Unusual Pet Care Vol1-4

Unusual
Pet Care
VOLUME I
REVIEWED BY
PETER FISHER, DVM
Rabbits, Ferrets, Hamsters, Rats, Gerbils, Chinchillas, Degus

Virginia opossums, Skunks, Fennec foxes, Nonhuman primates
Pionus parrots, Canaries, Swans, Box turtles, Leopard geckos
Ball pythons, Chameleons, Nile monitors and Giant spiders
Rabbit
Pet Care
Adapted from Exotic DVM, Volume 3.1 © Zoological Education Network, 2005
Teresa A. Bradley, DVM

Behavior, Sexing and reproduction
Edited by
Vital statistics, Housing, Diet Peter Fisher, DVM
Restraint, Blood collection

Common disorders, Zoonotic potential
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Rabbits
PET APPEAL/BEHAVIOR
Quiet animals.
Require relatively little space.
Engaging personalities.
Because rabbits are most active in the morning and early
evening, they are appropriate pets for people who work
during the day.
Rabbits are generally affectionate and playful and bond
quickly with their owner.
Rabbits are highly intelligent and need attention and
mental stimulation to thrive.
It is best when they are housed together as bonded pairs
and trios rather than as single pets.
Although typically not aggressive, hostile behaviors can
be seen when rabbits are frightened, in pain or expressing
territoriality (especially around other rabbits to which they
are not bonded).
VITAL STATISTICS
SEXING AND REPRODUCTION
Life span 6-9+ years Dentition 2 small peg teeth behind
Rabbits can be sexed by applying gentle pressure above Body weight (breeds vary) upper incisors, all
the genitalia. Adult male 2-5 kg open-rooted; incisors
Adult female 2-6 kg grow 10-12 cm/year
The penis will appear as a rounded protrusion with a flat
Birth weight 30-80 g Dental formula I 2/1 C 0/0 P 3/2 M 3/3
end and circular hole (urethra).
Rectal temperature 101.3-104.0°F Age of sexual maturity
The vulva has a more slit-like appearance with a pointed (38.5-40.0°C) Males 22-25 weeks
protrusion. Respiratory rate 30-60 bpm Females 22-25 weeks
Neonatal and juvenile rabbits can be more difficult to Heart rate 180-250 bpm Estrus cycle induced ovulators
sex, but after approximately 3 months of age the testes Blood volume 55-70 ml/kg Gestation 30-33 days
descend into hairless scrotal sacs located cranial to the Food consumption 50 g/kg/day Litter size 4-12 kits
penis. Water consumption 50-100 ml/kg/day Weaning 4-6 weeks
2
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Rabbits
MALE FEMALE There are medical and behavioral reasons to have rabbits
altered.
Neutered male rabbits are less territorial, mark less with
both urine and feces and fight less with other rabbits.
Unspayed female rabbits tend to be more territorial, even
showing aggression and irritability toward their owners
when their hormones are fluctuating. Unspayed female
rabbits over the age of 2 years have an extremely high
rate of reproductive and mammary neoplasia.
Rabbits should be spayed or neutered when they are
approximately 4-6 months old, but older rabbits in good
health are also good surgical candidates.
HOUSING
Wire cages are preferable over aquariums, as they
Wire cages provide better ventilation, provide better ventilation and thereby prevent the
and feeding rabbits from an elevated
box prevents contamination. build-up of ammonia levels.
Cages should have narrower wire spacing on the bottom
to protect feet from falling through.
Rabbits kept in wire-bottomed cages should have a
platform made of wood, cardboard or hay to protect their
feet from constant wire pressure.
Floor space should be at least three times the stretched
out length of the rabbit’s adult size.
Exercise pens can be created with baby gates or standing
pens (electric cords and other hazards must be removed).
Recycled newspaper products (fiber or pellets), shredded
paper towels or newspapers, straw or hay may be used
J. & R. Abbott
as bedding materials.
Pine and cedar chips may cause respiratory and
dermatologic problems and have been associated with
3
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Rabbits
elevated liver enzymes.

Clumping clay or corncob litters should not be used,
because they may be ingested and cause gastrointestinal
stasis or obstruction.
All rabbits should be allowed to exercise in a rabbit-safe
area several times per week.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENRICHMENT
D. Heishman
D. Heishman
Providing a variety of rabbit-safe toys will encourage Providing a variety of rabbit-safe Straw or hay may be used
exercise and decrease boredom. distractions and toys will encourage as a bedding material.
The best and safest toys are readily available and exercise and decrease boredom.
inexpensive, including paper towel/toilet paper rolls and
untreated cardboard boxes. Vegetables can be hidden to
Unlimited amounts of
allow rabbits to “forage” for food for mental stimulation.
grass hay should be
Sturdy hard plastic toys that are made for large birds or offered on a daily basis.
dogs and an untreated wood box with loose straw provide
diversions. A tunnel or hidebox will simulate burrows.
DIET
A diet consisting of only commercial pellets will often
lead to overeating, diarrhea and obesity.
Adding less digestible fiber, such as hay and leafy green
vegetables, can significantly improve overall health and
aid in maintaining gastrointestinal and dental health.
Hay: Unlimited amounts of grass hay should be offered
on a daily basis. Alfalfa is suitable for young rabbits, but
adults should eat only grass hays, such as timothy,
orchard grass, oat, meadow or brome hay.
Pellets: An adult rabbit should be offered ¼ cup of high
quality rabbit pellets per 5 lbs (2.27 kg) body weight per
4
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Rabbits
day. Juveniles can be fed unlimited pellets and hay with a

small amount of green leafy vegetables. Timothy-based
pellets are recommended for adult rabbits.
Vegetables: A minimum of 1 cup of fresh vegetables
(mostly green leafy vegetables) for each 4 lbs (1.81 kg)
body weight should be provided daily. One or more of the
following fresh vegetables should be offered twice daily:
• Collard greens, endive, dandelion greens and flowers
(no pesticides), mustard greens, parsley, snow peas,
romaine lettuce (no iceberg lettuce), red or green leaf
lettuce, watercress, basil, bok choy, broccoli (mostly
stems and leaves), cilantro, clover, escarole, radicchio
and beet, carrot and radish tops.
• Spinach, kale, cabbage and other vegetables high in
oxalates should be fed only occasionally.
Fruits: Fruits should be limited to 1 Tbs or less per 5 lbs
(2.27 kg) of body weight per day (none if dieting or if
loose stools are a problem). High fiber fruits include
apples, blueberries, melon, papaya and strawberries.
Water: Fresh water should be provided daily in either
easily reachable sipper bottles or sturdy crocks. Contain-
D. Heishman
ers should be washed with hot soapy water weekly.
Adding less digestible fiber can
significantly improve overall health and
possibly increase the life span of rabbits. RESTRAINT
A towel or bath mat should always be placed on the
examination table for traction.
Rabbits may be lifted gently, but firmly, by scooping the
rear end with one hand as the rabbit is grasped behind
the front legs with the other hand.
If the rear legs are not well supported, the rabbit can
break its own back or legs by kicking.
5
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Rabbits HEMATOLOGY
The rabbit can be held in a “C” position.
The scruff alone or ears should not be used to lift a rabbit. REFERENCE RANGES
In order to take the temperature, clip the toenails or to RBC 4.0-8.0 x 106/µl
facilitate examination of the ventrum and genitalia, the PCV 30-50%
rabbit can be held in a “C” position. The rabbit is gently WBC 5.2-12.5 x 103/µl
but firmly picked up with one hand behind the front legs, Hemoglobin 10.0-17.4 g/dl
with the back positioned against the handler and the rear
Neutrophils 20-75%
legs supported with the other hand.
Lymphocytes 30-85%
Covering the eyes and head with a towel may soothe an
Eosinophils 1-4%
anxious rabbit.
Monocytes 1-4%
Basophils 1-7%
BLOOD COLLECTION
Platelets 250-650 x 103/µl
Venipuncture can be performed at multiple sites:
• Lateral saphenous (author’s preference) BIOCHEMICAL
• Cephalic vein REFERENCE RANGES
• Jugular (under anesthesia) Total protein 5.4-8.3 g/dl
• Marginal ear vein, central ear artery (thrombosis with Albumin 2.4-4.6 g/dl
subsequent necrosis and sloughing may occur) Glucose 75-155 g/dl
BUN 13-29 mg/dl
Adapted from photographs in Beynon PG,

Cooper JE (eds): BSAVA Manual of Exotic
INJECTION SITES Creatinine 0.5-2.5 mg/dl
IM - epaxial muscles, quadriceps: 0.25-1.5 ml Sodium 131-155 mEq/L
Pets. Cheltenham, BSAVA, 1991.

(depending on rabbit’s size) Potassium 3.6-6.9 mEq/L
SC - abundant loose skin (over shoulders is preferred): Chloride 92-112 mEq/L
up to 100 ml at a time in larger rabbits Phosphorous 2.3-6.9 mg/dl
IV - lateral saphenous, cephalic Calcium 5.6-12.5 mg/dl
ALT 14-80 U/L
THERAPEUTICS
AST 14-113 U/L
Drugs that should not be used in rabbits include oral Alkaline phos 4-16 U/L
penicillin, lincomycin, erythromycin, clindamycin, Cholesterol 10-80 mg/dl
To carry a rabbit, the animal’s head should
cephalosporins and vincomycin. Corticosteroids should be be tucked into the handler’s arm and the Total bilirubin 0.0-0.7 mg/dl
used with caution in rabbits. handler’s forearms used to provide support
both along the back and beneath the rabbit. Amylase 166.5-314.5 U/L
6
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Rabbits
When using a facemask, the

ANESTHETIC CONSIDERATIONS
rabbit’s head and neck must Rabbits require intraoperative and postoperative
not be overly flexed.
analgesia.
Teresa Lightfoot, DVM, Dipl ABVP-Avian Practice

The head should be elevated slightly when in dorsal
recumbency.
In ventral recumbency, overflexion of the neck should be
avoided to prevent restriction of the airway; instead, the
head should be kept level and extended.
A rabbit’s tongue should not be pulled out of the mouth
for an oral exam, intubation or dentistry in order to avoid
trauma from sharp tooth edges.
MOST COMMON DISORDERS

Gastrointestinal stasis or obstruction
Rear limb paresis or paralysis
Cuterebra
When dental disease is suspected, an Dental malocclusion and dental disease
oral examination should be completed Uterine adenocarcinoma, mammary tumors
under general anesthesia, such as
injectable anesthetic used here
Uterine hyperplasia
Pseudopregnancy
Enteritis/enterotoxemia
Abscesses
Skin mites (Cheyletiella), ear mites (Psoroptes cuniculi)
and fleas
Urolithiasis
Encephalitozoonosis
Vittorio Capello, DVM

Hypercalciuria/urinary sludge
Ulcerative pododermatitis
Vertebral fractures
Otitis interna and media
7
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Rabbits
Torticollis WHAT TO LOOK FOR IN A HEALTHY RABBIT

Cystitis
Fractures
Respiratory infections
Pasteurellosis Clean ears
Dense, clean,
Obesity unmatted fur
Heat stroke Proper alignment
of teeth
Diarrhea
Moist dermatitis from perineal soiling
Antibiotic toxicity/dysbiosis
Renal disease
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
A wiggling, dry nose
Dermatophytosis
Ectoparasitism Clean feet free of sores
Pasteurellosis
D. Heishman
Salmonellosis
An alert and The fecal pellet should be well
inquisitive disposition formed; softening of the pellet
REFERENCES can indicate enteritis or diarrhea
1. Capello V, Gracis M: Rabbit and Rodent Dentistry Handbook. Lake
Worth, Zoological Education Network, 2005, www.exoticdvm.com
2. Carpenter JW, Mashima TY, Rupiper DJ: Exotic Animal Formulary, UNHEALTHY RABBITS
2nd ed. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 2001.
3. Harkness J, Wagner, J: The Biology and Medicine of Rabbits and
Rodents 4th ed. Baltimore, Williams and Wilkins, 1995.
4. Hillyer EV, Quesenberry KE: Ferrets, Rabbits and Rodents - Clinical
Medicine and Surgery. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 1997.
5. Johnson-Delaney C: Exotic Companion Medicine Handbook for
Veterinarians. Lake Worth, Zoological Education Network, 2000,
www.exoticdvm.com
6. Quesenberry KE, Carpenter JW: Ferrets, Rabbit, and Rodents -
Clinical Medicine and Surgery, 2nd ed. Philadelphia, WB Saunders
Kathy Smith
Co, 2004.
Rabbit with GI stasis Rabbit with labored breathing

8
Ferret
Pet Care
© Zoological Education Network, 2005
Kristina M. Kiefer,
Behavior, Vital statistics, Scent and Dan Johnson, DVM
Sexing, Housing, Diet, Restraint Edited by

Peter Fisher, DVM
Blood collection, Physical exam
Zoonotic potential, Common disorders
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Ferrets
Ferrets (Mustela putorius furo) belong to the family
Mustelidae; their relatives include weasels, mink and
otters. The ferret is suspected to have originated from
the European polecat (Mustela putorius) or steppe
polecat (Mustela eversmannii). They were probably
domesticated for rodent and rabbit control over 1900
years ago. In the US, the ferret is used primarily as a
companion animal. Regulations on ferret ownership
are controversial. In some states and cities ferret
ownership is illegal, and a license is required in others.
PET APPEAL/BEHAVIOR
Joyful, interactive and entertaining.
Mischievous thieves with intense exploratory behavior.
Independent, rarely sit still to be cuddled or petted.
Relatively easy to care for.
Quiet compared to other popular companion animals.
Sounds ferrets emit include “clucking” (giggle), hissing
(exuberance, anger), squeaking (pain, surprise, fighting)
and rarely, screaming (extremely frightened, pain). VITAL STATISTICS
Ferrets are rarely aggressive to humans, and biting Lifespan 5-8 years Age of sexual maturity 6-12 months
behavior is often associated with a lack of proper Body weight Adult male 0.8-3.0 kg Estrus cycle Polyestrous, prolonged,
socialization. Time and patient socializing will usually Adult female 0.7-1.2 kg induced ovulators
resolve the issue. Body temperature 100-104°F Gestation 42 days
(37.7-40.0°C) Litter size 7-14
Ferrets are naturally curious and investigate novel items
Respiratory rate 33-36 bpm Weaning 6-8 weeks
with their mouths; therefore, they should not be left Heart rate 200-255 bpm Food consumption 20-40 g/adult/day
unsupervised with infants or small children. Dental formula I 3/3, C 1/1, P 4/3, M 1/2 (dry matter)
Ferrets should not have access to other small pets, as
dogs and cats are predators by nature.
2
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Ferrets
Anal saculectomy (“descenting”)

Ferrets are liable to steal items and stash them in
is performed on most ferrets unknown or difficult-to-reach areas.
while they are very young. They are particularly fond of soft rubber items, which they
may tear aggressively with their teeth and ingest.
SCENT OF THE FERRET

While the majority of ferrets in the US are descented
(removal of the anal sacs) at the time of neutering, a
characteristic musky odor always remains.
Some consider anal saculectomy (“descenting”) as
unnecessary because anal gland secretions are not
responsible for all of the ferret’s musky odor.
The sebaceous secretions of the skin produce the overall
scent of the ferret and are seasonally influenced.
Bathing a ferret provides only temporary relief. A better
alternative is to regularly change the ferret’s bedding.
MALE FEMALE SEXING AND REPRODUCTION

Ferrets are easily sexed.
Males (“hobs”) can be identified by locating the preputial
opening on the ventral abdomen, midway between the
umbilicus and anus.
In normal males, a distinct white line may be identified
coursing along the prepuce caudally, and the os penis
can be readily palpated. Testicles, if present, are located
just ventral and cranial to the anus.
Females (“jills”) have a short anogenital distance, with a
distinct vulva.
Normal females have a small vulva located approximately
1 cm ventral to the anus.
Most ferrets in the US are altered and descented before
3
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Ferrets
Ferrets will sleep in
6 weeks of age, prior to being sold as pets. hammocks or in blankets.
Jills are induced ovulators with a prolonged estrus. If they
do not ovulate, females will remain in estrus and may
develop aplastic anemia.
Jills must be spayed if not intended for breeding.
Many ferret breeders and owners delay gonadectomy until
their ferrets reach puberty.
There may be a link between the age at neutering and
the age of development of adrenal disease in that a lack
of negative feedback from gonadal hormones, as a result
of neutering, results in persistently elevated gonadotropic
luteinizing hormone (LH), which may induce adrenal
hyperplasia and/or neoplasia via functional LH receptors.
An aberrant tumor suppressor gene has also been
implicated in the development of adrenal hyperplasia and
subsequent neoplasia.
HOUSING
Minimum cage size should be 22 x 20 x 16 inches (55 x
50 x 40 cm) for each ferret.
There are many cages designed for ferrets with multiple
levels and constructed of galvanized metal and plastic.
Floors made of hard plastic are easiest to clean.
Housing and temporary housing at the veterinary clinic
must be “ferret proofed” to prevent escape.
Cage bedding (e.g., blankets, old sweatshirts) must be
changed and washed regularly in order to control odor.
Ferrets require at least a few hours of exercise outside of
the cage each day.
The less time a ferret spends outside the cage, the more
space and enrichment is needed inside the cage.
4
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Anywhere a ferret’s head can Clothes dryer exhaust tubing may provide Ferrets
fit, the ferret is likely to follow. a source of entertainment for the ferret.
If ferrets are given free roam, anywhere that a ferret is
allowed access must be “ferret proofed.”
Reclining chairs and rockers pose a danger, as the ferrets
are prone to climb into the chair mechanisms.
Given the opportunity, ferrets will venture outside or get
into hidden spaces in walls and cabinets. Ductwork and
small holes need to be identified and covered.
Rooms with doors that have direct access to the outside
are not ideal play areas for these animals.
Most ferrets can be litter box trained.
Wood shavings (not cedar) or pelleted fiber materials are
the best litter material.
Ferrets will sleep in hammocks or in blankets.
Hard plastic tunnels and clothes dryer exhaust tubing can
provide a source of entertainment for the ferret.
Ferrets tolerate temperatures of 59-77°F (15-25°C),
Ferrets require at least a few hours of humidity of 45-55% and 12-16 hours of light a day.
Most ferrets can be litter box trained.
exercise outside of the cage each day.
DIET
The ferret is an obligate carnivore with a short intestinal
tract that lacks a cecum and ileocolic valve.
GI transit time is as short as 3 hours from stomach to
rectum. This rapid transit time along with the ferret’s lack
of intestinal brush border enzymes contribute to an
inefficiency in absorption. As a result, they are not able to
absorb enough calories from carbohydrates, and dairy
products may cause soft stools.
A ferret’s diet should contain 30-35% animal protein and
15-20% fat and be low in fiber.
There are many formulated, high-quality ferret diets
available. These should be based on animal proteins as
5
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Ferrets Scruffing provides adequate restraint for minor procedures. HEMATOLOGY

the principal ingredient(s) with limited amounts of cereal REFERENCE RANGES
grains and sugars. WBC 7.0-9.2 x 103/µl
Sugary treats, such as raisins, bananas and other fruits, RBC 9.3-9.69 x 106/µl
should be avoided. Hct 48.4-49.8%
Free choice feeding is recommended due to the ferret’s Hgb 16.2-16.8 g/dl
short gastrointestinal transit time and high metabolic rate.
Neut 47-50%
Unless fed very high fat foods, ferrets generally eat as
Lymph 45-48%
much as they want without becoming obese.
Mono 1.0-1.19%
Water should be available at all times. A water bottle with
a sipper tube is best, as ferrets often play with a bowl. Eosin 3.0-3.5%
Ferrets can obstruct on inappropriate food items, such as Baso 0-0.49
carrots and papaya. Plate 730-766 x 103/µl
BIOCHEMISTRY
RESTRAINT REFERENCE RANGES
For maximum restraint, scruffing is best. The amount of Total protein 5.9-6.0 g/dl
pinch pressure used is more important than the amount Alb 3.4-3.5 g/dl
of skin utilized. Scruffing works best when the body is Glob 2.4-2.6 g/dl
suspended, but it is also effective in recumbency. Gluc 93-134 mg/dl
Scruffing a ferret slows the heart rate and usually results
BUN 10-45 mg/dl
in a yawn, which aids in oral examination. Supporting the hind legs and Creat 0.4-0.09 mg/dl
When minimal restraint is required, it is adequate for one lower back can add additional
restraint for physical exam. Ca 4.0-9.1 mg/dl
hand to encircle the ferret’s body at the level of the
Phos 8.0-11.8 mg/dl
shoulders while suspending the animal.
Na 137-162 mEq/L
High-fat treats, such as Nutrical or Ferretone, can be
K 4.2-7.7 mEq/L
used as a distraction during restraint.
Cl 102-125 mEq/L
BLOOD COLLECTION AND INJECTION SITES Total bili 0.2 mg/dl
Larger blood volumes can be collected from the cranial ALT 138-210 IU/L
vena cava, accessed at the sternal notch. AST 76-97 IU/L
The cephalic and saphenous veins can be used for Alk phos 31-84 IU/L
smaller blood volumes. Cholesterol 158-183 mg/dl
6
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Ferrets
IV catheters are usually placed in the cephalic vein.

Injections may be given subcutaneously (shoulders,
flanks), intravenously (cephalic or saphenous veins) and
intramuscularly (quadriceps or biceps femoris).
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
Exams should include an evaluation of the ferret’s weight,
dental health and ear canals.
The heart should be evaluated for murmurs, and any signs
of alopecia noted.
For blood collection a 3 cc syringe with a Rectal prolapse is a common presentation in
22 ga, ¾ inch needle is inserted through young ferrets with coccidia infection. Prolapse A thorough abdominal palpation and evaluation of lymph
the notch formed by first rib and the may also occur in ferrets with gastrointestinal nodes is necessary to evaluate for neoplasia and other
manubrium and aimed caudodorsally lymphoma or proliferative bowel disease.
toward the opposite hip, while maintaining
problems, especially as the ferret ages.
negative pressure on the syringe. An ear mite examination is performed if the ferret’s status
is unknown; ear mite infestations are usually subclinical.
A fecal direct smear and flotation are recommended.
Signs of adrenal disease in ferrets include vulvar enlargement, Routine CBC and chemistry exams are recommended in
tail and dorsocaudal alopecia leading to more generalized
alopecia, pruritus and prostatic enlargement. middle-aged and older ferrets.
Ferrets should be immunized against canine distemper virus
(CDV) at 6, 10 and 14 weeks and boostered annually.
Teresa Lightfoot, DVM, Dipl ABVP-Avian Practice

Alopecia
Approved CDV vaccines for ferrets include Fervac-D (United
Vaccine) and Purevax Ferret (Merial).
Rabies vaccination should occur at 3 months, followed by
an annual booster. Imrab (Merial) is the only approved
rabies vaccine for ferrets.
Heartworm preventive is recommended in endemic areas.

Gastrointestinal obstruction (foreign body ingestion,
trichobezoar). Young ferrets are prone to ingestion of toys,
Enlarged vulva
such as foam rubber and latex.
7
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Ferrets
Adrenal disease WHAT TO LOOK FOR IN A HEALTHY FERRET

Traumatic injuries
Cardiomyopathy, congestive heart failure
Bright clear eyes
Pancreatic beta cell tumors (insulinoma) Curious and
and clean teeth
Helicobacter gastroenteritis playful attitude
Inflammatory bowel disease
Lymphoma
Dermal mast cell tumors (behave benignly) Smooth,
Splenomegaly (usually benign) glistening
full coat
Coccidiosis
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
Giardia Dry or slightly
moist nose
Listeria
Salmonella
Campylobacteriosis Clean anus
Cryptosporidium
Tuberculosis (M. avium, M. bovis, M. tuberculinum)
Trim nails Supple, elongated abdomen
Influenza virus A with no abnormal lumps
Rabies
Ectoparasitism
REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

1. Bell J: Ferret nutrition. Vet Clin No Am Exot Anim Pract 2(1):169-192, 1999.
2. Fisher ME, Jacobs DE, Hutchinson ME: Efficacy of imidacloprid on ferrets experimentally infested with the cat flea Ctenocephalides felis. 2nd Intl Flea Symp, Sppl Compend
Contin Educ Pract Vet. 23 (4A), 2001.
3. Fox J: Biology and Diseases of the Ferret. Williams & Willkins, Baltimore, Maryland, 1998.
4. Johnson-Delaney C: Exotic Companion Medicine Handbook. Lake Worth, Zoological Education Network, 2000, www.exoticdvm.com
5. Lloyd M: Ferrets: Health, Husbandry and Diseases. Blackwell Science, Osney Mead, Oxford, 1999.
6. Morrisey JK, Ramer JC: Ferrets, clinical pathology and sample collection. Vet Clin No Am Exot Anim Pract 2:553-564, 1999.
7. Quesenberry K, Carpenter J (eds): Ferrets, Rabbits and Rodents: Clinical Medicine and Surgery. St. Louis, WB Saunders Co, 2004.
8. Shoemaker, et al: Correlation between age at neutering and age at onset of hyperadrenocorticism in ferrets. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2000, pp 195-197.
8
Hamster
Pet Care
Susan Leck, DVM,

Vital statistics, Behavior Dipl ABVP - Canine & Feline
Practice
Blood collection, Common disorders Peter Fisher, DVM
Injection sites, Zoonotic potential

UNUSUAL PET CARE
Hamsters
The most common hamster species maintained as a
pet is the golden or Syrian hamster (Mesocricetus
auratus). Others include the Chinese hamster
(Cricetulus griseus) and Siberian (dwarf winter white or
Djungarian) hamster (Phodopus sungorus). The golden
hamster originates from a very limited range in the
Middle East. Today captive breeding facilities supply
the pet and research laboratory markets.
PET POTENTIAL/BEHAVIOR
Cute pets.
Adapt well to captivity.
Small, do not require a lot of living space.
Relatively inexpensive to maintain.
Can easily become tame with frequent, gentle handling.
Nocturnal animals.
Will not tolerate being held still for long.
Hamsters may bite or show aggression in response to
rough handling, sudden disturbances, being around
VITAL STATISTICS
other hamsters, or when they are pregnant, lactating,
ill or in pain. Life span maximum 3-5 years Estrus cycle length 4 days
in captivity (avg) 1.5-2 years Gestation period 15-18 days
Hamsters should have a set schedule where a consistent
Adult male body weight 80-130 g Litter size 5-9
amount of time and attention is given each day. This is
Adult female body weight 95-150 g Birth weight 2g
especially important for maintaining tameness.
Rectal body temperature 101-103°F Weaning age 20-25 days
Common household dangers include predators (dogs, (38-39.5°C)
Age of sexual maturity
cats) and inappropriate handling by small children. Respiratory rate 35-135 bpm Puberty - male 45-75 days
Heart rate 250-500 bpm Breeding onset - male 10-14 weeks
Blood volume 78 ml/kg Breeding onset - female 6-10 weeks
Dental formula I 1/1 C O/O M 3/3
2
UNUSUAL PET CARE
MALE FEMALE Hamsters
Illustrations from Exotic Companion Medicine

Tip of penis SEXING
Scrotal sac Urethral orifice
Male hamsters have rather large scrotal sacs that give
Vaginal orifice
them a rounded posterior.
Anus Gentle pressure on the abdomen of the male hamster will
Anus
Handbook for Veterinarians

cause the testicles to descend into the sacs.
The female hamster’s posterior is pointed toward the tail.
Males have a greater anogenital distance than females,
and a pointed genital papilla with a round opening.
HOUSING
Syrian golden hamsters are solitary and should not be
housed in multiples under any circumstances.
Many golden hamsters have been injured and killed when
An escape-proof cage with
litter mates were kept together past sexual maturity.
a secure lid is essential.
Hamsters prefer bedded (litter), solid-bottom flooring to
wire flooring.
An escape-proof cage is a necessity, as hamsters can
gnaw through wood, plastic and soft metals.
A secure lid must be provided.
At least 150 square inches of floor space are
recommended.
Solid connector tunnels provide for environmental
enrichment but should be cleaned weekly.
Preferred temperatures are 65-79°F (18-26°C) with young
maintained between 71-75°F (21-24°C).
Relative humidity should be between 40-70%.
The enclosure should be well cleaned at least weekly to
Martha Boden
reduce odors and decrease the likelihood of respiratory or
skin inflammation associated with soiled bedding.
A hide box with deep litter for burrowing is recommended.
3
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Hamsters
Exercise wheels should have
An optimal nesting material is undyed, unscented toilet a solid running surface.
tissue.
The hamster will instinctively manipulate toilet tissue to
simulate the burrow, and it helps the hamster control
local environmental temperature.
Commercial nesting materials (commonly called fluff) are
not recommended because they may lead to intestinal
blockages or strangulated limbs.
Aspen litter shavings are safe, but the oils on cedar
shavings have been anecdotally associated with hair loss
and respiratory disease.
Wheat straw or pelleted, recycled newspaper products
are alternative products for appropriate bedding.
Hamsters are excellent climbers and burrowers and
should be provided with safe outlets for these activities.
They enjoy running in exercise wheels; however, in order Hamsters should be provided with
safe outlets for exercise, such as
to prevent leg injuries, only wheels with a solid running climbing and burrowing.
surface should be used.
A wheel for an adult golden should be at least 8 inches
in diameter.
Wooden chew blocks are rarely effective means for
keeping hamsters’ teeth worn down.
If clear plastic exercise balls are used for the hamster to
explore the home safely, the covers must be secured with
tape to prevent the animal’s escape from the ball.
Exposure to direct sunlight in captivity is not desirable.
Martha Boden
Lab blocks or chew sticks specifically designed for
rodents may be recommended.
4
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Hamsters
Drinking water should be
provided via sipper tubes DIET
Young hamsters should be fed a pelleted diet with a
minimum of 16% protein and 4-5% fat.
Hamsters eat solid food at 7-10 days of age, so food and
water must be accessible for their small size.
Mature adults thrive on a slightly lower protein level
(12-14%).
Treats may include such items as tiny bits of apple (no
seeds or skin), raisins and walnuts.
Drinking water should be provided via sipper tubes.
Martha Boden
The water should be changed daily to ensure that the
tube is functional and not clogged with food.
Water can also be obtained from carrots and other fruits
and vegetables.
Obesity may result from offering fatty seed diets or
feeding too many treats; this may lead to atherosclerosis.
Some water can be obtained The food bowls should be carefully monitored to avoid
from fruits and vegetables.
mistaking seed hulls for whole seeds. Hamsters also tend
to hoard food and hide it, leading to spoilage.
Hamsters pack large quantities of food into their cheek
pouches.
Offering too much fresh produce and not enough fiber
may result in diarrhea.
5
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Hamsters Scruff-of-the-neck grip for picking Two-handed technique for picking

up and restraining a hamster. up and restraining a hamster.
RESTRAINT
Illustrations from Exotic Companion Medicine Handbook for Veterinarians and are adapted by permission from Hoffman
Care must be taken to maintain control of the hamster
and to prevent the handler from being bitten.
Hamsters can be scruffed by the abundant loose skin at
the nape of the neck, held in the hands (if friendly), or
placed in a small container (such as a can).
A small cloth may help restrain the rodent.
RA, Robinson PF, Magalhaes H: The Golden Hamster. Ames, Iowa State University Press, 1968.
BLOOD COLLECTION
Routine hematology testing is seldom done in hamsters
due to the difficulty of obtaining a blood sample.
In research laboratories, the following areas are utilized
for blood collection: toenail clip, tail vein cut, orbital sinus
bleed and cardiac puncture (the animal must be
anesthetized).
Martha Boden
INJECTION SITES
Intravenous: Saphenous vein - difficult, anesthesia
may be required
Intramuscular: Quadriceps, gluteals - may be hard to One-handed hold for restraining a hamster. Picking up and restraining a
restrain (0.1 ml per site) The thumb and third finger grasp the body. hamster with a small container.
Subcutaneous: Easy, abundant loose skin, can inject
3-5 ml
Intraperitoneal: Can inject 3-4 ml in lower right
quadrant
6
UNUSUAL PET CARE
BIOCHEMICAL HEMATOLOGY Hamsters

REFERENCE RANGES REFERENCE RANGES PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
Serum protein 5.9-6.5 g/dl RBC 5-10 x 106/µl
Annual veterinary visits should include a physical exam
Albumin 2.63-4.1 g/dl Hematocrit 36-55% and a review of the diet and husbandry.
Globulin 2.7-4.2 g/dl Hemoglobin 10-16 g/dl Bi-annual or quarterly examinations to assess weight,
AG ratio 0.58-1.24 Leukocytes 6.3-8.9 x 103/µl dental health, nail trimmings and overall health are
Serum glucose 60-150 g/dl Neutrophils 10-42% recommended.
Blood urea nitrogen 10-25 mg/dl Lymphocytes 50-95%
Creatinine 0.91-0.99 mg/dl Eosinophils 0-4.5%
Total bilirubin 0.25-0.6 mg/dl Monocytes 0-3% Obesity/weight loss
Diarrhea (transitory)
Cholesterol 25-135 mg/dl Basophils 0-1%
Wet tail/proliferative ileitis (usually fatal)
Serum calcium 5-12 mg/dl Platelets 200-500 x 106/µl
Bite wounds/trauma
Serum phosphate 3.4-8.2 mg/dl Dermatitis/demodectic mange
Amylase 120-250 SU/dl Cutaneous lymphoma
Alkaline phosphatase 3.2-30.5 IU/L Hyperadrenocortism-associated alopecia
ALT 11.6-35.9 IU/L Sendai virus infection/pneumonia
AST 37.6-168 IU/L Cilia-associated respiratory bacillus
Corynebacterium kutscheri
CPK 0.5-1.9 IU/L The typical clinical sign of “wet tail” is the
liquid, yellowish diarrhea spread on and Malocclusion/cheek pouch impaction
LDH 56-170 IU/L
around the perineal area under the tail. Malnutrition/starvation/dehydration
Sodium 106-146 mEq/L Hairballs/foreign bodies
Potassium 4-5.9 mEq/L Hymenolepis parasitism
Chloride 85.7-112 mEq/L Septicemia or toxemia
Chilling/overheating
Litter abandonment/cannibalism
Amyloidosis/protein-losing nephropathy
Vittorio Capello, DVM

Antibiotic toxicity
Cardiomyopathy/atherosclerosis
Neoplasia
Rectal prolapse
7
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Hamsters FORMUL ARY FOR HAMSTERS

Stroke (with swift and full recovery) Drug Dose
Polycystic disease Oral penicillin or cephalosporin antibiotics should be avoided (may cause entrotoxemia).
Diabetes mellitus in Chinese hamsters Buprenorphine 0.05 mg/kg pre- or intra-operatively SC or IV
Ciprofloxacin 10 mg/kg PO q12h
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL Dexamethasone 0.1-0.6 mg/kg IM
Tularemia- Francisella tularensis Diazepam 3-5 mg/kg IP, IM
Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) Doxycycline 2.5 mg/kg PO q12h
Dermatophytosis (Trichophyton mentagrophytes, Enrofloxacin 5-10 mg/kg PO q12h
Microsporum spp.) Fenbendazole 20 mg/kg PO q24h x 5 days
Salmonellosis Isoflurane Use to effect with oxygen; safe for hamsters
Hymenolepis nana Ivermectin 200-400 mcg/kg PO, repeat in 8-10 days; for demodex
Leptospirosis repeat q5-7 days
Campylobacteriosis Medetomidine 100 mcg/kg SC; light to moderate sedation
Medetomidine + ketamine 0.25 mg/kg (M) + 100 mg/kg (K) IP; surgical anesthesia
REFERENCES Prednisone 0.5-2.0 mg/kg PO
1. Johnson-Delaney C: Exotic Companion Medicine Handbook for Trimethoprim sulfamethoxazole 15-30 mg/kg q12h
www.exoticdvm.com
2. Imber D, Boden M: Personal communication. WHAT TO LOOK FOR IN A HEALTHY HAMSTER
3. Quesenberry KE, Carpenter JW: Ferrets, Rabbits and Rodents -
Clinical Medicine and Surgery, 2nd ed. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Alert, inquisitive Hair coat in good condition (no
Co, 2004. nature hair loss, not greasy or unkempt)
4. Capello V, Gracis M: Rabbit and Rodent Dentistry Handbook. Lake
Worth, Zoological Education Network, 2005. Bright, shiny eyes
Nose and eyes

clear of any
discharge
Nails and teeth
Martha Boden
not overgrown
Males have normal scent glands

(dark patches on their flanks)
8
Rat
Pet Care
Susan Leck, DVM,

Anatomy, Vital statistics Dipl ABVP - Canine & Feline
Practice
Blood collection, Physical exam Peter Fisher, DVM

UNUSUAL PET CARE
Rats
Pet rats are the species Rattus norvegicus. Common
strains/variations of pet rats include albino (white) rats
and hooded rats (black/white or brown/white).
Easy to care for.
Very little odor.
Affectionate and intelligent animals that bond quickly to
their owners; rarely bite.
Albino rats tend to be the most calm and easily handled.
Hooded rats may be more aggressive and active.
Basically nocturnal, but can be active during the day.
Need at least 30 minutes each day for exercise.
Dogs, cats, and ferrets are rats’ predators.
Often difficult to litter-train (fecal).
ANATOMY
Rats are characterized by elongated bodies, short fur, VITAL STATISTICS
small eyes and ears and hairless tails. Life span 2-4 years Sexual maturity 42-65 days
Anatomically, rats have open inguinal canals, a diffuse Body weight adult female 250-300 g Estrus cycle 4-5 days; continuously
adult male 450-520 g polyestrous; postpar-
pancreas, a divided stomach, a large cecum and an os
Body temp 99.5-100.6°F (37.5-38.11°C) tum estrus fertile
penis. Rats do not have gallbladders.
Respiratory rate 70-115 bpm (occurs within 48
Rats do not vomit due to the presence of a limiting ridge Heart rate 240-450 bpm hours of giving birth)
at the junction of the esophagus and stomach. Feces slender, brown pellets
Gestation 21-23 days
Because rats have poor eyesight, they rely on whiskers and Birth weight 6-13 g
Dental Incisors are open-rooted and grow
scent for sensory input and spatial orientation. continuously throughout life (elodont). Litter size 6-20
Mammary gland tissue may extend from over the Molars are closed, permanently Newborns body hair by 1 week of age
rooted (brachyodont). and open eyes at 2 weeks
shoulders to the perianal region.
Dental formula I 1/1 C O/O M 3/3 Weaning 21-42 days
2
UNUSUAL PET CARE
MALE FEMALE Rats
Tip of penis SEXING AND REPRODUCTION

Scrotal sac Urethral orifice
Male rats have a scrotum, making them easily
Vaginal orifice differentiated from female rats.
Anus
The anogenital distance is roughly twice as long in males
as in females.
Only female rats possess nipples.
Anus Rats are communal, and males and females may be
combined in an uncrowded enclosure for breeding.
If a female is not bred by 8 months of age, her pelvis will
fuse and she may have difficulty giving birth later.
Anecdotally, spaying may help to prevent mammary
tumors, which are common in middle-aged to older rats.
Housing should be constructed
of escape-proof wire mesh with
plastic or metal solid flooring HOUSING
Housing should be constructed of escape-proof wire
mesh with plastic or metal solid flooring and should be
large enough to allow nesting, burrowing and exercise.
Minimal enclosure size guidelines for one adult rat are 24”
x 24” x 12” (61 x 61 x 30 cm).
A secure wire screen clamped top or other roof is
necessary to prevent escape.
Ideal room temperature should be 65-80°F (18-26°C).
Ideal humidity should be 40-70%.
Because rats are social and need companionship, they
should be maintained in same sex or altered sex groups.
Suitable substrates include shredded paper (non-inked),
recycled newspaper composite materials or pellets,
Petra Tresbach
hardwood chips or shavings and compressed wheat straw.
Cedar should not be used as litter because it has been
shown to affect microsomal oxidative liver enzymes.
3
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Rats Toys, such as tubes, provide the rat with Small amounts of fresh fruits and vegetables
environmental enrichment and exercise. may be added to the rat’s diet.
Bedding should be a minimum of ¼ to 1 inch deep and
changed at least 1-2 times per week.
Exercise may be provided in the form of a large exercise
wheel and climbing toys.
Housing should be cleaned weekly to minimize respiratory
disease risk.
DIET
Rats are omnivorous rodents.
Rat/rodent pellets provide a complete diet. Recommended
brands include Mazuri, ZuPreem and Oxbow Pet Products.
Small amounts of fresh fruits, vegetables may be added.
Seed-based diets are not recommended as they do not
meet nutritional requirements and predispose to obesity.
Adults require 5-10 g of pellets per 100 g body weight
daily and 10 ml of water per 100 g body weight daily.
Fresh water should be available at all times, ideally
provided via a drinking bottle or sipper tube.
Food consumption should be monitored when new food
is offered because rats may be suspicious of new food. If assistance is not available, rats can be held in polythene restrainers
Illustration from Exotic Companion Medicine

(can be made out of a plastic bag with end cut open for air).
*Adapted from photograph in Beynon PG,

Cooper JE (eds): BSAVA Manual of Exotic
RESTRAINT
Most rats will allow you to pick them up by placing the
Pets. Cheltenham, BSAVA, 1991.

hand firmly over the back and rib cage.

