Olinia ventosa), ironwood (Olea capensis spp.), perhaps the longest, human history. Early indigenous
stinkwood (Ocotea bullata), white alder (Platylophus trifo people were hunter-gatherers,
liatus), and yellowwood (Podocarpus latifolius) comprise FIGURE 2.50 Highland forests in the Usambara Mountains in eastern
the majority of roundwood harvested. Black wattle (Acacia Tanzania. Photo courtesy of Joachim Huber, through Wikimedia
mearnsii), pines, and eucalypts comprise over 95% of the Commons.
tree species in forest plantations. In terms of annual value,
forest product exports are important, but fall behind coal, and migrants from western Africa, India, and Persia (now
gold, and other mineral ores (Grundy and Wynberg 2001). Iran) have influenced Tanzanian culture. The coastal area
The forest industry has grown steadily since World War II of the country was controlled by the Portuguese from the
with active govern ment support (Tewari 2001). However, early sixteenth century to the late nineteenth century, and
since the transi tion to democracy, concerns about the afterwards by the Omani Sultanate. Germany took over
commercial side of forestry have arisen from a diverse administration of the area in 1891, and this control lasted
network of stake holders (Tewari 2001). Natural limits on until the end of World War I. The country was then part of
the productive range of forests and some uncertainty in the British Empire until autonomy became effective in
ownership rights are hindrances to further expansion of 1961.
the sector (Grundy and Wynberg 2001).
Germans introduced state-administered forestry
programs to Tanzania in the late nineteenth century, which
provided a model for the British programs that replaced
2.6.5 United Republic of Tanzania them after World War I. However, due to a number of
factors, including the relative weakness of the colonial
Tanzania is a country on the eastern coast of Africa state, a low commitment to forest conserva tion,
(Figure 2.45) that has nearly 89 million ha of land (nearly unfamiliarity with African timber characteristics, and
219 million ac), of which about 38% are forested (Table resistance from local citizens, scientific forestry has been a
2.6). The forests of Tanzania transition from a thin strip of less than successful endeavor. African teak (Milicia
mangroves along the coast to the subtropical, dry forests excelsa) is one of the principal tree species found
called coastal hinterland forests that stretch about 200 km throughout central Africa that provides wood for char coal,
(124 mi) inland, and the upper montane forests (Figure construction, furniture, and shipbuilding uses among
2.50) that reach further west into the Tanzanian Eastern others. Copal, a resin that resembles amber, was widely
collected from Hymenaea verrucosa forests in east Africa construction, local fuelwood, and shipbuilding enterprises
in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and was highly (Sunseri 2009). For many local populations in Tanzania,
prized as a source of varnish for carriages and furniture. forests currently provide commercial value, spiritual value,
Rubber-bearing shrubs, trees, and vines in coastal forests and refuge from political changes. In addition, charcoal
of east Africa also produce resinous material that was derived from forests is the most important domestic energy
highly valued in the early twentieth century. The coastal source, with annual consumption estimated to be 1 million
mangrove forests were also a source of bark and wood for tons (Sander et al. 2010).
2.7 OCEANIA 67
Almost all of the land in Tanzania is now owned by the Indonesia, and
state and, in accordance with the 1999 Village Land Act, the Sahul Shelf bridged Australia with Papua New Guinea.
about 75% is administered by village councils (Haugen As in the case of Beringia, the sea level rose when the ice
2010). Land use rights and ownership status are often sheets receded, covering these two shelves, isolating
unclear or unknown to village officials and, as a result, few numerous islands (Hanebuth et al. 2000), and stranding
village councils proactively manage their forests (Sander numerous species of plants, animals, and insects.
et al. 2010). Although the development of Tanzanian Scientists have noted a distinct difference between
forests have been influenced by British and German species originating from Asia and those origi nating from
systems of forest management, some forest reserves in Australia, which occurs along what is known as the
certain parts of east Africa are now managed by local Wallace line (Mayr 1944). Diamond (2005) suggests that
communities through community forest manage ment the two shelves facilitated the movement of humans from
programs, with assistance from NGOs. One side effect of Asia to the Australian conti nental landmass during the last
this policy is that local people are often confined to poorer ice age or perhaps earlier.
quality lands between the boundaries of the reserves. As a The land area of Oceania (Figure 2.51) is at least 849
result, the authority over the use of forests is constantly million ha (2.098 billion ac) (Table 2.7) and is inhabited by
negotiated according to shifts in power structures and about 33 million people (United Nations Department of
global events (Sunseri 2009). The forest management Economic and Social Affairs 2008). Stretched across this
situation in Tanzania continues to evolve; however, the landmass lies approximately 187 million ha (462 million
recent rate of forest loss is about 1.2% per year (Table ac) of forestland. The ecosystems within this continent
2.6). vary widely. For example, in New Zealand one might find
tropical and temperate rainforests and highland
grasslands on the South Island and subtrop ical forests on
2.7 OCEANIA the North Island. In Australia, the interior of the nation is
extremely arid; thus, forests are commonly found along
Oceania (or Australasia) includes the countries of the eastern, north-central, southern, and southwestern
Australia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, and several coasts. When European settlers arrived, they altered
other small island nations such as Fiji and New Caledonia. much of the forested land scape for many of the reasons
During the last ice age, when the mean sea level was mentioned in conjunction with the development of other
lower, there were two land forma tions that extended and continents. Given the island nature of the countries in this
connected the Asian and Australian landmasses: the region, increased human population growth and the
Sunda and Sahul Shelves. The Sunda Shelf was basically overuse of forests have prompted the development of
a land bridge that extended from Asia through much of active reforestation and management programs. However,
since 2000,
FIGURE
2.51 Satellite image of Oceania. Photo courtesy of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
68 2. FOREST REGIONS OF THE WORLDTABLE 2.7 Demographic and Physiographic
Data for Oceania
Country Population 2008 Total Land Area Total Land Area Forest Cover (%) Annual Change Per Capita (PPP)
Human (million) (1,000 ha) (1,000 ac) Forest Area 2005e2010 (%) 2008a (1,000 US$)
Australia 21 768,228 1,898,291 19 0.61 38.8 New Zealand 4 26,771 66,151 31 0.10 27.3 Papua New Guinea 7 45,286 111,902 63 0.49 2.2
Solomon Islands 1 2,799 6,916 79 0.25 2.6 Other countries or territories (20) 2 6,010 14,851 48 0.30 7.3 Oceania (total) 35 849,094 2,098,111 22
0.55 27.6
a
Oceania has reported a net loss of forest (about 0.6% per remained until most of the formal ties were severed in the
year), mainly due to climatic conditions and wildfires in late 1930s. The largest landmass and country in Oceania
Australia (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United contains over 768 million ha of land (about 1.898 billion
Nations 2010). ac), yet only about 19% is considered forested (Table 2.7).
Of the forested area, about 98.7% is native forests and
1.3% is plantation forests (Australian Department of
2.7.1 Australia Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Bureau of Rural
Australia (Figure 2.52) was originally inhabited by over Sciences 2010a). Australian forests are primarily located
two hundred distinctly different groups of indige nous along the coastlines in New South Wales, Queensland,
people. Australia was discovered by the Dutch in the early South Australia, southwestern West Australia, Victoria,
seventeenth century and was colonized by the British in and throughout the island of Tasmania. These include
the late eighteenth century. In 1901, the Commonwealth of tropical, subtropical, and temperate rainforests, with dry
Australia was created and it became a dominion within the forests and savannas further inland. The interior of the
British Empire in 1907, where it country consists of
FIGURE 2.52 Countries in Oceania. Modified image from PresentationMaps.com.