A rat can also be scooped up with both hands.
The head can be restrained with the thumb and
forefinger behind the jaws.
Scruffing the loose skin at the nape of the neck can help
restrain an active rat, but many rats object to this.
Rats may bite aggressively if restrained against their will.
4
UNUSUAL PET CARE
The rat is restrained so that an assistant Rats

can inject into the quadriceps muscles.
HEMATOLOGIC
REFERENCE RANGES BLOOD COLLECTION
RBC 6.76-9.75 x 106/µl For blood collection, remove no more than 10% of total
PCV 37.6-50.6% blood volume (1.3 ml per adult rat).
WBC 6.6-12.6 x 103/µl Tuberculin syringes with 25-27 ga needles can be used
Hemoglobin 11.5-16.1 g/dl to collect small amounts of blood from the lateral
Neutrophils 1.77-3.38 x 103/µl saphenous or lateral tail veins (superficial on either side
Lymphocytes 4.78-9.12 x 103/µl of the tail).
Eosinophils 0.03-0.08 x 103/µl Alternatively, the ventral tail artery (ventromedial aspect
Monocytes 0.01-0.04 x 103/µl of tail) can be accessed under general anesthesia.
Basophils 0.00-0.03 x 103/µl
Platelets 150-460 x 103/µl
Subcutaneous injections can
easily be made into the scruff. Annual veterinary visits should include a physical exam
BIOCHEMICAL
and a review of diet and husbandry. The need for fecal
REFERENCE RANGES
analysis and blood hematology and chemistry should be
Total protein 5.6-7.6 g/dl
discussed.
Albumin 3.8-4.8 g/dl Bi-annual or quarterly examinations to assess weight,
Glucose 50-135 mg/dl dental health, nail trimmings and overall health are
BUN 15-21 mg/dl recommended.
Creatinine 0.2-0.8 mg/dl
Sodium 143-156 mEq/L MOST COMMON DISORDERS
Potassium 5.4-7 mEq/L Weight loss/obesity/malnutrition
Chloride 100-110 mEq/L Overcrowding/stress/suffocation
Phosphorous 3.11-11 mg/dl Sudden death/trauma
Handbook for Veterinarians Calcium 7.2-13 mg/dl Murine respiratory mycoplasmosis - M. pulmonis
*Adapted from photographs in Beynon PG, Cooper
JE (eds): BSAVA Manual of Exotic Pets. ALT 17.5-30.2 IU/L Cilia-associated respiratory bacillus
Cheltenham, BSAVA, 1991.
AST 45.7-80.8 IU/L Corynebacterium kutscheri
Alkaline phos 56.8-128 IU/L Sendai virus (most common in laboratory rats)
Cholesterol 40-130 mg/dl Sialodacryoadenitis virus (SDV)- cervical salivary gland
Total bilirubin 0.2-0.55 mg/dl
inflammation
Chronic progressive nephrosis
Amylase 128-313 SU/dl
5
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Rats
Overheating/chilling/heat stress
Malocclusion/overgrown incisors
Ectoparasitism
Congestive heart failure
Pituitary tumor
Ulcerative pododermatitis
Hymenolepis spp.
Mammary tumors (fibroadenoma most common)
Salmonellosis
Septicemia
Ptyalism
Hemobartonellosis (in colonies)
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
Rat bite fever - Streptobacillus moniliformis
Salmonellosis WHAT TO LOOK FOR IN A HEALTHY RAT
Ectoparasitism
Leptospirosis No sneezing, No abnormal
wheezing or lumps or scabs
Hantaviral diseases Bright, shiny eyes labored breathing
Firm body weight,
Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) free of discharge or neither thin nor obese
red secretions
REFERENCES Nostrils free

1. Harkness J, Wagner J: The Biology and Medicine of Rabbits and of discharge Alert, inquisitive
Rodents 4th ed. Baltimore, Williams and Wilkins, 1995. nature
2. Hillyer EV, Quesenberry KE: Ferrets, Rabbits and Rodents - Clinical
Medicine and Surgery. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 1997.
Debbie Ducommun
www.exoticdvm.com
Teeth and claws
Co, 2004.
even, not overgrown
Albino rat shown

6
Gerbil
Pet Care
Susan Leck, DVM,

Practice
Sexing, Housing, Diet, Restraint Cathy A. Johnson-
Delaney, DVM,
Blood collection, Common disorders Dipl ABVP -Avian Practice
Edited by
Injection sites, Zoonotic potential Peter Fisher, DVM
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Gerbils
Of the numerous gerbil genera worldwide, the Mon-
golian gerbil (Meriones unguiculatus) is the prevalent
pet species in the US. Mongolian gerbils are native to
desert regions of Mongolia and northeastern China. All
pet gerbils are captive bred for this market. Gerbils
are available in a variety of color types.
Appropriate pets for beginners.
Friendly, clean, quiet and curious pets.
Rarely bite, easily handled.
Produce minimal odor and waste.
Space requirements are not excessive.
Rarely exhibit problems in captivity.
Active both day and night, peak activity occurs at night.
Gerbils require at least 30 minutes a day of attention.
VITAL STATISTICS
SEXING AND REPRODUCTION Life span maximum 5 years Water consumption 4-7+ ml/100 g
Male gerbils have a large, dark scrotum and a longer in captivity (avg) 3-5 years body weight/day
Total body length (no tail) 7-15 cm Age of sexual maturity 65-85 days
anogenital distance than females.
Total body weight 50-80 g (females) Breeding season year round
Breeding pairs tend to be monogamous and maintain
80-130 g (males) Gestation period 24-26 days
lifelong relationships. Rectal/body temperature 99-102°F (37-39°C) Litters per year 7 (avg)
Gerbils should be introduced before they are 8 weeks of Respiratory rate 90-140 bpm Litter size 3-7 pups (5 avg)
age to reduce the risk of fighting. Adult gerbils of either Heart rate 250-500 bpm Birth weight 2.5-3.5 g
sex may fight to the death if introduced as adults. Blood volume 6.6-7.8 ml/100 g First hair coat complete 10 days
Neutering the male can prevent overpopulation. body weight
Eyes open 16-20 days
Dental formula I 1/1 C 0/0 M 3/3
Weaning age 21-24 days
Food consumption 5-8 g/100 g
Weaning weight 3.3-6.0 g
body weight/day
2
UNUSUAL PET CARE
MALE FEMALE Gerbils

HOUSING
Gerbils are social animals and are best housed in pairs.
Ensure adequate cage space to prevent fighting.
Tip of penis The minimum cage size should be 36 square inches per

gerbil; a pair requires a minimum of 180 square inches.
Scrotal sac
The most popular housing for a pair of gerbils is a 10-
Vaginal orifice Urethral orifice gallon aquarium, which may house 1-3 gerbils.
The enclosure should be escape-proof with a secure lid.
Plexiglas enclosures designed for small rodents make
Anus
adequate houses for gerbils.
Anus
Regular weekly cleaning schedules must be maintained
because this solid-sided caging (as opposed to wire) will
trap ammonia from urine.
A split tank is an ideal way to introduce gerbils to each
other.
Solid flooring is preferable to wire flooring.
Bedding should be clean, dry, absorbent, nonabrasive
and at least 2 cm deep to facilitate nesting behavior.
Aspen wood shavings or recycled paper bedding products
are acceptable substrate materials.
Natural sunlight is beneficial to all creatures, but gerbils
must not become overheated.
An acceptable lighting schedule consists of 12-hour
alternating light and dark cycles.
Ideal environmental temperature is 60-70°F (16-21°C).
Ideal relative humidity should not exceed 30-50%.
Common household dangers include chewing electrical
cords, children dropping or stepping on the gerbil, other
Kylee Dickey
pets (cats/dogs/ferrets are natural predators), eating toxic
substances, gnawing inappropriate items and escaping or
getting lost.
3
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Gerbils A bowl with a small amount of sand (not

dust) should be provided for 15 minutes A hiding place or hiding box should be
ENVIRONMENTAL ENRICHMENT several times a week for sand baths. provided in the cage.
Gerbils need to have safe materials for gnawing that will

help wear down their continually growing incisor teeth;
wooden blocks are good for this purpose.
Exercise wheels and plastic exercise balls provide an
outlet for energy.
Gerbils like to build nests out of nesting material,
especially in the winter months.
DIET
Kylee Dickey
Kylee Dickey
Commercial pellet diets are available for gerbils.
Alternatively, commercial seed mixes with a variety of
seeds (minimal to no sunflower seeds) may be fed with
fresh vegetables (e.g., cabbage, kale, broccoli, carrots,
beets) and soaked seeds or sprouts. Over-the-back grip for
Alfalfa hay should be available for grazing and is a good restraining gerbil
calcium source for nursing females.
Excessive consumption of sunflower seeds and other
high-fat foods will lead to obesity, elevated cholesterol
levels and lipemia.
Provide fresh clean drinking water via a sipper tube.
Peter Fisher, DVM

Peter Fisher, DVM
RESTRAINT
Gerbils should be supported on the palm of the hand
while holding the tail base because they move very
quickly and tend to jump.
Avoid grasping the tip of the tail, because the skin may
deglove, necessitating amputation of the tail.
Additional restraint can be provided with an over-the-back
grip where the body rests in the palm as the head is held
4
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Gerbils
HEMATOLOGY AND MEDICATION AND gently between two fingers or by using a small cloth to aid
BIOCHEMISTRY ANESTHETIC in maintaining restraint.
REFERENCE RANGES DOSAGES
PCV 41-52% (avg 48%) Caution: Avoid penicillin antibiotics BLOOD COLLECTION
RBC 7-10 (avg 8.5) x 106/µl Buprenorphine 0.05 mg/kg IM,
Blood collection for routine testing is seldom done in
(half-life approx 10 d) SC or IV q8-12h
gerbils due to the difficulty of obtaining a sample.
WBC 4.3-21.6 (avg 11) x Ciprofloxacin/ 10 mg/kg PO q12h
103/µl enrofloxacin
A 25 ga needle inserted at a 90° angle in the lateral
saphenous vein, followed by blood collection in capillary
Neutrophils 5-34% (avg 30%) Dexamethasone 0.1-0.6 mg/kg IM
tubes may be used.
Lymphocytes 60-95% (avg 74%) Diazepam 5 mg/kg IP
Lateral tail veins have been used to collect small samples.
Eosinophils 0-4% Doxycycline 2.5 mg/kg PO q12h
In research laboratories, blood is collected from a clipped
Monocytes 0-3% Fenbendazole 20 mg/kg PO q24h toe nail, a nicked tail vein, the orbital sinus or by cardiac
Basophils 0-1% x5d
puncture.
Platelets 400-600 x 103/µl Ivermectin 0.2-0.4 mg/kg PO; Cardiac puncture should be performed only on an
repeat in 8-10 days
Reticulocytes 21-54/1000 RBC anesthetized animal.
Ketamine 44 mg/kg IP
Hemoglobin 12.6-16.2 (avg 15)
mg/dl Ketamine + 50 mg/kg (K) + INJECTION SITES
diazepam 5 mg/kg (D) IP
Serum protein 4.3-12.5 mg/dl Intramuscular: Quadriceps (0.1 ml max vol)
Ketamine + 50 mg/kg (K) +
Albumin 1.8-5.5 mg/dl Subcutaneous: Scruff (2-3 ml max vol)
xylazine 10 mg/kg (X) IP
Globulin 1.2-6.0 mg/dl Intraperitoneal: 2-3 ml max vol
Oxytetracycline 20 mg/kg SC q24h;
Serum glucose 50-135 mg/dl 10 mg/kg PO q8h Intravenous: Saphenous vein (0.2 ml max vol)
Blood urea nitrogen 17-27 mg/dl Prednisone 0.5-2 mg/kg PO Lateral tail vein (0.2-0.5 ml max vol)
Creatinine 0.6-1.4 mg/dl Trimethoprim 15 mg/kg PO q12h
Total bilirubin 0.2-0.6 mg/dl sulfamethoxazole MOST COMMON DISORDERS
Cholesterol 90-150 mg/dl Isoflurane and sevoflurane gas Trauma (including tail slip)
Calcium 3.7-6.2 mg/dl anesthetics are safe for gerbils. Malnutrition
Phosphorus 3.7-7.0 mg/dl Rough hair coat
Sore nose/facial eczema/nasal dermatitis
Inherited epileptiform seizures
Diarrhea/enteritis
5
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Gerbils
Tyzzer’s disease
Malocclusion WHAT TO LOOK FOR IN A HEALTHY GERBIL
Periodontal disease
Cancer/neoplasia
Obesity A smooth and
shiny hair coat
Cystic ovaries
Chronic interstitial nephritis
Bright eyes,
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL clear of any
discharge
Ectoparasitism
Leptospirosis
and a review of diet and husbandry.
Bi-annual or quarterly examinations to assess weight, Clean nostrils,
dental health, nail trimmings and overall health are clear of any
recommended. discharge
Clean anus
REFERENCES with no lumps
Teeth and nails that or bumps
are aligned properly
and not overgrown
www.exoticdvm.com.
Co, 2004. The fecal pellet should be well formed; softening
of the pellet can indicate enteritis or diarrhea
6
Chinchilla
Pet Care
Adapted from Exotic DVM, Premiere Issue © Zoological Education Network, 2005
Susan Leck, DVM,

Practice
Common disorders, Blood collection Peter Fisher, DVM
Zoonotic potential, Formulary

UNUSUAL PET CARE
Chinchillas
Chinchillas are rodents, characterized by their large
hind feet, compact bodies, soft dense fur, large eyes
and ears, long whiskers, and bushy tails. Chinchilla
lanigera, with a longer tail, is the most common pet
species, while Chinchilla brevicaudata has a very
short tail. The chinchilla’s natural environment is the
semi-arid rocky slopes of the Andes mountains in
South America.
PET APPEAL/BEHAVIOR
Affectionate, intelligent, charming personalities.
Bond quickly to their owners.
Hardy and suffer few illnesses.
Chinchillas can make great pets, because they are easy
to care for, have very little odor and rarely bite.
Dogs, cats and ferrets are predators.
Basically nocturnal, they may be active during the day. VITAL STATISTICS
They need at least 30 min/day for exercise and play.
Life span 9-17+ years Sexual maturity 7-10 months
They are often difficult to litter-train (fecal).
Body weight Estrus cycle 30-50 days, seasonally
adult female 450-700 g polyestrous (Nov to May);
SEXING AND REPRODUCTION adult male 400-500 g postpartum estrus fertile;
Body temp 100.5-102.2°F (38-39°C) spontaneous ovulation
The anogenital distance in males is about twice as long
Rectal temp 102-103°F (38.9-39.4°C) Gestation 105-115 days
as in females.
Respiratory rate 45-80 bpm Birth weight 30-60 g
Male chinchillas do not have a scrotum, and the testes
Heart rate 200-350 bpm Litter 2 avg (up to 5)
remain primarily in the inguinal canal or abdominal cavity. Newborns precocious, fully furred
Dental Teeth are open-rooted and grow
There are two small moveable sacs next to the anus (post- continuously throughout life. Weaning 3-6 weeks
anal sacs) into which the caudal epididymis can drop. Incisors are yellow, grow Feces slender, brown pellets 2-3 mm
In females, the anus is immediately caudal to the 5.5-6.5 cm (2.5-3”) annually. diameter, 5-12 mm long
relatively large cone-shaped urethral papilla. Dental formula I 1/1 C 0/0 P 1/1 M 3/3
2
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Chinchillas
Chinchillas need a sleeping/hide
box to simulate hiding areas in The female vagina is normally sealed by a membrane
their natural environment. except during estrus (3-5 days) and parturition.
If a female chinchilla is not bred at a young age, its
pelvis will fuse and it may have difficulty giving birth later.
An open vulva, often with visible mucus, is an external
indication of estrus.
HOUSING
House individually, in pairs or in a polygamous group with
a single male and 2-4 females.
Cage should be at least 3 x 2 x 2 feet (90 x 60 x 60
cm), constructed from wood and mesh wire.
Use pine litter for substrate (avoid cedar, as it is toxic).
Chinchillas need climbing areas, a dust box and a
Adequate space for climbing is necessary sleeping box in an upper corner.
Dust baths help chinchillas keep clean without becoming
chilled. Chinchillas should be allowed to roll in the dust
material (about 2-3” [8-10 cm] deep) for 10-15 minutes
several times per week.
Temperatures higher than 82°F (28°C) can be result in
Sleeping/hide box
heat stroke. Optimal temperature is 50-68°F (10-20°C).
DIET
Commercial chinchilla pellets, water and unlimited
timothy hay provide an adequate diet.
Chinchillas can thrive on a mixture of grass (timothy,
brome, oat) and legume (alfalfa) hays.
Adults require 1-2 Tbs of pellets daily.
Sugary treats, such as raisins or dried apples, and fatty
foods, such as sunflower seeds or peanuts, should be
avoided.
3
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Chinchillas
RESTRAINT
Lift the chinchilla by supporting the body with one hand
under the abdomen and hold the animal by the base of
the tail close to the body with the other hand.
The chinchilla can also be placed on the arm.
A chinchilla should be restrained gently to avoid “fur slip.”
Chinchillas may bite if restrained against their will.
BLOOD COLLECTION
Blood samples can be collected from the lateral
saphenous, cephalic or jugular vein; 7-10% of blood
volume (0.5-0.7 ml/100 g) may be safely collected from
healthy chinchillas.
INJECTION SITES
IV: 25-28 ga needle in lateral saphenous or cephalic
vein
IM: 23-25 ga needle in quadriceps, gluteals; max.
volume 0.3 ml per single site/adult
SC: 23 ga under skin, neck or flank; be careful of
From Exotic Companion Medicine Handbook

“fur slip”
IP: Hind limb should be extended with animal
restrained, introduce 23 ga needle or smaller
along the line of the leg into the center of the
posterior quadrant of the abdomen; up to 10 ml
fluid can be given.
and a review of the diet and husbandry. The need for
4
UNUSUAL PET CARE
HEMATOLOGIC BIOCHEMICAL Chinchillas

REFERENCE RANGES REFERENCE RANGES fecal analysis and blood hematology and chemistry should
RBC 6-8 x 106/µl Total protein 5-6 g/dl be discussed.
PCV 27-54% (avg 38) Albumin 2.5-4.2 g/dl Bi-annual or quarterly examinations to assess weight,
WBC 6-15 x 103/µl Glucose 60-120 mg/dl dental health, nail trimmings and overall health are
Hemoglobin 8-15 g/dl BUN 10- 25 mg/dl recommended.
Neutrophils 40-55% (avg 43) Sodium 130-155 mEq/L
Lymphocytes 45-60% (avg 54) Potassium 5-6.5 mEq/L
Eosinophils 0.7% (0-9) Cloride 105-115 mEq/L Dermatophytosis
Monocytes 1% (0-6) Phosphorous 4-8 mg/dl Trauma (broken bones, bite wounds)
Basophils 0.6% (0-1) Calcium 10-15 mg/dl Diarrhea/constipation
Respiratory disorders
Platelets 45-740 x 103/µl (avg 274) ALT 10-35 U/L
Eye irritation/conjunctivitis
AST 15-45 U/L
Convulsions/encephalitis/lead poisoning
Alkaline phos 3-12 U/L
Malocclusion/molar spurs
Cholesterol 40-100 mg/dl
Penile hair rings in males/paraphimosis
“Fur-barbering” from stress
WHAT TO LOOK FOR IN A HEALTHY CHINCHILL A Heat stroke
Round body Esophageal choke
Alert and active, GI stasis/bloat
Large, bright eyes inquisitive
with no discharge Cardiomyopathy
Rectal prolapse
No matting or missing
patches of fur Giardiasis
Fluffy, dense ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL

fur all over
Listeria monocytogenes
Teeth aligned
Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV)
properly Dermatophytosis
Baylisascaris procyonis
Nails and teeth

not overgrown Pink foot pads, no
evidence of sores
5
UNUSUAL PET CARE
FORMUL ARY FOR CHINCHILL AS AND DEGUS

DRUG DOSAGE DRUG DOSAGE
Acepromazine 0.5-1.0 mg/kg IM Ivermectin (0.2 mg/kg) 200-400 µg/kg PO; repeat in 7-14d
Acetylsalicylic acid 100-200 mg/kg PO q6-8h PRN Ketamine 44 mg/kg IP
Amikacin 2 mg/kg q8h IM, SC, IV Ketamine + acepromazine 40 mg/kg (K) IM + 0.5 mg/kg (A)
Amitraz (Mitaban®) Make up as per package directions Ketamine + diazepam 20-40 mg/kg (K) IM + 1.0-2.0 mg/kg (D)
Amoxycillin DO NOT USE Ketamine + xylazine 35 mg/kg (K) + 5 mg/kg IP (X)
Ampicillin DO NOT USE Meperidine 10-20 mg/kg q6h IM, SC
Atropine 0.05 mg/kg IM or SC Metoclopramide HCl 0.5 mg/kg q8h SC
Calcium (EDTA) disodium 30 mg/kg SC q12h Neomycin 15 mg/kg q12h PO
versenate Orthocide antifungal powder Mix in dust bath @ 1 tsp/2 c dust
Carbaryl 5% powder Dust lightly once weekly Oxytetracycline 50 mg/kg q12h PO; 1 mg/ml drinking water
Cephalosporin 25-100 mg/kg PO q6h; note: injectable suspension Oxytocin 0.2-3.0 IU/kg SC, IM, IV
may be too thick for a 23-25 gauge needle
Pentobarbital 30 mg/kg IV; 35-40 IP
Chloramphenicol palmitate 30-50 mg/kg q12h PO; 10 mg/30 ml drinking water
Piperazine adipate 0.5 g/kg/d x 2d
Chloramphenicol succinate 50 mg/kg q12h IM, SC
Piperazine citrate 100 mg/kg/d x 2d or 2-5 mg/ml drinking water x 7d,
Chlortetracycline 50 mg/kg q12h PO off 7d, repeat
Dexamethasone 0.5-2.0 mg/kg IV, IP, IM, SC Praziquantel 5-10 mg/kg IM, SC, PO; repeat in 10d
Diazepam 1-2 mg/kg IP, IM Prednisone 0.5-2.0 mg/kg PO, SC, IM
Doxapram 2-5 mg/kg IV Procaine penicillin G DO NOT USE
Doxycycline 2.5 mg/kg q12h PO Sulfamethazine 1 mg/ml drinking water
Enrofloxacin 5-10 mg/kg q12h PO, SC, IM Tetracycline 50 mg/kg q12h PO; 0.3-2.0 mg/ml drinking water
Fenbendazole 20 mg/kg PO q24h x 5d Thiabendazole 50-100 mg/kg PO x 5d
Furosemide 5-10 mg/kg q12h Tresaderm® 1 drop each ear, massage in, swab out (q24h x 3-5d)
Gentamicin 2 mg/kg q8h IM, SC, IV Trimethoprim sulfadiazine 30 mg/kg q12h SC, IM
Griseofulvin 25 mg/kg PO q24h x x 2d28-40d Vitamin B 1
1 mg/kg feed; 0.02-0.2 ml/kg SC, IM
Isoflurane To effect Vitamin K 1 1-10 mg/kg as needed, IM
REFERENCES
1. Clark JD: Biology and diseases of other rodents. In Fox JG, et al (eds): Laboratory Animal Medicine. Orlando, Academic Press, 1984, p 192.
2. Hillyer EV, Quesenberry KE: Ferrets, Rabbits and Rodents - Clinical Medicine and Surgery. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 1997.
3. Johnson-Delaney C: Exotic Companion Medicine Handbook for Veterinarians. Lake Worth, Zoological Education Network, 2000, www.exoticdvm.com
4. Quesenberry KE, Carpenter JW: Ferrets, Rabbits and Rodents - Clinical Medicine and Surgery 2nd ed. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 2004.
6
Degu
Pet Care
Dan Johnson, DVM

Anatomy, Vital statistics, Behavior
Edited by
Sexing, Housing, Diet, Restraint Peter Fisher, DVM
Common disorders, Blood collection

UNUSUAL PET CARE
Degus
The degu (Octodon degus) is native to the western
foothills of the Andes. Degus are rodents belonging to
the suborder Hystricognathi (“porcupine-like rodents”)
based upon jaw musculature and skull structure. They
belong to the family Octodontidae. Octodon refers to
the “figure 8” shape of their cheek teeth. Other
names for the degu include brush-tailed rat and
trumpet-tailed rat.
Social animals.
Enjoy human attention.
Long-lived.
Have a low incidence of disease.
Degus are diurnal and do not hibernate.
They are highly social and communicate via vocalizations
and postures.
Degus are coprophagic.
If degus are not given social interaction and physical
stimuli, they may become aggressive or self mutilate.
Fighting is rare even when new introductions occur.
They dig elaborate burrows. VITAL STATISTICS
Lifespan maximum 10 years Age of sexual maturity 3-4 months
ANATOMY/PHYSIOLOGY avg in captivity 5-8 years Breeding season (captive) year-round
Body length 12.5-19.5 cm Gestation 87-93 days
Degus resemble large gerbils and are dark grayish-brown
Tail length 10.5-16.5 cm Litter size 1-10 pups (6-7 avg)
with a dark brush on the tip of the tail.
Body weight 170-300 g Weaning 4-6 weeks
Their pupils are elliptical. Normal body temperature 101.8ºF (37.9ºC) Litters per year 2-3
Their urine is normally yellow and thick. Dental formula I 1/1, C 0/0, P 1/1, M 3/3
2
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Degus
Degus are hind-gut fermenters and have a functioning

cecum.
FEMALE MALE Their adrenal glands are relatively large.

The anogenital distance of the male is approximately
double that of the female.
The prepuce resembles a clitoris but is several times
larger.
The penis can be exteriorized by moving the prepuce
proximally.
The testicles of the male are intraabdominal; there is no
scrotum.
A female degu has 8 mammary glands: 3 pair lateral
thoracic and 1 pair inguinal.
A female degu has a bicornuate uterus and two ovaries
that are easy to exteriorize during a neutering procedure.
A female degu has a bicornuate uterus To reduce the incidence of pregnancy toxemia (similar to
and two ovaries that are easy to guinea pigs) and dystocia, breeding should begin when
exteriorize during a neutering procedure.
the female is 4-9 months of age and body weight is
below 250 g.
Degus are induced ovulators.
Early during pregnancy, the vaginal membrane reopens
and a red discharge is produced. This “red ring” should
be used as an early indicator of pregnancy. It is best to
avoid palpation to confirm pregnancy.
In spite of their long gestation, degus are not born as
fully developed as one would expect.
3
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Degus HEMATOLOGIC
An adequate cage for two degus includes shelves
HOUSING and branches for climbing and a nest box. REFERENCE RANGES
Degus should be provided with a large cage containing WBC 3-8 x 103/µl
shelves, branches, a running wheel and plenty of room to RBC 7-8 x 106/µl
exercise. Hgb 11-12 g/dl
Wood shavings, recycled paper products and hay are all Hct 27-40%
suitable bedding materials. Neut 0.8-5.5 x 103/µl
A dust bath should be provided as for chinchillas to help
Lymph 1.2-4.2 x103/µl
degus keep clean without becoming chilled. Degus
Mono 0.07-0.16 x 103/µl
should be allowed to roll in the dust material (about 2-3”
deep) for 10-15 minutes several times per week. Eos 0.13-0.62 x 103/µl
At least two degus should be housed together. Baso 0.03-0.16 x 103/µl
Overheating should be avoided. Plate 435-475 x 103/µl
ISIS reference ranges, 1999
DIET
The diet in the wild includes a wide variety of plants,
www.degus.org
roots, seeds, fruit and livestock droppings.
A successful captive diet consists of a mixture of rodent
blocks and guinea pig chow along with grass hay.
Carrots, sweet potatoes, other vegetables, seeds and
peanuts may be given as treats.
Foods containing sugar (e.g., fruits, raisins, breakfast Dust baths help degus keep clean without becoming chilled.
cereal, honey treat sticks) should be avoided. Note that
most pelleted feeds contain molasses, which is used as a
binder. Starchy foods may also predispose to gastro-
enteritis.
Water bottles or sipper tubes should be cleaned
frequently.
www.degus.org
4
UNUSUAL PET CARE
If picked up improperly by the tail, a degu Degus

The encircling grip is used for restraint.
may spin, resulting in a degloving injury
that requires amputation. RESTRAINT
Degus may be scooped up with two hands and scruffed
or held in an encircling grip for examination.
Grasping by the tail should be avoided, as tail degloving
easily occurs.
Alternatively, degus readily learn to step into a net.
BLOOD COLLECTION AND INJECTION SITES

Venipuncture is possible via the cranial vena cava.
IV: 25 g or 28 g in lateral saphenous, cephalic
IM: quadriceps, gluteal muscles: 23-25 g needle, max
volume 0.2-0.3 ml single site/adult
SC: 2-3 ml under skin of neck or flank.
FORMUL ARY
See Chinchillas section, page 6.
Venipuncture is possible
via the cranial vena cava
Annual veterinary visits should include a physical exam and
a review of diet and husbandry. The need for fecal analysis
and blood hematology and chemistry should be discussed.
Bi-annual or quarterly examinations to assess weight,
dental health, nail trimmings and overall health are
recommended.

Diabetes mellitus
Cataracts
Fatty liver disease associated with pregnancy and diabetes
Dental disease
5
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Degus The “figure 8” shape of a degu’s Degus have 5 toes on each foot, but the
cheek teeth is shown. pollex on both forelimbs is greatly reduced.
Diarrhea, GI stasis with bloat, colic
Neoplasia
Tail degloving
Breeding problems
Rare parasites; Giardia found in a lab colony
Susceptibility to bacteria such as Pseudomonas sp.
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
Linguatula serrata (sinus worm)
Echinococcus granulosus
Trypanosoma cruzi
Giardia WHAT TO LOOK FOR IN A HEALTHY DEGU
Salmonella
Dermatophytosis
Alert, inquisitive nature
Bright, shiny eyes Hair coat in good
REFERENCES
condition (no hair
1. Nowak RM (ed): Walker’s Mammals of the World 5th ed Vol II. loss, not greasy
Nose and eyes
London, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991, p 935-936. or unkempt)
clear of any
2. Macdonald D (ed): The Encyclopedia of Animals. Oxfordshire,
discharge
Andromeda Oxford Ltd, UK, 2001, p 54-61.
3. Pessier AP, Stalis IH, et al: Soft tissue sarcomas associated with
identification microchip implants in two small zoo mammals.
Proc Am Assoc Zoo Vet, 1999, pp 139-140.
4. Murphy JC, Crowell BS, et al: Spontaneous lesions in the degu.
In: Montali RJ, Migaki (eds): The Comparative Pathology of Zoo
Animals. Washington DC, 1980, pp 437-444.
5. Anderson WI, Steinberg H, King JM: Bronchioloalveolar carcino-
ma with renal and hepatic metastasis in a degu (Octogon
degus). J Wildlife Dis 26(1):129-131, 1990.
6. Najecki DL, Tate BA: Husbandry and management of the degu
(Octodon degus). Lab Animal 28(3):54-57, 1999.
7. Weir BJ: The management and breeding of some hystricomorph
www.degus.org
rodents. Lab Animal 4:89-92, 1970. Nails and teeth
8. Johnson-Delaney C: Exotic Companion Medicine Handbook for not overgrown
www.exoticdvm.com.
6
Virginia
Opossum
Pet Care
Cathy A. Johnson-
Behavior, Vital statistics, Sexing Delaney,
DVM, Dipl ABVP-Avian
Housing, Diet, Restraint, Formulary Practice
Common disorders, Blood collection Edited by

Peter Fisher, DVM

UNUSUAL PET CARE
Virginia Opossums
The Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana) is the only
native marsupial of North America. (New World
“possums” are properly called “opossums”; Old World
“possums” are “possums”). Some states and
municipalities prohibit ownership of native or wildlife
species, and local or state regulatory agencies should
be consulted for information on proper permits. The
private practitioner interested in working with Virginia
opossums is referred to the National Opossum Society
(NOS), www.opossum.org.
Quiet; usually gentle and non-aggressive.
Startle easily.
VITAL STATISTICS
Can learn to urinate/defecate on newspapers in
Life span Captivity avg 7 years Puberty 6-8 months
designated areas. Free ranging avg 2 years Sexual maturity 12 months
Can be trained to come when called. Body weight Adult females 2 kg Breeding season Early spring 6-7 weeks
Will cuddle and curl up in one’s lap. Adult males 4-5 kg Early summer 1-2 months
Opossums found as infants (furred) can be successfully Body length (including tail): Approx 91 cm Estrus Polyestrous 23- to 28-day cycle
hand raised and bonded to their human caretakers. Cloacal body temperature: 90-95°F Estrus lasts 1-2 days
(32.2-35.0°C) Ovulation Spontaneous
If the intention is to release the animal after raising it,
Blood volume 5.7% of body weight Litters per year 1-2
handling should be kept to a minimum.
Heart rate 70-100 bpm Gestation period 12-13 days
Opossums are solitary animals that do not usually interact
Respiratory rate 25-40 bpm Litter size 8-20
with other pets.
Dental formula I 5/4, M 1/1, P 3/3, M 4/4 Birth weight Approx 2 g
The Virginia opossum is nocturnal but may adjust Water consumption/day 100-150 ml Vibrissae appear 34 days
somewhat to a human schedule. Food consumption/day 150-200 g Eyes open 56-64 days
Adults may use the tail to carry bundles of leaves or Environmental temperature 50-86°F Weaning age 10-12 weeks
bedding material. (10-30°C)
Milk composition 86% water, 4.7% fat,
Opossums can climb trees and dig under fences. Ideal relative humidity > 58% 4% protein, 4.5% sugar
2
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Virginia Opossums
The opossum has an opposable thumb Scrotal sac in the male Opossums can make four vocalizations—hiss, screech,
on both the front and back feet. growl or click—which may be used in aggressive actions.
When threatened, the opossum may hiss and then freeze
in position with its mouth slightly open showing the teeth.
It can go limp and feign death (“playing ‘possum”).
Most opossums urinate/defecate when initially picked up.
Anal sacs are present in both sexes and secrete a
greenish-colored fluid.

Being a marsupial, the female opossum has a pouch and
marsupial pelvic bones. The vagina is forked, and there
are two separate uterine horns.
The male has a forked glans penis, posterior to the
Opossums tend to be lazy and scrotum. The scrotal sac is pendulous on a long stalk.
must be encouraged to exercise. Pet opossums should be spayed or neutered.
Male castration is performed by incising at the base of
the scrotal “stalk,” ligating vasculature and suturing skin
with a subcuticular absorbable suture.
Excess scrotal tissue may need to be ablated with
castration.
In males, neutering decreases scent marking and odor.
In females, spaying decreases the likelihood of chronic
urogenital tract infections.
Ovariohysterectomy may incorporate the lateral vagina,
but care must be taken to separate the ureters that loop
between the central and lateral vaginas.
HOUSING
Pairs or individual opossums may be housed in caging
18” x 30” (45 x 75 cm) with a sloping roof 32” (80 cm)
3
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Virginia Opossums
at the highest point and 14” (35 cm) at the lowest.

Adults may fight if the quarters are too small.
Large groups may be housed in yards measuring 100
feet x 150 feet.
Standard caging for rabbits with a solid floor may be used.
Appropriate bedding includes recycled newspaper that
has been shredded or pelleted.
A nest box 12” x 18” x 16” (30 x 45 x 40 cm) should be
provided and can be attached to the outside of the cage.
Environmental temperature ranges of 50-86°F (10-30°C)
are acceptable, with 72°F (22°C) being ideal.
The environmental humidity should be greater than 58%.
The cage must be kept clean and dry to prevent foot
problems.
DIET
The diet eaten by free-ranging Virginia opossums is truly To prevent obesity, dry food may
omnivorous: green and yellow vegetables, grass, fruit, need to be limited and fed as
meals rather than ad lib.
carrion, snails, slugs, worms, insects, rats, mice, snakes,
amphibians, eggs and fish.
In captivity, they can be fed a varied diet that includes
quality dog and/or cat foods, vegetables, fruits, an
occasional egg, live foods (such as crickets, mealworms)
and yogurt.
Opossums, being marsupials, have a lower physiologic
metabolic rate.
Obesity is common and sufficient exercise is necessary.
Depending on the diet fed, a general mineral/vitamin
supplement may be needed.
Dry food fed only as meals (not free choice) may aid
dental health.
4
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Virginia Opossums
A tourniquet is used to
access the tail vein. Diet formulations have been developed for different life
stages (www.opossum.org).
Commercial dry hedgehog diet (Mazuri® Insectivore diet)
can be used in place of dry dog/cat food to aid in control
of obesity, but feeding trials have not been performed.
Suggested Diet #1: Commercial dry cat food ad lib
supplemented daily with low calorie canned dog food and
banana, potato and apple sprinkled with calcium
carbonate.
Suggested Diet #2: Commercial dry dog food ad lib
supplemented with low calorie canned dog food and fruit
and vegetables sprinkled with calcium carbonate.
Fresh water should be available at all times.
RESTRAINT
Control can be maintained by using a cat restraint bag or
wrapping the opossum as a “burrito” in a towel.
The tail is positioned
for blood collection.
BLOOD COLLECTION
The lateral tail vein may be accessed for blood collection
in younger animals without scarred tails.
There are also ventral veins on either side of the
coccygeal artery.
A 20- to 22-gauge needle without a syringe should be
inserted blindly into the ventral aspect of the tail and the
blood allowed to flow.
Pressure must be applied for several minutes to prevent
hematoma formation.
The cephalic and a tibial (saphenous) vein can also be
accessed.
Pouch veins can be used in the female.
5
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Virginia Opossums MEDICATION AND ANESTHETIC DOSAGES

INJECTION SITES Drug Route Dosage Comments
Alfaxalone- IV 0.1-0.2 ml/kg; 15 mg/kg Immobilization, Sedation
Intramuscular: Gluteals in rear leg,
alfadolone acetate IM 0.25-0.5 ml/kg
triceps in front leg
Aspirin PO 18 mg/kg q72-96h Cardiac disease
Subcutaneous: Intrascapular, flank area
Atropine IM, IV, SC 0.02-0.04 mg/kg Control bradycardia and salivation during sedation
Intravenous: Injections can be given in
Butorphanol IM, SC, PO 0.1-0.5 mg/kg q6-8h PRN Analgesic
pouch veins or the lateral
Cisapride PO, IM 0.25 mg/kg q8-24h GI motility enhancer
tail vein.
Dexamethasone IV, IM, SC 0.2 mg/kg q12-24h Antiinflammatory
Intraosseous: Catheters can be placed
Diazepam IM, PO, IV 0.5-2.0 mg/kg Calming, Higher dosages IV for seizures
in the femur as in other
Digoxin PO 0.0011-0.0012 mg/kg q24h Cardiac disease, Monitor like cat
mammals.
Enalapril PO 0.22-0.44 mg/kg q24h Cardiac disease, Monitor like cat
MOST COMMON DISORDERS Enrofloxacin PO, IM, SC 2.5-5 mg/kg q12-24h Antibiotic, May cause tissue necrosis SC, IM
Flunixin meglumine SC, IM 0.1-1 mg/kg q12-24h NSAID, Short term use only
“Crusty ear” (ear mange often with
Furosemide SC, IM, PO 1-5 mg/kg q6-12h Diuretic
secondary bacterial infection)
Gentamicin SC, IM, IV 1.5-2.5 mg/kg q12h Antibiotic, Fluid support necessary
Cardiac disease (streptococcal endo-
Glycopyrrolate IM, IV, SC 0.01-0.02 mg/kg Control bradycardia and salivation during sedation
carditis, dilative and hypertrophic cardio-
Griseofulvin PO 20 mg/kg q24h x 30-60d Antidermatophyte, Trichophyton spp.
myopathies, heartworms - Dirofilaria)
Ketamine IM 30-50 mg/kg Immobilization
Metabolic bone disease
Ketamine + IM 2-3 mg/kg (K) Immobilization, Reverse meditomidine with ati-
Septicemia (esp. rescued “pouch” babies) medetomidine + 0.05-0.1 mg/kg (M) pamezole 0.05-0.4 mg/kg IM
Necrotizing fasciitis (streptococcal L-carnitine PO 100 mg/kg q12h Cardiac disease
infections) Meloxicam PO, SC 0.2 mg/kg q24h NSAID, Analgesic
Bronchopneumonia (Bordetella Metoclopramide IV, IM, SC, PO 0.05-0.1 mg/kg q6-12h PRN GI motility enhancer
bronchiseptica, Pasteurella multocida) Piperazine PO 100 mg/kg Anthelmintic
Endoparasites (intestinal, respiratory tract Prednisolone IM, SC, PO 0.1-0.2 mg/kg q24h Corticosteroid
nematodes) Propranolol PO 0.55-1.10 mg/kg q12-24h Cardiac disease, Monitor like cat
Ectoparasites (fleas, ticks, mites) Sulfadimethoxine PO 5-10 mg/kg q12-24h Antibiotic, Keep well hydrated
Obesity Trimethoprim/sulfa PO 10-20 mg/kg q12-24h Antibiotic, Keep well hydrated
Malnutrition Vitamin B complex IM 0.01-0.02 ml/kg Vitamin
Urogenital tract infections, chronic Vitamin E PO 25 mg/animal/day Vitamin
nephritis Vitamin K SC 2 mg/kg q24-72h Adjunctive therapy for cardiac, liver disease
Virginia opossums have carnivore/omnivore GI tracts; follow carnivore guidelines for antibiotic choice.
6 Dosages are anecdotal as reported in the literature.
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Shown is a severe case of osteodystrophy in a Virginia opossum. Virginia Opossums
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
Virginia opossums may be carriers of Leptospira spp.,
Francisella tularensis (tularemia), Erysipelothrix
rhusiopathiae, Trypanosoma cruzi (Chagas’ disease),
Sarcoptes scabiei, Trichophyton spp., Mycobacterium
spp. and rabies (rare).
Stools should be handled cautiously and examined
frequently for protozoa.
Salmonella spp. have been recovered from clinically
normal animals.
OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
HEMATOLOGIC BIOCHEMICAL Sarcosporidiosis: The Virginia opossum serves as the
REFERENCE RANGES REFERENCE RANGES definitive host for Sarcocystis falcatula and Sarcocystis
Parameter A* B* Parameter A* B*
neurona. S. falcatula is a major pathogen to birds. In
RBC (106/µl) 3.3-5.9 3.4-6.5 Total protein (g/dl) 5.6-8.0 3.8-7.2
highly susceptible avian species (Old World psittacines)
PVC (%) 28-47 33-51 Albumin (g/dl) 0.2-0.9 0.3-4.9
infection most often results in peracute death from
Hgb (g%; g/dl) 8.3-16.2 11.7-17.9 Globulin (g%) 3.7-7.1 — severe lung congestion. S. neurona is a major pathogen
MCV (µm3) 64.7-102.9 73-113 BUN (mg/dl) 23-60 23-38 to horses (equine protozoal myeloencephalitis). Infectious
MCH (pg) 22.5-35.9 24.4-39.5 Creatinine (mg/dl) — 0.4-7.3 sporocysts of both parasites are shed by the Virginia
MCHC (g/dl) 28-43 32.7-40.0 Glucose (mg/dl) 99-145 64-130 opossum. Flies and cockroaches may serve as vectors.
WBC (103/µl) 14.0-22.9 3.9-12.6 Uric acid (mg%) 0.9-2.2 —
ANNUAL VETERINARY VISIT
Neut (%) 12-67 11-48 Total bilirubin (mg/dl) 0.3-0.8 0.1-0.8
Lymph (%) 13.0-67.5 26-82 Cholesterol (mEq/L) 80-151 85-203 Physical examination
Mono (%) 0-2 0-8 Calcium (mg/dl) 9.6-11.2 9.7 Diet and husbandry review
Baso (%) 0-2 0-3 Phosphorus (mg/dl) 4.6-8.2 2.1-7.7 Dental, oral examination
Eosin (%) 2-15 6-17 Alk phos (IU/L) — 137 Fecal (normal feces resemble cat feces; flotation, direct
*A. Wallach & Boever SGOT (AST) (Ku)(IU/L) 250 339 smear, sedimentation for parasites, protozoa)
B. Ness CBC/chemistry panel
ALT (IU/L) — 68
Na (mEq/L) 143-155 101-129 Radiographs to assess bone density, cardiac size
K (mEq/L) 4.1-6.1 3.1-5.1
7
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Virginia Opossums Survey radiographs of a healthy 6-month-old female Virginia opossum.
Additional tests: cultures (pouch, any exudates or dis-

charges), biopsy (masses, dermal lesions), skin scrapings
ectoparasite examination, ECG, echocardiography
REFERENCES
1. Andrews FM, Bernard WV, Furr MO, et al: Diagnosing equine pro-
tozoal myeloencephalitis. Vet Exchange, Supplmt to Comp on CE
Prac Vet 22(7A):1-16, 2000.
2. Finnie EP, Bergin TJ, Hume ID, et al: Monotremes and marsupials
(Monotremata and Marsupialia). In Fowler ME (ed): Zoo and Wild
Animal Medicine 2nd ed. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 1986,
pp 557-593.
3. Fowler ME: Metabolic bone disease. In Fowler ME (ed): Zoo and
Wild Animal Medicine 2nd ed. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co,
1986, pp 70-90.
www.exoticdvm.com
5. Johnson-Delaney CA: Skunks and opossums. Proc Exotic Small
Mammal Med and Mgt, AAV Conf, 2000, pp 67-71. WHAT TO LOOK FOR IN A HEALTHY VIRGINIA OPOSSUM
6. Johnson-Delaney CA: Therapeutics of companion exotic marsupi-
als. Vet Clin No Am Exot Anim Prac 3(1):173-181, 2000 Ears should be clean and
7. Ness RD: Clinical pathology and sample collection of exotic small Nose and eyes free of crusty edges
mammals. Vet Clin No Am Exot Anim Prac 2(3):591-620, 1999. clear of any Shiny hair coat
8. Potkay: S. Diseases of the opossum (Didelphis marsupialis): A discharge
review. Lab Anim Sci 20:502-511, 1970.
9. Prater MR, Duncan RB, Gaydos J: Characterization of metastatic
intestinal adenocarcinoma with differentiation into multiple mor-
phologic cell types in a Virginia opossum. Vet Pathol 36(5):463-
468, 1999.
10. Spelman LH: Vermin control. In Fowler ME, Miller RE (eds): Zoo
and Wild Animal Medicine Current Therapy 4. Philadelphia, WB
Saunders Co, 1999, pp 114-120.
11. Technical Information, Reference Directory, AALAS, 2000/2001,
Memphis, 2000.
12. Wallach JD, Boever WJ: Marsupialia and monotremes. In Nails and teeth
Diseases of Exotic Animals: Medical and Surgical Management. not overgrown
Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 1983, pp 574-611.
13. Williams CSF: Opossum. Practical Guide to Laboratory Animals.
St. Louis, CV Mosby Co, 1976, pp 142-147. Skin free of external parasites
or crusty, scaly lesions
8
Skunk
Pet Care
Behavior, Sexing, Vital statistics Marc H. Kramer, DVM

Angela Lennox, DVM,
Dipl AVBP-Avian Practice
Housing, Diet, Restraint
Edited by
Blood collection, Common disorders Peter Fisher, DVM
Zoonotic potential, Vaccinations

UNUSUAL PET CARE
Skunks
Eleven different species of skunks belong to the
Mephitidae family. The striped skunk, Mephitis
mephitis, is the species most commonly kept as a
companion animal in the US. Free-ranging skunks are
well recognized for spraying a foul-smelling secretion
from their scent glands as a defense mechanism, but
captive-bred pet skunks are typically descented at a
young age. State and local authorities may have
specific regulations, licensing requirements or even
prohibitions regarding skunk ownership. Go to
www.aspenskunk.org to see individual state
requirements.
Marc H. Kramer
They are playful animals and require abundant socializing
time.
Although nocturnal by nature, skunks can adjust to a
partially diurnal lifestyle.
Threat displays include stomping the front feet and raising VITAL STATISTICS
the tail.
Average life span 8-10 years Estrus monestrous
Proper socialization, gentle handling and neutering or
Average Breeding cycle Mating in Feb/March;
spaying a pet skunk will reduce the incidence of biting. body weight 2-4 kg (7-10 lbs) single litter in early May
Adopting free-ranging skunks as pets is not advisable. Total length 21-32 inches (50-80 cm) Gestation period 62-66 days
With maturity many skunks become less social and more tail length 7-16 inches (18-40 cm) (delayed implantation)
aggressive and may not make good pets. Body temperature 97-98°F (36-37°C) Litter size 6-7
Heart rate 140-190 bpm Birth weight 1 oz
SEXING Urine pH 6.0 Eyes open (pupils) 3-4 weeks
Dental formula I 3/3, C 1/1, P 3/3, M 1/1 Lactation 4-6 weeks
In males, the testicles are positioned close to the anus,
Sexual maturity 1 year Weaning 7-8 weeks
and the penis is located on the ventral abdomen.
2
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Skunks
Contrary to popular belief, skunks cannot be sexed by the

characteristics of their striping pattern.
Skunks should be neutered prior to 6 months of age to
reduce aggression and prevent complications secondary
to extended estrus in females.
HOUSING
Minimum cage size should be 36 x 24 x 24 inches (90 x
60 x 60 cm) per skunk.
An indoor adult pet skunk does not need to be confined
to an enclosure.
Young skunks may need to be confined when
unsupervised, and their enclosure should be spacious,
sturdy and durable to prevent escape.
A sleeping quarter den allows the skunk to feel secure.
The den may consist of a cardboard box or large plastic
shelter, such as a dog carrier, and should contain cloth
blankets, sheets or other bedding material that can be
removed and washed frequently.
Skunks may be destructive; they climb and open
cabinets, dig at carpeting and steal objects, so their
environment should be modified accordingly.
The home environment must be “skunk-proofed” by
installing child-proof locks on cabinets, securing vents
through which the skunk could escape, removing potted
plants, poisons, chemicals, electrical cords and fragile or
expensive household items from the animal’s reach.
Skunks should be provided with a place and opportunity
Marc H. Kramer
to dig or they may become frustrated.
A young skunk can be trained to use a litter box.
3
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Skunks Skunks may use litter boxes A sleeping quarter den allows
for waste or sleep. the skunk to feel secure.
Foraging provides exercise and environmental
enrichment. Hard food can be hidden throughout the
enclosure, in a litter box filled with vermiculite, or
wrapped in newspaper.
Toys that are disposable or easily cleaned should be
provided. Examples of safe chewable toys include ping-
pong balls, tennis balls, brown paper bags, cardboard
www.skunkhaven.net
www.skunkhaven.net
boxes and old socks tied in knots.
DIET
Free-ranging skunks are omnivorous with a diet consisting
of whole prey, insects and some fruit and vegetable
matter.
In zoos, skunk diets vary from commercial carnivore and
Skunks may use hammocks for sleep. Extremely overweight skunk (40 lbs)
insectivore diets to natural diets consisting of items such
as mice, rats, day-old chicks and live insects. Most zoos
also supplement with varied amounts of vegetables/fruits.
As obesity is extremely common in captive pet skunks,
many skunk interest groups have proposed diets
consisting of mostly vegetables and other items, such as
cottage cheese, yogurt, wheat germ. However, an
increase in dietary-related disease, such as metabolic
bone disease, has been seen with these types of diets.
The Standardized Animal Care Guidelines for Mustelidae1
recommend the following diet for captive skunks:
www.skunkhaven.net
www.skunkhaven.net
• Premium dog food (PMI Nutrition International,
Brentwood, MO): 37%
• Canned cat food (Old Mother Hubbard, Lowell, MA):
37%
4
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Skunks
Dog bones and tartar-controlling
treats are useful for keeping • Fruits: 23%
skunks’ teeth clean. • Other (insects, treats): 3%
Considering the natural diet of wild skunks, acceptable
additions may include commercial insectivore and
omnivore diets.
A number of manufacturers offer commercial skunk diets.
While dietary composition may appear adequate, the
authors have been unable to find any manufacturers that
have conducted dietary trials on these products.
Techniques to reduce the risk of obesity include reducing
food volume, increasing exercise and offering food as
forage to encourage skunks to expend energy searching
for food.
Skunks should have access to a water bottle or a sturdy,
spill-proof bowl of water at all times.
Routine grooming, such

MAINTENANCE
as nail clipping and Occasional bathing with a gentle shampoo may be
brushing, is important.
beneficial.
Routine grooming, such as nail clipping and brushing, is
important.
Regular dental care should be introduced at an early age
and may provide benefits similar to those in dogs.
Specialty pet toothpastes or gels can be applied with a
soft toothbrush or cotton-tipped applicator.
Toys and hard foods should be provided daily for chewing.
RESTRAINT
Skunks may be grasped by the scruff with the right hand
while the left hand extends the rear legs and tail. When
5
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Skunks Venipuncture can be performed

from the cranial vena cava using
scruffing, be sure to also support the hindquarters. the sternal notch approach.
Skunks frequently attempt to bite when they are being
restrained.
Care must be taken to avoid bite wounds. Skunks that
bite humans are treated as rabies suspects regardless of
vaccination status, and health regulatory agencies often
require euthanasia and rabies testing.
Tranquilization (ketamine 11 mg/kg) is often advisable to
facilitate a thorough, physical examination and sample
collection, especially when handling very large or
Frank Krupka, DVM

aggressive skunks.
BLOOD COLLECTION
The preferred location for collecting a large blood sample
from an unanesthetized skunk is the jugular vein.
Cephalic veins may be used to obtain smaller samples.
Blood can be collected from the cranial vena cava via the The preferred location for collecting a
large blood sample from an
sternal notch approach. unanesthetized skunk is the jugular vein.
ANESTHESIA
Isoflurane or sevoflurane is administered via face mask or
with an induction chamber. Intubation is relatively easy to
perform.