2.7 OCEANIA 69
xeric shrublands and arid deserts, and forests are there Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Bureau of Rural
fore relatively rare in interior Australia owing to the arid Sciences 2010b). The dominant species groupings are
environment. Some Mediterranean-type vegetation can be eucalypts (78%), acacias (7%), and melaleucas (5%). Of
found along the southern coasts of the country. A severe the plantation forests, approximately 50% are composed
drought and numerous forest fires have exacerbated the of exotic conifers such as radiata pine and the other 50%
loss of forest area in Australia since 2000 (Food and are composed of native hardwood species (Figure 2.53).
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2010). The About 70% of the land in Australia is publicly owned,
current rate of forest loss is about 0.6% per year (Table about 20% is privately owned, and about 10% is controlled
2.7). by community or indigenous groups (White and Martin
Australia is composed of both closed and open forest 2002). A National Forest Policy Statement that provides
areas (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United the vision for sustainable management of forests and
Nations 1979). Most (98%) of the forests are broadleaved, associated goals and objectives was issued in 1992. The
composed of 955 species of Acacia, 14 species of forest sector is small but regionally impor tant. Australia is
Callitris, 66 species of Casuarina, 700 species of a net exporter of wood, mainly to China, Japan, and New
eucalypts, and numerous mangrove, Melaleuca, and Zealand (Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade 2010).
rainforest tree species (Australian Department of Of the NTFPs derived from Australia’s forests, a growing
arts and crafts industry uses wood, bark, and chemicals indigenous forests are owned by the government for
from trees for carvings, dyes, weav ings and other conservation purposes, and har vesting operations are
products. In addition, Australia’s native forests are restricted or prohibited. These forests are found mostly in
important to the apiary industry as a source of nectar for mountainous areas on the west coast of the South Island
honeybees (Montreal Process Implementa tion Group for (New Zealand Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry 2009).
Australia 2008). The type of forest, which New Zealanders commonly refer
2.7.2 New Zealand to as “bush,” range from subtropical kauri forests on the
North Island, to temperate rainforests on the west coast,
New Zealand has a landmass of about 27 million ha and alpine forests in the Southern Alps, located in the inte
(about 66 million ac) and is comprised of two large islands rior of the South Island. Some of the native tree species
and several smaller ones (Figure 2.52). Forests cover found in these forests include cabbage tree (Cordyline
about 31% of the country (Table 2.7), and most are australis), hinau (Elaeocarpus dentatus), horoeka or lance
located in areas considered to be representative of wood (Pseudopanax crassifolium), kapuka or broadleaf
subtropical or temperate rainforests or temperate steppes. (Griselinia littoralis), karaka or New Zealand laurel (Cor
Prior to the M aori settlements about 800 years ago, most ynocarpus laevigatus), kauri (Agathis australis), manuka or
of the land below the natural tree line was forested (New tea tree (Leptospermum scoparium), puka (Meryta sin
Zealand Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry 2009). clairii), northern r at a (Metrosideros robusta), southern r at
Pastoral agriculture now comprises approximately 50% of a (Metrosideros umbellate), rimu (Dacrydium cupressi
the land area, while indigenous forests occupy 23% and num), tawa (Beilschmiedia tawa), and titoki (Alectryon
plantation forests (Figure 2.54) account for 7%, or 1.8 excelsus). Most of the common names of these trees are
million ha (about 4.4 million ac). Currently, most of the M aori in origin.
FIGURE 2.53 Eucalyptus plantation near Mount Gambier, South FIGURE 2.54 Coniferous plantations on the South Island, New Zealand.
Australia, Australia. Photo courtesy of Donald L. Grebner. Photo courtesy of Donald L. Grebner.
The slow growth of native tree species and the general