Malnutrition (obesity, metabolic bone disease)
Frank Krupka, DVM

Hepatic lipidosis
Dental disease
Gastrointestinal parasites (roundworms [Baylisascaris
columnaris], tapeworms)
6
UNUSUAL PET CARE
BIOCHEMICAL DESCENTING SKUNKS Skunks

REFERENCE RANGES* Ectoparasites (lice)
Guidelines should be followed from Fowler
Glucose 80-118 mg/dl Abscesses
ME (ed): Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 2nd
BUN 14.5-29.0 mg/dl ed. WB Saunders Co, 1986, pp 807-809. Cardiomyopathy
Creatinine 0.46-0.82 mg/dl This procedure should be done outdoors. Dermatitis
Total protein 5.9-8.0 g/dl Descenting should be done at as early an Gastroenteritis
Albumin 2.7-3.7 g/dl age as possible, because the larger the Canine distemper
Total bilirubin 0.05-0.21 mg/dl skunk, the larger the sacs. Rectal prolapse in juveniles
Alk phos 4.0-94 IU/L
Seizures in juveniles (possibly related to hypocalcemia or
hypoglycemia)
ALT 28-266 IU/L
Aleutian disease virus (ADV)
AST 55-155 IU/L
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
Calcium 8.65-10.55 mg/dl
Rabies
Phosphorus 3.6-7.0 mg/dl
Baylisascaris procyonis, B. columnaris
Susan Kelleher, DVM

Sodium 147-157 mEq/L
Potassium 4.5-5.5 mEq/L
VACCINATIONS
Chloride 107-125 mEq/L
Globulin 2.87-4.67 g/dl
Exact vaccine requirements for pet skunks are unknown.
*Based on a study by Frank Krupka, Skunks are susceptible to canine distemper and rabies
DVM, Avon Lakes, OH, of 39 domestic virus, and cases of clinical canine distemper have been
skunks assessed to be normal on physi-
cal examination. Samples were submit-
reported.
ted to Antech Diagnostic Laboratory The Standardized Animal Care Guidelines for Mustelidae
(www.antechdiagnostics.com).
recommend that skunk vaccine protocols include canine
distemper, feline panleukopenia, canine adenovirus,
PARASITICIDES leptospira Bacterin C1 and rabies.
Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg/day PO x 5d Live and modified live distemper vaccines have been
Piperazine 110 mg/kg PO, associated with rare vaccine-induced distemper.
Susan Kelleher, DVM

repeat in 14d Distemper vaccines of mink or ferret origin should never
Mebendazole 5-10 mg/kg be used in Mustelidae.
Pyrantel 4.4 mg/kg PO, Recombinant rabies and distemper vaccines (Merial, Inc.,
pamoate repeat in 14d
Athens, GA) are recommended for use in skunks.
7
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Skunks
Studies on infectious diseases in wild animals indicate WHAT TO LOOK FOR IN A HEALTHY SKUNK
skunks are susceptible to canine adenovirus, and nearly
all mammals are susceptible to leptospirosis.
Researchers suspect skunks may be susceptible to feline
panleukopenia.
FORMUL ARY
Dosages for antimicrobials, parasiticides, fluids,
cardiovascular medications and analgesics are commonly
based on those used for dogs or ferrets.
For other medications used to treat adult skunks, the Sleek haircoat
clinician is advised to extrapolate dosages from those
used with cats.
REFERENCES Bright, alert and

1. American Association of Zoo Veterinarians website: www.aazv.org. responsive
2. Johnson-Delaney C: Exotic Companion Medicine Handbook.
Zoological Education Network, Lake Worth, FL, 2000,
www.exoticdvm.com Eyes and nostrils
3. Kramer MH, Kelleher S, et al: Descenting skunks. Exotic DVM free of inflammation
5(1):40-41, 2003, www.exoticdvm.com or discharge
4. Nowak RM, Pradiso JL: Walker’s Mammals of the World, 4th edi-
tion. Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, MD, 1983.
5. Pathology report, Purdue University Animal Disease Diagnostic
Laboratory, courtesy Ms. Cheryl Royer.
6. PureVax Ferret Distemper Vaccine and PureVax Feline Rabies
Vaccine, Merial, Inc, Athens, GA. Minimal
7. Standardized Animal Care Guidelines for Mustelidae (excluding subcutaneous fat
Lutrinae); The American Zoo and Aquarium Association,
Teeth free of tartar,
www.aza.org.
no gingivitis
8. Williams ES, Barker IK (eds). Infectious Diseases of Wild
Mammals, 3rd edition, Iowa State Press, Ames, IA, 2001.
8
Fennec Fox
Pet Care
Dan Johnson, DVM

Behavior, Anatomy, Vital statistics
Edited by
Sexing, Housing, Diet, Anesthesia Peter Fisher, DVM
Physical Exam, Common disorders

Blood collection, Zoonotic potential
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Fennec Foxes
The fennec foxes (Vulpes zerda) are in the Order
Carnivora, the family Canidae and the genus Vulpes
(with the red fox, Arctic fox and 9 other species).
Fennecs are found in the Sahara desert region of
North Africa from Morocco and Niger to Egypt and
Sudan. Fennec foxes are listed in Appendix II of CITES
and are considered threatened in the wild.
Clean, have no odor and are relatively easy to care for.
Engaging, social animals.
Fennecs may require several hours of play time/exercise
with the owner and are not considered a “lap pet.”
Fennecs are fastidious.
Fennecs live in colonies of up to 10 individuals.
When approached by someone, a fennec will normally
cower, lay on its side, yelp, and wag its tail in a typical
canine greeting display.
When fennecs are content, purring may be observed.
They can be taught to fetch, which can be a means of
providing exercise.
VITAL STATISTICS
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Body height Respiratory rate (at rest) 23 bpm
The fennec fox is the smallest wild canid.
(at the shoulder) 8 inches (20 cm) Heart rate (at rest) 118 bpm
It has the largest ears relative to body size in the dog Average body weight 2-3 lbs (1.0-1.5 kg) Sexual maturity 9-11 months
family, measuring up to 6 inches (15 cm) in length. Average life span 12-16 years Breeding season January/February
A heavily furred tail helps the fennec change direction Normal body Gestation 49-63 days (51 avg)
quickly and keep it warm when it curls up to sleep. temperature 100.8°F (38.2°C)
Litter size 2-5
A fennec fox has the same dental formula as a dog. Dental formula I 3/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3
2
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Fennec Foxes
MALE FEMALE The pads of the feet are covered with fur, protecting them
from heat and enabling the fennec to run in loose sand.
Fennecs have exceedingly large tympanic bullae,
emphasizing their dependence on hearing for predation.
The fennec radiates body heat by dilating blood vessels in
its feet and its large, vascular ears.
The tapetum lucidum is well developed and the pupil is
elliptical and vertically slit. Both characteristics are typical
of nocturnal predators that hunt on a horizontal plane.
Compared with other vulpines, the canines of fennec
foxes are smaller, and their teeth are sharply cuspidate.

Fennecs are easy to sex; they have reproductive anatomy
typical of canines.
Fennecs are unusual among wild canids in that the
female is seasonally polyestrous.
Breeding pairs are monogamous and will peacefully
coexist year round.
Males urine-mark their territory during breeding season.
Fennecs become very nervous and aggressive during
breeding and rearing.
To prevent neonatal deaths, disturbances should be
avoided until the kits reach 3-4 weeks of age.
In practice, kits are sometimes pulled at 10-12 days and
hand-raised on a fox milk replacer such as Day One®
Formula 35/32 (www.foxvalleynutrition.com).
For hand-raised kits, solid food may be introduced at about
1 month, and weaning may occur as early as 6 weeks.
“Love handles:” dorsolateral alopecia may appear
on the vixen around the time of breeding.
3
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Fennec Foxes
HOUSING
A ferret enclosure with shelves makes a suitable cage.
Fennecs should be kenneled while unsupervised.
Fennec foxes can easily climb out of fenced enclosures;
therefore, the enclosure should be designed so the
occupants cannot dig out or otherwise escape.
Dusty cage substrates should be avoided.
The enclosure should be placed in a low humidity, well-
ventilated environment.
Free-ranging fennecs practice site-specific defecation
and, therefore, can be litter box trained.
Because of their digging habits, a covered litter box is
recommended. Regular clay litter is preferable.
Fennecs can be leash- or harness-trained but can easily
escape from either if startled; a crate is preferable.
While fennecs are primarily nocturnal, they also enjoy
basking in the sun.
Fennec foxes will shiver when the ambient temperature
drops below 68°F (20°C).
DIET
The diet of free-ranging fennecs includes plant material,
fruits, small rodents (gerbils, jerboas), birds, eggs, lizards
and insects (locusts). Plant roots are a source of water.
In captivity, the staple diet should be a completely
formulated diet, such as high-quality dog or cat food.
Mazuri Exotic Canine Diet® (www.mazuri.com) is widely
used for this species. Fennecs can easily climb out of fenced
The diet may be supplemented with vegetables, fruits, enclosures if not properly secured.
rodents, eggs, crickets and mealworms if necessary.
4
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Blood is sampled from the cephalic vein. A fennec fox is given a physical exam. Fennec Foxes
Raw meat may be added for variety; raw meat must be

handled with care to avoid bacterial growth.
Feeding raw meat without bone/calcium supplementation
may result in nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism.
Nebraska Bird of Prey Diet® (www.nebraskabrand.com)
contains supplements and is used for this purpose.
Fresh water should be provided at all times.
ANESTHESIA
A useful anesthesia protocol includes induction with
ketamine (5.5 mg/kg) and diazepam (0.28 mg/kg)
followed by isoflurane for maintenance.
HEMATOLOGIC BIOCHEMICAL
REFERENCE RANGES REFERENCE RANGES BLOOD COLLECTION
WBC 2.6-12.45 x 103/µl* Total protein 4.2-7.4 g/dl† Veins most suitable for blood collection are the jugular,
RBC 5.7-10.5 x 106/µl* Albumin 2.1-4.5 g/dl† cephalic and lateral saphenous.
Hct 34-59%* Glucose 88-188 mg/dl* Canine restraint methods are used.
Hgb 10.4-21.1 g/dl* BUN 11-31 mg/dl*
Segs 1.439-5.958 x 103/µl Creatinine 0.4-0.9 mg/dl* PHYSICAL EXAM/PREVENTIVE CARE
Lymph 0.6-8.217 x 10 /µl* 3 Glob 1.4-4.2 g/dl†
Physical exam should include a fecal exam for internal
Mono 0.026-0.557 x 103/µl* Potassium 3.1-6.9 mEq/L† parasites and a discussion of diet and husbandry.
Eosin 0.078-1.161 x 103/µl* Chloride 102-126 mEq/L† Rabies vaccination (IMRAB®* - Merial) is not legally
Baso 0-0.092 x 103/µl† Phosphorous 1.6-9.3 mg/dl† recognized, but it will protect foxes and the public.
Plate 210-866 x 103/µl† Calcium 8.4-11.0 mg/dl* Canine distemper virus, canine parvovirus and canine
* Houston Zoological Gardens, 2002 ALT 35-162 IU/L* hepatitis virus vaccination (Recombitek-C4®* - Merial)
† ISIS Reference Values, 1999 Flea control (Advantage®* - Bayer)
AST 33-150 IU/L*
16-142 IU/L*
Canine heartworm preventive
Alkaline phos
*All vaccinations and medications are extra-label use
Total bilirubin 0.1-0.3 mg/dl*
CK 97-1055 IU/L*
5
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Fennec Foxes WHAT TO LOOK FOR IN A HEALTHY FENNEC FOX

Ears upright, alert
Trauma (bite wounds) to strangers
Neonatal death (nervous mothering) Well groomed fur
Neoplasia without matting
Eyes normally appear
Renal disease (nephritis) as if squinting slightly,
Liver disease (hepatitis, neoplasia) but will widen if
Cardiomyopathy threatened or fearful
Full, fluffy coat
Pneumonia and tail
Dermatopathies (dermatophytes, mites, otitis)
Fleas
Conjunctivitis
Corneal lesions (foreign body)
Glaucoma Curious, but
Histoplasmosis keeping a distance
Intestinal parasites
No odor
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
Tuberculosis Full of energy, able
Rabies to move swiftly
Leishmaniasis
REFERENCES
1. Alderton D: Foxes, Wolves & Wild Dogs of the World. New York, Sterling Publishing Co, 1999, p 144-146.
2. Bekoff M: Social behavior and ecology of the African Canidae: A review. In Fox MW (ed): The Wild Canids: Their Systematics, Behavioral Ecology and Evolution. Malabar,
Florida, Krieger Publishing Company, 1975, p 123-125.
3. Hall L: Fennec Fox: A Guide to Care and Breeding. Camarillo, CA, Lynn Hall, 1997, p 13.
4. Himes EM, et al: Tuberculosis in fennec foxes. J Am Vet Med Assoc 177(9):825-826, 1980.
5. Macdonald D (ed): The Encyclopedia of Animals. Oxfordshire, Barnes & Noble Books/Andromeda Oxford Ltd, UK, 2001, p 54-61.
6. Montali RJ, et al: Clinical trials with canine distemper vaccines in exotic carnivores. J Am Vet Med Assoc 183(11):1163-1167, 1983.
7. Nowak RM (ed): Walker’s Mammals of the World 5th ed Vol II. Baltimore/London, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991, p 1054-1055.
8. Raju NR, et al: Disseminated histoplasmosis in a fennec fox. J Am Vet Med Assoc 189(9):1195-1196, 1986.
9. Sheldon JW: Wild Dogs: The Natural History of the Nondomestic Canidae. New York, Academic Press Inc, 1992, p 91-95.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author gratefully acknowledges the following individuals and institutions for their assistance: Maryanne Tocidlowski, DVM, Dipl ACZM, The Houston Zoo, Houston, TX; Barb
Wolfe, DVM, PhD, Dipl ACZM, North Carolina Zoological Park, Asheboro, NC; The Living Desert Zoo and Gardens, Palm Desert, CA; and Noah’s Landing Nature Center, Coats, NC.
6
Nonhuman
Primates
Pet Care
Cathy A. Johnson-
Behavior, Housing, Diet Delaney,
DVM, Dipl ABVP-Avian
Common disorders, Vaccinations Practice
Zoonotic potential, Physical exam Edited by

Peter Fisher, DVM
Dental exam, TB testing

UNUSUAL PET CARE
Nonhuman Primates NONHUMAN PRIMATES POTENTIALLY SEEN IN PRACTICE

Scientific Name Common Name
Lemur, Eulemur sp. Lemurs
Regulations concerning privately-owned primates: Galago, Otolemur sp. Bushbabies
Foreign Quarantine Regulation 42 (CFR Part 71.53, Cebus sp. Capuchins
implemented by CDC), Animal Welfare Act Saimiri sp. Squirrel monkeys
(implemented by USDA) USFW, CITIES, IATA and local Callithrix sp. Marmosets
animal control regulations Saguinus sp. Tamarins
Ateles sp. Spider monkeys
Aotus sp. Owl monkeys, dourocoulis
Macaca fascicularis Java, crab-eating, cynomolgus macaque
Nonhuman primates (NHP) make unsuitable pets and are Macaca fuscata Snow monkey, Japanese macaque
one of the most difficult animals presented to the small Macaca mulatta Rhesus macaque
animal practitioner. Cercopithecus, Chlorocebus sp. African green monkey, vervet, guenon
The practitioner must not only be familiar with the dietary, Papio sp. Baboons
husbandry, regulatory, psychological and health care Colobus guereza Black and white colobus
needs of the particular species presented, but also must Hylobates sp. Gibbons
have a thorough background in zoonoses and public Pan troglodytes Chimpanzee
health risks to be able to educate the owner as well as to
protect staff, other clients and patients. This infant M. fascicularis will not be able to
be handled safely when it enters puberty.
The Animal Welfare Act defines guidelines for caging,
sanitation, general husbandry, diet, veterinary care and
psychological well-being of nonhuman primates, including
mandatory socialization with other primates.
Malnutrition and stereotypical behaviors are frequent
problems presented to the practitioner.
Macaques should never be kept as pets.
HOUSING
Optimal caging should be specifically designed for NHPs;
it should be strong, escape-proof and easy to clean.
Habitats should provide hiding places, perches and for
many, nest boxes.
2
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Nonhuman Primates
Capuchin Chimpanzee
Most NHPs should be kept fairly warm (65-80°F [18-
26°C]) with humidity ranging between 55-70%, although
many New World monkeys require 70-80% humidity.
A squeeze back cage is desirable, and an owner should
be encouraged to have at least a small squeeze cage to
use as a hospital cage in an emergency situation.
A transfer box with a guillotine-type door, rather than the
conventional kennel carrier for dogs, is recommended.
Environmental enrichment facilitates adequate exercise
and allows for socialization with other primates.
DIET
There are many commercial diets (Mazuri® Primate Diet,
www.mazuri.com) available that may be minimally
supplemented with fresh produce or specialized foods
such as nectars, gums or live insects.
Vervet Baboon Diets have been formulated for the major orders: New
World formulas, Old World formulas, Marmoset jelly (gum
replacement) and Leaf-eater diet (Colobus, langurs).
Commercial formulations should form the basis of the
diet and, in most cases, be 80-90% of the daily intake.
Offering human foods to the NHP is not recommended.
All NHPs require vitamin C supplementation at a dosage
of at least 1-4 mg/kg body weight daily. Either vitamin C
chewable tablets or fresh fruit are recommended.
Although primate chows contain supplemental vitamin C,
most have a shelf life of only 90 days.
New World primates require vitamin D3, while Old World
primates can metabolize vitamin D2. The majority of
commercial diets made for NHPs contain vitamin D3.
Most adult primates consume 3-5% of their body weight
3
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Nonhuman Primates
Squirrel monkey in
daily; however, many waste a great deal of food, and a squeeze-cage at a clinic.
greater quantity of food may need to be offered,
preferably divided into 2-3 meals per day.
Animals currently eating only table foods may be
converted to commercial chows by soaking the biscuits in
juice or milk or by pulverizing the biscuit and mixing it with
table foods. The biscuit amount are gradually increased.
Offering food only twice daily and removing uneaten
portions with no between-meal snacks will expedite diet
conversion by ensuring that the animal is hungry when
the proper food is presented.
Fresh water should be available at all times.
History (review diet, husbandry, reproductive patterns and
behavioral observations)
Physical examination (including dental and weight)
CBC, serum chemistries, serology
Fecal wet mount/flotation to check for parasites;
fecal/rectal culture
TB testing SOME ETIOLOGIES OF DIARRHEA
Bacterial Parasitic Viral Other
DENTAL EXAMINATION
Campylobacter sp. Strongyloides sp. Reovirus Inflammatory bowel
The dental examination should include evaluation of all Shigella sp. Oesophagostomum Rotavirus disease
teeth, periodontal and gingival assessment performed Salmonella sp. sp. Retroviruses caus- Diverticulosis
with a dental probe, dental radiographs, scaling of E. coli (β-hemolytic Pinworms ing lymphadeno- Food allergies
with endotoxins) (Enterobius sp.) pathies within the (gluten or lactose
calculus followed by polishing of tooth surfaces, and Yersinia sp. Trichuris hominis GI tract intolerance)
fluoride treatment to repair and strengthen the enamel. Flora imbalance/ Entamoeba Hepatitis A (rarely) Stress-induced
Caries, gingivitis, periodontitis and dental abscesses bacterial over- histolytica hypermotility
growth Balantidium sp. Malabsorptive pan-
present as they do in other species. Clostridial entero- Giardia creatic conditions
toxins Cryptosporidium
4
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Femoral site is used for a Nonhuman Primates

blood sample collection.
SEDATIVES USED TO ENABLE EXAMINATION
Ketamine hydrochloride (5-10 mg/kg IM) or Telazol®
(2-6 mg/kg IM)
Atropine sulfate (0.02-0.04 mg/kg IM) to prevent
hypersalivation
Inhalant anesthetic (isoflurane/sevoflurane) if longer or
deeper sedation is required. Isoflurane may be delivered
via endotracheal tube or mask (for short-term, non-oral).

Gastroenteritis (see box, at right)
Tuberculosis (TB)
Periodontal disease
Vitamin D3, vitamin C deficiency
Obesity
Trauma due to fighting
VACCINATIONS (All Extra-label Use) Hyperthermia
Vaccine Species Frequency Fungal diseases
Lentiviruses
Trivalent oral poliovirus Great apes Follow human pediatric per vaccine
Retroviruses
Tetanus All species (except Callitrich- 2,4,6,18 months of age; repeat at 4-6
idae – do risk assessment) years of age, then every 10 years; also
Parasites
if injured per human recommendations Anemia
Measles All species 15 months of age, repeat at 10 years
of age ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
Rabies All, if housed outdoors, Unproven with killed small animal vac- Care must be taken during oral examination and dental
endemic area cines or with human diploid. Titer lev- procedures to protect the clinical staff from potential
els may be helpful.
zoonoses, most notably B virus (Cercopithecine herpes-
Vaccines: human ones are obtained through your local human pharmacy or pediatrician contacts. Consult cur-
rent PDR for brand names. virus 1, Herpes B), especially in macaques.
B virus (Cercopithecine herpesvirus 1) is carried only by
Macaca sp. (macaques) and has been isolated from
many macaques, such as M. fascicularis, M. mulatta, M.
5
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Nonhuman Primates
nemestrina, M. arctoides, M. nigra and M. fuscata. TUBERCULOSIS (TB) TESTING

Infection with B virus is usually subclinical or may cause
For all primates (although many
minimal oral ulcers in macaques.
species of New World monkeys are
All pet macaques should be serologically tested for B
more resistant to infection)
virus and always examined closely for mucosal ulcers.
NHPs with B virus lesions are shedding the virus and Sites: Alternating eyelids or
pose a risk to humans. B viral infection may cause a abdominal site just off umbilicus
fatal encephalitis in a human. Shedding is intermittent, (must be palpated daily to read)
and cultures of the conjunctival sacs and buccal surface OT (mammalian tuberculin) - 0.1
should be taken if there has been a bite or scratch. ml intradermally via a 25- to 27-
The human should follow recommendations for a 15- ga tuberculin needle and syringe
minute scrub of a wound. A swab should also be Read: 24, 48 and 72 hours
submitted for viral culture, and a serum sample should Negative: no bruising, erythema or
be collected for antibody titer (ELISA and IFA). All swelling at the injection site; no
samples (human and monkey) should be submitted to palpable induration if abdominal
the NIH B virus laboratory for testing (Viral Immunology site is used
Center, Atlanta, GA, 404-651-0808, www.gsu.edu/bvirus). Positive: erythema and/or edema
Other notable zoonoses include; salmonellosis, persisting at the injection site for
campylobacteriosis, shigellosis, giardiasis, tuberculosis, 48 hours or longer. A suspicious
monkeypox and cryptosporidiosis. test should be repeated 7 days
later in the opposite eyelid or at Swelling is apparent if you look
REFERENCES the abdominal site. at the aperture of the eye.
1. Johnson-Delaney CA: Primates. Vet Clin No Am Small Animal
Pract 24(1):121-156, 1994.
2. Goldstein EJC, Pryor III EP, Citron DM: Simian bites and bacterial
If an animal clearly tests positive, public health officials should be consulted,
infection. Clin Infect Dis 20:1551-2, 1995. and all humans who have been in contact with the animal should be tested
3. Wissman MA: Nutrition and husbandry of callitrichids (marmosets immediately. Although chest radiographs of the monkey may be helpful,
and tamarins). Vet Clin No Am Exotic Animal Pract 2(1):209-240,
1999. palpable femoral lymph nodes, intra-abdominal lymphadenopathy and/or
4. Johnson-Delaney CA: Nonhuman primates care sheet: Dental splenomegaly may be more conclusive. At this time, treatment of the NHP is
care of nonhuman primates. Exotic Pet Practice 5(10):78, 2000. not recommended because of the public health danger and potential resistance
5. Hrapkiewicz K, Medina L, Holmes DD: Nonhuman primates. In
Clinical Laboratory Animal Medicine: An Introduction, 2nd ed. to medications.
Ames, Iowa State University Press, 1998, pp 199-235.
6
Pionus Parrot
Pet Care
Susan Leck, DVM,

Practice
Sexing, Housing, Diet Edited by
Blood collection and injection sites Peter Fisher, DVM
Common disorders, Zoonotic Potential

UNUSUAL PET CARE
Pionus Parrots
Although free-ranging pionus parrots are found in
plentiful numbers in Mexico, Central America and
South America, for the pet market they are captive-
bred in aviaries. The blue-headed (Pionus menstruus),
Greg J. Harrison, DVM, Dipl Emeritus ABVP-Avian, Dipl ECAMS

white-crowned or white-capped (P. senilis) and
Maximilian’s or scaly-headed (P. maximiliani) are the
most common pionus species, with bronze-winged (P.
chalcopterus) and dusky (P. fuscus) close behind.
Relatively small parrots.
Calm, gentle dispositions.
Not as noisy as larger parrots.
May not seek or accept much handling or cuddling.
Independent, but do like to be with their owners.
Maximilian’s believed to be the most calm and easy-going
pionus species, while the white-capped may be more
feisty and single owner-oriented.
Capable of making loud vocalizations, especially in the
early morning and late afternoon.
Pionus are considered intelligent birds that have some
VITAL STATISTICS
ability to mimic words and sounds; however, they may
speak in an exceptionally soft voice. Life span maximum 25-30 years Age of sexual maturity 1.5-4.0 years;
avg in captivity 6-10 years breed 1-2 times
Males are believed to be more vocal than females. per year
Body length 11-11.5 inches (28-29 cm)
Although generally sweet by nature, some individuals may white-crowned Clutch size 3-4 avg
be aggressive. and dusky 9.5 inches (24 cm) Incubation 26 days avg
When a pionus is feeling feisty, it will “strut,” fanning its Body weight 180-255 g Weaning 9-10 weeks avg
tail feathers and raising the head feathers as it slowly
stalks back and forth; it may bite if approached.
2
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Dusky pionus Blue-headed pionus Pionus Parrots
The breeding season may alter the personality of a pet

bird, making it a little more aggressive than it would be at
other times of the year.
A bird protecting its mate (real or perceived) may bite.
Like all parrots, pionus are messy and tend to fling food
and other items out of their cage.
Excessive screaming, feather plucking and poor appetite
may be signs of a stressed or poorly socialized bird.
Adrienne Rappaport
Unique among parrots, when pionus individuals are
Greg J. Harrison
alarmed, frightened or upset, they exhibit behaviors that
may be misinterpreted as clinical signs of respiratory
disease: wheezing, rattling, low growling, hyperventilating
and labored breathing. These signs disappear when the
bird once again feels secure.
Bronze-winged pionus Pionus parrots also have a distinctive musky odor, which
is generally most evident during the breeding season.
It is recommended that the owner provide a consistent
amount of interaction and enrichment time.
Physical enrichments include increased physical
complexity within the cage. Foraging enrichments require
the parrots to chew and sort through, open, and/or
manipulate objects to get to food.
Pionus should be encouraged to interact with people to
reduce the possibility of possessive attachment.
To maximize socialization, the bird should be exposed to
many new stimuli when it is young.
Cindy Fulton, DVM

SEXING
Pionus are monomorphic so sexing must be determined
via endoscopy (preferred if breeding) or DNA sexing.
3
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Pionus Parrots
The distinctive coloration of each species is not fully

appreciated until adulthood.
HOUSING
The enclosure should be as large as possible —
minimum of 20 x 24 x 40 inches (50 x 60 x 100 cm) —
with enough space for the bird to freely flap its wings.
Bar spacing should be 7/8” (2.2 cm) for most pionus
species. Small birds, such as duskies and white-caps,
should have no more than 3/4” (1.8 cm) space between
bars to prevent the bird’s head from becoming stuck.
Newspaper is a suitable substrate in the cage tray so the
Adrienne Rappaport
droppings may be monitored.
Wood and rope-type toys provide proper outlets for their
energy and curiosity.
A variety of toys, including foraging or puzzle toys, will
improve environmental enrichment.
Abundant branches and extra wood for chewing should
be added to the enclosure.
Free-flying pionus should be protected from common
household dangers: glass windows and doors, mirrors
and glass-fronted picture frames (if frightened, the bird
may fly into the reflection); open doors, ceiling fans, hot
cooking oils/pots and pans, open containers of water
(toilets), toxic houseplants, dogs, cats, children.
Caged pionus should be protected from potential toxins:
Adrienne Rappaport
Adrienne Rappaport
cigarette smoke, overheated nonstick (polytetrafluro-
ethylene-coated) cookware, chocolate, avocado, salt,
alcohol, pesticides, toxic fumes, easily dismantled toys,
sources of lead or zinc, sandpaper-covered perches.
4
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Pionus Parrots
HEMATOLOGY DIET
REFERENCE RANGES Numerous high quality formulated diets are commercially
WBC 4.0-11.5 x 103/µl available and should make up 80% of the bird’s diet.
RBC 2.4-4.0 x 103/µl Diet may be supplemented with high vitamin A-containing
Hct 35-47% dark green or dark orange-colored vegetables, such as
Hemoglobin 11-16 g/dl carrots, sweet potatoes, pumpkin, yellow squash,
MCV 85-210 fl escarole, collards and parsley, or fruits, such as canta-
MCH 26-54 pg loupe, apricots and papaya.
MCHC 24-31 g/dl
Seeds and table foods should be avoided or severely
limited in order to prevent the incidence of atherosclero-
Heterophils 50-75%
sis and fatty liver disease.
Eosinophils 0-2%
Grit is not necessary.
Basophils 0-1%
Because birds are sensitive to pesticides and other
Monocytes 0-2%
chemicals, organic products should be considered.
Lymphocytes 25-45% Drinking water may be provided in an open dish or a
BIOCHEMICAL sipper tube. Water should be changed daily.
REFERENCE RANGES Pionus like to dunk their food and make “soup” in their
AST 150-365 U/L water bowls, so the water must be changed as often as
Calcium 7.0-13.5 mg/dl
necessary to keep it fresh. Or, the food and water may be
placed at opposite ends of the cage.
Creatinine 0.1-0.4 mg/dl
BLOOD COLLECTION AND INJECTION SITES
Glucose 125-300 mg/dl
Right jugular vein
Phosphorous 2.9-6.6 mg/dl
IM - pectoral muscles
Potassium 3.5-4.6 mmol/L IV - right jugular vein
Sodium 145-155 mmol/L SC - between shoulders, inguinal region
Uric acid 3.5-10 mg/dl MOST COMMON DISORDERS
Obesity/malnutrition
Bacterial infections
Aspergillosis
5
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Pionus Parrots
Chlamydiosis
WHAT TO LOOK FOR IN A HEALTHY PIONUS PARROT
Young birds purchased unweaned or from questionable
sources may be at risk for other contagious diseases,
Alert disposition
such as polyomavirus. Body free of lumps Smooth, shiny feathers with
and bumps no bald patches on the body
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL Erect posture
Chlamydiosis
Tuberculosis (Mycobacterium avium, Mycobacterium Clear, bright
genovense most common) eyes
Campylobacteriosis
Colibacillosis
Salmonellosis
Allergic alveolitis
Avian influenza
Newcastle disease (paramyxovirus 1)
MAINTENANCE Dry, open

Frequent baths, showers or misting are recommended.* nares Nails of Feet smooth and free
appropriate length of excessive flaking
Some clipping of the wing feathers may be recommended
to limit flying ability, altitude and speed. Smooth beak (the normal upper beak
of a pionus appears longer than it does
in some other species where that
REFERENCES length may be considered overgrown.)
Veterinarians. Lake Worth, Zoological Education Network, 2000, The pionus parrot may be used as a model
www.exoticdvm.com
2. Grimes JE: Zoonoses acquired from pet birds. Vet Clin North Am for other psittacines for many husbandry issues.
Small Anim Pract 17:209-18, 1987.
3. Ritchie BW, Harrison GJ, Harrison LR (eds): Avian Medicine:
Principles and Application. Brentwood, TN, HBD Int’l, 2000.
4. Stoodley J and P: Pionus Parrots. Portsmouth, England, Bezels
Publications, 1984.
5. Carpenter JW, Mashima TY, Rupiper DJ: Exotic Animal Formulary
2nd ed. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 2001.
*AVIx - www.avi-x.com
6
Canary
Pet Care
Peter Coutteel, DVM

Vital statistics, Behavior, Sexing
Edited by
Housing, Diet, Physical examination Peter Fisher, DVM
Sample collection, Injection sites
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Canaries
Spanish monks in monasteries on the Canary Islands
first started breeding canaries (Serinus canarius) as
far back as 1402. Today’s canary fanciers pursue a
wide range of activities, including preserving old and
rare breeds as well as breeding new color mutations.
Tidy, nondestructive.
Relatively easy to care for.
Require a minimum of space.
Not considered social birds.
Considered “skittish,” they will fly away when approached.
Color variations, size, shape characteristics and feather
traits are the basis of their appeal.
Canaries may not be ideal pets for children because they
do not like to be handled.
Appreciated most for their pleasant melodious song.

The caudal end of each ductus deferens in males forms a
mass called the seminal glomerulus. During the breeding VITAL STATISTICS
season, the seminal glomeruli push the cloacal wall into Life span avg captive 5-9 years Heart rate Resting 265-325 bpm
a “cloacal promontory.” maximum 25 years Restraint 400-600 bpm
Females have a flatter vent. Body length 4-7 inches (11-18 cm) Respiratory rate Resting 60-80 bpm
Body weight 12-30 g Restraint 80-120 bpm
Males are more vocal and usually sing best in the spring
Body temperature 105.8°F (41°C) Age of sexual maturity 5-8 months
in response to an endogenous surge of testosterone.
Water consumption 200-300 ml/kg BW/day Eggs per clutch 4-7
A photoperiod of at least 14-15 hours of light is
Food consumption Up to 30% BW/day Incubation 12-14 days
necessary to initiate breeding behavior. Fledging 11-17 days
2
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Breeding cage separates youngsters from the breeding pair. Canaries
HOUSING
One bird kept as a single pet will be content.
Males must be housed separately from other males to
prevent fighting, but they may be kept within visual or
auditory range to stimulate singing.
Group housing for mixed ages and sexes will work only if
the cage has sufficient perches and feeding stations.
Housing for a pet canary should be indoors or protected
by mosquito screening if placed outdoors.
The cage size should be at least 10 x 10 x 18 inches (25
x 25 x 46 cm) or 20 x 16 x 16 inches (50 x 50 x 40 cm).
The cage setup should be clean, secure, safe and easy
to service.
Suitable substrates include newspaper, butcher paper
and plain brown paper.
One should avoid using pressure-treated wood, cedar or
Young canaries are placed in an exercise An indoor breeding facility for color canaries
flight with multiple perches to reduce provides outside hanging nest boxes. redwood cage substrates as well as synthetic fibrous
the incidence of aggressive picking. nesting material or fine thread in the nest box.
Natural materials are preferred for lining nests: sisal
(from Agave cactus), cotton fibers, moss or jute.
Ideal environmental temperature is greater than 59°F
(15°C); ideal relative humidity is 60-80%.
Canaries spend a great deal of their time eating and
flying from perch to perch, and multiple, small-diameter,
fresh, nontoxic, pesticide-free branches are necessary.
Canaries enjoy taking a daily bath; a bathing area should
be available away from the feeding area.
During the breeding season, nest pans made of plastic,
stone, wood or wire with holes should be provided.
3
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Canaries
SOME COMMON CANARY VARIATIONS
If there is a continuous source of stress in the canary’s
environment, the bird’s feathers will not molt properly. Red frosted Brown red ivory frosted
DIET
Canaries are primarily seed-eating birds; however, a diet
consisting of only seeds may lead to nutritional
deficiencies.
The recommended captive diet consists of high-quality,
toxin-free, canary-specific formulated foods with limited
offerings of finely chopped vegetables and fruits and
Common canary variations photos provided courtesy of Johan Van der Maelen
fresh, pesticide-free seed mixtures as treats. This diet
reduces the incidence of obesity and cardiac disease.
Black pastel white White recessive
Soluble “grit,” such as cuttlefish bone (Sepia spp.), oyster
shell, limestone (calcium carbonate), marble (crystalline
limestone) or gypsum (calcium sulfate), offers a good
calcium source and is usually completely digested.
Vitamin/mineral supplements should be applied to moist
food rather than added to seeds or drinking water.
During reproduction and molting, a high-protein
commercial or homemade “egg food” may be offered in
limited quantities.
Clean, fresh water must be provided daily.
Yellow frosted Yellow intensive
An annual veterinary visit should consist of a discussion
of any history of illness, physical examination, a CBC,
fecal examination (wet mount, flotation) and an examina-
tion for parasites of the feathers with magnification and
the trachea via transillumination with a penlight.
The bird should be weighed in a paper box, bag or pan
with a lid.
4
UNUSUAL PET CARE
FEATHER TRIMMING Canaries

In heavily feathered birds, it is necessary to trim some feathers prior to the breeding season.
Feathers: state of the molt, presence of any external
Trimming around the vent parasites, broken feathers and feather discoloration
Wings and legs: skeletal deformities, fractures, irritation
or constriction from leg band, lacerations or feather cysts
Feet and toes: hyperkeratosis, pox lesions and signs of
pododermatitis
Respiratory sounds: crackles, wheezes, sneezing, moist
clicks, increased respiratory effort
Eyes, ears and nares: exudate, crusts, pox lesions,
cataracts or sinusitis
Oral mucosa and tongue: whitish plaques may indicate
candidiasis, bacterial infection or trichomoniasis.
Keel (part the feathers): straight keel, evaluate the
pectoral muscles for mass, color (pallor may indicate
anemia) and the presence of fat.
Skin: dehydration makes the skin appear red. Red factor
The periocular area before trimming After trimming canaries may have a normal red coloration due to
ß-carotene and canthaxanthine in the food.
Abdomen (part the feathers): enlarged liver, dilatation of
the GI tract, ascites and urine in the cloaca.
Overgrown nails should be trimmed.
SAMPLE COLLECTION
Fecal examination: A direct wet mount of fresh, warm
stool for Cochlosoma, Giardia, Candida, Macrorhabdus
(avian gastric yeast), bacteria, plant material, chitin
skeletons, urates and powder down feathers.
Crop swabs: A crop swab can be obtained by using a
cotton-tipped applicator moistened in saline or by
flushing 0.2 ml saline into the crop (using a syringe and
small feeding needle) then applying gentle negative
5
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Canaries
pressure. A warm wet mount can reveal the presence of

Trichomonas, Candida, Macrorhabdus or bacteria.
Bacteriology: Samples for bacteriology may include feces,
a cloacal swab, nasal discharge or a skin swab.
VACCINATION
The wing web is the site for administering pox vaccine in
canaries and closely-related birds (Poulvac® P-Canary by
Fort Dodge Laboratories is available in Europe; Poximune
C® MLV Canary Pox Vaccine by Biomune in the US).
The vaccination site is checked after 8-10 days; a white
spot at the site indicates a successful “take,” and the
bird should be protected for 6 months. Safe restraint can be
accomplished
BLOOD COLLECTION with a single hand.
The right jugular vein is the best site for blood collection.
The medial metatarsal vein or cutaneous basilic vein The right jugular vein
often provides inadequate sample volumes, although a in a canary is used
skin-prick technique accessing the above sites or the for blood sampling.
external thoracic vein can be used to obtain a drop of
blood for microscopic evaluation.
One should avoid creating a hematoma, as it may result
in significant extravascular blood loss.
Numbers of lymphocytes, the predominant leukocyte,
tend to increase in stress-related conditions.
INJECTION SITES/THERAPEUTIC ROUTES

IV: Right jugular vein; maximum IV bolus of fluid is 0.5 ml
administered very slowly.
IO: Use a 26-ga needle as a cannula.
IM: Use a 25-ga needle in the cranial third of the
6
UNUSUAL PET CARE
REFERENCE RANGES Canaries

BIOCHEMISTRY Triglycerides(mg/dl) 60-265* pectoral muscles; apply negative pressure prior to
Alk phos (U/L) 20-135* Uric acid (mg/dl) 4-12* injecting; apply pressure after injection to reduce risk of
ALT (U/L) 5-11* Bile acids (µmol/L) 23-90* intramuscular hemorrhage.
AST (SGOT) (U/L) 145-345* T4 (µg/dl) 0.3-1.8* SC: Use 27-30 ga needle; fluids administered via this
Amylase (U/L) 190-485* Pre-albumin (g/dl) 0.35-0.98* route may not be absorbed if the bird is moderately
AP (IU/L) 146-379** Albumin (g/dl) 0.81-1.23* dehydrated or hypothermic.
BUN (mg/dl) 3-5* Alpha-1 (g/dl) 0.08-0.16* Tube feeding: Gavage 0.1-0.5 ml q4h if the crop is
Ca (mg/dl) 5.5-13.5* Alpha-2 (g/dl) 0.05-0.22*
empty, often in combination with medication.
Oral: Suspensions may be given using a blunt cannula.
Chol (mg/dl) 150-400* Beta (g/dl) 0.3-0.71*
Creat (mg/dl) 0.1-0.4* Gamma (g/dl) 0.16-0.63*
CO2 (mmol/L) 14-26* A/G ratio 1.3-4.5*
Acute dyspnea (inhaled seed)
CPK (U/L) 55-350*
Arthropods (air sac mites, feather mites, scaly mites)
GGT (U/L) 1-14* HEMATOLOGY Bacterial infections/septicemia
Glu (mg/dl) 205-435* WBC x 103/µl 4-9*
Baldness or other feather abnormalities
LDH (U/L) 120-450* RBC x 106/µl 2.5-3.8* Infection with Campylobacter fetus subsp. jejuni
Lipase (U/L) 29-255* PCV (%) 45-60** Canary poxvirus infection
Phos (mg/dl) 2.9-4.9* Hct (%) 40-49* Cataracts
P (mmol/L) 0.52-1.81** Hets (%) 50-80* Circovirus infection (“black spot” disease) in hatchlings
K (mmol/L) 2.2-4.5* Eos (%) 0-2* and nestlings
Na (mmol/L) 135-165* Baso (%) 0-1* Coccidiosis (Isospora canaria, Atoxoplasma serini,
Total bili (mg/dl) 0-0.1* Monos (%) 0-1* Cryptosporidium)
Total protein (g/dl) 2.8-4.5* Lymphs (%) 20-45* Colisepticemia
*University of Miami, Avian and Wildlife Laboratory. Constricted feet and digits (leg band too small, thread or
**Altman RB, et al.4
small linear foreign body), hyperkeratosis (older birds),
wart-like skin masses (“tasselfoot”) from papillomavirus
Egg binding
Enterococcus faecalis associated with chronic tracheitis
and dyspnea
Feather cysts
GI flagellates (Cochlosoma, Trichomonas, Giardia)
7
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Canaries WHAT TO LOOK FOR IN A HEALTHY CANARY

Internal parasite infections (cestodes in the family
Anoplocephalidae) Clear, bright eyes
(no discharge) Smooth
Mycotic infections (candidiasis, macrorhabdosis, beak
dermatomycosis, aspergillosis)
Nutritional problems Alert, erect Dry, open
Obesity, fatty tumors posture nares
Salmonellosis
Toxicosis from inhaled toxins
Trauma (wing and lower leg fractures) Smooth, bright feathers
without color breaks, trans- Body free of
Yersiniosis (Y. pseudotuberculosis) parency or ragged edges lumps and bumps
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
Chlamydiosis
Tuberculosis (Mycobacterium avium, Mycobacterium Even, patterned
genovense most common) surface of feet
Colibacillosis
Salmonellosis
Allergic alveolitis
Nails of appropriate
length
1. Coutteel P: Canaries and finches in avian practice. Master
Class, Europ Assoc Avian Vet, 1999. The canary may be used as a model for
2. Coutteel P: Canaries and finches in avian practice. Proc Assoc
Avian Vet Europ Comm, 2001, pp 371-386.
other passerines for many husbandry issues.
3. Coutteel P: Veterinary aspects of breeding management in cap-
tive passerines. Sem Avian Exotic Pet Med 12(1):3-10, 2003.
4. Dorrestein G: Passerines. In Altman RB, Clubb SL, Dorrestein
GM, Quesenberry KE (eds): Avian Medicine and Surgery.
Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 1997, pp 158-169, 867-885.
5. Johnson-Delaney C: Avian module. Exotic Companion Medicine
Handbook. Lake Worth, FL, Zoological Education Network,
2005, www.exoticdvm.com
6. Sandmeier P, Coutteel P: Management of Canaries, finches and
mynahs. In Harrison GJ, Lightfoot T (eds): Clinical Avian Med-
icine Vol II. Palm Beach, Spix Publishing, 2006, p 879-913.
8
Swan
Pet Care
Adapted from Exotic DVM, Volume 2.1, © Zoological Education Network, 2005
Gwen Flinchum, DVM

Edited by
Blood collection, Common disorders

Physical exam, Zoonotic potential
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Swans
Mute swan
Swans are the largest waterfowl belonging to the
family Anatidae of the order Anseriformes. Of the 7
swan species in the world, several are indigenous to
every continent except Africa and Antarctica. The
mute swan (Cygnus olor) is probably the species most
commonly seen in veterinary practices. Others include
the black swan (Cygnus atratus), trumpeter swan
(Cygnus buccinator), black-necked swan (Cygnus
melancoryphys), tundra (whistling or bewick’s) swan
(Cygnus columbianus), whooper swan (Cygnus cygnus)
and coscoroba swan (Coscoroba coscoroba). Because
of their beauty and majestic appearance, they are
popular ornamental birds on lakes and ponds.
BEHAVIOR
Docile; prefer to keep to themselves.
Can become quite aggressive, especially during breeding
season and while nesting.
When faced with an undesirable situation, they prefer to Black swan Trumpeter swan
flee to the water.
ANATOMY VITAL STATISTICS

Short legs and webbed toes make them excellent Lifespan maximum >25 years Age of sexual maturity 18 months to 3 years
swimmers, but clumsy runners on land. average in captivity 5-6 years (varies with species)
The feathers of swans are compact and waterproof. Body length up to 59” (150 cm) Incubation 29-36 days
A thick layer of down lies underneath the surface feathers Body weight Clutch size 3-8 eggs
mute, trumpeter, whooper swans 9-12 kg
and provides insulation. black, tundra swans 5-7 kg
A swan will be flightless during its annual wing molt (3-4 black-necked, coscoroba swans 3.8-5.4 kg
weeks) because its flight feathers shed simultaneously.
2
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Swans

Sexing is best done at a very early age by manually
everting the cloaca to visualize the phallus in males.
Males have an erectile penis covered with keratinized
papillae.
Male adults are called cobs, female adults are called
pens, and young swans are called cygnets.
Swans are generally monogamous and pair-bond for life.
Swans prefer to build huge nests in bushy or wooded
areas that are somewhat secluded.
Cygnets learn to eat by themselves because from the
time they are hatched, the parents do not feed them.
Both parents care for the young, and cygnets are
frequently seen riding on a parent’s back in the water.
Swans prefer to build huge nests in bushy or wooded areas that are somewhat secluded.
HOUSING
Most swans are easily kept in large, open areas with
ponds or streams.
They should have enough landscape to provide areas for
privacy, nesting, and some shade.
Pond islands will help increase privacy and decrease
vulnerability to predation.
Swans should not be kept on hard surfaces such as
concrete, because this may damage their feet and
increase the possibility of bumblefoot.
Good water quality is essential.
A constant supply of fresh water can be achieved by
using underwater filter systems with high water flow rate.
A depth of 3-4 feet of water is usually adequate for
swans.
3
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Swans
Swans tend to be territorial; thus, overcrowding or mixing

several species is not desirable.
As a general rule, swans are best kept as a single pair in
a pen with a small pool.
Larger groups do best in open areas with a lake.
DIET
Swans are filter-feeders and have specialized mouth
parts to help them eat.
Besides serrated beaks, they also have highly sensitive,
fleshy tongues that contain spiny projections.
Free-ranging swans feed on a variety of food items Cut here Alula
including grass, seeds, and aquatic vegetation.
In captivity, they should be fed a commercial food
especially formulated for waterfowl.
© HBD International, Inc.

Reprinted by permission.
Corn or greens, such as lettuce, should be limited.
A commercial diet is made by Mazuri (www.mazuri.com)
in separate breeder, starter, and maintenance formulas.
RESTRAINT
The face and eyes of handlers should be protected from
possible injury from spurs (cocks) or beaks. The swan’s
primary defenses are scratching with toenails, pinching PINIONING
with bills and striking with wings. Pinioning of cygnets should be performed around 2-4 days of age.
Nets may be used to catch waterfowl. Pinioning of older birds is not recommended due to the well-established
A wrap with Velcro straps may be used to encircle wings. blood supply in the wing, resulting in a higher incidence of excessive blood
A swan can be restrained by placing it under one arm loss, secondary infection, stress and death.
and pressing it gently against one’s body. The alula is identified as a landmark, and metacarpals III and IV are cut with
Birds can be calmed by placing a loose-fitting lightweight a sterile clippers.
cotton sock over the head to reduce vision. The alula remains in position and helps protect the tissue exposed by cutting
the bones.
4
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Swans
Swans are best restrained
by holding the bird under an BLOOD COLLECTION
arm with the head facing
backwards and feet tucked Blood can easily be collected without anesthesia and
up under the swan’s body. with minimal restraint from the median metatarsal vein.
Collection from the wing vein is not recommended,
because the swan’s massive wing strength can result in a
greater possibility of injury to the handler.
Swans should be examined once annually. The exam
should include a fecal direct and fecal Gram’s stain, a
foot examination and body weight.
Clostridium is frequently seen on Gram’s stains and is
not a problem in swans unless clinical signs are present.
Pulse and respiration rates are not good indicators of
disease, because they vary so widely.

Bumblefoot
Frostbite (feet)
Blood can be easily collected from
the median metatarsal vein
Angel wing (drooped wing, flipped wing)
Lead/heavy metal poisoning
Malnutrition
Retained yolk sac (babies)
Amyloidosis
Aspergillosis
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
Colibacillosis (Escherichia coli)
Erysipelas (Erysipelothrix insidiosa)
Tuberculosis (Mycobacterium avium)
5
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Swans
Salmonellosis (Salmonella pullorum) HEMATOLOGIC BIOCHEMISTRY

Chlamydiosis (Chlamydophila psittaci) REFERENCE RANGES* REFERENCE RANGES*
Pasteurellosis (Pasteurella multocida) International Conventional International Conventional
Listeriosis (Listeria monocytogenes) SI units US units SI units US units
Q fever (Coxiella burnetti) RBC 1.9-2.9 x 1.9-2.9 x Total protein 35.5-54.5 g/L 3.6-5.4 g/dL
Candidiasis (Candida albicans) 1012/L 106/µL Albumin 12-21.5 g/L 1.2-2.2 g/dL
Toxoplasmosis (Toxoplasma gondii)
PCV 0.32-0.5 L/L 32-50% Globulin 23-35.5 g/L 2.3-3.6 g/dL
Sacrosporidiosis (Sarcocystis lindemanni)
A:G ratio 0.4-0.7 0.4-0.7
Acariasis (lice, mites) Hb 110-165 g/L 11.0-16.5
g/dL Uric acid 0.126-0.700 2.1-11.8
Sparganosis (Diphylobothrium spp., Spirometra spp.)
mmol/L mg/dL
Cercarial dermatitis (Schistosoma spp.) MCH 52.9-65.5 pg 52.9-65.5 pg
ALT (SGPT) 10-59 U/L 10-59 U/L
Eosinophilic allergic alveolitis (danders)
MCHC 290-365 g/L 29.0-36.5 GGT 4-26 U/L 4-26 U/L
REFERENCES g/dL AST (SGOT) 17-112 U/L 17-112 U/L
1. Beynon PH, Forbes NA, Harcourt-Brown NH (eds): Manual of WBC 6.3-22 x 6.3-22 x CK 124-894 U/L 124-894 U/L
Raptors, Pigeons and Waterfowl. Ames, Iowa State University 109/L 103/µL
Press, 1996, p 78. LDH 165-724 U/L 165-724 U/L
2. Forshaw J: Encyclopedia of Birds. New York, Smithmark Heterophils 3.3-14.7 x 3.3-14.7 x
Glucose 6.2-12.6 112-230
Publishers, 1991. 109/L 103/µL
mmol/L mg/dL
3. Fowler ME (ed): Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine. Philadelphia, WB
Saunders Co, 1986, p 334. Lymphocytes 0.9-9.8 x 0.9-9.8 x
4. Johnson-Delaney C: Exotic Companion Medicine Handbook for 109/L 103/µL Cholesterol 3.0-7.8 115-300
Veterinarians. Lake Worth, Zoological Education Network, 2000, mmol/L mg/dL
Monocytes 0.05-1.4 x 0.05-1.4 x
www.exoticdvm.com 109/L 103/µL Inorganic 0.7-2.4 2.2-7.4
5. Olsen JH: Anseriformes. In Ritchie BW, Harrison GJ, Harrison LR
Eosinophils 0.1-3.5 x 0.1-3.5 x phosphorus mmol/L mg/dL
(eds): Avian Medicine: Principles and Application. Brentwood,
HBD International, 2000. 109/L 103/µL Calcium 2.2-2.9 8.8-11.6
Basophils 0-0.8 x 0-0.8 x mmol/L mg/dL
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 109/L 103/µL Sodium 132-150 132-150
Special thanks to Bill and Honey Dobyns for black swan * Values in International SI units reproduced from mmol/L mEq/L
the Manual of Raptors, Pigeons & Waterfowl with
photos. the permission of the BSAVA.
Potassium 3-5 mmol/L 3-5 mEq/L
* Values in International SI units reproduced from
the Manual of Raptors, Pigeons & Waterfowl with
the permission of the BSAVA.
6
Box Turtle
Pet Care
Adapted from Exotic DVM, Volume 1.2 and Volume 6.1 © Zoological Education Network, 2005
Roger Klingenberg, DVM,

Vital statistics, Sexing, Housing Sandy Barnett and
Brent R. Whitaker,
Temperature, Lighting, Diet MS, DVM
Blood collection, Fluid therapy Edited by

and Peter Fisher, DVM
Common disorders, Physical exam

UNUSUAL PET CARE
Box Turtles
Two species and six subspecies of the North American
box turtle (Terrapene carolina, T. ornata) occur in the
pet trade. These turtles are primarily terrestrial with
fixed home ranges. Hunting and foraging occur
primarily in the mornings and late afternoons during
hot weather. Box turtles hibernate during the winter
except in the southerly portion of their range. Most
Asian box turtles (distantly related to North American
species) are semi-aquatic.
Relatively small size and attractive.
Responsive to owners; will accept food fed by hand.
Shy (at least initially), mildly social animals, but do well
living alone in captivity.
Long-lived if properly cared for.
SEXING
The red color of the iris in this western
The tail of the male is often longer and wider at the base VITAL STATISTICS box turtle denotes a male.
than in the female.
Life span Free-ranging under 50 years
The cloaca of the male is more caudal (further from the Average captive 20+ years
shell and closer to the tip of the tail) than the female’s Body weight 200-600 g
when compared with the rear edge of the plastron. Shell length 3.5-8.4 inches (9-21 cm)
Males often have a concavity in the caudal half of the Diet omnivorous
plastron. Sexual maturity males 4-6 years
The iris of the mature male is frequently red, while in the females 5-7 years
female it is usually brown, yellowish brown or auburn. Breeding season spring/early summer
Clutch size 2-7 eggs; avg 4-5
Females typically have a higher-domed carapace.
Incubation period 50-90 days
2
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Box Turtles
An indoor enclosure is shown with the
proper substrate, pool, plants and lighting. HOUSING
Indoor enclosures should be at least 48 x 24 x 15 inches
(120 x 60 x 38 cm) for one adult box turtle.
George Grall, National Aquarium in Baltimore

Males and females should be housed separately.
Where the climate is appropriate it is better to house box
turtles outdoors.
Enclosure walls should be a minimum of 12-15" (30-40
cm) high to prevent escape from climbing walls.
If housed outdoors, walls should have an inside lip at the
top and extend at least 15" (38 cm) above the ground
and at least 10" (25 cm) into the ground to prevent
escape (turtles are capable of climbing over or digging
under a fence).
Finely shredded hardwood mulch or high quality loam
compost are appropriate substrates.
Hardwood leaves, rehydrated sphagnum moss or
An outdoor pen shows a shallow pool. The rehydrated coconut shell is recommended to increase
remainder of the pen (not shown) provides a moisture. Substrate moisture content is very important in
well vegetated, shady retreat for the turtles.
the health of a box turtle.
Live or silk plants and smooth pieces of wood should be
added for a retreat from overexposure to ultraviolet light
and for environmental enrichment.
Providing opportunities for exercise and a substrate (3-4"
deep) for digging will help maintain the turtle’s health.
TEMPERATURE
Daytime background temperatures should be 72-75°F
© Colin Barnett
(22-24°C) and several degrees cooler at night.
A daytime basking area heated from above by a radiant
heat source or lamp (85-88°F [29-31°C]) is essential.
3
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Box Turtles Box turtles are omnivorous; however, western box turtles
are more insectivorous than eastern box turtles
Access to sun for basking is ideal.
An under-tank heater designed for reptile enclosures
should be used in a different area from the basking site.
LIGHTING
A diurnal cycle of 12-14 hours of light and 10-12 hours
of dark is ideal.
UVB full spectrum lighting must be provided 10-14 hours
per day with bulbs replaced every 9-12 months.
When outdoors, a hollowed log, slanted board or heavy
vegetation will protect from excessive direct sunlight.
WATER
Box turtles must have daily access to water for drinking,
soaking and eliminating wastes.
Fresh water should be provided in a shallow container
© Colin Barnett
no deeper than ¼ the shell height (many are weak
swimmers).
Because turtles tend to defecate in water, fastidious
cleaning of water containers is essential.
Most Asian box turtles do best in semi-aquatic habitats.
The terrestrial keeled box turtle is the exception.
DIET
Box turtles are omnivorous, and opportunity often
dictates what they eat in the wild.
High quality, pesticide-free vegetable and animal sources
© Colin Barnett
of food should be provided.
Vegetables should be finely diced and mixed together to
prevent selective feeding.
4
UNUSUAL PET CARE
MEAL 1 MEAL 2 Box Turtles

Ingredients (per turtle): (per turtle): All insects should be lightly dusted with a phosphorus-
■ Rehydrate 1 Tbs of dry “Turtle Brittle” ■ Serve as every third meal for eastern box
(www.enasco.com), a fish/meat/grain-based turtles free calcium power every other meal, and a high quality
chow, in 2 tsp of water. ■ Serve as every other meal for ornate box multivitamin supplement once a week.
■ Add ½ Tbs of a hard squash from List A. turtles Hatchlings and juvenile turtles should be fed daily. A
■ Add ½ Tbs of a vegetable from List B. Feed to satiation:
■ Add ½ Tbs of a leafy green from List C. ■ Pesticide-free slugs
blender may be used to dice their food especially finely to
■ Add ½ Tbs of a fruit from List D. ■ Terrestrial snails ease ingestion.
■ Several times a month add 1 tsp of crum- ■ Grubs
When box turtles reach adulthood it is practical to feed
Barnett SL, Whitaker BR: Indoor Care of North America Box Turtles. Exotic DVM 6(1):23-29, 2004.
bled, hard-boiled egg. ■ Earthworms
them only once every other day.
■ Mix all of the above ingredients together ■ Beetles
well so the turtle is less likely to focus on a ■ Sow bugs

Turtles should be fed in the morning.
single food item. ■ Crickets (cultured crickets should be gut- Mature turtles will eat pinkies, and Asian turtles enjoy
■ Top with a few berries from List E. loaded with high calcium cricket diet for at chopped goldfish, which should be offered occasionally.
■ Top with 1-2 freshly killed crickets or meal- least 2 days before use)
Foods should be offered on flat rocks or a plastic lid to
worms. ■ Grasshoppers
■ Dust the entire meal very lightly with pure ■ Preying mantids (remove pincers) prevent substrate ingestion. Each animal should be
calcium carbonate (sold as a supplement ■ Katydids provided its own food dish.
for humans; the pills must be crushed) or Feed occasionally: Leftovers should be removed to prevent spoilage.
finely crushed cuttlebone (about 85% calci- ■ Mealworms
um carbonate) ■ Super mealworms (Zophobas beetle larvae)

Free-roaming animals are at great risk from dietary
■ Pre-killed pinkie mice indiscretion.
Foods to include in vegetable portion of box turtle diet RESTRAINT

List A List B List C List D List E
Box turtles rarely need significant restraint during exam.
Grated and very Very finely diced Very finely diced Very finely diced ■ Blackberries
Cranial exam is easier with an assistant restraining the
finely diced ■ Sweet potatoes ■ Clover and ■ Apples ■ Blueberries
■ Acorn squash ■ Carrots blossoms ■ Apricots ■ Elderberries forelimb from behind.
■ Butternut ■ Red/orange ■ Collard greens ■ Figs ■ Gooseberries Once presented, the head is controlled with the thumb
squash bell peppers ■ Dandelions ■ Grapes ■ Raspberries and forefinger.
■ Pumpkin ■ Okra (all parts) ■ Mango ■ Wild strawberries
■ Winter squash ■ Opuntia cactus ■ Endive ■ Melon
Place thumb under carapace and the middle fingers on
pad (no spines) ■ Escarole ■ Oranges the other side midway on the carapace; be prepared for
■ Romaine ■ Papayas
a pinch.
■ Watercress ■ Peaches
If poked or prodded, they usually do not retreat into their
■ Tomatoes
shell but may occasionally bite or pinch an unwary finger
This list is far from complete, but represents a reasonable variety of commonly available foodstuffs that are between the carapace and plastron as it slams shut.
palatable and nutritious. Try to vary which items are used from each list.
Be sure that any field-collected foodstuff has not been exposed to harmful chemicals.
5
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Box Turtles Alternatively, box turtles may be restrained by holding at the rear
end of the carapace, but the turtle may struggle.
BLOOD COLLECTION
Recalcitrant individuals may require minor sedation for
successful blood draws.
The most common sites are the dorsal tail vein (dorsal
venous sinus), jugular vein, subcarapacial (subvertebral)
sinus, brachial venous plexus and occipital sinus.
Peter Fisher, DVM

FLUID THERAPY
Oral: esophagostomy tube or oral speculum 25-35
ml/kg/day divided in 2-3 treatments.
Subcutaneous: in the loose skin of the front or rear legs The length of stomach tube for oral dosing
HEMATOLOGIC/ is measured and marked. The tortoise is
near the shell margin.
BIOCHEMISTRY held upright to allow the esophagus to
Intracoelomic: needle inserted in prefemoral fossa and REFERENCE RANGES straighten out for insertion of the tube.
parallel to plastron.
RBC 2.35-7.55 x 106/µL
Intraosseus: tibia or medullary cavity of the plastro-
PCV 27-38%
carapacial bridge. Secure with tissue glue and tape.
WBC 6-15 x 103/µL
Hbg 5.9 g/dl
Illustration from Exotic Companion Medicine Handbook

Total protein 4.5 g/dl
The first visit should consist of a complete physical
Glucose 22-36 mg/dl
examination including full captive history and baseline
Uric acid 2.1-10.0 mg/dl
weight.
Na 130 mEq/L
Take a case history of the client’s husbandry protocol,
K 4.7 mEq/L
including diet, housing, temperature, humidity and
Mg 3.5 mEq/L
lighting.
Cl 108 mEq/L
A fecal examination (direct and flotation) should be
performed to rule-out protozoan and nematode Phos 1-5 mg/dl
infections. Ca 7.5-11.8
Values vary with sampling site, ambient tem-
A thorough examination of the skin and all accessible perature, gender, stress, seasonality and lab-
recesses will reveal ectoparasites (bots, ticks), signs of oratory used. Clinicians are encouraged to
use a laboratory familiar with reptilian blood
trauma, or bacterial or fungal infections. samples.
6
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Excessively long nails and an overgrown beak are frequently Box Turtles
seen in box turtles with inappropriate husbandry.
Special attention should be given to ocular discharge and
a bubbly respiratory discharge (may indicate vitamin A
deficiency often complicated by secondary bacterial
problems), which is a common presenting syndrome.

Malnutrition
Dehydration
Bacterial infections/septicemia
Ocular signs/discharges (may be related to vitamin A
deficiency)
Upper respiratory problems (may be related to vitamin A
deficiency, poor husbandry and bacterial infection)
The natural habitat of the western box turtle shows that they prosper in very harsh Parasitism, both internal and external
conditions. Hiding in burrows, bushes or logs protects them from withering daytime heat.
Metabolic bone disease (soft shell, overgrown beak,
pyramiding of scutes, muscular weakness and an
alteration in carapace conformation)
Abscesses (especially aural abscesses)
Trauma (shell damage, fractures, wounds, burns)
Fungal infection of shell (may be dry or wet; affected
area of shell is soft or crumbly, has odor, collapses,
turns color)
Beak deformities
Swollen eyes (caused by excessively dry environment)
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
Like all reptiles, box turtles may be Salmonella sp.
carriers. Hand washing and good hygiene after handling
are essential.
7
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Box Turtles WHAT TO LOOK FOR IN A HEALTHY BOX TURTLE

REFERENCES Smooth area around ears
1. Barnett SL, Whitaker BR: Indoor care of North America box tur- Closed-mouth breathing; (no swelling or bumps) Hard shell, free of odor,
tles. Exotic DVM 6(1):23-29, 2004, www.exoticdvm.com no clicking sounds or moisture, discoloration
2. Barrows M, McArthur S, Wilkinson R: Diagnosis. In McArthur S, bubbly secretions or uplifted scutes
Wilkinson R, Meyer J (eds): Medicine and Surgery of Tortoises
and Turtles, Ames, IA, Blackwell Publishing, 2004, pp 109-140. Smooth skin
3. de Vosjoli P, Klingenberg R: The Box Turtle Manual. Lakeside CA, free of signs
Advanced Vivarium Systems, 1995. of trauma
Clear, open
4. Dodd, C.K: North American Box Turtles, A Natural History,
eyes (no
University of Oklahoma Press, 2004.
discharge)
5. Divers S: Administering fluid therapy to reptiles. Exotic DVM
1(2):5-10, 1999.
6. Fudge A. Laboratory reference ranges for selected avian, mam- Pink mouth
malian and reptilian species. In Fudge A (ed): Laboratory free of
Medicine, Avian and Exotic Pets, Philadelphia, WB Saunders, mucus, debris
2000, pp 375-400.
Weighty,
7. Johnson-Delaney C: Exotic Companion Medicine Handbook for Beak is even and solid feel
Veterinarians. Lake Worth, Zoological Education Network, 2000, not overgrown
www.exoticdvm.com Short No swelling or
No swelling
8. Kaplan M: Herp Care web site at www.anapsid.org. toenails discharge around
on the face
9. McArthur S: Problem-solving approach to common disease of the vent
or limbs
terrestrial and semi-aquatic chelonians. In McArthur S, Wilkinson
R, Meyer J (eds): Medicine and Surgery of Tortoises and Turtles,
Ames, IA, Blackwell Publishing, 2004; pp 309-377.
10. Reptile Care Series. Client education brochure. Lake Worth FL, AN UNHEALTHY BOX TURTLE
George Grall, © National Aquarium in Baltimore

Zoological Education Network, 2000, www.exoticdvm.com
8
Leopard Gecko
Pet Care
Adapted from Exotic DVM Volume 4.1 © Zoological Education Network, 2005
Marc Kramer, DVM

Edited by
Physical exam, Blood collection

UNUSUAL PET CARE
Leopard Geckos
Leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius) are native to
the deserts and dry rocky plains of Afghanistan,
India and Pakistan. Leopard geckos are now well
established in captivity following decades
of large-scale commercial propagation.
Gentle lizards.
Hardy, long-lived.
Easy maintenance.
Moderate size, attractive appearance.
Nocturnal.
ANATOMY
Unlike many other geckos, leopard geckos possess
movable eyelids.
Leopard geckos lack the adhesive lamellae on their feet
that enable many other geckos to cling to glass or walls.
Instead, on each digit is a small claw, suiting them well
to a terrestrial lifestyle.
VITAL STATISTICS
Lifespan 30 years Age of sexual maturity 10 months
SEXING
avg 10-15 years Clutch size 2
As juveniles, there is little visual difference between male Body length 7-10 inches (15-25 cm) Breeding season January-September
and female leopard geckos. Body weight avg 45-60 g Number of eggs laid per year 6-16
The sex of the gecko can be predicted based on the maximum 100 g
Incubator temperature 78-92ºF
temperature at which it was incubated as an egg. Ambient temperature (25-33ºC)
daytime 75-80ºF (24-26ºC)
In temperatures from 78-82ºF (25-28ºC), the great Incubator relative humidity 75-100%
nighttime 65-75ºF (18-24ºC)
majority of hatchlings will be female; from 85-87ºF optimum 84-88ºF (29-31ºC) Incubation period 6-15 weeks
2
UNUSUAL PET CARE
MALE FEMALE Leopard Geckos
(29-31ºC) there will be fairly equal ratios of males and

females; and around 90ºF (32ºC), one can expect mostly
males.
As adults, males have a V-shaped row of enlarged pre-
anal pores along their inner thighs, whereas females
have only small pre-anal pits.
Males also have paired hemipenal swellings at the base
of the tail, which females lack.
Males are slightly more heavy-bodied and robust with a
broader head and thicker neck than females.
HOUSING
Note the V-shaped row of enlarged pre-anal Females lack prominent pre-anal pores,
pores, which produce a waxy secretion, and having only very small pre-anal pits. Quarantine new geckos in a separate area of the house
the prominent hemipenal bulges in the male. Hemipenal swellings are absent. for at least 30 days.
Leopard geckos can be housed in groups provided there
Aquariums emphasizing horizontal is only one adult male per enclosure, as males are highly
space work well as enclosures. territorial and aggressive when mature.
Standard 10-gallon (or larger) aquariums work well as
enclosures.
Cage size should be at least 36” x 15” x 12” (90 x 38 x
30 cm); a cage height of at least 6” (15 cm) is
recommended for a group of 2-3 animals.
The cage should have a screen top for adequate
ventilation.
Acceptable substrates include paper towels, newspaper,
orchid bark or fine sand (controversial).
Coarse sand, corncob, walnut shell and/or sand-like
calcium ground litter should be avoided as substrates, as
they have been implicated in gastrointestinal impactions.
Feces should be removed regularly and substrate
replaced as necessary.
3
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Leopard Geckos
Geckos should be prevented from free roam of the house

and exposure to cats, dogs, or other predators.
A moist hide box filled with damp sphagnum moss,
cypress mulch, or vermiculite is especially important for
both security and proper shedding.
It is important to mist the hide box substrate daily, which
promotes normal skin shedding.
The shelter should be cleaned and the vermiculite or
moss changed weekly.
While these animals are well adapted to a dry climate,
the lack of a moderately humid shelter will make a
leopard gecko prone to dysecdysis. A moist hide box is important for
A common shedding problem is retention of skin around both security and proper shedding.
the toes with subsequent avascular necrosis and loss of
the distal phalanges.
Skin shedding occurs at regular
HEATING AND LIGHTING intervals, and leopard geckos
generally consume the shed skin.
Leopard geckos fare best at temperatures in the mid-
80s°F (30°C).
A gradient of temperatures should be available in the
enclosure, from 70ºF (21°C) on the cool end to 84-88°F
(29-31°C) on the warm end.
Heat should be provided by a heat pad, heat tape or
basking light.
Skin retention around the toes is
Hot rocks or direct contact with heating elements or light common in geckos that are not
sources should be avoided. provided with a moist shelter.
UVB or other supplemental lighting is not essential to
these primarily nocturnal lizards but can be used.
A reduction in light intensity within the vivarium may be
used to encourage diurnal activity.
4
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Leopard Geckos
Orchid bark is a good DIET

choice for a substrate Leopard geckos feed primarily on live moving insect prey.
Commercial diets are available, including dried or canned
insects and frozen prepared meats.
Leopard geckos need to be conditioned to feed on non-
living food sources, and some may be hesitant.
An appropriate diet may consist of commercially-raised
crickets with smaller numbers of silkworms, roaches,
mealworms (Tenebrio sp.), superworms (Zophobas sp.),
waxworms and other live insects.
Large leopard geckos will also consume baby “pinkie” mice
and other lizards, but these food items are not required.
Prey items should be fed a high quality diet (“gut-loaded”)
for at least 24 hours prior to using.
Live prey may be offered in shallow containers, which will
prevent mealworms from burrowing, reduce cricket
Clean fresh water should be dispersal and reduce accidental ingestion of substrate.
provided in a shallow container. Appropriate-sized prey items should be offered every 1-2
days for juveniles and 2-3 times a week for adults.
Crickets should be no bigger than half the size of the
gecko’s head.
Feed no more than the animal will consume within 15
minutes, which usually amounts to 4-6 food items.
Beware that hungry juveniles housed together may nip
toes or tail tips off their cage mates.
Clean fresh water should be provided in a shallow
container and changed daily.
5
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Leopard Geckos
Gentle restraint should be used to examine leopard geckos,
SUPPLEMENTATION being careful not to apply excessive pressure to the tail.
A jar lid full of calcium powder should be available at all
times and will particularly benefit breeding females.
While vitamin and mineral supplementation is
controversial, leopard geckos will tolerate a wide range of
supplementation regimens.
Dusting prey items with a calcium supplement is probably
beneficial. Prey are dusted daily for juveniles and every
2-3 feedings for adults.
RESTRAINT
A leopard gecko should not be caught or lifted by the tail;
its body must be fully supported.
Leopard geckos have the capability of autotomy, or self-
amputation of the tail, which they will often execute
when restrained or stressed excessively.
A lost tail will take several months to grow back, and a
Normal leopard gecko droppings
regenerated tail is not as aesthetically pleasing as the consist of prominent white
original. urates with dark feces.
Physical examination should include sexing, husbandry
review (diet, sanitation, humidity delivery), zoonosis
discussion, handling (nail trimming or soft claws), skin
evaluation, weight/growth, fecal flotation and direct
smear, vent/choanal culture and sensitivity (good
indication of normal flora).
Normal feces are dark and firm and are deposited in one
corner of an enclosure (defecatorium). Sticky, soft, or
excessively malodorous urofeces may indicate a
gastrointestinal disorder.
6
UNUSUAL PET CARE
FORMUL ARY OF Induction of inhalant anesthesia should Leopard Geckos

COMMONLY USED DRUGS be accomplished without excessive Depending on health, CBC and chemistries may be
restraint. A large plastic mask is suitable.
Drug Dose warranted (especially blood calcium and phosphorous).
Enrofloxacin* 5-10 mg/kg Radiographs may be used to diagnose bone disease,
PO, IM q24h ingestion of substrates, metabolic calcification and egg
Trimethoprim/sulfa 15-30 mg/kg retention.
PO, SC, IM q24-48h
Metronidazole 20-50 mg/kg ANESTHESIA
PO q24-48h
Piperacillin 50-200 mg/kg
Sedation using isoflurane is recommended for improved
SC, IM q24-48h restraint, to prevent autotomy and to obtain a cleaner
Ceftazidime 20 mg/kg and more accurate blood sample.
SC, IM q24-72h A small induction chamber (mask, clear plastic bag or
Amikacin 2.5-5 mg/kg small plastic container) is filled with 5% isoflurane and
IM q24-72h the gecko is left undisturbed for 10-20 minutes or until
Fenbendazole 25-50 mg/kg, its righting reflexes are lost.
PO q24h x 3-5 d,
then repeat cycle PRN
BLOOD COLLECTION
Sulfadimethoxine 50 mg/kg
PO q24h x 3-5 d, Blood collection from leopard geckos is challenging
then q2d PRN because excessive immobilization for venipuncture may
Ivermectin 0.2 mg/kg PO, SC, IM cause them to drop their tails.
once, repeat in 2 Blood collection sites include the ventral abdominal vein,
weeks
ventral tail vein or cardiac puncture.
*Repeated IM administration may result in
tissue necrosis or sterile abscesses.
Should be used only for initiating therapy.
7
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Leopard Geckos A light can be shone in the ear for easy Juveniles have a banded black and
visualization of the tympanic membrane. yellow pattern, with stronger contrasts
MOST COMMON DISORDERS and brighter colors than adults.
Egg binding
Gastroenteritis/diarrhea
Sand impactions
Shedding problems
Loss of digits
Tail loss
Stomatitis
Rectal or hemipenal prolapse
Poor aim when catching prey
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL WHAT TO LOOK FOR IN A HEALTHY LEOPARD GECKO

Salmonella
Aeromonas Eyes of equal size, not
Campylobacter reduced or enlarged
(“bug-eyed”)
Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae Bright body colors
Mycobacterium Alert and responsive attitude
Nose and eyes
Candida clear of discharge
Trichosporon Fat tail
REFERENCES
www.exoticdvm.com. Normal alignment of
2. Mader DR (ed): Reptile Medicine and Surgery. Philadelphia, WB maxilla and mandible
Saunders Co, 1996. when mouth is closed
No sign of old skin
Clean pink oral cavity adhered to toes
8
Old World
Chameleon
Pet Care
Adapted from Exotic DVM Volume 3.6 © Zoological Education Network 2005
Rob L. Coke, DVM

Vital statistics, Sexing, Housing
Edited by
Temperature, Lighting, Humidity Peter Fisher, DVM
Diet, Restraint, Anesthesia

Blood collection, Common disorders
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Old World Chameleons

Free-ranging Old World chameleons (Chamaeleonidae)
live in Africa, southern Europe, the Near East, Middle
East, Sri Lanka and India. Over 150 species and 180
subspecies of chameleons have been described;
about half of these are located on Madagascar. All Old
World chameleon species are classified as threatened
(Level II CITES). The most commonly kept species are
veiled chameleons (Chamaeleo calyptratus), panther
chameleons (Furcifer pardalis) and Jackson’s
chameleons (Chamaeleo [Trioceros] jacksonii).
PET POTENTIAL
They are appealing as pets because of their unique
appearance and biological characteristics.
Meller’s chameleons (Chamaeleo [Trioceros] melleri) are
not recommended for beginners due to high mortality
following importation.
Large species: Parson’s, Meller’s, Veiled, Panther.
Medium species: Jackson’s, Carpet, Fischer’s, Flap-
necked, Senegal. VITAL STATISTICS
Small species: Chameleons in the Brookesia genus. Body length Age of sexual maturity 4-8 months
Large species 12-24” (30-60 cm) Breeding season Year round
Medium species 6-12” (10-30 cm)
Livebearers (C. jacksonii)
ANATOMY Small species <6” (<15 cm)
gestation period 30 days
Eyes are independently rotating turrets that can move Average lifespan in captivity
Clutch size 2-60
Male 4-6 years
180° in the horizontal plane and 80° in the vertical plane. Female 2-3 years
The chameleon has a modified hyoid bone (entoglossal Maximum lifespan >10 years
process) that acts as a firing pin for the accordion-folded (veiled chameleon and Parson’s chameleon)
tongue, which can project toward its prey.
2
UNUSUAL PET CARE
An adult female ambanja blue panther chameleon displays Old World Chameleons
sexual receptivity colors (left) and gravid colors (right).
Best known for their ability to change the color of their
skin. The stimulus for color change is directed by neuro-
hormonal influences such as light intensity, temperature,
autonomic nervous system and endocrine hormone levels.
Another unique feature is the chameleon’s syndactyl
(fused) digits that form zygodactyl (arch-like) feet,
allowing for a better grip on branches.

Many species of chameleons are sexually dimorphic as
adults.
Male chameleons are generally larger and more colorful.
Hemipenal bulges are often visible on the ventral surface
of the tail base in males.
Chameleons may be housed A chameleon enclosure needs several trees, Many species of males have horns and other skull
in outside enclosures. plants, branches, or even rope to provide projections to aid in territorial displays or combat.
optimal climbing areas and protection. Female chameleons are usually smaller and have less
ornate skin patterns during non-breeding seasons.
Some female chameleons display colorful skin patterns
that rival their male counterparts when they are gravid.
It is common for female chameleons to lay eggs,
regardless of whether they are exposed to a male.
If a female develops eggs, a deep container with a laying
substrate such as moistened sand, vermiculite or potting
soil, should be provided. Alternatively, the female may
periodically be placed in a “laying chamber” of sand.
HOUSING
Housing size (length x width x height)
• Large chameleon (12-24” [30-60 cm] length): 2 x 2 x
4 feet (60 x 60 x 120 cm)
3
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Old World Chameleons An adult male veiled chameleon An adult male Jackson’s
in normal coloration. chameleon in normal coloration.
• Medium chameleon (6-12” [15-30 cm] length):
1.5 x 1.5 x 2.5 feet (45 x 45 x 75 cm)
• Small chameleon (<6” [<15 cm] length):
1 x 1 x 2 feet (30 x 30 x 60 cm)
Free-ranging chameleons are usually territorial and prefer
to live separately.
To avoid stress and predisposition to illness in captivity,
two or more chameleons should not be housed in the
same enclosure or within visual range.
Glass or plastic aquariums are not recommended
because the internal reflection from glass may stress
these solitary reptiles, and the ventilation is not sufficient
to prevent eye, skin or respiratory infection.
The ideal enclosure is constructed from plastic-coated
wire mesh (½ x ½ inches or ½ x 1 inches [1.2 x 2.4
cm]) with wood or metal framing. The large mesh
An adult male ambanja blue panther
provides good ventilation and protection. An adult female Meller’s chameleon.
chameleon exhibits normal coloration.
Aluminum window screening should be avoided for adult
chameleons due to the potential risk of damage to claws
or toes.
The enclosure bottom may be covered with indoor/out-
door carpeting but should be free of other substrate to
prevent accidental ingestion and subsequent impaction of
the chameleon’s gastrointestinal system.
Several trees, plants, branches or even rope should be
added to the enclosure to provide optimal climbing areas.
Easy access to water, food and basking sites should be
available.
4
UNUSUAL PET CARE
A PVC-coated wire cage with proper A chameleon enclosure with an Old World Chameleons
lighting can be used to temporarily automatic watering system provides
house hospitalized patients. daily “rains” for water access. TEMPERATURE
The tolerated ambient temperatures for lowland
chameleon species range from 65-95°F (18-35°C).
Montane species need cooler temperatures.
A temperature drop of 10-15°F (6-9°C) at night is ideal.
A basking spot should provide a 5-10°F (3-6°C) increase
in temperature and may be provided with a spotlight
placed above the enclosure.
The temperature gradients may be monitored with a
digital indoor/outdoor thermometer and a remote sensor
probe on the side of the cage.
LIGHTING
Chameleons need access to unfiltered sunlight for at
least several hours a week.
A full-spectrum, daylight fluorescent light that emits UV-A
A basic nutritious diet may consist and UV-B radiation for lighting and an incandescent light
of gut-loaded crickets, mealworms,
superworms, waxworms and flies. bulb (60-100 watt) for the basking site should be
included for indoor cages.
WATER/HUMIDITY
Free-ranging chameleons drink morning dewdrops and
raindrops that collect on leaves or surfaces. The best way
to provide this natural means of a water source is to mist
or spray the cage plants 2-4 times a day.
Alternatives for dispensing water include: medical IV bag
Peter Fisher, DVM

set to a slow drip, plastic cup with a pinhole in the
bottom, or commercial reptile water drippers.
Humidity levels should be 40-90%. Humidity can be
enhanced with a humidifier or greenhouse misting system.
5
UNUSUAL PET CARE
DIET
Chameleons are primarily insectivores.
Juvenile chameleons need to be fed daily; adults can be
fed 3-4 times per week.
A basic nutritious diet may consist of gut-loaded crickets,
mealworms, superworms, waxworms and flies.
Wild insects such as grasshoppers and butterflies may be
fed periodically.
Prey should be placed in a deep-sided container or jar to
prevent escape.
A branch should be added near the food container so
Marc H. Kramer, DVM

that the chameleon has easy access to the food.
Prey insects may also be coated with supplements
containing calcium and other nutrients; however, if the
food items are gut-loaded properly, supplementation
should be used sparingly in adults (e.g., 1x/week for
males; 1-2x/week for females).
Supplementation of every feeding or every other feeding
is recommended for juveniles. Blood collection in the chameleon
Proper restraint of a chameleon
from the ventral tail vein
RESTRAINT
For proper restraint of a chameleon, the thumb and index
finger are placed behind the eyes to hold the head, and
the palm is placed over the chameleon’s back. The other
hand may be placed underneath the chameleon to allow
the feet to grip.
Alternatively, the chameleon can perch on a wooden
dowel for examination.
6
UNUSUAL PET CARE
ANESTHESIA
For short medical procedures, general anesthesia with
propofol (5-10 mg/kg IV) provides smooth induction and
rapid recovery.
Propofol may be administered in the ventral tail vein or
via an intrasseous catheter in the femur.
Isoflurane administered via an endotracheal tube or
facemask can be used in conjunction with propofol
induction for longer procedures, such as a celiotomy.
Multiple oral and lingual abscesses A subcutaneous nematode was found
are shown in a veiled chameleon. in a wild-caught panther chameleon. BLOOD COLLECTION
The best site for blood collection in the chameleon is the
ventral tail vein.
An alternative site, the ventral abdominal vein, can be
difficult to locate in small chameleons.
INJECTION SITES
Intramuscular: Triceps and femoral muscle groups
Subcutaneous: Area over scapula, paralumbar region
Intraperitoneal: Area cranial to hind legs
Intravenous: Ventral tail vein
A 2-year-old veiled chameleon exhibits A severe mandibular abscess and MOST COMMON DISORDERS
severe metabolic bone disease. osteomyelitis in a panther chameleon.
Parasites
Dystocia
Nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism
(metabolic bone disease)
Stomatitis
Periocular swelling
Anorexia
7
UNUSUAL PET CARE
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL WHAT TO LOOK FOR IN A HEALTHY OLD WORLD CHAMELEON