domestic demand for wood resources prompted New
Zealand forest managers to search alternative tree
species for afforestation purposes. A variety of species
such as black walnut, redwood, and others were planted,
but the most successful species was radiata pine. About
80% of the land is privately owned (the remainder is
managed by the state), and forests considered to be
industrially managed are to a large extent controlled by
foreign companies. Douglas-fir has been planted at higher
eleva tions on the South Island and eucalypts have also
been planted there. However, currently radiata pine forests
occupy 90% of the plantation area, while Douglas-fir
forests occupy about 6% (New Zealand Ministry of Agri
culture and Forestry 2009). The remaining 4% is distrib
uted among a variety of tree species, including eucalypts.
As a result of reforestation and afforestation efforts, much century, tourism has become a significant sector of
of the country is composed of coniferous or mixed economic importance to the country.
coniferous-deciduous forests. Currently, New Zealand is a
net exporter of wood products, which are therefore
important to the economy. Exports are primarily directed to 2.7.3 Papua New Guinea
Australia, Japan, and Korea (New Zealand Ministry of Papua New Guinea is a nation in the South Pacific,
Agriculture and Forestry 2009). Since the late twentieth located north of Australia, that occupies the eastern half of
the island of New Guinea and a number of smaller islands close to the 30 million ha (74 million ac) of forest area
to the east (Figure 2.52). This nation has over 800 suggested by the World Resources Institute (2003).
indigenous languages and is currently experi encing rapid Currently, 40–65% of the original forest cover still exists
population growth. Early inhabitants were Austronesian (United Nations Department of Economic and Social
people. Since about the sixteenth century, a series of Affairs 2008). A 1991 Forestry Act defined two objectives
countries, including Australia, Germany, Portugal, and for the forests of Papua New Guinea: recognition of
Spain, have claimed or adminis tered parts of the current forests as renewable natural resources and utilization of
country. Independence was gained from Australia in 1975. these resources to obtain economic growth (Figure 2.55).
The standard of living in Papua New Guinea is very low A number of subsequent regulations have stressed other
compared to devel oped countries and the major land use aspects of forest management, including conservation,
is subsistence based agriculture. Forests are within the reforestation, and export of wood products. Individual tree
tropical biome and are generally considered to fall into four selection logging is the main silvicultural practice and, of
groups include moist forests, montane forests, savannas the over 200 tree species found here, some of the
or woodlands, and tropical rainforests (International Trop commonly harvested species are eucalypts, kwila (Intsia
ical Timber Organization 2006). For the most part, forests bijuga), and taun (Pometia pinnata). Butterflies, rattan, and
are composed of broadleaved evergreen or semidecidu sandalwood oil are important NTFPs (International
ous tree species. Some forest areas are regularly flooded Tropical Timber Organization 2006). It is believed that
with either freshwater or saltwater. many of the plant species that exist in the interior region of
Nearly 97% of the land is owned by communities or the island of New Guinea have yet to be discovered and
cooperatives, while the remaining 3% is owned by the documented.
government (White and Martin 2002). Of the over 45
million ha of land area (almost 112 million ac; Table 2.7),
some estimates suggest that there are only 7 million ha
(about 17 million ac) of operable forest area, with
SUMMARY
With the basic socioeconomic, land, and forest infor
FIGURE 2.55 Hikers traversing the Kokoda Track, Papua New Guinea,
mation for world regions presented in this chapter, an
which was a battlefield during World War II. Photo courtesy of Luke
Brindley, through Wikimedia Commons. understanding of the relative availability of forest
resources (forest area, forest cover, forest area change,
10million ha (about 25million ac) being unsuitable owing to and per capita forest area), demands placed on these
mountainous or swampy terrain (Brunton 1998). The resources (population and per capita GDP), and result ing
amount of forest cover is around 63% (Table 2.7), which is outcomes (forest area change) should be apparent. While
it may have been mentioned in passing, little
SUMMARY 71
emphasis was placed on the current economic climate of United States, with a per capita GDP of US$46,400 (Table
different countries and the effect of a populace’s stan dard 2.1). While not without its own environmental problems, it
of living on the character of today’s forest resources. One can be argued that both public and private forests in the
measure of economic climate, the per capita gross United States have now been sustainably managed for
domestic product (GDP), is a useful indi cator of economic decades (depending on your definition of sustainability),
wealth or standard of living. The GDP represents the and deforestation and forest decline are not currently an
market value of final goods and services produced per issue. On the contrary, the area of forests has been
person in a country and it is measured as either the sum increasing in recent years. Because economic and social
of income or the sum of expenditures. In essence, it resources are available for adequate conserva tion and
represents the income and expenditures of the average protection efforts, most forest resources are used
person in the country, and it is used by economists to efficiently in order to minimize waste. In addition,
compare the standard of living over time and across affordable alternatives to traditional forest products also
countries. For international comparisons, GDP is exist. As a result, the overall sustainability of forests and
expressed at purchasing power parity (PPP) prices to natural resources is not as great a concern here as it may
account for the differences in the cost of living in different be in other countries.
countries. In assessing the forest or natural resource character of
The relevance of using per capita GDP in considering a country, broad economic measures are not without
the state of forest resources may be significant. In exam limitations, and one limitation particularly relevant to
ining global occurrences of environmental problems, it forestry is that some economic measures, such as GDP,
could be argued that they are much more common in do not sufficiently account for environmental quality.
poorer countries that have lower per capita GDP. Nigeria, Consider, for example, virgin tropical forests in Indonesia
with per capita GDP of US$2,100, is an example of a very which, if left alone, hardly contribute to the production of
poor country experiencing rampant deforesta tion (Table goods and services of the country’s GDP. However, tree
2.5). Poor people often have no choice but to rely on harvesting and the eventual
forests for their basic subsistence needs. In poor destruction of native forests in order to establish timber or
countries, forests are the main source of food, wood, and agricultural (e.g., palm oil) plantations may actually result
many other of life’s necessities. With no other option, in an increase in the country’s GDP. While in general
forests may be cleared in order to grow food. Human economic growth is relatively good for a country mired in
poverty levels, combined with expanding human popu poverty, natural resources may be overcon sumed to
lations, can thus influence the character of forests and stimulate and maintain economic advances. China, for
natural resources. At the other end of the spectrum is the example, has enjoyed sustained high economic growth
rates since the 1990s, but environ mental costs have also supply problems, some tree species have been used for
been extremely high. Only in recent years has China afforestation purposes outside of their native range. These
moved decisively to protect the environment. The decisions (good or bad) were made by people with
limitations of some economic measures for assessing the concerns and knowledge we may not fully understand. As
forest or natural resource character of a country have a result, there may be times when we need to ponder an
prompted the development of the field of green issue thoroughly before challenging the decisions made by
accounting, which allows the incorpo ration of others. In addition, natural forest type distributions may
environmental assets into GDP calculations. have been greatly affected by a diverse set of events in
Understanding the different forest regions of the world the last two or three centuries. Anthropogenic events
helps us understand how our personal lives might be (conflicts and economic growth) have arguably been the
interwoven with global resources and contem porary primary factor in these changes. Contemporary thought on
economic, environmental, and social issues. This climate change also suggests that the natural range of
understanding broadens perspectives, can lead to some tree species will change as temperatures and
improved outcomes for complex forest and natural precipitation patterns change. The countries por trayed in
resource management problems in local and regional this chapter are only meant to provide a sense of the
areas, and can facilitate greater career opportunities as forested areas and forest-related issues that are, or have
time passes. As illustrated in this chapter, there are many been, posed on each continent. The short list of countries
different forest types (and associated tree species) around mentioned in this chapter is not intended to indicate that
the world, and in many cases these have been used to natural resource issues of other countries are irrelevant
create products we use every day. In effect, our demand nor to diminish the importance of forestry and natural
for certain products can affect the character and condition resources issues in the omitted countries. With sufficient
of forests in other places where these products arise. As time, one could write a substantive forest description for
you may have gathered, in response to regionalized most of the other countries in the world (see Question 1).
72 2. FOREST REGIONS OF THE WORLD(b) the opponents;
QUESTIONS movie portrayed.