Salmonella
Aeromonas Eyes open Skin clean with no excessive
Campylobacter and clear accumulation of shed
Enterobacter
Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae Mouth free of
excessive mucus
Mycobacterium sp.
Zygomycosis
Candida
REFERENCES
1. de Vosjoli P, Ferguson GW (ed): Care and Breeding of Panther,
Jackson’s, Veiled, and Parson’s Chameleons. Santee, CA,
Advanced Vivarium Systems, 1995.
2. Coke RL: Unique biology of Old World chameleons (Chamaeleo Tongue retracted
spp). Proc Assoc Reptilian & Amphib Vet, 1999. fully within the
3. Coke RL: Old World chameleons: Captive care and breeding. mouth
Bulletin Assoc Reptilian & Amphibian Vet 8(2):4-10, 1998.
4. Davison LJ: Chameleons: Their Care and Breeding. Blaine, WA,
Hancock House, 1997.
5. Jenkins JR: Husbandry and diseases of Old World chameleons.
Proc No Amer Vet Conf, 1992, pp 687-691. Good foot grip
6. McKeown S: A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians in the strength
Hawaiian Islands. Los Osos, CA, Diamond Head Publishing, No missing toenails
1996. or toe swelling
7. Necas P: Chameleons — Nature’s Hidden Jewels. Frankfurt,
Chimaira Buch, 1999.
8. Stahl SJ: Veterinary management of Old World chameleons. In:
Strimple PD (ed): Advances in Herpetoculture. International Active and alert
Herpetological Symposium, Inc. Des Moines, IA, Crown Craft Tail curl with strength
Printing, 1996, pp151-160.
Marc H. Kramer, DVM

8
Nile Monitor
Pet Care
Philippe de Vosjoli
Vital statistics, Behavior, Sexing Mark Mitchell, DVM, PhD
Housing, Temperature and light Edited by

Peter Fisher, DVM
Diet, Water, Common disorders
Restraint, Blood collection
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Nile Monitors
Nile monitors (Varanus niloticus) might present at a
veterinary practice in the hands of teenagers, first-time
reptile owners and unwitting amateurs.
Not suitable for pets; potentially dangerous.
Alert and intelligent.
Grow quickly from charmer to liability. Nile monitors will
grow 200-300 times birth weight (30 g to 9 kg).
Best kept in the hands of experienced, responsible and
dedicated keepers.
Females raised since hatching may be tame when kept in
large front-opening cages.
In contrast, males generally display a much higher level
of responsiveness and curiosity, but tame less readily.
Veterinarians may notice 3 types of defensive behaviors
— most can lead to serious injury: tail whipping often in
reaction to being kept in cages that are too small
(causing welts, hematomas, injuries to the face and
eyes, possibly concussions); clawing (causing shallow to
deep lacerations and punctures that often become VITAL STATISTICS
infected); and biting (causing lacerations and puncture Adult body length Age of sexual maturity 2-3 years
wounds that tend to become infected). Male 5-6 feet (1.5-1.8 m) Breeding season Variable (Aug-Jan)
Nile monitors may also defensively defecate or flee. Females 3.5-4.5 feet (1-1.35 m)
Clutch size 10-63
Adult body weight 8-20 lbs (3.6-9.0 kg)
Nile monitors will move back and forth in enclosure to Hatchling length 12 inches (30 cm)
(exceptional cases have been
raise and lower body temperature in response to internal noted up to 40 lbs [18 kg]) Hatchling weight 30 g
physiologic cues. Lifespan Preferred optimum
Free-ranging avg 8 years temperature zone 78-87ºF (25-30ºC)
(because of hunting) Ambient basking
In captivity avg 5-12 years temperature
Maximum 10-20 years (distance of 6”) 88-100ºF (31-38ºC)
2
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Nile Monitors
SEXING
Sexing is difficult in juveniles.
Males may evert their hemipenes during handling or
defecation.
HOUSING
Hatchlings can start off in tanks 3’ (1 m) long with
secure screen tops.
After 6 months, they need enclosures of at least 4’ x 2’
(1.2 x 0.6 m).
Adults (2-3 years old) require an enclosure the size of a
small room, at least 12’ x 4’ (3.6 x 1.2 m) for monitors
under 48” in length and at least 15’ X 5’ (4.5 x 1.5 m)
for specimens exceeding 48” (120 cm).
Juvenile monitors should be provided with shelters into
which they can curl their entire body.
Adults should be offered as spacious an enclosure as
feasible that allows opportunities to climb and explore.
Raised structures, such as thick logs or cork bark rounds,
are used as basking sites.
Multiple basking sites will encourage the lizard to move
within an enclosure when seeking thermoregulation.
Monitors may choose to sleep in their shelter, on tree
branches or in their water container.
Flat rocks should be placed alongside the water container
to wear down nails as the lizards enter and exit the water.
To accommodate high levels of activity and digging, the
best substrates are mixes of peatmoss-based potting soil,
ground fir bark and sand, with some coarser material
such as a fine grade ground limestone to help wear nails.
3
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Nile Monitors For juveniles, overhead spotlights

are sufficient for basking.
This substrate allows the digits to remain in a normal
position rather than twist to the side, as found in large
monitors kept on solid flooring.
Newspaper should be used only with young animals,
especially prior to worming; it fails to provide a proper
texture for adults.
If tractable, monitors can be allowed to roam in a
“reptile-proofed” exercise room.
TEMPERATURE AND LIGHT

Extra light and heat are required for monitors of all ages.
Lights should be turned on 12-14 hours a day.
The temperature measured 6 inches under the basking
site should be 88-100°F (31-38°C), not to exceed
105°F (40°C).
For thermoregulation, part of the habitat should be
5-10°F (3-6°C) cooler.
As for most amphibious monitors, the Nile’s activity
temperature is relatively low, about 90°F (32°C).
For juveniles, overhead spotlights are sufficient for
basking.
For monitors over 30” (75 cm) in length, a combination
of large reptile heat pads and at least 2 spotlights, or 1
spotlight and 1 infrared ceramic incandescent heat bulb
over one or more basking sites are needed. These may
be controlled by rheostats or thermostats.
Alternatively, an area can be provided where Nile
monitors can bask in unfiltered sunlight (through a
welded wire screen-covered window or in an outdoor
plastic-coated welded wire cage during the summer).
Monitors may benefit from exposure to a UV-B source.
4
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Nile Monitors
DIET
Juveniles can be fed mainly on crickets gut-loaded and
coated lightly with a multivitamin/calcium/vitamin D3
supplement. Mealworms and locusts may also be offered
as well as a weekly pinkie mouse.
For older juveniles, king/super mealworms can substitute
for crickets, and larger mice can be offered.
However, unlike broad-snouted monitors, the narrow-
snouted Nile monitor should be fed only relatively small
Kevin Wright, DVM

vertebrates (body width < 2/3 the monitor’s head width).
Monitors over 3 feet (1 m) long will continue to enjoy
king/super mealworms, but the bulk of their diet should
be filled by a ground meat mix.
Lean ground turkey supplemented with calcium carbonate
and a complement of vitamins and minerals is an
Stephen Hernandez-Divers, BVetMed, CBiol, MIBiol, DZooMed,

appropriate diet. The turkey is either cooked or frozen for
An obese savannah monitor
(Varanus exantematicus)
a month to reduce risks of Salmonella.
Commercial meat-based carnivore diets may also be fed.
Adult Niles fare best if fed measured portions; excess
food may lead to obesity in adults.
For adults, feed an amount roughly equal to the volume
of the monitor’s head every 2 days.
WATER
For small individuals, reptile water dishes, dog bowls and
plastic storage containers may suffice.
MRCVS, Dipl ACZM

For adults, plastic cement mixing tubs or plastic “kiddie”
pools large enough for complete immersion are required.
Monitors may defecate in a water container if kept singly.
5
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Nile Monitors
Tail whipping is the main defense of
RESTRAINT Nile monitors. In adults, the tail is an
awesome and frightening weapon.
Nile monitors are strong creatures and, once past 3’
(1 m) in length, may require 2-3 people to secure.
Leather gloves and goggles should be worn and towels
used to provide protection from clawing and tail lashing.
A tame Nile monitor may present few problems with
handling, especially if examined at an owner’s home.
Many monitors panic when taken from their habitat and
transported to a veterinary clinic.
BLOOD COLLECTION AND ANESTHESIA

Ventral coccygeal vein or jugular vein
Propofol at 8-10 mg/kg IV or Telazol at 3-5 mg/kg IM then
intubation and maintenance with isoflurane or sevoflurane

Abnormal position of
Stomatitis/rostral abrasions from running into walls monitor’s digits from
Abscesses: oral, digit, tail housing on solid flooring.
Foreign body ingestion
Secondary nutritional hyperparathyroidism in juveniles fed
inappropriate insect diet without supplementation
Renal disease from oversupplementation
Obesity
Dystocia and prefollicular stasis
REFERENCES
1. Buffrenil V, Chabanet C, Castanet J: Preliminary data on dimensions,
growth, and longevity of monitor lizard (Varanus niloticus) in Lake
Chad area. Canadian Journal of Zoology 72(2):262-273, 1994.
2. Wright, K: Reducing the incidence of reproductive problems in
snakes and lizards. Exotic DVM 7(3):58-62, 2005.
3. Wright, K: Beyond POTZ: Environmental influences on reptile
healing. Exotic DVM 7(4):11-14, 2005.
6
Ball Python
Pet Care
Susan Leck, DVM,

Vital statistics, Behavior, Sexing Dipl ABVP - Canine & Feline
Practice
Housing, Temperature, Humidity Roger Klingenberg, DVM
Diet, Anesthesia, Blood collection Edited by

Peter Fisher, DVM

UNUSUAL PET CARE
Ball Pythons
The ball python (Python regius), or royal python, is an
Stephen Hernandez-Divers, BVetMed, CBiol, MIBiol, DZooMed, MRCVS,

attractive and gentle snake native to western and
west-central Africa. These nocturnal pythons prefer
mixed grassland and trees (savannah) as their habitat.
When they are frightened they coil up into a ball;
thus, the name “ball python.” Free-ranging ball
pythons are considered a threatened species.
Generally prefer to be left alone; shy and docile.
Small; typically reach 4 feet (120 cm) in length.
May grow 1 foot (30 cm) per year during the first 3 years
Crepuscular; active at dawn and dusk.
Inexperienced python owners must be prepared for
potential feeding problems and internal and/or external
parasite problems.
Ball pythons are notorious for not eating and may go for
Dipl ACZM
extended periods (sometimes over a year) without eating.
Health problems may occur secondary to chronic anorexia.
A newly purchased snake should be left alone in its
enclosure for 1-2 weeks to acclimate to its new home.
VITAL STATISTICS
Avoid any interactions until it is accustomed to its cage
and is eating, then gentle handling may begin. Life span maximum 30-40 years Incubator temperature 86-89.6°F (30-32°C)
avg captive 20-30 years Ambient daytime
A frightened snake may lash with its tail, hiss, or in rare
Body length (adults) 36-48 inches temperature 80-85°F (26-29°C)
cases, bite. (90-120 cm) Ambient nighttime
Many reptiles are potential carriers of Salmonella and Body weight Age/length dependent temperature Not <75°F (24°C)
owners should use common sense in their personal Sexual maturity 3-5 years Basking area temperature 90-94°F (32-34°C)
hygiene when handling ball pythons. Gestation/incubation 90 days Incubator relative humidity 80-100%
Ball pythons are nocturnal; therefore, the best time to Humidity 50-80%
2
UNUSUAL PET CARE
MALE FEMALE Ball Pythons
interact with the snake is during the evening hours when

it is more active.
SEXING
Ball pythons are difficult to sex visually, but are easy to
sex via a probe.
The males have thicker tails, and the anal spurs are
longer and more curved.
Stephen Hernandez-Divers
Females have a probe depth of 2-4 subcaudal scales and
males have hemipenes with a probe depth of 6-10
subcaudal scales.
HOUSING
Standard aquariums work well as enclosures.
Ideal Size:
Hospital enclosure • Hatchling: 10 gal tank (20” x 10” [50 x 25 cm])
• Adult: 20-30 gal tank (36” x 12” [90 x 31 cm])
Snakes must be able to stretch out in an environment
that encourages exercise.
The cage should have a screen top for adequate
ventilation. Tops should be secure and escape proof.
Sliding doors should be secure and raised on a plinth to
prevent waste accumulation.
A dark hiding box is mandatory for a sense of security
and a place to rest during daylight hours.
The lids of glass and plastic vivaria must be at least 50%
mesh to provide adequate ventilation.
Scott Stahl, DVM

Suitable substrates should be easy to clean and include
newspaper, paper towels, indoor-outdoor carpet, Astroturf®.
Unsuitable substrates are corncob, wood chips/shavings,
3
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Ball Pythons
Proper humidity levels
gravel, dirt, rocks or other substances that could be help to ensure successful
sheds for the snake.
ingested and cause blockage of the digestive tract.
Cypress mulch may be used as a substrate for adults but
must be kept free of moisture and fecal/urinary
contamination and changed frequently.
Some ball pythons will not eat unless they are able to
burrow.
Ball pythons do not require sources of UV light in their
enclosure because they are nocturnal and obtain vitamin
D3 in their diet.
A climbing branch or two should be provided. Artificial
greenery adds a nice touch as well as a sense of visual
security for the snake.
TEMPERATURE
Ambient air temperature should be provided throughout
the enclosure.
Proper temperature regulation is the most important
aspect in maintaining a healthy snake.
The enclosure must be kept between 80-85°F (26-29°C)
during the day, with a basking area kept at 90-94°F (32-
34°C). At night, the air temperature should not fall below
75°F (24°C).
Room temperature is not adequate for the digestive
process and health of the snake.
Heating may be provided by special reptile heating pads
or tape or with overhead ceramic heaters in porcelain
reflector hoods, screened off or placed to avoid direct
contact with the snake. Thermostat control is ideal.
A barrier should be provided between the snake and any
heating elements or hot surfaces.
4
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Ball Pythons
Frozen mice are available
in many pet shops. Two thermometers are needed for the cage: one 1” (2.5
cm) above the floor in the general enclosure area and
another near the basking site.
The use of “hot rocks” in the snake’s enclosure is a
leading cause of thermal burns and should be avoided.
HUMIDITY
Proper humidity levels help to ensure successful sheds.
The ideal humidity of the enclosure is between 60-80%.
An alternative is to provide a shedding box (e.g.,
Tupperware® container with moistened sphagnum moss or
terry cloth towels and the two opposite corners cut out for
entry and exit). The snake can be trained to use this box
for shedding. A box with moistened sphagnum moss may
also serve as an egg-laying site.
Fresh water must be provided at all times in a water bowl
that is large enough for the snake to soak in. The water
should be changed when soiled.
DIET
Ball pythons are fed at night.
Young snakes (2-3 years of age and 18-36 inches long)
should be fed every 7-10 days; older snakes should be
fed every 2-3 weeks.
A prey item appropriate to the size of the snake should be
fed at each meal.
Ball pythons are constrictors — they coil around their prey
and suffocate it.
Only stunned or prekilled prey should be offered to avoid
severe injury to the snake.
5
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Ball Pythons
Gerbils are the initial prey of choice, although dark-

colored mice or hamsters might work as prey in a
reluctant eater.
Some snakes do not recognize red-eyed white mice as a
food item.
Rubbing mice with a gerbil can impart the scent of the
gerbil to the mouse and aid in converting the snake to a
mouse diet.
Frozen mice are available in many pet shops.
As the snake gets larger, small rats are ideal.
RESTRAINT/TRANSPORT
Scott Stahl, DVM

Support must be given at two points on snake’s body.
If aggressive, hold the snake securely behind the head and
support body.
A pillowcase is suitable for transport.
Support at two points on snake’s body.
BLOOD COLLECTION HEMATOLOGY
REFERENCE RANGES
Cardiac puncture is the standard and preferred method.
RBC (x 106) 1.0-2.5
The heart is located 25-35% of the distance from the
Hct (g%) 20-30
snout.
WBC (x 103) 6-12
The heart is palpated and immobilized between the For radiographs, the snake may be restrained
in a radiolucent container. The x-ray Lymphocytes 44-61%
thumb and forefinger. Advance the needle at 45° in a cassette is placed under the patient. Heterophils 26-55%
Companion Medicine Handbook

craniodorsal direction into the apex of the beating Eosinophils 0-4%
ventricle. Maintain digital pressure for 30-60 seconds Basophils 0-4%
following blood draw.
Illustration from Exotic

Monocytes 0-3%
The caudal vein may be accessed caudal to the cloaca,
for Veterinarians
between 25-50% down the tail. Angle the needle 45-60°
along the ventral midline. Avoid the paired hemipenes in
males and the paired cloacal musk glands in females.
6
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Albino ball python Ball Pythons
ANESTHESIA
When needed, preanesthetic rehydration is ideal.
Consider preemptive analgesia with meloxicam (0.1
mg/kg IM) or butorphanol (1-2 mg/kg IM).
One of three methods may be used for anesthesia:
• Induction with 5 mg/kg IM Telazol® or 20-30 mg/kg IM
ketamine and then intubation and maintenance with
isoflurane or sevoflurane. Monitor with pulse oximeter.
• Induction with 5 mg/kg IV propofol and then
maintenance with isoflurane or sevoflurane. Monitor
with pulse oximeter.
• Cardiac catheterization and propofol titration (5-10
mg/kg). Monitor with pulse oximeter.
Steve Osborn
Anorexia
Endoparasitism
Necrotizing dermatitis
Pinworms are associated with rectal irritation, rectal Respiratory disease
prolapses and gastrointestinal impactions. Stomatitis (mouth rot)
Ectoparasitism (mites and ticks)
Dysecdysis (retained skin shed, retained eye spectacles)
Obstipation/constipation
Dystocia/retained eggs
Bite wounds from prey
Inclusion body disease
Rectal/colon or uterine prolapse
Spinal fractures/trauma/thermal burns
7
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Ball Pythons
THERAPY ADMINISTRATION
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL A volume of therapeutic agent less than
Salmonella 1 ml can be administered orally in the
Aeromonas back of the oropharynx with a ball-
Campylobacter tipped feeding needle.
Enterobacter If a volume over 1 ml is administered,
Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae a lubricated red rubber urethral tube
Mycobacterium sp. passed several inches deep into the
Zygomycosis esophagus works well.
Candida
Pentastomiasis
REFERENCES
WHAT TO LOOK FOR IN A HEALTHY BALL PYTHON
1. de Vosjoli P, Klingenberg RJ: The Ball Python Manual. Advanced
Vivarium Systems, 1995.
2. Felsman K: Troubleshooting guide to ball pythons. 1999. Active tongue that
www.kingsnake.com/ballpython guide. flicks when handled Clear eyes
3. Fudge A. Laboratory reference ranges for selected avian,
mammalian and reptilian species. In: Fudge A (ed) Laboratory Clear, firm skin with
Medicine Avian and Exotic Pets. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, no retained shed
Clean vent
2000, pp 375-400. area
4. Kaplan M: How to care for your ball python. 1995.
www.sonic.net/~melissk/ball.html
Veterinarians. Zoological Education Network, 2000,
www.exoticdvm.com
6. Mader DR (ed): Reptile Medicine and Surgery. Philadelphia, WB
Saunders Co, 1996.
Nostrils free
of bubbles or
discharge Alert to surroundings
Rounded body shape and active
(not triangular shape)
8
Giant Spider
Pet Care
Adapted from Exotic DVM, Volume 5.6, © Zoological Education Network, 2005
Alessandra Cappelletti,
Pet potential, Sexing, Housing Dr Med Vet
Giuseppe Visigalli,
Diet, Restraint and transport, Molt Dr Med Vet
Common disorders, Physical exam Edited by

Peter Fisher, DVM
Hemolymph Collection
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Giant Spiders
Leg iv
Giant spiders, commonly called tarantulas, are

arthropods belonging to the Arachnid class, Araneae
order, Mygalomorph suborder and Theraphosidae
family. Brachypelma sp., Aphonopelma pallidum and Leg iii
A. albiceps are part of CITES Appendix II.
PET POTENTIAL
Attractive due to graceful movements and bright colors.
Easily managed with proper species husbandry information. Leg ii
Relatively tame and solitary animals.
Recommended species for the beginner include: B. smithi
(red knee), B. albopilosum (curly hair), B. vagans (red
rump), Grammostola rosea (Chile rose), A. avicularia
(pink toe), P. cambridgei (Trinidad chevron).
Not suitable pets for children. Leg i
Giant spiders should not be handled.
A few genera (not of the Theraphosidae family) have
lethal venom (e.g., Atrax spp., Phoneutria spp.)
All adults can impart extremely painful bites with
subsequent allergic reactions that may be serious. MALE FEMALE
New World species possess urticating bristles/setae. Ovary
The average lifespan in captivity is 18-20 years for Tarsus
females and 2-3 years for males after their ultimate molt.
Rectum
SEXING
Groove
Tibia
Sexing a spider is possible by examining the inside Bulbus Anus
Cymbium
portion of the molt. Embolus
Spinnerets
Spermaphore Seminal receptacles Genital pore
Adult females have a spermatheca, a sexual organ that
stores the sperm, situated between the lungs.
Schematic of the male pedipalp Internal anatomy of a female
2
UNUSUAL PET CARE
MEXICAN RED KNEE (Brachypelma smithi) CHILEAN ROSE (Grammostola rosea)
© Guy Tansley, www.giantspiders.com

ORIGIN Central Mexican Pacific Coast ORIGIN Chile
HABITAT Semi-desert terrestrial, burrowing HABITAT Scrubland areas, grounddweller, burrowing
CAPTIVE Medium-sized tank with a substrate of slightly moist CAPTIVE Medium-sized tank with a substrate of slightly
HOUSING compost is recommended for this typical terrestrial HOUSING moist compost is recommended for this typical ter-
burrowing species. Include cork bark or half a flow- restrial burrowing species.
erpot for hiding and an open water dish. TEMPERATURE 75-80°F (24-26°C)
TEMPERATURE 70-80°F (21-27°C) HUMIDITY Approx. 60%
HUMIDITY Approx. 60% ADULT SIZE Up to 6” (15 cm) legspan
ADULT SIZE Up to 6” (15 cm) legspan Popular because of beauty and docile nature.
BEHAVIOR
Popular because of bright coloring, beauty and Originally the two color forms (normal and red) of G.
BEHAVIOR docile nature. Adapts well to captivity. Slow grow- rosea were considered different species, G. spatula-
ing. Can easily live in excess of 20 years. These ta and G. cala, but now both are classified as color
spiders spend long periods sitting motionless in variants of G. rosea. An extremely hardy species
one place. that is somewhat slow-growing yet long-lived.
CAUTIONS May bite CAUTIONS May bite
3
UNUSUAL PET CARE
BRAZILIAN BL ACK (Grammostola pulchra) BRAZILIAN SALMON PINK (L. parahybana)

ORIGIN Brazil ORIGIN Brazil
HABITAT Tropical forests; terrestrial HABITAT Tropical rain forest, terrestrial, burrowing
CAPTIVE Medium-sized tank with a substrate of slightly CAPTIVE Medium-sized tank with a substrate of slightly
HOUSING moist compost is recommended for this typical HOUSING moist compost is recommended for this typical
terrestrial burrowing species. Will adapt to artifi- terrestrial burrowing species. Provide cork bark or
cial burrow. half a flowerpot for hiding and an open water
dish. A deeper substrate will allow the spider to
TEMPERATURE 75-80°F (24-26°C) burrow.
HUMIDITY Approx. 60-65% TEMPERATURE 70-80°F (21-27°C)
ADULT SIZE Up to 7” (18 cm) legspan HUMIDITY Approx. 65%
BEHAVIOR Popular because of beauty, docile nature and ADULT SIZE Up to 8” (20 cm) legspan
slow movement
BEHAVIOR Not known to be aggressive, but can be a little
CAUTIONS May bite; is able to flick urticating hairs but
skittish. Adapts well to captivity.
rarely does
CAUTIONS May bite
4
UNUSUAL PET CARE
BRAZILIAN BL ACK AND WHITE (Nhandu coloratovillosus) BRAZILIAN WHITE KNEE OR WHITE BANDED
(Acanthoscurria geniculata)
ORIGIN Brazil ORIGIN Brazil

HABITAT Terrestrial HABITAT Terrestrial
CAPTIVE Medium-sized tank with a substrate of slightly CAPTIVE Medium-sized tank with a substrate of slightly
HOUSING moist compost is recommended for this typical HOUSING moist compost is recommended for this typical
terrestrial burrowing species. terrestrial burrowing species.
TEMPERATURE 75-80°F (24-26°C) TEMPERATURE 75-80°F (24-26°C)
HUMIDITY Approx. 60-70% HUMIDITY Approx. 60-65%
ADULT SIZE Up to 7” (18 cm) legspan ADULT SIZE Up to 8” (20 cm) legspan
BEHAVIOR Slightly skittish and feisty BEHAVIOR Fairly hardy in captivity and able to withstand
lower humidity than most other South American
CAUTIONS May bite; will flick urticating hairs without
species. Growth is rapid in the early stages,
much provocation
slowing as the spider matures.
CAUTIONS Can be a defensive spider; will bite or readily
flick urticating hairs.
5
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Giant Spiders
GOLIATH BIRD EATER (Theraphosa blondi)
Adult males show very small structures called emboli
located on the underside of the distal pedipalps.
Males are usually smaller and some have spurs/hooks on
the tibia of leg i (see page 2 for identification).
For most species, the age of sexual maturity is 2-3 years.
HOUSING
Tarantulas must be housed in secure enclosures to
simulate the appropriate environment and prevent escape.
The size of the enclosure depends on the species. Tree,
running and burrowing spiders need larger enclosures.
Spiderlings can be housed in groups only for the first few
weeks after emerging from the egg sac, while adults must
be housed alone due to their potential cannibalism.
To set up an ornamental vivarium, a glass tank with a
sliding screen on the front or top is the best choice. ORIGIN Northern South America
For tropical species, most of the ventilation holes on the
HABITAT Rain forests
sides should be closed to maintain humidity.
CAPTIVE The goliath requires a large enclosure. A retreat in the
Homemade enclosures or plastic vivariums are form of cork bark or half a flower pot is necessary. High
HOUSING
acceptable for housing spiders during hospitalization. humidity is essential but the substrate should be
Glass or plastic jars with a few ventilation holes in the allowed to dry out occasionally. A large open water dish
cover and a damp paper as bedding are also suitable. is required. The enclosure should not be too high as
Peatmoss is the recommended substrate, but it may be these spiders like to wander, and a fall can prove fatal.
prone to fungal and bacterial infection from organic Care should be taken when cleaning as the hairs can
cause a severe reaction.
waste, and frequent cleaning is necessary.
TEMPERATURE 75-80°F (24-26°C)
Damp fine vermiculite may be used as an alternative
substrate, but it is not suitable for burrowing. HUMIDITY Approx. 60-70%
Artificial burrows should be provided for burrowing spiders. ADULT SIZE Up to 12” (30 cm) legspan
Driftwood, orchid bark and rocks are suitable as perches BEHAVIOR T. blondi, the largest species, grows up to 115 g and is
or shelters, as is a flowerpot turned on its side. a fast-growing, ravenous feeder.
For tropical or rain forest tarantulas, potted plants may be CAUTIONS Flicks painful urticating hairs and may bite.
6
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Giant Spiders
CURLY HAIR (Brachypelma albopilosum)
introduced to make the vivarium more attractive.
Indirect natural sunlight from a window is sufficient for
tarantulas; additional lighting or UVB lamps are not
recommended.
Heat may be provided by heating cables connected to a
thermostat and placed under half the tank.
Heat lamps are not recommended as a heat source
because they frequently reduce the necessary humidity.
A water dish should be added to the enclosure to

maintain the required humidity, which is essential for a
proper molt.
DIET
Tarantulas are predators; usually feeding only on live prey.
Variety in the diet may be the best for a healthy spider.
The size of the prey should be 1/3-1/4 the length of the
spider’s body.
Uneaten prey should be removed to reduce waste and to
ORIGIN Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica prevent the prey from biting or injuring the spider.
Feed only healthy prey.
HABITAT Tropical forest, burrowing
Spiderlings should be feed daily or every 2 days with
CAPTIVE Typical terrestrial set up. Provide retreat in the form of small fruit insects/flies (Drosophila spp.).
HOUSING half a flower pot or piece of cork bark. Rarely digs deep
Adults should be fed weekly from prey including African
burrows in captivity.
cockroaches, crickets (Acheta domestica, Gryllus bima-
TEMPERATURE 75-80°F (24-26°C)
culatus, Grillus assimilis), grasshoppers (Locusta migra-
HUMIDITY Approx. 60% toria, Schistocerca gregaria), mealworms (Tenebrio
ADULT SIZE Up to 6” (15 cm) legspan molitor), super/king worms (Zophobas morio), wax moth
BEHAVIOR Popular because of docile nature; considered an ideal larvae (Galleria melonella), earthworms and pinkies. Some
beginners’ species. Grow rapidly and are long-lived cap- genera prefer to prey upon lizards.
tives. Feeding high-energy food and vitamin/mineral
CAUTIONS May bite supplements to prey may be beneficial (gut loading).
7
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Giant Spiders The best way to capture a tarantula Tarantula restraint for hemolymph transfusion
RESTRAINT AND TRANSPORT

A gauze sling, positioned at the pedicel and loosely

looped to allow a finger to immobilize the caudal
caphalothorax/cranial abdomen, may be used for restraint.
Tarantulas should be handled as little as possible and
only for a short period.
To avoid a fall or escape, it is advisable to examine the
spider over a basin on the table.
Special tools or ornamental fish nets may be used to lift
giant spiders, unless the animal is tame enough to be
restrained gently with the thumb and the middle finger
applied between the cephalothorax and abdomen.
All giant spiders are capable of hurting the handler.
All species are venomous and can give potentially nasty
bites or flick very painful urticating hairs from their
A 4-step method to capture and restrain a tarantula.
abdomen (using their hind legs) that may cause allergic
reactions.
Use caution during the examination to avoid damaging a
leg and to prevent the animal from falling.
The ventral portion of the spider can be observed by
viewing it from the bottom of a transparent container in
which it has been placed to prevent escape.

The best way to transport a tarantula is to place it in a
small plastic terrarium with damp paper on the bottom,
which keeps it safe and prevents escape.
In colder weather keep the spider warm by placing the
transport jar in a bag with a heating pad or plastic bottle
filled with warm water.
HEMOLYMPH TRANSFUSION
A break in the exoskeleton with sudden lymph loss
8
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Tarantula showing signs Hemolymph transfusion Giant Spiders

of dehydration
causes a rapid deterioration in the internal pressure and
consequent serious shock.
Rehydration is possible by placing the spider in a shallow
water dish; however, it may drown if the booklungs are

submerged.
Hemolymph transfusion provides the best opportunity to
counteract shock, dehydration and hemolymph loss.
The transfusion procedure is relatively easy to perform.
The insertion of an IV cannula into the spider’s heart will
allow the patient to successfully transfuse/rehydrate over
2-4 consecutive days without repeated injections.
A 26-ga IV cannula should be inserted into the cardiac
sinus (“heart”) at a 30° angle to perform the procedure
properly, quickly and with minimal risk for the patient.
HEMOLYMPH COLLECTION
The giant spider is anesthetized MOLT
with 3% isoflurane. In their first 2-3 years of life, giant spiders molt every 1-3
The site of puncture for hemolymph months, depending on the species, age, humidity and
collection is the dorsal abdomen availability and quality of food.
where the needle can access the After that growth period, molts occur less often, from
heart. every 6-7 months to once annually. Terrestrial spiders
This is a very safe procedure and molt less frequently than arboreal species.
may also be useful for detection of The spider should not be disturbed during the molt as it
Raffaele Melidone, DVM

bacterial infections. is fragile.
After the fluid is collected, gentle Spiders may get a bald spot on abdomen prior to shed.
pressure must be applied to the site. During the molt, the spider is fairly immobile for 24-48
If the hemolymph does not stop hours; they flip over on their backs and slowly emerge.
draining from the puncture, a drop
of tissue glue should be applied. PHYSICAL EXAM
History (housing, microclimate, diet, molts, behavior).
Raffaele Melidone, DVM
Ophthalmic magnifying loupes should be used. Note the
9
UNUSUAL PET CARE
Giant Spiders
B. auratum showing B. vagans with major
turgidity of the opistosoma (abdomen), which must be premature molt problems nematode worm infection
lifted from the ground for examination, correct position of
the limbs and presence of ectoparasites (mainly mites).
Fecal testing should be done, if possible.
COMMON DISORDERS

Anorexia
Alopecia (focal or generalized)
Molting problems
Wounds
Lethargy
Incoordination
Dehydration
Ectoparasites/endoparasites
Injuries, such as falls, burns, detachment of limb
segments and rodent bites
Practical therapies for emergency situations include Grammostola rosea was presented because of Haplopelma sp. with severe
administration of hypotonic fluids, parenteral or oral a mouse bite. Note the collapsed abdomen book lung mold infection
antibiotics and topical ointments as well as suppression
of any lymph loss, mainly from a ruptured abdomen or
loss of limb (possibly using tissue glue [smaller injuries],
candle wax, corn starch or talcum powder).

www.exoticdvm.com
2. Breen RG III: Arthropod Medical Manual: Diagnosis and
Treatment. The American Tarantula Society, www.atshq.org.
3. Tansley, G: A Basic Care Guide to Tarantulas,
www.giantspiders.com.
10
Zoological Education Network
800-946-4782 or 561-641-6745 Fax: 561-641-0234
PO Box 541749, Lake Worth FL 33454-1749
www.exoticdvm.com
Unusual
Pet Care
VOLUME II REVIEWED BY
JACK KOTTWITZ, DVM AND ROB COKE, DVM
26 SPECIES: Red-eared sliders, Spiny-tailed lizards, Bearded dragons, Day

geckos, Rhacodactylus geckos, Basilisk lizards, Blue-tongued skinks, Gila
monsters, Chuckwallas, Mole salamanders, Poison arrow frogs, Terrestrial
hermit crabs, Madagascar hissing cockroaches, Hedgehogs, Mice, Raccoons,
Coatimundis, Chipmunks, Kinkajous, Meerkats, Brushtail possums,
Patagonian cavies, Two-toed sloths, Mynahs, Turacos, Domestic ducks
Unusual Pet Care
Volume II
Reviewed by Jack Kottwitz, DVM and Rob Coke, DVM

Creative and Project Director: Richard Larson
Although great care has been taken to provide accurate and current information, neither the authors nor the
publisher nor the reviewers shall be liable for any loss, damage or liability directly or indirectly caused or alleged to
be caused by this book. The material contained herein is not intended to provide specific advice or recommendation
for any specific situation.
Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system,
without written permission from the publisher.
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www.exoticdvm.com
©2007 Zoological Education Network, Inc. All rights reserved.

UNUSUAL PET CARE - VOL II
Red-eared Slider Red-eared Sliders

(Trachemys scripta elegans)
Pet Care *
By Marc Kramer, DVM
ORIGIN
Red-eared sliders are native to the Mississippi Valley area
of the US from Illinois to the Gulf of Mexico and the
Southeastern US through Texas. Red-eared sliders have
established populations in non-native regions of the US,
including Central Park in New York City, and in suitable
habitats in Europe and South East Asia.
FREE-RANGING RED-EARED SLIDERS

During the day, sliders spend most of their time basking
in the sun or foraging for food.
They prefer to bask on objects projecting out of the water
and they recede to the bottom of the water into the mud
to spend the night.
SEXING
Red-eared sliders, especially juveniles, can be difficult
to sex.
Gender in adults is primarily determined by external
physical characteristics.
VITAL STATISTICS
In comparison to females, males have longer foreclaws
Average life span 15-30 years Clutch size 4-25 eggs per breeding season
(several clutches) (which are used in courtship), a longer tail length, a
Adult size 5-14 inches (35-13 cm)
Incubation time 55-65 days longer distance from the body to the vent opening and a
Adult body weight varies
Sexual maturity 3-8 years
at 80-82°F (26-28°C) tail that is thicker at the base; generally males have a
Sex of hatchlings Temperature dependent smaller body size and shell length.
*Adapted from Exotic DVM Volume 7.6 © Zoological Education Network, 2006
1
Red-eared sliders
MALE
HOUSING
The minimum-sized enclosure for a hatchling red-eared
slider should be a 20-gallon aquarium (30” long x 12”
wide x 12” high [76 x 30 x 30 cm]).
This size will allow normal swimming and turning behavior,
accommodate necessary cage furniture and equipment,
and allow for a healthy temperature gradient across the
enclosure.
Various large plastic or fiberglass tubs can be considered
if viewing the turtle from the side is not desired by the
owner.
As a general rule, the water depth should be at least 1.5-
2 times the turtle’s carapace length with several extra
inches of air space between the surface of the water to
the top edge of the tank to prevent escapes. FEMALE
Hatchlings grow quickly and usually outgrow a 20-gallon
habitat within 2 years.
Recommended minimum enclosure size (in surface area)
for 4- to 5-inch (10-12 cm) long adult sliders is 2.5
square feet (2.3 square km) with an extra square foot for
each additional turtle.
The size requirement doubles for large turtles 8 inches
(20 cm) long or greater.
Filtration systems should be upgraded to more powerful
units for large turtles, and basking areas must be large
and sturdy enough to accommodate a larger turtle.
Live plants may assist with nitrate waste removal because
the plants utilize these waste products as fertilizer—
although turtles may eat the plants as well.
Males have longer foreclaws and tails than females.
2
A properly equipped 20-gallon Red-eared sliders

aquarium is ideal for a hatchling.
WATER
Water quality is of paramount importance. Sliders are
voracious feeders and tend to foul the water quickly with
their messy eating habits and frequent defecation.
Therefore, a system needs to be in place for manage-
ment of water quality.
Partial to full water changes can be performed (at a
minimum, weekly) with a siphon or by pouring out tank
water. The use of a filtration system will reduce (but not
eliminate) the frequency with which water needs to be
changed. The simplest for hatchlings is a canister filter,
which is designed to be either internal (submersible and
placed inside the aquarium) or external (fit on the
outside of the tank).
Undergravel filters are not recommended because they
A digital thermometer helps trap organic waste in the substrate.
maintain the proper temperature. Another useful tip to optimizing water quality is to feed
turtles in a container (such as a small aquarium or
plastic tub) separate from their living accommodations.
BASKING SITE
The enclosure requires a basking area where the turtle
can emerge from the water to bask with an appropriately
placed basking light (a mercury vapor bulb is probably
the best).
Basking areas can consist of either islands or platforms
established at the water line of the tank or areas built
from the bottom of the tank (bricks or stones) and
emerging to the surface.
Floating cork bark and “turtle ramps” have also been
used successfully.
3
Red-eared sliders
HEATING HEMATOLOGIC *
BIOCHEMISTRY *
REFERENCE RANGES REFERENCE RANGES
Hatchling sliders need to be maintained at warm
WBC (103/µl) 6.879-19.021 Calcium (mg/dl) 9.8-15.8
temperatures to fare well.
Sliders often die if kept at room temperature without a RBC (106/µl) 0.19-1.43 Phosphorus (mg/dl) 3.1-6.5
heat source; growth rate is dependent on temperature. Hemoglobin (g/dl) 8 Sodium (mEq/L) 130-142
The habitat should be heated to a water temperature of Hematocrit (%) 21.8-35.6 Potassium (mEq/L) 3-6.8
82-85°F (28-29°C), with a basking spot at one end of MCV (fL) 245.7-575.1 Chloride (mEq/L) 97-105
the habitat where the air temperature reaches their MCH (pg/cell) 108.1 BUN (mg/dl) 8-38
preferred optimum temperature zone (POTZ) of 85-90°F MCHC (g/dl) 29.6 Creatinine (mg/dl) 0.2-0.4
(29-32°C).
Nuc. RBC (/100 WBC) 27 Uric acid (mg/dl) 0.5-1.9
Water temperature for adults may be slightly cooler as
Reticulocytes (%) 0 Total bilirubin (mg/dl) 0-0.6
compared to hatchlings; 70-80°F (21-26°C) is suitable.
Heterophils (10 /µl)
3
1.468-8.682 Glucose (mg/dl) 46-106
An aquarium thermometer is essential to confirm the
water temperature. Lymphocytes (103/µl) 1.214-5.166 Cholesterol (mg/dl) 124-210
The habitat should ideally be heated in two ways: with a Monocytes (103/µl) 0-0.643 Triglyceride (mg/dl) 63-525
basking light and a submersible aquarium heater. Eosinophils (103/µl) 0-2.756 CPK (IU/L) 24-3880
The basking spot is created using an incandescent light Basophils (103/µl) 0.551-5.525 LDH (IU/L) 77-3327
in a reflector hood placed over one of the basking Azurophils (103/µl) 0.139-0.909 AP (IU/L) 134-542
islands. ALT (IU/L) 0-38
The light fixture should be placed in such a way that
GGT (IU/L) 0-14
there is no chance of it accidentally falling into the water
Amylase (U/L) 437-549
(using a screen top on the aquarium and placing the
fixture over it will prevent this). Lipase (U/L) 0-14
The basking light should be set on an automatic timer to Total protein** 3.4-5.6
simulate a natural photoperiod with 10-12 hours daylight Globulin** (g/dl) 1.7-3.5
in the fall and winter and 12-14 hours daylight in the Albumin** (g/dl) 1.3-2.3
spring and summer. * As reported for Trachemys scripta by
International Species Information System,
The submersible water heater, a device used inside the 2002
aquarium that can be completely covered with water, ** Colorimetry
should be set to 82-85°F (28-29°C) and placed in a
secure location.
4
A red-eared slider in a Red-eared sliders

pond forages for food.
OTHER LIGHTING
Ultraviolet full spectrum lighting (UV-B) that is provided by
a reptile bulb designed to emit UV-B radiation is probably
beneficial for turtles and is strongly recommended.
DIET
Free-ranging red-eared sliders are omnivorous; however,
juveniles are mainly carnivorous, becoming more
herbivorous as they mature.
The free-ranging juvenile diet consists of small fish,
aquatic insects, tadpoles, frogs, crayfish, snails and other
small pond life.
Free-ranging adults will browse primarily on aquatic
vegetation, and a smaller portion of their diet consists of
pond life and carrion.
A plastic bowl with an island is not an The captive diet for juveniles should consist primarily of a
adequate enclosure even for a hatchling.
commercial aquatic turtle pellet. Many brands are well
accepted by turtles and do not require any preparation.
Hatchlings and juveniles should be fed on a daily basis
and fed no more than they will eat during a sitting to
minimize water fouling.
The diet may be supplemented with occasional live fish
of an appropriate size (guppies, goldfish) and
earthworms.
Plant matter, in the form of chopped leafy greens or
finely chopped mixed vegetables, may be offered weekly
but may not be readily accepted until turtles are mature.
Occasional feeding of the pelleted “color foods” for
tropical fish may help turtles maintain their bright colors,
as these sometimes fade in captivity.
5
Red-eared sliders
It is recommended that juveniles receive a minimum of

15 minutes of natural sunlight per week. What to Look for in a Healthy Red-eared Slider
Dried krill and muscle meats (beef, chicken, fish fillets)
Bright, alert and Shell hard and
are not acceptable as a staple diet. They may be used responsive attitude symmetrical without
sparingly as a treat only. injuries or ulcerations
As the primarily carnivorous hatchlings and juveniles Eyes open, clear
and symmetrical
mature, they consume significant plant matter.
The adult diet may consist of 30% commercial turtle
pellets and animal-based protein with the remaining 70%
consisting of plant matter, including chopped leafy
greens, such as kale, romaine, red leaf lettuce, mustard
greens, dandelion, watercress, parsley, Swiss chard,
shredded carrot and squash, thawed frozen mixed
vegetables and miscellaneous fruits.
Adults should be fed every 2-3 days.
Head
Limbs and tail
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION symmetrical
free of swellings
with no swellings
Red-eared sliders are easily handled for examination, or ulcerations
although some may act aggressively and can bite and Well-muscled with a Symmetrically buoyant with
Impression of good normal equilibrium when
scratch. floated in water
weight
The physical examination should proceed as with other
animals, using a systematic approach.
The animal should be bright, alert and responsive.
It should have strong withdrawal responses if a foot is
pulled.
A soft pliable shell may be normal in a very young
hatchling but is abnormal after the first few weeks of life.
When floated in water, the turtle should be symmetrically
buoyant and maintain normal equilibrium.
6
The animal should be bright, Red-eared sliders

alert and responsive.
FECAL EXAMINATION
A fecal examination should be a routine part of the
annual examination.
The owner should be instructed to bring in a fresh fecal
sample in a sealed container.
A direct saline wet mount should be performed to look
for motile protozoans, and a flotation procedure should
be included to diagnose parasite ova.
ANESTHESIA
For short medical procedures, general anesthesia with
propofol (5-10 mg/kg IV) in the subcarapacial venipunc-
ture site provides smooth induction and rapid recovery.
The anesthesia takes effect whether it is injected directly
into the blood vessel or into the adjacent lymphatic
Extension of head reveals focal sinus.
ulceration on the neck of a slider.
The tail vein may also be used. Isoflurane may be used
in conjunction with propofol for longer procedures and
may be delivered via endotracheal tube.
Ketamine (10-20 mg/kg) combinations, i.e., used with
medetomidine (0.2-0.5 mg/kg), which can be reversed
with atipamezole, can also be used for induction but
recovery periods are longer and the margin of safety is
reduced.
Analgesics may be added during induction.
7
Red-eared sliders The subcarapacial venipuncture site is one

possibility for blood collection. The tail vein,
VENIPUNCTURE/BLOOD TESTING jugular vein or brachial vein may also be used.
The subcarapacial venipuncture site is the preferred site

for blood collection.
In this technique, the needle is inserted cranially along
the midsagittal line at an angle of up to 60° just caudal
to the skin-carapace junction.
The needle is advanced in a caudodorsal direction
towards the cranial aspect of the eighth cervical vertebra,
maintaining slight negative pressure.
Placing the turtle on its back sometimes facilitates this
technique.
Pushing in the head with a wooden tongue depressor is
also helpful (it limits interference from the head and
extends the dorsal sinus into an arc for easier
venipuncture).
The site is the junction of the common intercostal veins
and the caudal cervical branch of the external jugular
Nuchal scute (before). Nuchal scute, after
veins. smoothing with rotary tool
One problem with this technique is the inadvertent
aspiration of lymph cranial to the recommended site. To
avoid this, the needle must be advanced sufficiently
caudodorsally before negative pressure is applied.
Access to the jugular vein requires extension of the head
and neck, which may not be possible without chemical
restraint.
Blood should be collected into Microtainer® tubes that
are designed to hold small volumes of blood.
A CBC and biochemistry panel can be performed on
samples from sick animals or as part of annual wellness
programs.
8
The cranial-caudal projection is the most important view for diagnosing pneumonia in turtles. Red-eared sliders
The abnormally opaque lung can also be seen in the dorsoventral projection.
RADIOGRAPHY
Aquatic turtles will often sit still for radiographs and
typically do not require any sedation.
A dorsoventral projection can be taken with the animal
placed on top of the radiograph cassette.
A cranial-caudal projection, important for evaluating the
lung fields, can be taken by turning the x-ray tube 90
degrees and projecting the beam horizontally onto the
cassette.
A lateral view can also be obtained if desired.
Radiograph of a gravid female red-eared slider. The MEDICATION ADMINISTRATION

distal-most egg, while not abnormally large, would
not pass with repeated doses of oxytocin. Most sliders are sensitive around the head area and
retract their head and neck when disturbed, thereby
making oral medicating difficult.
Sick patients that require antibiotic or other medical
therapy will probably necessitate intramuscular injections.
The preferred sites are the well-muscled areas of the
limbs; the front limb proximal to the elbow and hind limb
proximal to the knee work best.
If oral medication or nutritional support is required, the
turtle’s head must be extended with manual restraint,
and medication or food can be delivered either into the
oral cavity or stomach using a metal feeding tube.
The turtle’s beak can be wedged open with a credit card,
a small pair of hemostats or a beak speculum designed
Charles Innis, VMD
for birds or turtles.