(4) Daily news. Using a national newspaper such as the New
(1) Characterizing another country. Select a country that was York Times, Wall Street Journal, Washington Post, or
not highlighted in this chapter. Using your library, USA Today, identify news articles concerning a social
published papers, and Internet searches, develop an oral conflict in a foreign country. Do this over a period of a
presentation that describes week. In a short, one-page memorandum, describe (a) the
(a) the country’s developmental history; situation;
(b) the extent of forest resources within the country; (c) (c) statistics that describe the characteristics and effects
the types of forest regions within the country; (d) the tree of the event; and
species one might expect to find; (e) the uses of the (d) the connections or consequences, direct or indirect, for
country’s forests and natural resources; forestry or natural resources.
(f) the ownership pattern of land within the country; and
(g) the policies that guide the uses of the forests and
natural resources. References
(2) Adventurous tree species. Select a tree species you were
unaware of prior to reading the country profiles. Write a Anderson, D.A., Smith, W.A., 1976. Forests and forestry. The Interstate
short essay about this tree species. In this essay, discuss Printers & Publishers, Inc., Danville, IL, 432 p.
Anderson, P.M., Brubaker, L.B., 1994. Vegetation history of north central
(a) the native habitat where the species originated; (b) Alaska: A mapped summary of late-quaternary pollen data. Quaternary
why the tree is located in a different part(s) of the world; Science Reviews 13, 71–92.
(c) the climatic conditions the species needs to grow Australian Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Bureau of
effectively; Rural Sciences, 2010a. Australia’s forests at a glanceddata to 2009.
Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Bureau of Rural
(d) the type of soils and topographic position in which the
Sciences, Canberra, Australia. http://adl.brs.gov.au/anrdl/
species will more commonly be found; metadata_files/pe_brs90000004181.xml (accessed 26.07.2011).
(e) the uses of the bark, leaves, seeds, and wood of the Australian Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Bureau of
tree species; and Rural Sciences, 2010b. Australian forest profiles. Department of
Agriculture. Fisheries and Forestry, Bureau of Rural Sciences,
(f) the nesting, roosting, or foraging opportunities the
Canberra, Australia. http://www.daff.gov.au/brs/publications/
species provides for wildlife. series/forest-profiles (accessed 26.07.2010).
(3) Movies and threatened species. Locate information about Baker, P.J., Scowcroft, P.G., 2005. Stocking guidelines for the endemic
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endangered or threatened plant or animal species, or a 610–624.
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large forested area facing a crisis. Develop a short
The forest concessions in Brazil. Journal of Policy Modeling 32, 488–
summary that describes the issues noted below and 504.
discuss your findings with a small group of others who Barnes, B.V., Zak, D.R., Denton, S.R., Spurr, S.H., 1998. Forest Ecology,
have performed the same analysis of other species or fourth ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY, 792 p. Barrett, T.M.,
forested areas. Include Christensen, G.A., 2011. Forests of southeast and south central Alaska,
2004–2008. US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific
(a) the resource of interest and the area of the world
Northwest Research Station, Portland, OR, General Technical Report
where it is situated; PNW-835. 155 p.
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(c) whether any effort is under way to prevent a loss; and the United States: 1600–2100. Journal of Environmental Quality 35,
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(d) information that contradicts the accuracy of what the
Bocco, G., Rosete, F., Bettinger, P., Vela´zquez, A., 2001. Developing a Brunton, B.D., 1998. Forest loss in Papua New Guinea. In: Compen dium of
GIS program in rural Mexico. Journal of Forestry 99 (6), 14–19. Boucher, discussion papers in the Oceania region. Pacific Bioweb, Nadi, Fiji.
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INTRODUCTION