An alternative to repeated forced restraint of the head is
the placement of an esophagostomy feeding tube (see
Exotic DVM 2(6):27, 2000).
9
Red-eared sliders Shell deformities are usually the result of nutritional

disorders (e.g., calcium deficiency from an all-meat
COMMON DISORDERS diet or inadequate vitamin D or UV-B exposure).
Nutritional Disorders
Hypovitaminosis A: Red-eared sliders frequently present
with swollen eyes, nasal discharge, inability to eat
(because they can’t see), and in advanced cases,
depression and respiratory distress. Affected animals
should initially receive a parenteral dose of vitamin A
(2000-5000 IU/kg) and then should be placed on a diet
containing appropriate levels of vitamin A. Care must be
taken not to over-supplement with vitamin A. Systemic
antibiotic therapy and/or ophthalmic antibiotic drops are
Dan Johnson, DVM

often used during the course of treatment.
Hypervitaminosis A: This problem can be induced by over-
administration of injectable vitamin A. Signs include skin
sloughing and secondary bacterial infections of the
exposed tissues or death.
Metabolic Bone Disease (MBD): Turtles fed primarily
Ear abscesses in red-eared sliders
dried krill, organ meats (liver, heart), or pure muscle may relate to immune suppression
(beef, pork, chicken, fish fillets) will develop metabolic and/or hypovitaminosis A.
bone disease, stunting and other nutritional problems.
Clinical signs may include a soft shell, stunting, or
deformed shell growth (excessively domed or pyramided).
Treatment includes improving diet, providing UV-B light
and administering medical therapy as for other reptiles.
Ear Abscesses: Aural abscesses are not uncommon. The
turtle will present with a swelling over one or both ears.
Denis Lefebvre, DVM

Externally, there is no pinna or auditory opening in
turtles; rather, the tympanic membrane is contiguous
with the skin. Treatment involves a single dose of vitamin
A and surgical drainage of the abscess.
10
Red-eared sliders
The bilateral eye and adnexal swelling Fuzz on a juvenile slider. Parasites
on this red-eared slider are due to
changes in the eyelid and orbital Internal: Sliders can harbor nematode, cestode, trema-
Dr. Rogério R Lange (UFPR, Brazil)

glands caused by hypovitaminosis A. tode, acanthocephalan and protozoan parasites.
Diagnosis is made by fecal examination. Treatment
should follow other anthelmintic protocols for reptiles,
although ivermectin should not be used in turtles.
External: Leeches should be manually removed.
Shell Disorders
Infections: Both bacterial and fungal organisms have
been implicated in shell infections. Clinical signs include
superficial or deep ulcerations of the keratinous shell. A
disease syndrome known as septic cutaneous ulcerative
disease (SCUD) has been documented to be caused by
An esophagostomy feeding tube
may be used for medical or food various gram-negative rods, including Citrobacter fruendii,
Stephen J. Hernandez-Divers, BSc (Hons), CBiol, MIBiol BVetMed

MRCVS, Dipl RCVS Zool Med, RCVS Spec in Zoo & Wildlife Med
administration, as shown in this tortoise. Pseudomonas spp. and Aeromonas spp., and may
present as ulcerative lesions on the shell and/or skin.
Treatment is guided by culture and sensitivity testing, and
systemic and topical antibiotic therapy is advised along
with improvement of water quality.
“Fuzz”: Whitish “fuzz” growing on the shell of turtles
(especially hatchlings) may be either a fungal or protozoal
infection, usually due to poor water quality and husbandry.
Treatment can include saline baths, improvement of
water quality and gentle scrubbing of the shell.
Aquatic turtles can be dry-docked for weeks at a time as
long as hydration and nutrition are maintained; this often
requires an esophagostomy feeding tube. If the injury is
confined to the carapace, the turtle can be placed in
shallow water every day.
Fractures are uncommon in sliders (except when they are
dropped by their owners or fall to a hard floor).
11
Red-eared sliders Red-eared slider presented with

wounds from a dog bite.
Miscellaneous Disorders
Respiratory Infections: Clinical signs of respiratory
disease may include abnormal buoyancy, wheezing,
open-mouthed breathing, nasal discharge, the
appearance of frothy oral mucus and decreased appetite
and activity. In cases of pneumonia, the affected lung
may become congested; the affected side has a
tendency to sink while the unaffected side remains
aerated and buoyant. The turtle will appear to swim lop-
sided or float in an asymmetrical fashion and may have
trouble surfacing or submerging. Radiographs can help
confirm the presence of a pneumonia (the lung fields are
quite large and located in the dorsal portion of the
coelomic cavity beneath the carapace). A cranial-caudal
view is the best way to make this diagnosis.
Prolapsed Phallus: Male turtles occasionally present with
a prolapsed phallus. Prior to attempting replacement of
the prolapse, the surface should be cleaned of dirt and
The lung affected with pneumonia A prolapsed phallus in a red-eared
debris and kept moist and lubricated. Several treatment loses buoyancy and the turtle slider. The phallus is normally black
strategies may be used to reduce phallic swelling prior to appears to be “sinking” on that side. and purple in color, but dry and crusty
manual reduction: hyperosmotic solutions (e.g., sucrose), tissues are likely to be necrotic.
cold compresses, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents,
and hyaluronidase injected directly into the prolapsed
phallus. When reducing a prolapse, the use of
anesthesia/analgesia should be considered. To replace
the tissues, a non-sticky, smooth-surfaced instrument
should be utilized, possibly followed by 2 simple
interrupted sutures of monofilament nylon across the
vent laterally on each side. If the prolapsed tissue cannot
be replaced, amputation of the phallus should be
considered.
12
Spiny-tailed Lizard Spiny-tailed Lizards

(Uromastyx spp.)
Pet Care *
By Jay D. Johnson, DVM
Spiny-tailed lizards are commonly referred to as “Uroma-

styx” in the United States and “mastigure” in Europe.
COMMON SPECIES
Moroccan (Bell’s dabb) spiny-tailed lizard (U. acanthinura)
Egyptian spiny-tailed lizard (U. aegyptius)
Sudanese (Eyed dabb) spiny-tailed lizard (U. ocellata)
Hardwick’s (Indian) spiny-tailed lizard (U. hardwickii)
Benti (rainbow) spiny-tailed lizard (U. yemenensis formerly
U. benti)
Ornate spiny-tailed lizard (U. ornata)
Mali spiny-tailed lizard (U. maliensis)
Saharan spiny-tailed lizard (U. geyri)
Banded spiny-tailed lizard (U. flavofasciata)
ORIGIN
Spiny-tailed lizards are native to northern Africa and the
Douglas Dix
Middle East where they live in desert and savannah-like
areas.
FREE-RANGING HABITAT
VITAL STATISTICS
Average life span 10-20 years Sexual maturity 2-5 years, Some species live in burrows and others in rocky crevices.
Adult size 12-30 inches (30-76 cm) varies with species
from nose to tail tip Eggs per clutch 8-20 eggs PET APPEAL AND BEHAVIOR
Adult body weight 125-1000+ g (<1-3 lbs)
(depending on species)
Spiny-tailed lizards can be social, both with cagemates
and with owners, although the temperament varies
13
Spiny-tailed Lizards Male Algerian Male (L) and female (R)

(U. a. acanthinura) banded (U. flavofasciata)
among individuals and species.
Not all Uromastyx species can be tamed.
They are diurnal and can be active during the hottest part
of the day.
Many spiny-tailed lizards sold as pets are wild-caught;
Drew Rheinhardt
Drew Rheinhardt
these lizards often have parasite problems and may have
difficulty adjusting to life in captivity.
Captive-bred lizards do well as pets.
Many Uromastyx species thrive in easily-set-up, warm, dry
vivarium environments.
Male Mali (fluorescent Female Mali
honey) (U. maliensis) (U. maliensis)
In some species (U. ornata, U. geyri and U. maliensis),
males and females have distinctly different coloration.
Sexing may be difficult in many species, as both males
and females have similar-sized femoral pores and body
morphology.
Douglas Dix
Douglas Dix
The presence of hemipene bulges in males may be visible
in some species.
HOUSING
Male Mali Benti (rainbow)
Spiny-tailed lizards can be housed individually or in pairs. (U. maliensis) (U. yemenensis)
Groups of a few females and 1 or 2 males may also be
possible in large enclosures.
Territorial aggression may be a problem and should be
monitored. Aggression among males is likely unless very
large enclosures with multiple basking areas are provided.
Drew Rheinhardt
Housing should consist of a large aquarium or an outdoor
Douglas Dix
enclosure with good side and top ventilation to minimize
humidity.
14
Juvenile Mali (clown Male Moroccan Spiny-tailed Lizards

pattern) (U. maliensis) (U. acanthinuris)
At a minimum the enclosure should be 4 times the
length and width of the lizard. More space per animal
would be required for colonies.
Waste should be removed daily and the tank cleaned
thoroughly at least monthly or as needed.
Drew Rheinhardt
Environmental temperatures should reach 100-115°F
Douglas Dix
(43-46°C) in a basking spot at one end of the enclosure,
with a gradient in the 90s°F (32-37°C) during the day.
Nighttime temperatures should drop to the 70s°F
(21-26°C).
Ornate (U. ornata) Male Saharan (red Enclosure humidity must remain low (15-30% humidity is
phase) (U. geryi)
probably best).
©Brett Benz, www.urotopia.com

The basking lamp should be placed out of reach of the
lizards.
Temperatures should be monitored with a thermometer
at both the cool and hot ends of the enclosure.
Tape thermometers should not be placed on the glass,
Douglas Dix
because they frequently do not adequately represent the
temperatures in the enclosure. Alternatively, laser
thermometers may be used.
Sand, dirt, gravel, alfalfa pellets or millet seeds are
Egyptian (U. aegyptius) Sudanese (U. ocellata) recommended bedding.
Substrates to avoid are walnut shells, cat litter, cedar
and other wood chips, silica sand and colored pebbles
that can cause impaction.
Areas for hiding and burrowing at the cool end of the
enclosure (e.g., a hide box or rock cave) should be
provided as well as rocks for basking at the other end.
Adrian Pingstone
Heavy rocks should be placed directly on the floor of the
Douglas Dix
enclosure, not on top of the substrate, so that digging
will not displace them and cause crushing injuries.
15
Spiny-tailed Lizards Outdoor housing must include areas for Indoor housing should consist of a large
hiding and burrowing and rocks for basking. vivarium with proper ventilation.
Plants (live or artificial) should not be included in the
enclosure.
Unfiltered high-output UV lighting (fluorescent bulb or
mercury vapor lamp), such as ZooMed ReptiSun 5.0™,
T-Rex Active UV Heat™ or ZooMed PowerSun™, should
be positioned out of reach of the lizard with no glass or
plastic between the bulb and the reptile.
Fluorescent UV lights should be placed within 18-20
inches (45-50 cm) and mercury vapor bulbs can be (and
in some cases should be) further away.
Fluorescent bulbs used for juvenile lizards should be
Douglas Dix
changed every 6 months and yearly for adults.
The mercury vapor bulbs should be changed yearly.
The photoperiod should be 12-14 hours of light (and
heat) during spring and summer, decreasing to 8 hours An occellated spiny-tailed lizard (U.
through the fall and winter. occellatus) housed in a large aquarium.
Spiny-tailed lizards may eat less and sleep more during
cooler months.
DIET
Juvenile spiny-tailed lizards are primarily herbivorous;
however, juveniles will sometimes eat insects.
Juveniles should be fed daily up to 1 year of age, and
adults may be fed every 1-2 days.
A dish with dry split peas, lentils, beans and millet should
be available at all times. Calcium powder may be mixed
in. For juveniles, the mix can be processed briefly
through a coffee grinder to decrease the particle size.
A mixture of greens, including collards, kale, romaine,
dandelion and “spring mix,” should be offered every
24-48 hours.
16
HEMATOLOGIC BIOCHEMISTRY * Spiny-tailed Lizards

*
REFERENCE RANGES REFERENCE RANGES Vegetables, such as green beans, carrots, baby lima
PCV (%) 27 (18-40) AP (IU/L) 98 (53-164) beans and peas, may be chopped and fed weekly.
RBC (106/ml) 0.73 (0.46-0.99) ALT (IU/L) 3 Small berries may be given sparingly as treats.
Hgb (g/dl) 5.8 (3.6-8.2) AST (IU/L) 37 (14-81) Occasional (weekly or less) feedings of gut-loaded insects
MCV (fl) 308 (242-391) Bilirubin, total (mg/dl) 0.3 (0.1-0.7) (dusted with calcium) may increase growth and body
MCH (pg) 87 (78-95) condition in some juveniles.
BUN (mg/dl) 3 (1-4)
A reptile multivitamin supplement should be provided
MCHC (g/dl) 28 (20-36) Calcium (mg/dl) 11.3 (8.6-14.1)
weekly.
WBC (103/ml) 11 (4-32) Chloride (mEq/L) 126 (111-135) Because the diet should fulfill moisture requirements, an
* Hematologic and serum biochemical Cholesterol (mg/dl) 317 (306-328)
values for the Egyptian spiny-tailed outside source of water is not required, although a small
lizard (U. aegyptius) from ISIS as Creatine kinase (IU/L) 2003 (556-3454) amount may be provided in a dish periodically.
presented in Mader DL (ed): Reptile
Medicine and Surgery. Saunders
Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.3 (0.2-0.4)
Elsevier, 2006, p 1108. Glucose (mg/dL) 184 (102-248) RESTRAINT
LDH (IU/L) 639 (197-1235) For restraint, the lizard should be held around the neck
Phosphorus (mg/dL) 4.5 (1.3-10) and shoulders with one hand and around the pelvis and
Potassium (mEq/L) 3.7 (3-4.6) hind limbs with the other. The heavy spiny tail is used for
Protein, total (g/dL) 5.2 (3.1-8) defense and is capable of causing injury to the handler.
Albumin (g/dL) 1.6 (0.9-2.4)
VETERINARY EXAMINATION
Globulin (g/dL) 2.6 (2.2-4.6)
Following purchase, spiny-tailed lizards should have a
Sodium (mEq/L) 173
general health check and fecal exam by a veterinarian.
Uric acid (mg/dL) 3.8 (2.6-5.6)
Regular visits are recommended annually after that.
The jaws are very strong and an oral exam may be
difficult. One must avoid trauma to the teeth and mouth
in efforts to examine the oral cavity.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Spiny-tailed lizards have small scales over the head and
body, and their characteristic large spike scales cover the
tail.
17
Spiny-tailed Lizards
FORMUL ARY
They have salt glands beneath the nares that allow them
to excrete salt and survive in their arid environment. These dosages are those most commonly used by the author in this species and do
not have pharmacokinetic studies to support them. Lizards should be hydrated, and
BLOOD COLLECTION dosages should be adjusted for some drugs based on the health status of the lizard.
The ventral caudal tail vein is located just ventral to the ANTIBIOTICS*
vertebral bodies of the tail. Enrofloxacin 10 mg/kg PO q24h; 5.0 mg/kg IM q24h
A needle can be passed between the ventral scales Amikacin 5.0 mg/kg IM q48h
perpendicular to the tail until it meets resistance from
Piperacillin 50-100 mg/kg IM q24-48h
bone.
Ampicillin 20 mg/kg SC/IM q24h
Negative pressure is applied and the needle is slowly
withdrawn until blood is seen in the hub. Chloramphenicol 50 mg/kg PO q24h
Blood should be placed in lithium heparin tubes, not Metronidazole 20 mg/kg PO q24h
EDTA (which may cause hemolysis). Sample size can be *Enrofloxacin and amikacin are often used in conjunction with metronidazole
approximately 0.5 ml/100 g body weight. or ampicillin.
Injection sites: ANTIPARASITICS
• IM - Foreleg and hindleg muscles Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO q10 days for 2-3 treatments
• SC - Under the front leg pocket and just in front Metronidazole 100 mg/kg PO q10 days for 2-3 treatments
of the chest
ANESTHETICS/ANALGESICS
• IV - Ventral caudal tail vein
Propofol 5.0 mg/kg IV
• IO - Distal femur
Butorphanol 0.5-1.0 mg/kg IM (lower dose when used in combination
with ketamine)
ANESTHESIA PROTOCOLS
Buprenorphine 0.01 mg/kg IM
Anesthesia is required for invasive procedures.
Meloxicam 0.2 mg/kg IM once or PO q24h
The lizard may be induced with propofol (5 mg/kg IV) or
inhalant isoflurane/sevoflurane via mask, which is then Ketamine 10-20 mg/kg IM
(sedation, used most often in combination with butorphanol)
maintained after intubation.
Sevoflurane is not as noxious as isoflurane and is often MISCELLANEOUS
more successful for mask induction of reptiles. Intubation Silver sulfadiazine Topical q24-72h (combined with enrofloxacin [Baytril® Otic]
is easy because the glottis is visible at the base of the frequently for skin lesions)
tongue.
18
Intraosseous catheters can be used to Oral administration can be performed by
The heart rate is monitored using a contact Doppler
provide fluid therapy to critically ill lizards. passing a small tube through the gap
between the rostral fused incisors. device directed through the thoracic inlet between the
shoulders.
Adequate hydration can be ensured prior to surgery by
providing subcutaneous or intraosseous fluids.
Non-lactated fluids are preferred. Normasol® mixed
50/50 with 0.45% saline + 2.5% dextrose works well.
Analgesia should be provided using butorphanol,
buprenorphine, meloxicam or carprofen.
SUPPORTIVE THERAPY
For fluid therapy, non-lactated fluids are administered at
Gap the rate of 20 ml/kg/day for maintenance and up to 40
ml/kg/day for severe illness.
Oral administration of food, fluids and medications can
Skin problems are common be performed by passing a small tube through the gap
with spiny-tailed lizards. between the rostral fused incisors. Critical Care for
Herbivores (www.oxbowhay.com) (10 ml/kg PO q24h) or
green beans baby food mixed with a fiber source and
NutriBac® (bacteria to limit bloating) can be used for
nutritional support.
The enclosure environment should be maintained at
moderate temperatures above 90°F (32°C) during the
day and 85°F (29.5°C) at night when the lizard is ill.
RADIOGRAPHIC POSITIONING
Radiographing the lizard through a box or bag may be
necessary if the patient is not sedated.
19
Otherwise, the lizard may be taped in position. Both What to Look for in a Healthy Spiny-tailed Lizard
dorsoventral and lateral views should be taken. Tail and eyes are the
Organs may be assessed by their position, shape, size, primary indicators of health.
density and homogeneity, and the state of nutrition by
the skeletal density, gastrointestinal organs and contents. Upright
The bone/soft tissue contrast in normal lizards is similar Willingness to position
to that in mammals. eat and bask
COMMON DISORDERS
Skin problems: bacterial, fungal, calcification
Metabolic bone diseases (nutritional secondary Underside of tail near the vent
hyperparathyroidism [NSHP] is most common) should be flat to slightly convex.
A sunken tail near the vent is a
Parasites (pinworms/oxyurids [likely normal], flagellates, sign of illness or dehydration.
coccidia) Well filled-
Wounds (territorial aggression; males frequently bite out belly
females on the sides of the neck during copulation)
Alert
Burns (due to basking light being too close to the attitude
basking rock) Clean vent
Douglas Dix
Egg yolk coelomitis Absence of swellings
Hypervitaminosis in toes or tail
Chelitis secondary to Dermabacter
Lateral skin trauma from cage mate aggression
ZOONOSIS
Salmonella spp. is the primary agent implicated in
potential zoonosis.
FURTHER READING
Mader DL (ed): Reptile Medicine and Surgery 2nd ed. Saunders
Elsevier, 2006.
20
Bearded Dragon Bearded Dragons

(Pogona vitticeps)
Pet Care *
By Jay D. Johnson, DVM
ORIGIN
Bearded dragons are native to central Australia.
They are semi-arboreal and live in a range of habitats
from desert to dry forests and scrublands.
PET APPEAL
In the wild, they spend the mornings and afternoons
foraging and the hottest part of the day in underground
burrows. They are well adapted to cool desert nights.
Bearded dragons usually thrive in captivity.
BEHAVIOR
In most cases they are calm and rarely bite, scratch or
Frank C. Müller
whip with their tails.
They usually do not exhibit signs of stress from handling,
and they may feed from the hand of their caretakers.
They make good pets, even for children, due to their
docile and social nature.
VITAL STATISTICS Children must be taught to thoroughly wash their hands
Average life span 10-15 years Sexual maturity 1-2 years
following every encounter to reduce the potential for
Adult size Up to 18-22 inches Length at sexual maturity 12-16 inches
(45-56 cm) from (30-40 cm) salmonellosis.
nose to tail tip Eggs per clutch Average 15-25 eggs;
Adult body weight 285-510 g (10-18 oz) usually 3-5 clutches
HOUSING
per breeding season It is best to house only 1 male bearded dragon per
enclosure, but 1 or more females may be present.
21
Bearded Dragons The housing environment should include

thick branches and rocks for climbing.
Breeders often house 2 males and 3 or more females
together for the breeding season. Having more than 1
male present can stimulate male reproductive activity.
Hatchlings should be maintained separately from adults.
If multiple individuals are housed together, their body
conditions should be monitored closely. Signs of stress
include low body weight and poor condition. Dominance
problems are not uncommon.
Hungry juveniles housed together can bite off the toes
and tail-tips of their cage mates.
An enclosure for 1-2 adult bearded dragons should be at
least 2 x 4 feet (61 x 122 cm) in size, be easy to clean
and have smooth sides to prevent rostral abrasions.
A 10-gallon aquarium is suitable only as short term
housing for juveniles.
Acceptable substrates include soil, newspaper, alfalfa
Large rocks should be provided for a
pellets, cypress mulch and sand. basking site for bearded dragons.
Cat litter, corn cob, walnut shell and wood shavings are
not suitable substrates.
Care should be taken to avoid placing food items directly
onto substrates that can cause impactions if ingested.
Care should also be taken to ensure proper hydration if a
substrate is used that results in lowered cage humidity,
e.g., sand or newspaper.
Burrows/hiding areas should be kept slightly more humid
than the rest of the enclosure. This can be accomplished
by using substrate that retains moisture, such as cypress
mulch, or by using a wood shelter and periodically
soaking it in water.
A shallow water bowl may be provided for drinking;
however, many bearded dragons get sufficient water from
22
Temperature and humidity must be Bearded Dragons

closely monitored in the enclosure.
their diet and do not drink from bowls.
They may soak and defecate in the drinking water,
creating an unhealthy environment if the bowl is not
cleaned frequently.
Ways to successfully keep bearded dragons from
becoming dehydrated while eliminating the need for
water in the enclosure include: providing a shallow pan
for soaking 1-2 times weekly as needed, ensuring
increased humidity in a shelter/hiding area, and rinsing
dietary greens with water prior to feeding.
LIGHT AND TEMPERATURE

Unfiltered sunlight or high-output UV lighting (fluorescent
bulb or mercury vapor lamp), such as ZooMed ReptiSun
5.0,™ ZooMed PowerSun™ (www.zoomed.com) or T-Rex
Beardie basking below UV bulb. Active IV Heat™ (www.t-rexproducts.com), should be
positioned out of reach of the lizard with no glass or
plastic between the bulb and the reptile.
Fluorescent UV lights should be placed within 18-20
inches (45-50 cm) and mercury vapor bulbs should be
somewhat beyond that distance.
Fluorescent bulbs should be changed every 6 months for
juvenile lizards and yearly for adults. The mercury vapor
bulbs should be changed at least yearly.
Bearded dragons thrive in a well-ventilated, low humidity
environment.
A daytime temperature gradient, from 80°F (27°C) on the
cool side of the vivarium to 90-95°F (32-35°C) at a
basking site, should be maintained.
Nighttime temperatures can drop to 70ºF (21°C).
23
Bearded Dragons Housing should include thick

branches or rocks for climbing.
Dragons should be protected from coming into direct
contact with heating elements.
Bearded dragons are most active during the day and are
adept climbers.
In addition to providing the basking site and shelter/
hiding area, the housing environment should include
thick branches or rocks for climbing.
Bearded dragons should not be allowed free roam of the
house in order to prevent chilling, trauma, escape,
ingestion of foreign materials, such as potentially toxic
live plants, and the risk of spreading Salmonella.
DIET
Bearded dragons are omnivorous as juveniles; adults are Adult bearded dragons are
predominantly herbivorous.
predominantly herbivorous with occasional insects in their
diet.
As they mature, the intake of greens increases as does
the size of insect prey.
Hatchlings
Hatchlings should be fed daily with small insects, such as
crickets, phoenix worms, mealworms or other nontoxic
collected grasshoppers, grubs, flies and moths.
Greens and some vegetables should be provided daily.
Insects cultivated for feeding (e.g., crickets and
mealworms) are deficient in nutrients and need daily
dusting with mineral and calcium supplements.
Vitamin supplementation is needed only weekly.
24
HEMATOLOGIC BIOCHEMISTRY Bearded Dragons

REFERENCE RANGES REFERENCE RANGES Adults
Azurophils % 0-9 ALT U/L <3-5 Adults may be fed every 24-48 hours.
x 103/µl 0-1.1 AST U/L 4-40 The diet should consist primarily of leafy greens,
Basophils % 2-18 BUN mmol/L <0.7-1.4 including romaine, dandelion, turnip greens, mustard
x 103/µl 0.2-3.2 mg/dl <1-2 greens, beet greens, kale, collard greens, bok choy,
Calcium mmol/L 2.2-6.8 Swiss chard, escarole, spinach and cilantro.
Hematocrit % 17-50
Other vegetables can provide nutritional variety but
Heterophils % 17-43 mg/dl 8.6-27.2
should be limited, as should occasional flower blossoms
x 10 /µl
3
1.6-7.3 Calcium:phosphorus ratio 0.9-3.8
and leaves from nontoxic plants.
Lymphocytes % 47-69 Chloride mmol/L 80-140 Fruits can be fed sparingly as treats.
x 103/µl 4-12 or mEq/L
Commercial bearded dragon pelleted diets are available
Monocytes % 0-4 Cholesterol mmol/L 8.07-31.7 and can be fed as part of the diet.
x 103/µl 0-0.5 mg/dl 312-1224 Dog and cat foods are not recommended.
Total solids g/dl 4.5-9.5 Glucose mmol/L 7.72-16.2 Insects fed to adults may include crickets, superworms
mg/dl 139-291 (Zophobas), mealworms, wax worms, locusts, grass-
WBC x 103/µl 6.7-19.9
hoppers and roaches.
Phosphorus mmol/L 1.1-3.2
Lightning bugs may be toxic to bearded dragons and
mg/dl 3.5-9.8
should not be offered.
Potassium mmol/L 1.0-6.5 Pinkie mice may be fed in small amounts to breeding
or mEq/L
females.
Sodium mmol/L 141-190 Insects, dusted with a mineral supplement containing
or mEq/L calcium, are limited to twice weekly feeding for adults.
Uric acid mmol/L 95-678 To avoid over-supplementation, vitamins should be
mg/dl 1.6-11.4 applied to the diet only every 1-2 weeks.
Home-raised insects should be fed a “gut-loading” diet of
fresh greens for several days before feeding out to
bearded dragons.
A wet sponge is the best water source for insects.
25
Bearded Dragons A male bearded dragon has a hemipenile Females also have femoral pores.
bulge on its tail and enlarged femoral
SEXING AND REPRODUCTION pores along the inner thighs.
Juvenile bearded dragons are difficult to sex.

Morphologic differences become more apparent as they
mature: males are usually larger and have a broader
head, thicker tail with hemipenile bulges and enlarged
femoral pores along the inner thighs.
During the breeding season dominant males develop a
large black “beard.”
Females also have femoral pores and their beard can
turn black when stressed, making them difficult at these
times to differentiate from males.
A female bearded dragon with her eggs.
Reproduction usually occurs following a winter cool-down
period of 2-3 months, known as brumation.
Although most bearded dragons will breed without any
type of brumation period, low fertility rates have been
reported in both males and females that were not
allowed to cool.
Brumation can be accomplished by cooling temperatures
to 75-80°F (24-27°C) and decreasing daytime light
cycles to approximately 10 hours.
Successfully bred gravid females will often develop a
distended coelomic cavity and lose some body mass over
the back, pelvis and tail.
Eggs can be palpated during coelomic palpation of most
gravid females.
An appropriate nest site of deep, moist soil is necessary
for the female to lay the eggs.
Dystocia can occur due to improper nutrition and
husbandry or other health-related issues.
26
During handling, the body should be Bearded Dragons

fully supported in the palm of the hand
with fingers gently curled over the back. RESTRAINT
When holding or carrying a bearded dragon, the body
should be fully supported in the palm of the hand with
fingers gently curled over the back.
Dragons should not be caught or lifted by the tail.
Most bearded dragons are more tolerant of being
restrained from the ventral rather than the dorsal aspect
of their body.
Simple procedures, such as blood sampling, radiography
and general physical examination, may be performed
without anesthesia.
PREVENTIVE MEDICINE
Newly acquired bearded dragons should be quarantined
in a separate area from existing dragons for 3-6 months.
Free-ranging bearded dragon. Annual fecal examinations are necessary. Feces can
often be obtained by swabbing the cloaca with a
moistened cotton swab. This action will frequently induce
defecation when feces are present.
BLOOD COLLECTION
The ventral caudal tail vein is located just ventral to the
vertebral bodies of the tail.
A needle is placed between the scales and perpendicular
to the tail until it meets resistance from bone.
Negative pressure is applied and the needle is slowly
withdrawn and advanced cranially or caudally until blood
is seen in the hub.
Blood should be placed in lithium heparin tubes. The use
of EDTA may cause hemolysis and should be avoided.
27
Bearded Dragons
Sample size may be up to 0.5% of the total body weight.

What to Look for in a Healthy Bearded Dragon
On average 0.5 ml per 100 g BW can be collected. Alert attitude
Blood smears can be evaluated in-house for parasites,
estimated or total white cell counts or toxic changes in
the white blood cells.
Injection sites:
Willingness to eat
• IM - Foreleg and hind leg muscles, tail muscles and bask
• SC - Under the front leg pocket and just in front
of the chest
Upright posture
• IV - Ventral caudal tail vein
• IO - Distal femur Clean vent
ANESTHESIA PROTOCOLS
Anesthesia is required for invasive procedures.
The patient may be induced with IV propofol or with Absence of swellings
anesthetic gas via face mask, then intubated and Well filled-out belly in toes or tail
maintained with anesthetic gas.
Intubation is easy with the glottis highly visible at the
base of the tongue. Intubation is easy with the glottis highly
Isoflurane and sevoflurane are most commonly used. visible at the base of the tongue.
Sevoflurane has the advantage over isoflurane of being
less noxious and more readily inhaled.
The heart rate is monitored using an ultrasonic Doppler
unit with the crystal positioned in the thoracic inlet
towards the heart.
Adequate hydration may be ensured prior to surgery by
soaking the dragon or by administration of parenteral
Kevin Wright, DVM

non-lactated fluids (see Veterinary Care section).
Intraoperative fluid therapy may improve patient health
and reduce anesthetic recovery time.
28
Bearded Dragons
Radiographic positioning 2
RADIOGRAPHIC POSITIONING
1
A patient that is not sedated may be placed in a box or
bag for radiography.
6
8 Alternatively, the animal can be taped into position on
9
the cassette.
Dorsoventral and lateral views should be obtained.
5
7 The organs may be assessed by their position, shape,
4
3
size, density and homogeneity; the state of nutrition is
evaluated specifically by the skeletal density and
gastrointestinal organs and contents.
1. heart 6. stomach The bone/soft tissue contrast in normal lizards is similar
2. esophagus 7. kidneys to mammals.
3. cloaca 8. lungs
4. large intestine 9. liver
5. small intestine COMMON MEDICAL PROBLEMS
Clinical signs of illness in bearded dragons include
depression, sunken eyes, poor body condition and
weakness.
Loss of appetite often indicates illness; however, some
Clinical signs of illness in bearded dragons Anal probing should be performed adults will have periods of anorexia due to seasonal or
include depression, sunken eyes, poor on all ill bearded dragons.
body condition and weakness.
behavioral changes.
Endoparasites
Endoparasites are common, and veterinary visits should
include fecal examinations.
The most commonly seen intestinal parasites are
oxyurids (pinworms), coccidia and flagellated protozoans.
Oxyurids occur in most bearded dragons, are likely not
Kevin Wright, DVM
pathogenic and are rarely treated.

If clinical signs of illness are present and moderate-to-
large numbers of coccidia are present, treatment should
be initiated.
29
Bearded Dragons
Coccidia and oxyurids are commonly diagnosed parasites.
Flagellated protozoan parasites in moderate-to-large
numbers frequently cause gastrointestinal disease and
should be treated. Low numbers of protozoans can also
be “normal” if no clinical signs are present.
It is often difficult to eradicate flagellated or coccidian
protozoan parasites, but they should be monitored.
Roger Klingenberg, DVM

Other diagnosed parasites should be treated according to
usual standards for reptiles.
Cleaning protocols should be stressed to clients in order
to eradicate or minimize parasite infections.
For differentials, other causes of gastrointestinal disease
include cryptosporidium, microsporidium, fungal, viral and
bacterial infections.
GI Impactions
Constipation/cloacal impaction is frequently encountered Bearded dragon receiving an enema.
and is usually due to mild chronic dehydration. Most
commonly, the cloaca becomes impacted with a large
urate plug.
Dragons frequently present for a distended caudal
coelomic cavity, tenesmus and hyporexia. When mild, a
few milliliters of warm water enema followed by cloacal
swabbing will allow for passage of the obstructing urate
or feces. In more severe cases, rehydration, multiple
enemas, cloacal lubrication and physical breakdown of
the blockage with a cotton swab may be required over
several days. Changes in husbandry and routine soaking
should be initiated when this problem occurs.
Intestinal impactions can occur from ingestion of sand,
gravel, walnut shell bedding or other substances. Treat-
ment with fluids and laxatives may be successful; surgery
may be necessary.
30
Physical breakdown of constipated feces with a Bearded Dragons

cotton swab may be required over several days.
Nutritional Disorders
Metabolic bone disease is most frequently caused by
nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism. Softened
bones, weakness, anorexia, constipation, fractures,
scoliosis and kyphosis are most commonly seen. Plasma
chemistries, including calcium, phosphorus and uric acid,
should be evaluated. In mild-to-moderate cases, treat-
ment with parenteral and oral calcium supplementation,
along with correction of the diet and husbandry, are
usually sufficient to resolve the problem. In severe cases
where renal failure is suspected euthanasia should be
performed.
Reproductive Disorders
Dystocia and pre-ovulatory follicular stasis. Dragons often
present anorexic and have a distended coelomic cavity.
Eggs and large follicles can often be palpated in lean
Bearded dragon with females. Dystocia can result from small or malformed
a skin mass. pelvic bones, hypocalcemia, eggs larger than the pelvic
canal, dehydration and lack of a proper nesting area.
Pre-ovulatory follicular stasis is not fully understood but is
likely the result of improper hormonal cycles secondary to
stress or husbandry problems or infections.
Dystocia should be differentiated from follicular stasis.
The workup should include radiography, possible
ultrasound, a complete blood count (CBC) and plasma
biochemistries. Surgery is often necessary for anatomic
causes of dystocia. Rehydration, improvement of
husbandry, and providing a suitable nesting area may be
Chris Sanders
successful if no abnormalities are found on workup.
Calcium supplementation is necessary for dragons with
31
Bearded Dragons This bearded dragon has marked swelling of both eyelids
and an exudate in the medial canthus associated with
hypocalcemia. Aggressive antibiotic therapy and surgery cryptosporidiosis involving the bulbar conjunctival mucosa.
are necessary for dragons with follicular stasis that show
clinical signs of illness.
Eye Problems
Conjunctivitis and blepharospasm are common sequelae
to infections or sand or foreign body irritation. If
ulceration of the cornea is evident upon staining, topical
antibiotic ophthalmic ointment should be applied. If no
Morgan Dawkins, DVM

ulceration is present, frequent flushing with saline and
application of an anti-inflammatory ophthalmic solution
are recommended.
Buophthalmus due to retrobulbar swelling may also be
seen. The most common causes include abscesses and
hypertension. Fluid aspirated from the retrobulbar space
should be evaluated microscopically. A high number of
heterophils in the blood or aspirate is suggestive of One fungal disease is Chrysosporium anamorph of
Nannizziopsis vriesii, or “yellow fungus disease.”
infection. If aspirates resemble peripheral blood, further
evaluation, including radiographs of the heart, is
indicated. Calcification of the greater vessels and
muscles of the heart may be seen. Hypertension is often
bilateral and retrobulbar abscesses are unilateral.
Dermatitis
Bacterial infections often respond well to topical anti-
septic and systemic antibiotic therapy. Treatment of fungal
dermatitis is usually successful with oral itraconazole and
topical application of betadine and silver sulfadiazine.
Dan Johnson, DVM

Dan Johnson, DVM
Chrysosporium anamorph of Nannizziopsis vriesii, or
“yellow fungus disease” causes a severe, necrotizing,
yellow-colored, granulomatous dermatitis. Prognosis is
guarded to poor for this condition.
32
Forelimb fractures often result from falls from Bite wounds may occur from Bearded Dragons
branches or during handling. fighting between adults.
Trauma
Rostral abrasions and burns from hot rocks and heating
elements.
Fractures may result from subclinical hypocalcemia,
fighting or falls during handling.
ZOONOSES
Salmonella sp. is the most common organism of zoonotic
concern in bearded dragons.
Kevin Wright, DVM

VETERINARY CARE
Along with proper medical and surgical treatments for
illnesses, hydration and nutritional support must be
addressed.
A 50/50 mixture of Normasol/Plasmalyte and 0.45%
Due to their gentle nature, bearded dragons saline + 2.5% dextrose is recommended for reptile fluid
are easy to orally medicate with a syringe. therapy. A maintenance guideline is 20-30 ml/kg/day.
At-home soaking and/or administration of water per os
can be performed.
Nutritional support is critical for proper recovery. Oxbow
Critical Care for Herbivores (www.oxbowhay.com), fed at
10 ml/kg/day, is recommended for adults.
Juveniles should also be assist-fed crickets or cricket
juice. To make cricket juice, place crickets in a 3 ml
syringe and apply pressure to the plunger, pushing the
Roger Klingenberg, DVM

liquid and smaller portions of the crickets through the tip.
33
Bearded Dragons FORMUL ARY

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING These dosages are those most commonly used by the author in this species and do not
have pharmacokinetic studies to support them. Bearded dragons should be hydrated,
1. Donoghue S, Klingenberg R: Bearded dragons (client education
brochure). Zool Educ Network, 2006, available at and dosages should be adjusted for some drugs based on the health status of the lizard.
www.exoticdvm.com. ANTIBIOTICS*
2. Ellman M: Hematology and plasma chemistry of the inland
bearded dragon, Pogona vitticeps. Assoc Reptilian Amphib Vet Amikacin 5 mg/kg IM q48h
7(4):10-12, 1997. www.arav.org/journals/JA011656.htm (Full Ampicillin 20 mg/kg SC, IM q24h
text at www.bearded-dragon-network.com/oldbvd/blood.htm)
3. Johnson D: An emerging dermatomycosis and systemic mycosis Chloramphenicol 50 mg/kg PO q24h
syndrome in bearded dragons. Exotic DVM 6(3):75-77, 2005. Enrofloxacin 10 mg/kg PO q24h; 5 mg/kg IM q24h
4. Journals of Herpetological Medicine and Surgery and
Proceedings of Association of Reptilian and Amphibian Medicine, Metronidazole 20 mg/kg PO q24h
www.arav.org Piperacillin 50-100 mg/kg IM q24-48h
5. Kaplan M: Dragons down under: The inland bearded dragon.
Herp Care Collection, 2004. www.anapsid.org/bearded.html Trimethoprim/sulfa 15-30 mg/kg PO q24h
6. Klingenberg RJ: Diagnosing parasites of bearded dragons. Exotic *Enrofloxacin and amikacin are often used in conjunction with metronidazole
DVM 1(2):19-23, 1999. or ampicillin.
7. Lewbart G: Lizard (saurian) medicine. Proc Atlantic Coast Vet
Conf, 2001. www.vin.com/VINDBPub/SearchPB/Proceedings/ ANTIFUNGALS
PR05000/PR00340.htm Itraconazole 23.5 mg/kg PO q24h x 3d, stop 6 d, repeat until resolved
8. Mader DL (ed): Reptile Medicine and Surgery 2nd ed. Saunders
Elsevier, 2006. Ketoconazole 15-30 mg/kg PO q24h for 2-4 weeks
9. Periat J: Pogona vitticeps. Animal Diversity Web, 2000. ANTIPARASITICS
www.animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/ccounts/
information/Pogona_vitticeps.html Accessed June, 2006. Fenbendazole 50 mg/kg PO q10 d for 2-3 treatments
10. Redrobe S: Clinical examination of reptiles. Vet On-Line, 1996. Metronidazole 100 mg/kg PO q10 d for 2-3 treatments
www.priory.com/vet/vetrept2.htm
11. Redrobe S: The reptile patient. Vet On-Line, 1996. Sulfadimethoxine 50 mg/kg PO q24h x 5d then q48h until resolution
www.priory.com/vet/vetrept1.htm#handle Trimethoprim/sulfa 30 mg/kg PO q24h x 5d then q48h until resolution
ANESTHETICS/ANALGESICS
Buprenorphine 0.01 mg/kg IM
Butorphanol 0.5-1.0 mg/kg IM (lower dose if combined with ketamine)
Ketamine 10-20 mg/kg IM (sedation, used most often with butorphanol)
Meloxicam 0.2 mg/kg IM once or PO q24h
Propofol 5 mg/kg IV
MISCELLANEOUS
Silver sulfadiazine Topical q24-72h (combined with enrofloxacin [Baytril® Otic])
Oxbow Critical Care 10 ml/kg PO q24h
34
Day Gecko Day Geckos

(Phelsuma spp.)
Pet Care COMMON SPECIES
Giant day gecko (P. madagascariensis grandis)
Gold dust day gecko (P. laticauda)
Standings day gecko (P. standingi)
Peacock day gecko (P. quadriocellata)
Neon (yellow-headed) day gecko (P. klemmeri)
Dull day gecko (P. dubia)
Alabra Island day gecko (P. abbotti chekei)
ORIGIN
Islands and coastal areas of the southwestern Indian
Ocean and Andaman Islands
Arboreal
CAPTIVE HOUSING
A 20-gallon aquarium or equivalent with a wire mesh top
for ventilation is the minimum size for an enclosure.
Enclosures for pairs: minimum 10-gallon aquarium for
small species and 30-gallon aquarium for larger species.
Enclosure should be vertically-oriented for most day
VITAL STATISTICS geckos with a screen or wire mesh top for adequate
ventilation and UV light.
Life span 3-15 years
Adult size 2.5-12 inches (6-30 cm)
Substrate should be leafy soil, vermiculite-free potting
depending on species soil, peat moss, or fine grade well-washed orchid bark
placed over ½ inch (1.25 cm) small pebbles.
35
Day Geckos
Giant day gecko Gold dust day gecko
Full-spectrum lighting with a 14-hour day length in the
(P. madagascariensis grandis) (P. laticauda)
summer and 10-hour day length during the winter must
be used.
A basking lamp is necessary above one end of the
enclosure.
A small dish of cuttlebone, eggshell or calcium powder
should be available at all times.
Daytime temperature should be 79-89°F (25-30°C), and
Max Lewis
nighttime temperatures may drop to 64-71°F (18-22°C).
The temperature should be decreased slightly for 3-4
months during winter in order for the geckos to breed in
the spring. Neon (yellow-headed) day Standings day gecko
gecko (P. klemmeri) (P. standingi)
50-85% humidity can be maintained by misting twice
daily.
Live plants may help maintain humidity.
Several stiff-leafed live plants (e.g., sansevieria, orchids,
Kimon Berlin
bromeliads) should be provided for hiding.
Bamboo stalks will allow for climbing and basking.
Walls can be covered with cork bark to support epiphyte
plants.
Dull day gecko (P. dubia) Peacock day gecko
(P. quadriocellata)
RESTRAINT
Handling should be minimized as handling can severely
damage gecko’s fragile skin.
Geckos will shed their tail (autotomy) if frightened.
36
Several stiff-leafed live plants Day Geckos

and tree branches should be
provided for climbing and hiding. DIET
Free-ranging day geckos eat insects, spiders, sweet fruits
and nectar.
In captivity, day geckos may be fed crickets, wingless fruit
flies, flies, waxworms, wax moths, fruit (e.g., mango,
papaya), fruit baby food and honey.
Gut-loaded prey, dusted in phosphorus-free calcium and
vitamins, should be fed daily.
Water should be provided in a shallow container that is
not easily overturned and cleaned regularly.
BEHAVIOR
Diurnal
Territorial
Most vocal of all lizards
Day geckos are amazing climbers with powerful legs and
Enclosure should be feet.
vertically-oriented.

Adult males have well-developed femoral pores above the
the cloaca with very defined “dots” within them. These
pores are usually in a V-shaped arrangement. They are
either not developed in females or are less developed.
Males also usually have a slight hemipenal bulge below
the cloaca.
One to two eggs are often laid inside the hiding crevices
or on the aquarium glass. Once the shells are fully dried,
they may be difficult to remove, thus they can be
incubated in place. Or, if a section of the enclosure can
be moved, the eggs can be relocated to an incubator.
37
Day Geckos Humidity must be

maintained to avoid
MOST COMMON DISORDERS shedding problems.
Calcium deficiency
Ectoparasites
Endoparasites
Eye disorders
Shedding problems
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
All Phelsuma spp. are CITES Appendix II listed (restricted
international trade).

1. Christenson G: Greg & Leann’s Leaping Lizards Day Geckos, Day geckos may be
www.daygecko.com. Accessed December 2006. housed in pairs.
2. Fowler ME, Miller RE (eds): Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine 5th ed.
Elsevier-Saunders, 2003.
3. Leezard.net: Day geckos www.leezard.net/Species_Database/
day_gecko_table.htm. Accessed December 2006.
4. Mader D (ed): Reptile Medicine and Surgery 2nd ed. Elsevier-
Saunders, 2006.
5. Nagorny I: Phelsumaweb, www.phelsumaweb.com/eng. Accessed
December 2006.
6. Riemland S: Phelsuma ornata, Animal Diversity Web, 2000.
animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/
Phelsuma_ornata.html. Accessed December 2006.
7. Van Heygen E: Phelsumania, www.phelsumania.com. Accessed
December 2006.
38
Rhacodactylus Gecko Rhacodactylus Geckos

(Rhacodactylus spp.)
Pet Care SPECIES
Crested gecko (R. ciliatus)
Gargoyle (bumpy) gecko (R. auriculatus)
Bavay’s giant gecko (R. chahoua)
New Caledonia giant gecko (R. leachianus)
Roux’s giant gecko (R. sarasinorum)
Tough-snouted giant gecko (R. trachyrhynchus)
ORIGIN
New Caledonia
Arboreal
CAPTIVE HOUSING
A 20-gallon aquarium or equivalent with a wire mesh top
for ventilation is the minimum size for an enclosure.
Philippe de Vosjoli
The enclosure should have vertical orientation to
accommodate branches and/or plants for climbing.
Males are territorial and should be housed individually.
Substrate should be moss, newspaper, paper towels, or a
mixture of potting soil (without pearlite) with sand and
VITAL STATISTICS orchid bark or short coconut fiber. Ensure substrate will
Life span 10-15 years not be accidentally ingested when diving for prey.
Adult size 7-9 inches (18-23 cm) UV lighting is not necessary, but a low level UV light for
including tail
1-2 hours per day with hiding spots might be beneficial.
4-5 inches (10-13 cm)
snout to vent Daytime temperatures should be 78-82°F (25-28°C), and
39
Rhacodactylus Geckos Gargoyle gecko (R. auriculatus) Roux’s giant gecko (R. sarasinorum)
nighttime can drop to 70-77°F (21-25°C).

The winter temperature can be 5-10°F (3-5°C) cooler.
A 40-watt basking lamp should be provided for
supplemental heat in cold climates.
Relative humidity between 60-80% can be maintained
LA Dawson
with daily misting.
Dry branches, cork bark, driftwood or bamboo tubes Bavay’s giant gecko (R. chahoua) New Caledonia giant gecko (R. leachianus)
should be provided for perching and climbing.
Tall silk or live plants (e.g., Ficus benjamina, dracaenas,
ferns and other broad-leaf plants) should be provided to
give geckos adequate room for leaping.
RESTRAINT
Alfeus Liman
Alfeus Liman
Geckos should be handled gently.
Geckos will drop their tail if stressed.
SEXING / REPRODUCTION MALE FEMALE

Rhacodactylus geckos are sexually dimorphic once they
are mature.
Males have a distinct hemipenile bulge that becomes
obvious between 4 and 8 months of age.
With the exception of R. auriculatus, males tend to be
stockier than females.
Philippe de Vosjoli
Rhacodactylus geckos are egg layers with the exception
of R. trachyrhynchus, which gives live birth.
Male crested geckos can be differentiated from females by their hemipenile bulge
40
Broad leaf plants are necessary for the gecko’s enclosure to provide places to climb and jump. Crested Geckos
Crested geckos (R. ciliatus) are the most commonly kept

Rhacodactylus gecko. The following information pertains
specifically to this species.
DIET
Free-ranging crested geckos are omnivores; their diet
consists of fruits, nectars and insects.
Crested geckos should be fed 3-4 times a week.
A formulated diet is commercially available.
Diet composition should be 50% fruit (mashed fruit [e.g.,
peach, nectarine, mango, apricot, banana, passionfruit,
pear] or baby food) and 50% small insects (e.g., live
crickets, silkworms, waxworms).
Dietary calcium and vitamins (vitamin D3) should be
supplemented weekly by dusting prey.
Crested geckos will feed on puréed baby food mixes consisting of 8-9 parts fruit and 1-2 parts Water should be provided in a shallow container that is
chicken, supplemented with calcium carbonate and a reptile vitamin D3 supplement. not easily overturned and cleaned regularly.
BEHAVIOR
Geckos are nocturnal and hide in foliage during the day.
Very territorial
Geckos jump and dive for prey.
Ciliated crests lining the eyes and running along the sides
of the head, neck and middle of the back are the
Philippe de Vosjoli
distinguishing features of crested geckos.
Crested geckos have lamellae on their toes and a
prehensile tail, which allow them to climb on glass and
jump between branches.
41
Crested Geckos Floppy-tail syndrome is a condition in which the tail flops over the back and/or to
the side when a gecko rests upside down. There is no treatment for this syndrome.
Egg binding
Tail injury
Shedding problems (e.g., remains of skin can constrict
and cause loss of digits)
Calcium deficiency
Floppy-tail syndrome
Substrate impaction
Philippe de Vosjoli
Crested geckos do not regrow their tail following
autotomy but regenerate a pointed tip. This must be
taken into consideration, because most owners do not
want crested geckos without tails, even though it is the
norm in wild populations. Crested geckos will not regrow their tail following autotomy
and instead will regenerate a pointed tail tip.

1. Cossette T: The captive care of the crested gecko (Rhacodactylus
ciliatus). The Newsletter of the Colorado Herpetological Society
31(4), 2004. coloherp.org/cb-news/Vol-31/cbn-0404/
CrestedGecko.php (reprint from Maine Herpetological Society
Newsletter 11(12), 2004).
2. de Vosjoli P: Essential concepts of herpetoculture: Crested geckos.
Exotic DVM 6(4):42-45, 2004.
4. Hamper, R: The Crested Gecko in Captivity. Eco Publishing, 2005.
Saunders, 2006.
Philippe de Vosjoli
6. Smith P: Crested gecko care, 2005.
www.thegeckospot.com/crestedcareindex.html
7. Sy E: Crested gecko care sheet, 2000. www.herpcam.com/
crestedgecko.htm. Accessed December 2006.
42
Basilisk Lizard Basilisk Lizards

(Basiliscus spp.)
Striped or brown basilisk (B. vittatus)
Striped/brown basilisk Emerald, green, plumed or double-crested basilisk
(B. vittatus)
(B. plumifrons)
Red-headed (western) basilisk (B. galeritus)
ORIGIN
Tropical Mexico to northern South America
Arboreal; humid rainforest; areas near water
CAPTIVE HOUSING
A 55-gallon glass aquarium or larger enclosure with
locked screen cover may be used.
One male per enclosure with up to 3 females.
Substrate should be peat or sphagnum moss or mulch.
Full-spectrum lighting is necessary; outdoor exposure to
natural sunlight is beneficial.
Water should be provided in a dish large enough to fit the
entire lizard for soaking.
Water should be changed frequently.
VITAL STATISTICS Ideal temperature gradient is 75-85°F (24-29°C).
Life span 15-20 years A basking site of 90-95°F (32-35°C) should be provided
Adult size 2-2.5 feet (61-76 cm) at one end of the enclosure and shade at the other. A
including tail
basking lamp or a heating element suspended above the
Body weight 90 g (avg)
cage may be used.
43
Basilisk Lizards Emerald basilisk

(B. plumifrons)
Humidity (>60%) can be maintained with daily misting.
Temperature and humidity requirements vary according to
species and reproductive status.
Provide large, sturdy branches for climbing and a
basking site.
Live potted plants, such as pothos, dracaena or
philodendron, may be included.
DIET
Omnivores
The diet of free-ranging basilisk lizards includes plants
(including flowers and fruits), insects and small
vertebrates.
In captivity, a diet of crickets, mealworms, Zophobas
worms, wax worms, grasshoppers and spiders is
sufficient. A pinkie mouse may be fed occasionally.
Food should be dusted weekly with calcium and
vitamin D3 supplements. MALE FEMALE
Crickets should be fed a vitamin-enriched diet (“gut
loading”) to benefit the basilisk.
BEHAVIOR
Territorial
Males often head-bob.
Basilisks are easily frightened.
Basilisks are skilled climbers, swimmers, and jumpers.
Basilisks enjoy soaking in their water dish.
44
Water should be provided in a Basilisk Lizards

dish large enough to fit the
entire lizard for soaking Called “Jesus lizard” for their ability to run on water at
speeds greater than 7 mph (11 km per hour).
The teeth of basilisks are fused to the sides of their jaws.
The toes have long scales that help it walk on water.
A flat crest adorns the back of the head.

Rostral or snout wounds and infections (from bumping
against aquarium walls)
Metabolic bone disease (vitamin D3 or calcium
deficiency)
Stomatitis/mouth rot
Ectoparasites (especially mites and ticks)
A basilisk lizard after shed. Endoparasites (protozoa, nematodes)
CAUTIONS
Frightened basilisks are prone to biting.
Basilisk lizards may be aggressive.

1. Langerwerf B: You can’t beat a basilisk. Reptiles Magazine,
BowTie, Inc. November 2004.
Saunders, 2006.
3. Paterno P: Basilisks: Captive care and breeding. In Kaplan M (ed):
Herp Care Collection, 2000. www.anapsid.org/basilisk.html.
Riccardo Speziari
Accessed May 2006.
45
Blue-tongued Skinks
(Tiliqua spp.)
Blue-tongued Skink
COMMON SPECIES Pet Care
Pygmy blue-tongued skink (T. adelaidensis)
Northern blue-tongued skinks are one
New Guinea blue-tongued skink (T. gigas)
of the most common Tiliqua spp.
Central blue-tongued skink (T. multifasciata)
Blotched blue-tongued skink (T. nigrolutea)
Western blue-tongued skink (T. occipitalis)
Shingleback blue-tongued skink (T. rugosa)
Eastern blue-tongued skink (T. scincoides scincoides)
Northern blue-tongued skink (T. scincoides intermedia)
Tanimbar blue-tongued skink (T. scincoides chimaerea)
ORIGIN
Australia; Papua, New Guinea; Indonesia
Terrestrial; open woodlands, margins of forest and field,
less arid areas of the interior
CAPTIVE HOUSING
Enclosure should be at least a 40-55 gallon aquarium or
equivalent, with a secure top to prevent escape.
An outdoor enclosure may be best if located in a warm
VITAL STATISTICS
climate with access to sunlight, shade and a dry area.
Outdoor enclosures should include a fence 50 cm below Life span 20-25 years
ground and 80 cm above to prevent escape.
snout to tail
Skinks should be housed separately to avoid risk of injury (average 17 inches [43 cm])
due to fighting. Body weight 10-18 ounces (283-510 g)
46
Male northern blue-tongued skink Female northern blue-tongued skink Blue-tongued Skinks
(T. scincoides intermedia) (T. scincoides intermedia)
Substrate should be clean dust-free pine shavings, aspen
shavings, shredded paper products (Yesterday’s News) or
cypress mulch (not cedar).
An area of slightly damp substrate, a humidity retreat box
filled with damp sphagnum moss or a loosely piled damp
towel should be provided.
Blue-tongued skinks will soak in their water bowls,
especially before shedding; water must be changed often.
Exposure to UV light is necessary and may be provided by
fluorescent or reptile bulbs, or if outdoors, direct sunlight.
The lizard must be able to retreat to a cool area.
Eastern blue-tongued skink Shingleback blue-tongued skink The temperature gradient should be 75-85°F (23-30°C).
(T. scincoides scincoides) (T. rugosa) Nighttime temperature should not fall below 70°F (21°C).
A basking site with temperatures of 90-105°F (32-40°C)
(depending on species) should be provided using a
basking lamp above and, in cooler rooms, a heating pad
beneath one end of the enclosure. If the skink burrows in
its substrate and lies on a glass tank bottom directly over
a heating pad there is a risk of thermal burn, so careful
Sean McClean
monitoring is necessary if heating pads are used.
Heat rocks should not be used because of the risk of
thermal burns.
The lizard should be monitored for signs of stress and the
Central blue-tongued skink (T. multifasciata) Western blue-tongued skink (T. occipitalis) temperature adjusted accordingly (too cold it will become
lethargic; too warm it will spend most of its time hiding).
A stronger heat lamp may be required in winter.
Miklos Schiberna
Miklos Schiberna
Hide boxes, rock caves or half logs for hiding, as well as
branches and logs of different levels for climbing, should
be provided.
47
Blue-tongued Skinks The enclosure should provide both

dry and damp areas for the skink.
RESTRAINT
The skink should be handled gently.
The use of leather gloves may be helpful in preventing
painful bites.
A skink should not be restrained by the tail; it may drop
the tail if frightened. The tail will regrow, but will never be
the same as the original.
DIET
Omnivorous
In captivity, the diet should consist of roughly 60% plant
and 40% animal matter.
Diet may include mixed vegetables (e.g., beans, summer
or winter squash, carrots, parsnips) mixed with thinly
sliced greens (e.g., collards, dandelion, escarole).
Frozen vegetable mixes (e.g., corn, carrots, cauliflower Hollow logs for hiding and rocks of different
levels for climbing, should be provided.
and broccoli) should be avoided.
Meat portions may include worms (e.g., mealworms),
slugs, snails, insects (e.g., crickets) and pinkie mice.
Berries and fruits (e.g., cherries, peaches, nectarines,
pears, bananas) may be given.
The addition of a calcium/vitamin D supplement twice
weekly is recommended.
Adults should be fed ad lib, which is usually 2-4 times
per a week.
Some blue-tongued skinks stop eating for 3-4 months
during the winter period.
Water should be provided in a large shallow container
that is not easily overturned and cleaned regularly.
48
Blue-tongued skinks will open their mouths and show Blue-tongued Skinks
their blue tongue in an attempt to frighten predators.
BEHAVIOR / SUITABILITY AS PETS
Diurnal
Free-ranging skinks spend most of the day foraging for
food and basking.
If threatened, the skink will puff up and hiss loudly.
Carole Saucier - www.reptilecare.com

It is docile and easily tamed in captivity.
When hungry, the skink will often fixate on any movement
with an open mouth, ready to pounce.

Ectoparasites (especially mites and ticks)
Endoparasites
Dysecdysis (particularly around the distal digits)
Thiamine deficiency (from a frozen diet)
Water bowls should be large
enough for the skink to soak.
Trauma from cagemate aggression
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS AND CAUTIONS

Blue-tongued skinks have a strong bite.
Hands must be washed before and after handling.
Export from Australia is prohibited; blue-tongued skinks
sold for the pet trade must be captive-bred.

1. Kaplan M: Blue-tongued skinks. Herp Care Collection, 2000.
www.anapsid.org/bluetong.html. Accessed May 2006.
2. McLeod L: Keeping blue-tongued skinks as pets. exoticpets.about.
com/cs/lizardsaspets/a/bluetongues.htm. Accessed May 2006.
3. Woodland Park Zoo: Eastern blue-tongued skink, 2001.
www.zoo.org/educate/fact_sheets/day/bskink.htm. Accessed
December 2006.
4. www.bluetongueskinks.net
49
Gila Monsters
(Heloderma spp.)
Gila Monster
SPECIES Pet Care
Gila monster (H. suspectum)
• Subspecies: Reticulated gila monster (H. s. suspectum)
• Subspecies: Banded gila monster (H. s. cinctum)
Mexican beaded lizard (H. horridum)
ORIGIN
Southwestern US and northwestern Mexico (from
southern Sonora north through southwest Arizona and
adjacent portions of New Mexico, California, Nevada
and Utah)
Terrestrial
Arid areas, usually with scattered cacti, shrubs, mesquite
and grasses. Often rocky slopes, arroyos and canyon
bottoms (mainly with streams).
Dens or burrows are often in rock crevices or boulder
piles.
CAPTIVE HOUSING
Should be housed individually in an aquarium or large
enclosure with at least 8 square feet (0.75 m2) in floor
area for an adult. VITAL STATISTICS
A substrate mix of playground sand, peat moss and bark Life span 20-25 years
chips is ideal as it allows animals to dig and construct Adult size 18-24 inches (45-60 cm)
hiding areas. Newspaper is also acceptable. Body weight 1.36 kg (3 lbs)
50
Gila monster (H. suspectum) Gila Monsters
Eight hours of light and 16 hours of dark should be

provided during hibernation. Light period should be
increased during the summer to 14 hours. Full-spectrum
lighting is beneficial.
A temperature gradient must be maintained from 75-
80ºF (24-27ºC) to 85-90ºF (29-32ºC) in a warm spot
(measured on the substrate over the heat source).
Temperature may drop to 70-75ºF (21-24ºC) at night.
A plastic humidity box should be provided with an
opening large enough to fit 1 gila monster and half filled
with damp peat or sphagnum moss.
Hide boxes or rock caves should be available so the
animal can choose the preferred environmental
Mexican beaded lizard (H. horridum) conditions.
RESTRAINT
Handling should be minimized.
Thick leather gloves should be worn.
Grasp around the neck gently but securely to restrict
lateral movement of the head. Body weight is supported
with the other hand.
DIET
Free-ranging gila monsters eat newborn rabbits, rock
squirrels, woodrats, other animals that can’t escape
easily, and reptile and ground-nesting bird eggs.
In captivity, several prey items (mice or young rats, freshly
killed or frozen and thawed) should be fed once or twice
a week.
51
Gila Monsters
It is possible for gila monsters to survive for months Rock caves should be
available for the gila monster.
without food, living off the fat in its tail.
After hibernation, twice as much food can be fed to the
gila monster to prepare for reproduction.
Domestic chicken eggs or chicks should not be used
because of the risk of Salmonella.
Water should be provided in a shallow container that is
not easily overturned and cleaned regularly.
BEHAVIOR
Diurnal
Generally solitary animals
Slow moving or inactive
Docile and typically non-aggressive
Gila monsters spend up to 98% of their time in
underground burrows or under rocks.
Gila monsters are most active in the spring, when
searching for prey, and mate and return to underground
burrows in late May or June (onset of hot weather).
Gila monsters’ tails will not separate from their body like
Grasp around the neck gently but securely to Gila monsters may not
some other lizards. restrict lateral movement of the head. readily let go after biting.

Obesity
Cryptosporidiosis
Gastrointestinal disease
Dystocia
Anorexia
52
Gila monsters may sometimes Gila Monsters

sleep above ground.
Bites are venomous; their bite is rarely fatal, but may be
very painful.
Gila monsters may not readily let go after biting. They
can be removed by sedation (propofol or Telazol) or by
pouring undiluted vinegar in their mouths and over their
heads.
Gila monsters do not inject their venom like snakes. They
have poison glands along their jaws. They bite hard,
leaving a deep wound. The venom empties in a groove
on the teeth, then into the wound. They hang on tight so
that the venom flows into the wound.
Treatment for bites can be found at:
www.herpetology.com/helobite.txt
Protected in the US and Mexico. State and local
Gila monsters spend most regulations on trade and possession apply.
of their time inactive.
1. Hare T: Living with gila monsters. Tucson Herpetological Society,
1999. tucsonherpsociety.org/LWGM.pdf#search='Gila%20
monsters%20organization.' Accessed May 2006.
Saunders, 2006.
3. Spiess P: The gila monster (Heloderma suspectum) captive
care and breeding, 1998. www.kingsnake.com/rockymountain/
RMHPages/RMHgila.htm. Accessed May 2006.
4. Stahl SJ: Common diseases of less common species of reptiles.
Exotic DVM 2(3):66-69, 2000.
5. Stewart M: Animal Diversity Web, 2003. animaldiversity.ummz.
umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Heloderma_suspectum.html.
Accessed May 2006.
53
Chuckwallas
(Sauromalus spp.)
Chuckwalla
SPECIES Pet Care
Common (Western) chuckwalla (S. ater formerly obesus)
Common chuckwalla
Peninsular chuckwalla (S. australis)
Angel Island chuckwalla (S. hispidus)
Chuckwalla de montserrat (S. slevini)
San Esteban (painted) chuckwalla (S. varius)
ORIGIN
Southern California, southern Nevada, southwestern
Utah, western Arizona
Terrestrial
Desert regions, rocky elevations
CAPTIVE HOUSING
Males should be housed alone or in harem groups.
A 100-gallon or larger aquarium is suitable as an
enclosure.
The ideal substrate is a 3-inch (7-cm) layer of clean play-
ground sand mixed with larger rock particles.
Rocks should be placed directly on the enclosure floor,
building the substrate up around them.
VITAL STATISTICS
Secure mounds or caves can be made by affixing rocks
together using aquarium silicone cement. Life span 20-25 years
At least one hiding area should be created in the cool
Body weight 1-4 pounds (0.45-1.8 kg)
end of the enclosure and one in the warm end to allow
54
Rocks should be placed directly on Chuckwallas

the enclosure floor, building the
substrate up around them. behavioral thermoregulation and reduce the stress of
captivity.
UVB-producing fluorescent lights (not filtered through
glass, plastic or dense mesh) must be installed no farther
than 12” from the lizard and extending across the
enclosure.
A white light/basking lamp should be added to the warm
end of the enclosure, mounted close to the UVB tube so
that basking lizards get both heat and UVB exposure.
The light cycle should be 12-14 hours light, 10-12 hours
Raimond Spekking
dark.
A thermal gradient from around 80-100°F (26-37°C) with
a basking area up to 110°F (43°C) should be provided in
the enclosure. Nighttime temperatures may drop to
60-78°F (15.6-25ºC); this thermal gradient can be
maintained using a nocturnal reptile light or a ceramic
A collared lizard (dotted skin) and heating element.
a Western common chuckwalla
Temperatures must be monitored with a thermometer, as
hyperthermia and hypothermia may be lethal.
A flat rock for basking, cholla cactus skeleton and other
plants and rocks for climbing and hiding should be
provided for chuckwallas.
A live potted creosote bush (chaparral, greasewood) may
be planted into the sand and covered with gravel or rock.
This plant functions as food (leaves and flowers) and
Adrian Pingstone
shelter (the chuckwalla burrows around the roots and
rocks at the base).
55
Chuckwallas Sauromalus varius is native

to Isla San Esteban and a few
RESTRAINT nearby islands in Mexico.
As for other lizards
Special care should be taken with its sharp claws.
Habituate to human handling.
DIET
Free-ranging chuckwallas are vegetarian but may be
slightly omnivorous in captivity.
In captivity, leafy dark greens (e.g., collards, mustards,
dandelions, escarole, parsley, pesticide-free grasses,
shredded green and orange vegetables, soft fruits,
flowers (e.g., hibiscus, roses, dandelions, geranium
[leaves and flowers]), trimmed cactus pads, prickly pear.
Insects (e.g., worms, crickets) provide occasional animal-
based protein.
Water should be provided in a shallow container that is Chuckwallas spend much of their
not easily overturned, in the coolest corner to minimize day basking on rocks in groups.
humidity, and should be cleaned regularly.
SUITABILITY AS PETS
Require large amounts of space, have sharp claws.
Wild-caught chuckwallas should be avoided.
BEHAVIOR
Chuckwallas bask on exposed boulders or rocks, often in
groups, and retreat to cool burrows, caves or deep rocky
crevices during the hottest part of the day.
If threatened, chuckwallas will crawl into a tight crevice
Deror Avi
and inflate their body to wedge it firmly.
Femoral pore plugs are used to mark territories.
56
Chuckwallas

Parasites
Tail autotomy
Mycotic infections of the skin and respiratory system
Trauma (bite wounds)
Shed skin retention

Chuckwallas hibernate (or brumate) through the coldest
winter months (November to February/March).
To promote hibernation in captivity, enclosure temper-
atures can be gradually decreased to 50-55°F (10-
12.8°C) through fall and early winter with concurrent
shortening of day length. If the ambient temperature
outside the enclosure falls below this range, supple-
mental heating must be provided.
Chuckwallas should not hibernate with food still in their
digestive system.
The light cycle and temperature in late winter/early spring
should gradually be increased. Fresh water and food
should be offered daily. If the chuckwalla has not eaten
for 3 days after emerging from hibernation, offering a
pungent herb or creosote leaves may stimulate feeding.
Chuckwallas are federally listed as an endangered
species; state and federal regulations must be observed.
Adrian Pingstone
1. Kaplan M: Chuckawalla and desert iguana, Herp Care Collection,
2002, www.anapsid.org/dichuck.html. Accessed May 2006.
2. Schwenkmeyer D: Sauromalus ater Field Guide, San Diego Natural
History Museum, www.sdnhm.org/fieldguide/herps/saurate.html.
Accessed May 2006.
57
Mole Salamanders
(Ambystoma spp.)
Mole Salamanders
COMMON SPECIES Pet Care
Tiger salamander (A. tigrinum)
Barred tiger salamander (A. mavortium) Barred tiger salamander
(A. mavortium)
California tiger salamander (A. californiense)
Mexican tiger salamander (A. velasci)
Spotted salamander (A. maculatum)
Blue-spotted salamander (A. laterale)
Axolotl (A. mexicanum)
Ringed salamander (A. annulatum)
Reticulated flatwoods salamander (A. cingulatum)
Northwestern (brown) salamander (A. gracile)
Jefferson salamander (A. jeffersonianum)
Long-toed salamander (A. macrodactylum)
Marbled salamander (A. opacum)
Mole salamander (A. talpoideum)
Small-mouthed salamander (A. texanum)
ORIGIN
North America: ranging from southeastern Alaska and
southern Canada throughout the continental United
States to Mexico
Larvae are aquatic animals for several months to years, VITAL STATISTICS
eventually losing gills and becoming terrestrial adults.
They live in forests, grasslands and marshy areas with soil Adult size 3-13 inches (7-33 cm)
suitable for burrowing and near ponds or other water for varies per species
breeding.
58
Tiger salamander Axolotl Mole Salamanders

(A. tigrinum) (A. mexicanum)
CAPTIVE HOUSING
A semi-aquatic vivarium setup with both land and water
(required for larval tiger salamanders) is ideal.
A 10-15 gallon aquarium with a secure wire mesh cover
for ventilation and holes in the bottom for drainage is
adequate for 1 adult animal, or a 30-gallon aquarium for
Stan Shebs
John White
an adult pair.
Base substrate can be a 2-inch (5 cm) layer of coarse
sand or aquarium gravel. Salamanders may also be
housed in bare bottom aquariums.
Spotted salamander Blue-spotted
(A. maculatum) salamander (A. laterale) Sterile potting soil (without vermiculite), ground coconut,
ground cypress or sphagnum or peat moss are
acceptable top substrates.
Top substrates should hold humidity and be 3-4 inches
(7-10 cm) deep to allow for burrowing.
A pump and filter will keep the water clean.
Stan Shebs
Full-spectrum light must be available during the day
(adjust photoperiod to match native habitat).
Salamanders often produce much waste, which requires
frequent cleaning.
If not housed in a vivarium, water should be provided in a
Northwestern Jefferson salamander
salamander (A. gracile) (A. jeffersonianum)
shallow (1-2 inches [2-5 cm] deep) container with a
ramp. This water must be cleaned regularly.
Daytime temperature should be 65-75°F (18-24°C) with
nighttime temperature dropping to 50-60°F (10-15°C)
with approximately 70% humidity for most species.
A temperature gradient should be provided if using
supplemental heating (place heat lamp, heat pad under
the tank or submersible heater in a jar of water at one
end of the enclosure).
Jan Tik
59
Mole Salamanders Reticulated flatwoods Long-toed salamander

salamander (A. cingulatum) (A. macrodactylum)
A vivarium environment will help to stabilize humidity.
The salamander and enclosure should be misted several
times a day.
Live potted plants, a large shallow water dish and
substrate that holds moisture will ensure a humid
environment.
Driftwood, cork bark or rocks should be provided for
places to hide.
RESTRAINT
Mole salamander Small-mouthed
Handling should be minimized, as handling may damage (A. talpoideum) salamander (A. texanum)
the salamander’s skin, or use a powder-free latex glove
rinsed with water.
Their skin is sensitive to salt, oil and other products
(such as household cleaners) on hands.
It is necessary to thoroughly wash hands with hot soapy
water and rinse well before and after handling the
salamander and any cage accessories.
Use a fish net to capture and manipulate the animal.
If holding is necessary, the animal can be supported with
one hand with the other hand used to ensure the
Marbled salamander (A. opacum) Ringed salamander (A. annulatum)
salamander does not fall.
DIET
Healthy salamanders have excellent appetites.
Salamanders are attracted to prey by movement.
Patrick Coin
A variety of live prey may be given to ensure a complete
and balanced diet. Prey can include crickets, pillbugs,
beetles, earthworms, wax worms, night crawlers, small
millipedes, small moths and other night-flying insects.
60
Blue-spotted salamander Mole Salamanders

larvae, aquatic stage
Occasionally pinky mice may be offered to larger animals.
Live prey may be purchased or homegrown (e.g., fruit
flies, mealworms, beetles, earthworms, whiteworms,
crickets). Note that wild-caught insects may contain
harmful pesticides.
Aphids should be fed to newly metamorphosed larvae.
Salamanders should be fed daily only as much as will be
consumed at one time. Do not offer new food until
leftovers are consumed.
• Food for non-hibernating species may be dusted in
vitamins 2-3 times a week during winter months.
SUITABILITY AS PETS
Mole salamanders are hardy animals and interesting
creatures to observe.
Eastern tiger salamander larvae,
semi-terrestrial stage BEHAVIOR
Nocturnal, spend a large amount of time underground
Cooler climate salamanders hibernate underground.
Salamanders can be cannibalistic; a small salamander
should not be housed with a large one.

Vitamin and mineral deficiencies (dietary)
affecting growth, nervous system, eyes and
gastrointestinal tract
Obesity
Infections (wounds), particularly fungal
Parasites
61
Mole Salamanders Eastern tiger salamander larvae,

beginning terrestrial stage
1. Conant R, Collins JT: A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of
Eastern and Central North America 3rd ed. Boston, Houghton
Mifflin Co, 1998.
2. de Vosjoli P: Designing environments for captive amphibians and
reptiles. Vet Clin No Am Exot Anim Pract 2:43-68, 1999.
4. Kaplan M: Salamanders and newts. Herp Care Collection, 1993,
www.anapsid.org/sallies. Accessed December 2006.
5. Wentz A: Ambystoma tigrinum. Animal Diversity Web, 2001,
Ambystoma_tigrinum.html. Accessed December 2006.
6. Western New York Herpetological Society: Tiger Salamander Care
Sheet. www.wnyherp.org/care-sheets/amphibians/
tiger-salamander.php. Accessed December 2006.
7. Wright KM, Whitaker BR (eds): Amphibian Medicine and Captive
Husbandry. Malabar, FL, Krieger Publishing, 2001.
Eastern tiger salamander

larvae, final terrestrial stage
62
Poison Arrow Frog Poison Arrow (Dart) Frogs

(Dendrobates spp.)
Blue poison dart frog Green and black poison dart frog (D. auratus)
(D. azureus) Blue poison dart frog (Okopipi) (D. azureus)
Splash-backed poison dart frog (D. galactonotus)
Mimic poison dart frog (imitator) (D. imitator)
Yellow-banded poison dart frog (D. leucomelas)
Strawberry poison dart frog (D. pumilio)
Rio Madeira poison dart frog (Amazon)
(D. quinquevittatus)
Red-backed poison dart frog (D. reticulatus)
Dyeing dart frog (D. tinctorius)
Amazonian poison dart frog (D. ventrimaculatus)
Pasco poison dart frog (D. lamasi)
Many color morphs are known for most species.
ORIGIN
Central America, northern and central South America
Tropical rainforest
Mostly terrestrial (e.g., D. auratus, D. azureus,
D. leucomelas, D. tinctorius);
VITAL STATISTICS Some arboreal (e.g., “thumbnails,” D. ventrimaculatus,
D. pumilio, D. fantasticus)
Adult size 15-75 mm (0.5-3 inches)
Some semi-arboreal (e.g., D. galactonotus)
snout to vent Areas with high temperature, humidity and sunlight
(tropics)
63
Poison Arrow (Dart) Frogs Yellow-banded poison Green and black poison
dart frog (D. leucomelas) dart frog (D. auratus)
CAPTIVE HOUSING
Terrestrial species require more ground space than height.
Arboreal species require tall enclosure with multiple
platforms and plant levels.
Semi-arboreal species prefer a combination.
1 male and 1 or 2 females can be housed in a 10-gallon
aquarium.
Multiple frogs may be housed together, but aggression
may occur and require separation into pairs.
Substrate should be gravel or leca balls, covered by moss
Strawberry poison Splash-backed poison
or a layer of leaf litter. dart frog (D. pumilio) dart frog (D. galactonotus)
An alternative substrate is a mixture of vermiculite-free
Clinton and Charles Robertson

potting soil, peat and moss free of fungicides.
12 hours of full spectrum fluorescent light (no direct
sunlight) is necessary each day.
Temperature should be 70-85°F (21-30°C).
60-100% humidity (varies according to species).
Humidity should be ensured by misting 2-3 times daily,
placing live plants in the enclosure and covering the
aquarium with plastic.
An air stone should be provided to help maintain the high
Dyeing dart frog Pasco poison dart
humidity. (D. tinctorius) frog (D. lamasi)
Dechlorinated water should be provided in a shallow dish
and changed regularly.
A biological filter is necessary to keep the water clean.
Air circulation must be maintained.
Hiding places (e.g., plant leaves, coconut shells or
driftwood) and plant cuttings should be provided.
64
Rocks can provide the needed Poison Arrow (Dart) Frogs

hiding spots for poison arrow frogs.
Live plants that tolerate low light and high humidity
enhance the enclosure.
RESTRAINT
Handling should be minimized.
If required, use of powder-free latex gloves rinsed with
water would facilitate handling.
DIET
In captivity, frogs may be fed live termites, small crickets,
green aphids, ants and wingless fruit flies (purchased or
home-grown).
Food should be dusted with vitamin (especially vitamin A)
and mineral supplements weekly.
Live plants help keep SUITABILITY AS PETS

the humidity level high.
Not recommended for beginners.
BEHAVIOR
Diurnal
Often territorial
Usually found in groups

Wounds, especially rostral abrasions
Chytridiomycosis
Hypocalcemic tetani (after stress or hypothermia)
GI problems
Internal parasites
65
Poison Arrow (Dart) Frogs Free-ranging poison arrow frogs

are usually found in groups.
Hypovitaminosis A
Spindly leg syndrome
Nutritional secondary hypoparathyroidism

There are several species, each with slightly different
care requirements.
Poison arrow frogs secrete a toxic substance from their
skin, which can kill or harm animals and may harm
humans.
Toxicity levels decrease in captivity.
All species of poison arrow frogs are protected under
CITES Appendix II.
REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING Humidity should be ensured by

1. Aqua-terra-vita.com: misting 2-3 times each day.
www.aqua-terra-vita.com/DartFrogsWP/Care.html#General.
Accessed December 2006.
2. Fowler ME, Miller RE (eds): Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine 5th
ed. Elsevier-Saunders, 2003.
3. Hamlet L: Dendrobates azureus, www.nashvillezoo.org/blfrog.htm.
4. Helix C: Dendrobates. www.helixpro.net/anuran/dendrobates.htm.
5. Heying H: Dendrobatidae, Animal Diversity Web, 2006,
Dendrobatidae.html. Accessed December 2006.
6. Somma L: Dendrobates . USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic
Species Database, Gainesville, FL, 2006,
nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/FactSheet.asp?speciesID=51. Accessed
December 2006.
7. Stewart S: General dart information and care, Herpetologic.
Rolf Kolasch
www.dartden.com/cs_generaldart.php Accessed December 2006.
8. Wright KM, Whitaker BR (eds): Amphibian Medicine and Captive
66
Terrestrial Hermit Terrestrial Hermit Crabs

(Coenobita spp.)
Crab Pet Care COMMON SPECIES
Caribbean (purple pincher) hermit crab (C. clypeatus)
Australian land hermit Ecuadorian (Pacific) hermit crab (C. compressus)
crab (C. variabilis)
Rug (“ruggy”) hermit crab (C. rugosus)
Red hermit crab (C. cavipes)
Australian land hermit crab (C. variabilis)
Strawberry land hermit crab (C. perlatus)
Purple land hermit crab (C. purpureus)
ORIGIN
Costal areas of the Caribbean, eastern Pacific and
Australopacific regions
Warm, tropical climates
CAPTIVE HOUSING
A 10-gallon glass aquarium with a solid glass lid is an
ideal enclosure to maintain a high humidity environment
and provide enough room for several small crabs.
Small plastic containers sold in pet stores as hermit crab
kits are generally too small.
Marine aquarium coral rock sand and gravel are the
VITAL STATISTICS recommended substrates and may reduce the risk of
Life span 10-15 years molting problems.
Adult size From the size of golf balls A finely ground coconut fiber-based bedding for reptiles
to tennis balls (e.g., Forest Bedding) may be used during molting.
67
Terrestrial Hermit Crabs

Ecuadorian hermit Caribbean hermit
Wood shavings should be avoided. crab (C. compressus) crab (C. clypeatus)
Many hermit crabs prefer to dig in moist substrate.
Full spectrum light and basking lights are beneficial.
Land hermit crabs need a warm, humid environment to
survive: the temperature should be no lower than 72°F
(22°C) with humidity of at least 70-80%.
A natural sponge may help disperse humidity in the
aquarium.
Owners must provide progressively larger shells as the
Rug hermit crab Purple land hermit
hermit crab grows. (C. rugosus) crab (C. purpureus)
Dried choya wood, driftwood, coral and barnacles provide
stimulating toys for crabs.
Hiding places, such as half logs, are necessary additions.
RESTRAINT
To pick up a crab, grasp the back of its shell.
Use of thin gloves may reduce the chance of being
pinched.
DIET Red hermit crab Strawberry land hermit

Free-ranging hermit crabs are omnivorous. (C. cavipes) crab (C. perlatus)
Commercial crab diets are available.
Fresh fruits and vegetables may be given as treats.
A bowl of fresh dechlorinized water and a bowl of salt
water (using commercial marine aquarium salt) should be
available at all times. Water should be changed often.
Water must not be deeper than the smallest crab (no
deeper than 1” [2.54 cm]).
68
A finely ground coconut fiber-based Bark and driftwood should be Terrestrial Hermit Crabs
substrate may be used during molting. provided for hiding places.
SUITABILITY AS PETS
Land hermit crabs are interesting, active and curious and
have distinct personalities.
Their unique characteristics and low maintenance make
them good pets.
BEHAVIOR
Nocturnal
Land hermit crabs are gregarious and like to be around
Hiding places are Various sized shells
necessary for crabs. should be provided other hermit crabs; however, introducing a new individual
for growth. must be done with care because fighting may occur
between different sized crabs.
MOLTING
Most hermit crabs molt (shed their skin) at least once
every 18 months.
A smaller isolation tank with at least 6” (15 cm) of
coconut fiber-based substrate may be set up for the crab
before molting occurs.
A hermit crabs Fighting may occur when Signs that a molt is about to happen include: healthy
changing shells. introducing new crabs.
crabs digging more than usual, missing limbs and new
claws behind the old skin.
Molting food should be rich in calcium (e.g., cuttlebone,
sand dollars, sea biscuits, Calci-Sand®).
A molting crab should be left undisturbed.
A molting crab may appear to be dead, because the
exoskeleton falls from the shell.
The crab will usually eat its old skin.
The crab may be returned to its original home, once it is
walking around and has eaten some of his exoskeleton.
69
Terrestrial Hermit Crabs
A healthy land hermit crab has 3 pairs of walking legs, an
undamaged shell covering the head and thorax, a lively
attitude and no evidence of parasites.
A musty smell and discharge of a brown liquid may
indicate an environment that is too hot.

Slow growth due to inadequate shells to move into
Parasites
Problems caused by bacteria, toxic algae and fungi
Dehydration

Crabs are very sensitive to metal, chlorine and
ivermectin.
Crabs may pinch if frightened.
Crabs might benefit from weekly bathing.

1. Basic crab care. www.hermit-crabs.com/care.html.
2. Land hermit crabs as pets.
http://members.aol.com/TheWyvernsLair/inverts/HermitCrabs.html.
3. Noga EJ, Hancock AL, Bullis RA: Crustaceans. In Lewbart G (ed):
Invertebrate Medicine. Blackwell, 2006, pp 179-193.
70
Madagascar Hissing Madagascar

Hissing Cockroaches
Cockroach Pet Care (Gromphadorhina portentosa)
ORIGIN
Madagascar
Madagascar hissing cockroaches live on the ground in
rotting logs of tropical forests.
CAPTIVE HOUSING
A 15-20 gallon all-glass aquarium is suitable for several
pet hissing cockroaches.
A secure glass or mesh lid should cover the aquarium to
protect them from other pets or to prevent escape. A
heavy (1" [2.54 cm]) layer of petroleum jelly can be
applied around the top inside edge of the aquarium to
help prevent escape; cockroaches can easily climb
vertical glass walls but they will not walk through the jelly.
Because the adults won’t eat the young nymphs, all ages
can live together in the same enclosure.
Vermiculite, aspen or pine shavings should be used at a
depth of 1½ inches (4 cm) in order to absorb water and
feces. Cedar chips should not be used as a substrate.
Because their feces do not have an odor, individuals
VITAL STATISTICS raised for food can be housed together in one enclosure.
Life span 2-5 years Hissing cockroaches prefer warm temperatures of 75-
Adult size Up to 10 cm (4 inches) 85°F (24-30°C) and high relative humidity (75-80%).
Body weight 24 g (0.8 oz) High humidity can be maintained by daily misting.
71
Hissing Cockroaches High humidity can be

maintained by daily misting.
Hissing cockroaches need hiding places in the enclosure,
such as non-toxic plants, rocks, branches, driftwood, logs
or cork or paper towel tubing.
Stacked paper egg crates can be used for hiding and
climbing.
DIET
Cockroaches are omnivores and eat almost anything
organic.
Free-ranging roaches eat fruit and dead animal matter.
In captivity, they thrive best on fresh dark leafy green and
dark yellow vegetables and dry dog biscuits or chicken or
fish food.
Water must be available at all times but provision must
be available to prevent drowning. Options include wet
paper towels changed daily, a crock bowl with rocks or a
synthetic material (to reduce mold) or a chick waterer
with a circular piece of sponge. Branches and rocks provide great Aspen or pine shavings can be
hiding places for hissing cockroaches. used to absorb water and feces.
SUITABILITY AS PETS
Hissing cockroaches are unique and interesting pets that
can be handled by children because they are docile and
don’t bite.
They are also raised as food items for some reptiles.
While being handled, they may hiss loudly (but
harmlessly), which accounts for their name.
They are slow-moving and easy to handle.
They are hardy and resilient and won’t die quickly if left
without food.
72
A close up of the cercusp Hissing Cockroaches

of a hissing cockroach.
BEHAVIOR
The characteristic hissing sound is made by expelling air
through a pair of abdominal breathing pores (spiracles).
Active mostly at night.
The hissing cockroach resembles a large beetle with a
hard exoskeleton, shiny upper surface and lack of wings.
The body is a dark chocolate brown with orange markings
on the abdomen.
Hissing cockroaches differ from most other cockroaches
because they give birth to live offspring.
Males have large horns on the prothorax and thicker hair
on their antennae.
Females have a relatively flat prothorax and smooth
A close up of the leg of a hissing cockroach. Androlaelaps schaeferi is a mite that antennae.
lives on the hissing cockroach that
takes part in its host’s meal.
Unlike most cockroaches, they are wingless.