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON

First edition 2013

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Typeset by TNQ Books and Journals Pvt Ltd.

Printed and bound in United States of America

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-386901-2.00001-4 Copyright 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

2 1. A BRIEF HISTORY OF FORESTRY AND NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

stream (perennially flowing, intermittent, or ephemeral)

forests can be viewed as factories storing carbon, gener

Deer White-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus Mule deer Odocoileus hemionus

Wolf Gray wolf Canis lupus

Snake Eastern diamondback rattlesnake Crotalus adamanteus

Chipmunk Eastern chipmunk Tamias striatus Siberian chipmunk Eutamias sibiricus

is amenable to the creation of many simple and useful

a natural process, since resources may be considered

FIGURE 1.14 Excavation of an ancient corduroy road near Ora

Covering nearly one-third of the Earth’s landmasses

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-386901-2.00002-6 Copyright 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

22 2. FOREST REGIONS OF THE WORLD

2.1.1 United States of America

Other countries or territories (28)c North and Central America (total)b

a wide variety of forest management systems. State

Product Hardwood federal ownership. Forty-four Minnesota is privately owned,

found in the understory. Chaparral and oak woodlands are

FIGURE 2.12 Pine forests in Mexico. Photo courtesy of Gustavo Perez-

literacy rates (Pool et al. 2002). Along with the creation

38 2. FOREST REGIONS OF THE WORLD

provides a framework for SFM and classifies land into

FIGURE 2.20 Countries in South America. Modified image from

TABLE 2.3 Demographic and

2.3.1 Argentina Viceroyalty of Peru, a Spanish colony. Argentina declared

Mapuche cultures shaped the Chilean landscape mainly

plays an important role in the economy, as a recent esti 2.3.5 Colombia

TABLE 2.4 Demographic and Physiographic Data for European Countries a

FIGURE 2.30 Countries in Europe. Modified image from PresentationMaps.com.

over 51 million ac) that now comprise Belarus, temperate

FIGURE 2.31 Mountain forests of the eastern Alps south of Vienna in

FIGURE 2.33 Forests typical of southeastern Finland. Photo cour tesy of

2.4.5 Russian Federation

FIGURE 2.35 Russian forest situated on the northwestern border with

FIGURE 2.36 Pyrenean oak (Quercus pyrenaica) forest in central Spain.

the current regulatory framework for the management and

2.4.7 United Kingdom

FIGURE 2.39 Countries in Asia. Modified image from PresentationMaps.com.

TABLE 2.5 Demographic and Physiographic Data for Asian Countries a

Loa People’s Democratic Republic 6 23,080 57,031 68 0.49 2.1

Hindu, and Islamic cultures. The Dutch colonized

2.6.1 Democratic Republic of the Congo

FIGURE 2.45 Countries in Africa. Modified image from PresentationMaps.com.

TABLE 2.6 Demographic and Physiographic Data for African Countries a

Democratic Republic of the Congo 64 226,705 560,188 68 0.20 0.3

United Republic of Tanzania 42 88,580 218,881 38 1.16 1.3

codified in a number of acts, decrees, laws, regulations,

rainforests (Figure 2.47); moist and dry deciduous and

2.6.4 South Africa

66 2. FOREST REGIONS OF THE WORLD

FIGURE 2.52 Countries in Oceania. Modified image from PresentationMaps.com.

The slow growth of native tree species and the general

QUESTIONS movie portrayed.

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