Mites (Androlaelaps schaeferi, also referred to as
Gromphadorholaelaps schaeferi), usually concentrated
between the host’s legs and around the spiracles.
Problems associated with not keeping environment warm

1. Klausnitzer B: Insects: Their Biology and Cultural History, Germany,
Gustav Fischer, 1987.
2. O’Toole C (ed): Firefly Encyclopedia of Insects and Spiders.
Ontario, Canada, Firefly Books, 2002.
3. The hissing cockroach: Beyond the “ick factor.”
http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Support/AdoptSpecies/
AnimalInfo/HissRoach/default.cfm. Accessed December 2006.
73
Hedgehogs
(Atelerix albiventris/
Hedgehog
Erinaceus europaeus)
By Cathy Johnson-Delaney, DVM,
Pet Care *
Dipl ABVP-Avian Practice
COMMON SPECIES
African pygmy hedgehog (Atelerix albiventris)
Several colorations have evolved, including animals with
white and gray/brown ticked quills (“chocolate” commonly
© Sean Sosik-Hamor / HamorHollow.com

referred to as “salt and pepper”) and white quills
(“snowflake”).
European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus)
PET APPEAL AND BEHAVIOR

African pygmy hedgehogs’ behavior is generally that of
non-domesticated animals.
While many young hedgehogs do not mind being held,
many adults (especially males) resist handling and
struggle to be free.
Many adults do not interact with humans no matter how VITAL STATISTICS
much handling they received when they were young. Average life span (African) 3-5 years Rectal temp
Very few hedgehogs bite, but they might “puff up,” and (6-10 recorded in captivity) African 36.1-37.2°C (97-99°F)
adult males may hiss. Adult size 6-14 inches (16-35 cm) European 35.1°C (95.2°F)
Adult body weight Sexual maturity >2 months
Hedgehogs are nocturnal.
African (male) 800-1200 g Breeding Year-round
If they are allowed freedom in the home, they tend to African (female) 250-400 g Clutch size 1-7 pups (avg 3)
hide in corners or under furniture. European (male) 500-600 g
Birth weight 8-13 g (depending on
Many hedgehogs dig in carpets, houseplants and dirt, European (female) 400-800 g
litter/dam size = avg 10 g)
and will forage for spiders and insects indoors. Dental
formula I 3/2, C 1/1, P 3/2, M 3/3 = 36
Weaning age 4-6 weeks of age
74 *Adapted from Exotic DVM Volume 9.1 © Zoological Education Network, 2007
European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus) African pygmy hedgehog (Atelerix albiventris) Hedgehogs
chocolate or “salt and pepper” color
When encountering something new in the environment, a
hedgehog may “taste” it, then begin hypersalivating and
create a foam, which is then spit onto itself.
European hedgehogs hibernate; African pygmy hedgehogs
do not.
HOUSING
Hedgehogs are solitary animals, except for mating, and
usually must be housed individually.
African pygmy hedgehog Algerian hedgehog (Atelerix algirus) A smooth-walled enclosure is preferred over wire and
(Atelerix albiventris) albino color chocolate color must be high enough to prevent escape.
A 20-gallon or larger size aquarium is acceptable.
The optimum environmental temperature is 75-85°F (24-
30°C). Supplemental heat may be necessary under one
section of the enclosure.
Preferred bedding is newspaper or recycled pelleted/
absorbable material, which should be changed frequently
and kept dry. Cedar shavings should be avoided.
Most hedgehogs prefer quiet, dim environments and may
react with fright at loud noises or bright sunlight.
Plastic and paper tubes provide

environmental enrichment for hedgehogs.
Environmental enrichment should include a hiding place,
such as a cut-out box, plastic log or flower pot.
Hedgehogs will use an exercise wheel with a solid floor.
A pan or shallow tub with warm water in a warm ambient
temperature may be provided for swimming.
For bathing, a mild pet shampoo safe for kittens or
ferrets is suitable. The hedgehog should be kept in a
warmed environment post-bathing until the fur is dry.
75
Hedgehogs Hedgehogs are solitary animals and

should be housed individually.
DIET
Free-ranging hedgehogs are insectivore/omnivores.
Captive diets should be relatively high in protein and low
in fat (see below for diet choices).
Commercial complete hedgehog diets should be used if
available. Cat or dog foods alone do not seem to be
adequate as the sole diet component.
To introduce individuals to new diets, mix new foods
gradually into the old. It helps to have all pieces of the
new and old diets the same size and relative consistency.
To minimize obesity, ad lib feeding of adult hedgehogs
should be discouraged. Feed a portion size in the evening
that is almost completely consumed by morning. Only a
small amount of food should be given during the day.
Younger hedgies may eat an adult quantity, depending on
their stage of life and activity. Hedgehogs may be housed outside
Water should be available at all times; many hedgehogs provided the temperature is warm enough.
will use a water bottle or drink from a low dish or crock.
Diet Choice No. 1 (for one 550 g BW adult per day)
• 1 heaping tsp bird of prey diet or insectivore diet
• 1.5 heaping tsp high quality cat chow*
• 1 heaping tsp fruit/vegetable mixture**
• 6-10 small mealworms or 1-2 crickets***
(more if pregnant or lactating)
Diet Choice No. 2 (for one adult per day)
• 3 heaping tsp high quality low calorie cat chow
• 1 heaping tsp fruit/vegetable mix
• 6 small mealworms or 1-2 crickets***
Diet Choice No. 3 (for one adult per day)
• 3-4 tsp commercial insectivore diet
• 5-6 mealworms or 1-2 crickets***
76
One method to unroll a hedgehog. Hedgehogs

HEMATOLOGIC *
REFERENCE RANGES * Young or pregnant/lactating hedgehogs can use kitten or
From Beynon PG, Cooper JE (eds): BSAVA Manual of Exotic Pets. Cheltenham, BSAVA, 1991, and used with permission.
Basophils 0.096-0.45 x 103/ml ferret formulations; adults may use “lite” adult cat foods.
Eosinophils 0.36-2.4 x 103/ml ** Fruit/vegetable mix: chop together ½ tsp diced leafy
Hematocrit 36.0-38.5% dark greens (spinach, kale, leaf lettuce), ¼ tsp diced
carrot, ¼ tsp diced apple, ¼ tsp diced banana, ¼ tsp
Hemoglobin 12.0-13.2 g/dl
diced grape or raisin, ¼ tsp vitamin/mineral powder
Lymphocytes 3.72-6.14 x 103/ml
(Vionate® or crushed feline vitamin tab).
MCH 16.8-18.2 pg
*** Mealworms are high calorie, low calcium and should
MCHC 33.3-35.2 g/dl be limited to 2-3x a week. Crickets can be fed
MCV 49.1-53.2 (fL) insectivore diet plus some of the fruit/vegetable
Monocytes 0-0.084 x 103/ml mixture for a minimum of 3 days after purchase
Neutrophils 1.6-2.8 x 103/ml before being fed to the hedgehog. Other types of
Platelets 230-430 x 103/ml commercially available insects can also be fed.
RBC 7.03-7.64 x 106/ml
Reticulocytes 8-14%
WBC 6.3-9.6 x 103/ml Males have a mid-ventral penis, and the testicles are
located in a para-anal recess on the caudal abdomen.
BIOCHEMISTRY * The spines develop within 24 hours and the eyes are
REFERENCE RANGES open 13-16 days after birth.
BUN 13.3-15.0 mmol/L Puppy/kitten milk replacement may be used for orphans.
Calcium 2.0-2.3 mmol/L Cannibalism is common if the female is stressed.
Phosphorus 2.0-3.8 mmol/L The male should be removed prior to parturition.
Potassium 3.6-5.1 mmol/L
RESTRAINT
Serum protein 5.1-7.2 g/100 ml
Examination is best done in subdued light, and loud
Sodium 132-138 mmol/L
*European hedgehog
noises should be eliminated.
The hedgehog can be placed on a towel for the exam;
lightweight leather gloves may be needed.
A clear acrylic “ferret tunnel” may be useful in an exam;
a pediatric stethoscope may be slid under the hedgehog.
77
Hedgehogs Commercial hedgehog diets may be used as

long as the main ingredient is a meat source.
Some hedgehogs uncurl with back stroking of their rump
spines.
Gentle but firm slow rolling of the mantle outward with
the animal on its back may provide the opportunity to
access the nail tip or perform an oral exam.
Another trick to unball a hedgehog during a routine
physical examination is to run some warm water over the
animal in a sink.
Some hedgehogs may need to be anesthetized with
Thomas Bankstahl, DVM

isoflurane.
PREVENTIVE CARE
Obesity is the most common disorder of captive hedge-
hogs. Hedgehogs should be weighed at least monthly.
Dental prophylaxis should consist of routine brushing and
scaling. Hedgehogs will often roll into a tight ball with all of the
The nails need periodic trimming. spines pointing outward as a defense mechanism.
The primary husbandry consideration is to prevent chilling
by providing a heated environment with dry bedding.
FIRST VISIT/ANNUAL EXAMINATION

Review diet, husbandry, habitat, behavior, methods for
handling
Physical examination: include weight, visual inspection,
auscultation, oral exam, body temperature, palpation,
digit exam
Fecal flotation and direct smear
Optional (depending on history):
• Salmonella culture & screen
• (Under isoflurane anesthesia): toe nail trim, skin
78
A wire mesh top may Hedgehogs

be used as an aid
when trimming nails. scraping, ear examination, fungal exam, culture, full
dental examination, scaling, CBC, chemistry panel,
radiographs, ultrasonography
Microchip transponder implantation is recommended for
permanent identification
DENTAL CARE FOR HEDGEHOGS

The poultry or malt flavor CET brand pet toothpaste may
be useful. It can be applied to the teeth with a cotton-
tipped applicator or put on the hedgehog’s favorite
Dan Johnson, DVM

crunchy snack to dissolve off tartar and plaque from the
teeth.
The teeth should be scaled, polished and fluoridated
under sedation.
The hedgehog may be given 1-2 small “tartar control”
Blood collection from the cranial dog food snack pieces a day.
vena cava. Anesthesia is required Tartar control snack foods work because of the sodium
when using this technique.
hexametaphosphate coating of the food that helps
prevent tartar, plaque and calculus buildup.
The secondary dentition is complete within a year.
In older animals, the teeth are worn down at a
comparatively early age.
BLOOD COLLECTION SITES

Lateral saphenous vein (crosses below the stifle)
Paolo Selleri, Dr med vet

Cephalic vein (dorsum of the forearm)
Jugular vein
Cranial vena cava
If all else fails, toenail clip (1-2 hematocrit tubes and a
smear)
79
Hedgehogs
Injection sites:
• SC - Back, flank; be aware of fat layers; fluids may be
slowly absorbed; large volumes (up to 100 ml/kg)
possible
• IM - Thigh, mantle (orbicularis)
• IV - Lateral saphenous, jugular via catheter
RADIOGRAPHY
In the normal lateral radiographic appearance of a
European hedgehog, various organs, such as the trachea
(1), heart (2), liver (3), kidney (4), a few gas or feces-
filled intestinal loops and the rectum (5) may be visible.
It is helpful to retract skin and spines dorsally using What to Look for in a Healthy Hedgehog
paper clamps or allis forceps to minimize spine artifact.
In a ventrodorsal projection, differentiation between
Body free of lumps Firm lean
individual organs is more difficult due to superimposition
and bumps body
of the muscle packets of the orbicular muscles, the cutis
and the spines.
SURGERY
Neutering requires the abdominal approach.
A fair amount of fat may surround the vas deferens and
testicles. Clear, bright
Ovariohysterectomy is performed as in other small eyes (no
mammals. discharge)
There may be some peri-ovarian and uterine fat.
Teeth free
Mouth free of tartar Nails of appropriate length
of discharge
80
Mites are a common This hedgehog was presented with a swollen Hedgehogs
problem with hedgehogs. penis and was diagnosed with paraphimosis.
COMMON CLINICAL CONDITIONS
Obesity
Dental: gingivitis, periodontitis
Neoplasia: high tumor rate in animals over 3 years of
age; most common: mammary tumors (malignant, large,

subcutaneous swelling along ventral thorax, abdomen);
lymphosarcoma (multicentric or alimentary); oral
squamous cell carcinoma. Neoplasia is usually malignant
with poor prognosis
Salmonella
Trauma
Dermatitis (chorioptic mange mites, fungal, bacterial)
Fatty liver, hepatitis
Pneumonia
Heart disease
Hedgehog with uterine cancer. Hedgehogs with advanced CNS lesions of Neurologic disease, including wobbly hedgehog syndrome
wobbly hedgehog syndrome are usually
recumbent but alert upon presentation.
The legality of keeping hedgehogs varies. Consult local
animal regulations regarding permits or licenses.
Michael M. Garner, DVM, Dipl ACVP

1. Carpenter JW (ed): Exotic Animal Formulary 3rd ed. Elsevier,
2005.
2. Garner MM: Wobbly hedgehog syndrome. Exotic DVM 8(3): 57-
59, 2006.
JC Burcham, DVM
3. Johnson-Delaney C: Exotic Companion Medicine Handbook.

Zoological Education Network, 2000.
4. Raymond JT, Garner MM. Spontaneous tumors in hedgehogs: A
retrospective study of fifty cases. Proc AAZV, AAWV, ARAV, NAZWV
Joint Conf, 2001, pp 326-327.
81
Domestic Mice
(Mus musculus)
Mouse
By Susan Leck, DVM, Dipl ABVP-Canine & Feline Pet Care *
PET APPEAL
Mice are easy to keep as pets because of their small size
and their minimal requirements for space and attention.
Although naturally timid, a bond with humans may be
formed with daily interaction and regular gentle handling.
Mice may bite if they are handled roughly or startled and
may become aggravated when restrained.
Robert E. Schmidt, DVM, PhD, Dipl ACVP

BEHAVIOR
Normal domestic mouse
Mice are territorial; males will initially fight when placed
together, and females with litters may defend their nests.
Mice that have been housed alone are more likely to fight
when introduced to other mice.
HOUSING
Mice can thrive in captivity as long as they are not over-
crowded or overheated. Normal hairless mouse
The recommend size for an enclosure for one adult

should be 24” x 24” x 12” high (61 x 61 x 30 cm).
Females with litters require 2-3 times more space.
The enclosure must be able to accommodate a nesting VITAL STATISTICS
Average life span 1.5-2 years Respiratory rate 60-220 breaths/min
area, feeding area and exercise wheel.
Adult body weight Male 20-40 g Heart rate 325-780 beats/min
The housing must be escape proof with a secure lid. Female 25-40 g Dental formula 1/1 incisors, 3/3 molars
Glass aquariums are not recommended, because they Rectal/body temperature 101-102°F Breeding onset 50-60 days
can overheat rapidly and provide poor ventilation. (38-39°C)
Litter size 10-12
Suitable substrates include shredded paper (non-inked),
recycled newspaper composite materials or pellets, *Adapted from Exotic DVM Volume 8.1 © Zoological Education Network, 2006
82
Housing should be constructed of escape- Domestic Mice

proof wire mesh with plastic or metal solid
flooring, as is used with these rats. hardwood chips or shavings and compressed wheat
straw. Substrate should be changed once or twice weekly
in order to keep the cage as odor free as possible.
Cedar chips should be avoided, as they may be toxic.
Additional materials (e.g., paper towels, socks, mittens)
may be added to the enclosure for nesting.
The temperature should be 65-80°F (18-26°C) with a
relative humidity between 30-70%.
For activity, mice like to explore tubes, play with toilet
paper rolls, gnaw on items and run in an exercise wheel.
DIET
Petra Tresbach
Domestic mice should be fed a commercial pelleted
mouse feed (>14% protein, ideally 20-24%).
Breeding adults and youngsters may require additional
calories.
Hiding spaces in the
Pellets may be softened for baby mice, which will begin
enclosure are essential. eating them around 2 weeks of age.
Seed diets are not recommended; mice are often victims
of obesity, starvation and malnutrition from all-seed diets.
Sipper tubes or water bottles may be used. The water
must be changed routinely and the tip checked to ensure
it is flowing and free of obstruction.
RESTRAINT
The mouse may be grasped by the skin at the base of
the neck and the base of the tail for restraint.
Grasping the tip of the tail may cause degloving.
A mouse may be accustomed to climbing onto hands,
but one must ensure that it does not jump and fall off.
83
Domestic Mice The over-the-back grip for restraint A mouse may be restrained by
works well for this gerbil and mice as well. grasping the neck and tail base.
SEXING
The male has a scrotum and longer anogenital distance
than the female.
Peter Fisher, DVM

BLOOD COLLECTION
The tail may be warmed to enlarge the ventral artery for
blood collection.
The cranial vena cava is also a feasible blood collection
site in mice. One-handed restraint of a mouse BIOCHEMISTRY *
for injections or blood collection.
REFERENCE RANGES
INJECTION SITES AP (IU/L) 98 (53-164)
A 25- to 27-gauge needle may be used for injections. ALT (IU/L) 3
• IM: 0.05 ml volume in the quadriceps AST (IU/L) 37 (14-81)
• SC 2-3 ml volume in the skin over the neck and Bilirubin, total (mg/dl) 0.3 (0.1-0.7)
thorax BUN (mg/dl) 3 (1-4)
• IV: ventral tail vein Calcium (mg/dl) 11.3 (8.6-14.1)
Chloride (mEq/L) 126 (111-135)
ANESTHESIA PROTOCOLS Cholesterol (mg/dl) 317 (306-328)
HEMATOLOGIC *
The preferred method for isoflurane induction is to create REFERENCE RANGES Creatine kinase (IU/L) 2003 (556-3454)
a miniature tank by placing the mouse in a small animal PCV (%) 27 (18-40) Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.3 (0.2-0.4)
anesthesia face mask and covering the opening. RBC (106/ml) 0.73 (0.46-0.99) Glucose (mg/dL) 184 (102-248)
Isoflurane can be used to effect. Hgb (g/dl) 5.8 (3.6-8.2) LDH (IU/L) 639 (197-1235)
MCV (fl) 308 (242-391) Phosphorus (mg/dL) 4.5 (1.3-10)
RADIOGRAPHIC POSITIONING MCH (pg) 87 (78-95) Potassium (mEq/L) 3.7 (3-4.6)
The patient is anesthetized and secured with masking MCHC (g/dl) 28 (20-36) Protein, total (g/dL) 5.2 (3.1-8)
tape in either a DV (preferable to VD to minimize WBC (103/ml) 11 (4-32) Albumin (g/dL) 1.6 (0.9-2.4)
rotation) or lateral orientation. * Johnson-Delaney C: Small rodents. In
Exotic Companion Medicine Handbook. Globulin (g/dL) 2.6 (2.2-4.6)
Lake Worth, Zoological Education Sodium (mEq/L) 173
Network, 2000.
Uric acid (mg/dL) 3.8 (2.6-5.6)
84
Fight wounds on a mouse. Mouse with ectromelia virus. Domestic Mice
WHAT EVERY OWNER SHOULD KNOW

A child should not be responsible for the feeding and
Pathology photographs provided by Robert E. Schmidt, DVM, PhD, Dipl ACVP

care of a pet mouse.
Small children may handle the mouse too roughly or drop
it, resulting in trauma.
Common household dangers include predators, such as
dogs, cats and ferrets.
Mice should be prevented from accessing pesticides and
other toxins.
They should be protected from overheating.
Pinworms seen through the Mouse viral hepatitis. Chronic murine pneumonia
dilated intestinal wall. from chronic mycoplasmosis. COMMON DISORDERS OF DOMESTIC MICE
Obesity
Ectoparasitism
Epizootic diarrhea of infant mice
Alopecia
Barbering
Chronic respiratory disease
Pinworms
Neoplasia
Malocclusion
Mouse with alopecia. Heat stress
Viral infections
Malnutrition
Trauma, bite wounds
Agnieszka Drohobycka
Toxicities/poisoning
Giardiasis
Salmonellosis
Mouse pox
85
Egyptian Spiny Mice

(Acomys cahirinus cahirinus)
By Thomas Ryan, DVM, Dipl ABVP-Avian
Several captive mice species are referred to as spiny

mice, but the most common are Egyptian spiny mice.
The name “spiny” comes from the fact that the hair coat
is modified into coarse bristle-like spines, similar to
hedgehog spines, which are believed to serve as a
defense against predators.
Free-ranging spiny mice are golden brown with a lighter-
colored underside and light patches underneath the eyes
and behind the ears. Their spines can be black or tan.
ORIGIN
Their native habitat includes the deserts and rocky
savannahs of Africa, the Middle East, India, Crete and
Cyprus where they live in cracked soil, rock crevices and
gerbil burrows. They are generally nocturnal.
Olaf Leillinger
PET APPEAL AND BEHAVIOR
This elegant little mouse has a calm temperament,
general good nature and attractiveness.
Relative to the domestic mouse, the spiny mouse is
believed to be more intelligent and more sociable; it has
VITAL STATISTICS
little or no odor and a longer life span. If it is handled
Average captive life span up to 5 years Breeding onset 50-60 days
regularly, it makes an excellent, docile pet.
Adult body weight 60-90 g Breeding season twice yearly:
Spiny mice are very social animals, and removing them Adult size head and body 12 cm (5 inches) spring and summer
from their social family is stressful. tail 12 cm (5 inches) Litter size 2-5
86
Spiny mice are very social animals. Egyptian Spiny Mice
They are most active early in the day, late afternoon

and evening.
Mary Beth Finocchiaro - www.spinymice.com

Because they are desert animals, spiny mice require a
warmer temperature and lower humidity in captivity than
do most other mice.
The temperature should be 80-90°F (26-32°C) with a
relative humidity between 30-70%.
They are not acclimated to cooler climates and can easily
become ill or even die if they are not provided with
supplemental heat in the home, such as a cage warmer
or a small heating lamp.
The enclosure size is similar to that of a domestic
mouse.
Spiny mice are social animals that normally live in groups
Hiding spaces are essential and should not be housed alone, although certain
for a sense of security.
individuals can be very territorial.
The enclosure must be secure to prevent escape.
Megan McCluskey www.thebettabubble.com/spiny

These are particularly active rodents that enjoy multi-level
enclosures, non-toxic branches and rocks for climbing.
A metal hamster running wheel with solid flooring should
be provided.
Because they are excellent chewers, plastic products
should not be used in the enclosure. Wooden blocks and
leather chew toys are good for enrichment.
Hiding spaces (e.g., hide boxes) in the enclosure are
essential.
87
Egyptian Spiny Mice Mice enjoy foraging for food Tail biting and amputation are very common
Megan McCluskey www.thebettabubble.com/spiny

hidden in a cardboard tube. in spiny mice and may be due to stress,
DIET overcrowding or lack of protein in the diet.

Spiny mice are omnivorous; they prefer to eat plant
matter but adapt to anything edible.
In the wild they compete for sources of food with the
Mus musculus and gerbils.
In captivity, standard mouse chow is recommended with
some supplementation with grains and vegetables.
They enjoy mealworms as a treat.
Their diet may require more protein than domestic mice.
Because obesity is a major problem with these rodents, it
is important not to overfeed nuts, fruits or high-fat treats
and grains. Seeds and high sugar content should be
avoided.
What to Look for in a Healthy Mouse
TAIL
Haircoat without
A spiny mouse’s tail is hairless with large conspicuous thinning or balding
scales.
The tail is delicate and can break off in crowded
conditions or can suffer a degloving wound by
Bright shiny
inappropriate restraint.

eyes
When the spiny mouse’s tail is removed, it will not grow
back again. Tail intact
COMMON DISORDERS OF
EGYPTIAN SPINY MICE
Obesity (diet too rich, inadequate exercise) Not too thin or
Diabetes with or without pancreatitis (extremely too overweight
common—any ill spiny mouse over 2 years of age

Eyes and nostrils
should have a blood glucose level evaluated). free of discharge Teeth and claws
not overgrown
88
FORMUL ARY FOR DOMESTIC MICE Egyptian Spiny Mice / Domestic Mice
(Mus musculus)2,3 Not eating (the rodent may be ill or too cold; problems
Acepromazine 0.75 mg/kg IM start under 70°F [21°C])
Amikacin 10 mg/kg q8-12h IM, SC Digit/limb necrosis (possibly from thread or fiber
Atropine 0.05-0.4 mg/kg IM, SC constriction injury)
Buprenorphine 0.05-0.1 mg/kg q6-12h SC Greasy coat (high-fat diet)
White spots on coat (recessive gene, not pathological)
Cephalosporin 30 mg/kg q12h SC
Jumping in loops (psychological, stress-induced; similar
Chlortetracycline 25 mg/kg q12h IM, SC
to stereotypical behavior seen in other confined animals)
Cimetidine 5-10 mg/kg q12h Juvenile death in newly purchased mice (possibly stress-
Ciprofloxacin 10 mg/kg q12h PO induced)
Dexamethasone 0.1-0.6 mg/kg IM Lump on nape of neck (usually a fat store from over-
Diazepam 5 mg/kg IP feeding, not pathological)
Doxycycline 2.5 mg/kg q12h PO Trauma (from fighting)
Hypothermia (because of a reduced amount of
Enrofloxacin 5-10 mg/kg q12h PO
undercoat)
Fenbendazole 20 mg/kg q24h PO x 5 days
Furosemide 5-10 mg/kg q12h
Griseofulvin 25 mg/kg q24h PO x 14 days 1. Bauck L, Bihun C: Small rodents: Basic anatomy, physiology, hus-
Isoflurane Induction: 5%; Maintenance: 3-5% bandry and clinical techniques. In Hillyer EV, Quesenberry KE
(eds): Ferrets, Rabbits and Rodents Clinical Medicine and Surgery.
Ivermectin 200-500 µg/kg PO, SC, topical Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 1997, pp 291-306.
Ketamine 2.5-5% 30-50 mg/kg IM 2. Carpenter JW, et al (eds): Rodents. Exotic Animal Formulary.
Meperidine 1-2 mg/kg q2-3h IM, SC, IP 3. Johnson-Delaney C: Small rodents. In Exotic Companion Medicine
Metoclopramide 0.5 mg/kg q8h SC PRN Handbook. Lake Worth, Zoological Education Network, 2000.
4. Keller GL, Burns KA: Husbandry and hematology of captive spiny
Metronidazole 30-40 mg/kg q8-12h PO mice (Acomys cahirinus) Lab Anim Sci 39(6):625-626, 1989.
5. McClure DE: Clinical pathology and sample collection in the labo-
Morphine 2-5 mg/kg q4h IM, SC ratory rodent. Vet Clin No Am Exotic Anim Pract 2:565-590, 1999
Naloxone 0.01-0.1 mg/kg IP, IV
Oxytetracycline 10-20 mg/kg q8h PO
Praziquantel 30 mg/kg q14d PO x 3
Prednisone 0.5-2.0 mg/kg PO
Tetracycline 10-20 mg/kg q8h PO
89
Raccoons
(Procyon lotor)
Raccoon
By Dan Johnson, DVM Pet Care
ORIGIN
North America
Wooded areas usually near water
CAPTIVE HOUSING
Cage should be at least 6 x 6 x 6 feet (2 x 2 x 2 m).
Large open wire crate allowing good ventilation is
adequate for indoor cages.
Raccoons will dig, climb and open latches with their paws
to escape; enclosure must have escape-proof wire mesh
walls and a closed secured roof.
A concrete floor covered by sand, soil and vegetation will
prevent escape by digging.
Enclosure should be cleaned daily.
Access to clean water is necessary and should be
provided in a secured water dish to avoid tipping.
Enclosure should contain tree branches and hollow logs
large enough to allow for climbing.
VITAL STATISTICS
Hammocks or ledges should be provided for sleeping.
Toys, such as balls, stuffed animals and blankets, help
Adult size 20-40 inches (50-100 cm) with tail
keep raccoons entertained.
Body weight 30-49 lbs (4-14 kg)
90
Raccoons use hollow trees for Free-ranging raccoons also use Raccoons
hiding places during the daytime. hollow trees for nests.
RESTRAINT
Raccoons are difficult to manually restrain and are
capable of inflicting severe bites.
Attempt restraint only for injection of medications and
anesthesia.
Heavy leather gloves, towels, blankets and catch nets
may be necessary.
ANESTHESIA
Anesthetic combinations for IM injection:
• ketamine 10-30 mg/kg
• ketamine 10 mg/kg + diazepam 0.5 mg/kg
• ketamine 10 mg/kg + midazolam 0.25-0.5 mg/kg
• ketamine 2.5 mg/kg-5.0 mg/kg + medetomidine
25-50 mcg/kg
Tall enclosures that allow vertical space for • teletamine/zolazepam 3-10 mg/kg
climbing are best suited for raccoons.
Induction involves exposure to sevoflurane or isoflurane in
a large cat induction chamber.
DIET
Free-ranging raccoons are omnivores and eat birds, mice,
bird eggs, crabs, shellfish, worms, insects, fish, turtles
and frogs. Occasionally they eat seeds, nuts and berries.
In captivity, high-grade dog food kibble makes a suitable
staple and may be supplemented by fish, chicken, turkey,
eggs, fresh fruits and vegetables and whole prey items
(e.g., rodents, day-old chicks, fish, frogs and crustaceans).
91
Raccoons Hammocks and nets provide areas

for captive raccoons to climb.
SUITABILITY AS PETS
Raccoons are gregarious, active and relatively simple to
feed and house, especially if raised in close contact with
humans.
Raccoons may be trained to use a litter box.
Raccoons may be unpredictable and are capable of
destructive behavior, damaging property and inflicting
serious injury. They may carry zoonotic diseases and have
special requirements that usually go beyond what an
owner can provide.
They should not be recommended as pets.
BEHAVIOR
Raccoons are mostly nocturnal.
Raccoons are solitary and territorial.
Captive raccoons may become aggressive if they feel
threatened, are bored or do not receive enough social
interaction.
Digging is part of the natural food gathering process and
helps prevent nail overgrowth.

Obesity
Ectoparasites, especially ear mites (Otodectes) and fleas
Intestinal parasites, especially Baylisascaris spp.
Protozoal infections, especially Toxoplasma gondii
Trauma (eye injuries, bite wounds, fractures)
Intestinal foreign body impactions
Dental disease and fractured canine teeth
92
Access to clean water should be provided in Raccoons

a water bin large enough for the raccoon.
Pododermatitis from “digging” at hard surface
Neoplasia (lymphosarcoma, thyroid adenocarcinoma)
Hyperthyroidism
Polycystic kidney disease

States, counties or cities may restrict keeping raccoons
as pets.
Monthly heartworm and flea preventives are
recommended.
Raccoons are capable of inflicting severe bite wounds if
stressed or frightened.
They may transmit a number of zoonotic diseases,
including rabies and parasitic diseases (e.g., Toxocara
A raccoon’s diet should be canis, Baylisascaris spp.)
supplemented with fresh They should be bathed (no shampoo) monthly.
fruits and vegetables
VACCINES
Canine distemper (Merial PUREVAX® Ferret Distemper):
vaccinate at 6-8 weeks and every 3-4 weeks until 14
weeks of age; booster annually. Recombinant canary pox-
vectored CDV is recommended.
Traditional MLV vaccines should not be used because
they can cause post-vaccinal CDV encephalitis.
Rabies: vaccinate at 16 weeks; booster annually.
Only a killed rabies vaccine product should be used.
Feline parvoviruses (panleukopenia) and leptospirosis
may be indicated depending on location, possible
exposure or outbreak.
93
Raccoons Because of their dexterous fingers,

raccoons are agile climbers and
• Feline parvoviruses killed vaccine (i.e. Fort Dodge are able to open latches and turn
FVRCP®): vaccinate at 6-8 weeks, then repeat every doorknobs to escape.
3-4 weeks until 14 weeks of age; booster annually.
• Leptospirosis: vaccinate at 10-12 weeks; repeat once
in 3-4 weeks and then annually.

1. Denver M: Procyonidae and Viverridae. In Fowler ME, Miller RE
(eds): Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine 5th ed. Philadelphia, WB
Saunders, 2003, pp 516-523.
2. DeGhetto D, Papageorgiou S, Convy J: Raccoons. In Gage LJ (ed):
Hand-Rearing Wild and Domestic Mammals. Ames, Iowa State
University Press, 2002, pp 191-202.
3. Fowler ME: Carnivora. In Fowler ME (ed): Zoo and Wild Animal
Medicine, 2nd ed. Philadelphia, WB Saunders, 1986, pp 800-
807.
4. Labate AS, Nunes AL, Gomes M: Order Carnivora, Family
Procyonidae (raccoons, kinkajous). In Fowler ME, Cubas ZS (eds):
Biology, Medicine, and Surgery of South American Wild Animals.
Ames, Iowa State University Press, 2001, pp 317-322. The dental formula for a raccoon is
5. Mehren KG: Procyonidae. In Fowler ME (ed): Zoo and Wild Animal I 3/3, C 1/1, P 4/4, M 2/2 X 2 = 40.
Medicine, 2nd ed. Philadelphia, WB Saunders, 1986, pp 816-
820.
6. Nowak RM (ed): Walker’s Mammals of the World 6th ed, Vol I.
Baltimore/London, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.
7. Wallach JD, Boever WJ: Procyonidae. In Wallach JD, Boever WJ
(eds): Diseases of Exotic Animals: Medical and Surgical
Management. Philadelphia, WB Saunders, 1983, pp 464-493.
94
Coatimundi Coatimundis (coati)

(Nasua sp.)
Pet Care By Sandra Grant, DVM
The coatimundi is a member of the raccoon family

(Procyonidae), Order Carnivora.
COMMON SPECIES
White-nosed (or brown-nosed) coati (N. narica)
Ring-tailed or South American coati (N. nasua)
Nelson’s coati (N. nelsoni)
Wedel’s coati (N. wedeli)
ORIGIN
South and Central America, southwestern US
Arboreal; wooded areas; prefer more humid climates
CAPTIVE HOUSING
VITAL STATISTICS
Life span 15-20 years Dental formula I 3/3, C 1/1, P 4/4 M 2/2 Coatis will dig or climb to escape; enclosure must have
Adult size 41-67 cm (1.5-2 feet) Sexual maturity 2 years
escape-proof wire mesh walls and a closed secured roof.
head to base of tail Breeding season: April to May
+ 32-69 cm (1-2 feet) tail (in some climates
A concrete floor will prevent escape by digging and may
Body weight 3-7 kg (7-15 lbs) again in the early fall) be covered by sand, soil and/or vegetation.
Body temp 96-104°F (35.5-40°C) Gestation 74-77 days Enclosure should be cleaned daily.
Respiratory rate 23 breaths/min Litter size 2-7 Access to clean water in a secured water dish to avoid
Heart rate 115 beats/min tipping is necessary.
95
Coatimundis
Ring-tailed coati (Nasua nasua) White-nosed coati (Nasua narica)
In general, females can be housed together whereas
males should not.
Coatimundis may damage property or sustain injury from
household hazards if allowed free roam of the house.
Enclosure should contain branches and hollow logs large
enough for climbing.
Hammocks or ledges should be provided for sleeping.
RESTRAINT
Coatis are difficult to manually restrain; attempt restraint
Wooden “houses,” hammocks or
only for injection of medications and anesthesia.
ledges should be provided for sleeping.
may be necessary.
ANESTHESIA
Inhalation anesthesia is recommended.
If the coati can be restrained, general anesthesia should
be given with a non-rebreathing circuit and a face mask.
Induction involves exposure to sevoflurane in a large cat
induction chamber; coatis often recover quickly.
Anesthetic via IM injection is not recommended by the
author.
DIET
Free-ranging coatimundis are omnivores and will
scavenge for grubs, berries, edible roots and leaves.
They also steal eggs from nesting birds, and catch birds,
reptiles and small mammals.
96
Coatis are arboreal and Coatimundis

their enclosure should
contain trees or branches In captivity, high-grade dog food kibble should be the
primary diet with daily supplementation of fresh fruits and
vegetables. Poultry, beef, eggs in small quantities,
crickets and mealworms may be fed as treats. Obesity is
often a problem if coatis are allowed free choice food.
Whole prey, such as rodents, day-old chicks, fish, frogs,
crustaceans and mollusks, can provide essential
nutrients, such as taurine.
SUITABILITY AS PETS
Coatimundis are gregarious, active and relatively simple
to feed and house, especially if raised in close contact
with humans.
Coatimundi anesthesia: non-rebreathing circuit with face mask; Coatis may be trained to use a litter box, walk on a
then endotracheal intubation induction. leash, and play games like fetch.
Coatis are often taken as pets when they are young and
cute, but as these animals reach sexual maturity they
may become unmanageable.
Coatis are unpredictable, capable of inflicting injury and
may carry zoonotic diseases.
They should not be recommended as pets.
BEHAVIOR
Intelligent and inquisitive
Generally social
Primarily diurnal
Captive coatis may become aggressive if they are bored
or do not receive enough social interaction.
Digging is part of the natural food gathering process and
helps prevent nail overgrowth.
97
Coatimundis HEMATOLOGIC BIOCHEMICAL

MOST COMMON DISORDERS REFERENCE RANGES REFERENCE RANGES
Eye injuries Basophils 0-0.276 x 103/µl AKP 12-910 IU/L
Bite wounds Eosinophils 0.063-1.84 x 103/µl Albumin 2.1-5.2 g/dl
Foreign body impactions Hemoglobin 7.9-16.0 g/dl ALT 65-1021 IU/L
Diabetes Hematocrit 25.5-48.0% AMY 1116-4857µ/L
Kidney disease (too much protein in diet) Lymphocytes 0.3-10.4 x 103/µl AST 142-659 IU/L
Dental disease and fractured canine teeth MCH 12.1-19.7 pg/cell Bicarbonate 17 mmol/L
Frostbite (housed outdoors in cold climates) MCHC 29.3-40.7 g/dl BUN 10-42 mg/dl
Ectoparasites, especially ear mites (Otodectes) and fleas MCV 38.8-56.3 L Calcium 7.7-10.7 mg/dl
Intestinal parasites Monocyets 0.009-1.661 x 103/µl Carbon dioxide 2-38 mmol/L
Fractures Neutrophilic bands 0-0.109 x 103/µl Chloride 100-118 mEq/L
Foot ulceration from “digging” at hard surface or from Platelet count 200-806 x 103/µl Cholesterol 83-731 mg/dl
foot sucking vice due to boredom RBC 4.89-11.3 x 103/µl CPK 468-3070 IU/L
Neoplasia (uterine adenocarcinoma, cutaneous Seg. neutrophils 2.01-16.3 x 103/µl CR 0.8-1.7 mg/dl
lymphoma, lipoma) Fibrinogen 300-500 mg/dl
WBC 3.01-18.8 x103/µl
Obesity
GGT 9-970 µ/L
Globulin 2.8-5.2 g/dl
VACCINES
Lactate dehydrogenase 722-1242 IU/L
Canine distemper/parvo* (Fort Dodge MLV distemper LIP 182-1128 µ/L
parvo combo is recommended by the author; Merial Magnesium 1.94 mg/dl
PUREVAX® Ferret Distemper is recommened by the Osmolarity 297 mOsmol/L
AAZV): first vaccine at 6-8 weeks and every 3-4 weeks
Phosphorus 2.9-8.9 mg/dl
until 14 weeks of age; booster annually.
Potassium 3.4-6.4 mEq/L
Total bilirubin 0.1-1.0 mg/dl
If housed outdoors, leptospirosis may be suggested
Total thyroxine 2.5 µg/dl
depending on location, possible exposure or outbreak:
vaccination with commercial bacterin at 10-12 weeks of
age; booster annually. Triglyceride 12-107 mg/dl
Uric acid 0.2-1.9 mg/dl
98
Coatis are generally social, Coatimundi

and alive in small groups.
• Rabies (i.e., Merial IMRAB 3) if possible exposure or
outbreak: first vaccine at 16 weeks; booster annually.

Some states or counties may not allow pet coatis.
Heartworm is recommended for coatis housed outdoors.
Flea preventives (e.g., Frontline spray, Feline Advantage)
should be used.
Coatis may bite or claw if stressed or frightened, and they
have extremely long, sharp canine teeth.
They may transmit a number of zoonotic diseases,
including rabies and parasitic diseases (e.g., toxoplas-
mosis, Toxocara canis and Baylisascaris spp.).

Male coatis may fight; it is best to (eds): Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine 5th ed. Philadelphia, WB
house only 1 male in an enclosure. Saunders Co, 2003, pp 516-523.
2. Evans R: Raccoons and relatives (Carnivora, Procyonidae). In
Heard D (ed): Zoological Restraint and Anesthesia. Ithaca, NY,
International Veterinary Information Service, 2002.
3. Fowler ME (ed): Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine 2nd ed.
4. Fowler ME (ed): Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine 3rd ed.
Philadelphia, WB Saunders, 1993, pp 398-403, 478.
5. Gompper ME: Population Ecology of the White-Nosed Coati
(Nasua narica) on Barro Colorado Island, Panama. J Zool
241(3):441-455, 1997.
6. Hass CC: Home-range dynamics of white-nosed coatis in south-
eastern Arizona. J Mammology 83(4):934-944, 2002.
7. McClearn D: Locomotion, posture, and feeding behavior of kinka-
jous, coatis and raccoons. J Mammology 73(2):245-261, 1992.
8. Mehren KG: Procyonidae. In Fowler ME (ed); Zoo and Wild Animal
Medicine 2nd ed. Philadelphia, WB Saunders, 1986, pp 816-820.
99
Chipmunks (Tamias sp.)

COMMON SPECIES
Chipmunk
Siberian (Asian) chipmunk (T. sibiricus)
Eastern chipmunk (T. striatus)
Pet Care
Least chipmunk (T. minimus) A Siberian chipmunk foraging for food.
ORIGIN
Northern Europe, Asia and Japan (T. sibiricus)
Eastern North America (T. striatus)
North central and western United States and central
Canada (T. minimus)
Terrestrial, although climb trees
Forest animal
CAPTIVE HOUSING
Chipmunks should not be housed in an aquarium.
A large wire mesh cage at least 36 x 24 x 24 inches (90
x 60 x 60 cm) and mesh size less than 1" x ½" provides
an adequate enclosure.
A nest box should be provided (one for each chipmunk in
the enclosure).
Cage should have a solid bottom or solid shelves to avoid
foot problems.
Substrate may be newspaper, shredded paper products VITAL STATISTICS
(Yesterday’s News), aspen or corn cob (corn cob Life span 4-6 years
substrates must be changed frequently due to the risk of Adult size 4.5-6.5 inches (12-17 cm) +
mold growth). 4-5 inch (10-12) cm tail
Body weight 85 g
100
Chipmunks
Captive housing should include
logs or pieces of bark for hiding. ENVIRONMENTAL ENRICHMENT
Captive housing for chipmunks should include climbing
branches, pieces of bark to hide under, cardboard tubes
to chew and a 9-inch solid exercise wheel.
Cracked nuts, hide food or treats may be offered in a tray
of hay or on the climbing branches.
Items to chew, such as parrot toys, rawhide and chew
blocks, should be provided.
RESTRAINT
Chipmunks can be restrained manually by gently holding
in a soft towel or with gloves and grasping the base of
the tail.
Some chipmunks are tame and allow gentle
manipulation.
Care must be taken to not grab the tail by the end
Chipmunks eat insects as part of their diet. Chipmunks may be fed nuts and seeds. because of the risk of degloving injuries.
DIET
Omnivorous
Free-ranging Siberian chipmunks eat vegetables, conifer
seeds, nuts, tree buds, shrubs, mushrooms, berries, field
crops, insects, young birds and lizards.
In captivity, Siberian chipmunks may be fed a rodent
pellet diet, nuts (e.g., pine nuts, hazelnuts), seeds, fresh
vegetables, rodent blocks, flower buds (e.g., dandelions),
high protein products (e.g., cottage cheese, crickets,
mealworms) and hay.
Low sugar fruit (e.g., oranges, berries), Cheerios and
wheat bread may be given occasionally as treats.
101
Chipmunks Chipmunks spend much of their

time grooming themselves.
Mineral blocks, cuttlebones and lava stones should be
made available for gnawing.
It is important periodically to look for food stored in the
nest box or buried in the substrate to avoid spoiled or
moldy food.
Water bottles should be available for fresh water.
SUITABILITY AS PETS
It is important to “chipmunk proof” a room if the animal
is allowed to roam by removing all electrical wires and
any other items that might be harmful if chewed.
May be kept singly; however, chipmunks appear to
appreciate having a cage companion.
BEHAVIOR
Diurnal
Intense curiosity
Most chipmunks are not domesticated.
It often buries its food underground.
It spends much time grooming.

Respiratory disease
Wounds
Constipation and diarrhea
Genetic problems in the white Siberian chipmunk from
inbreeding (e.g., blindness, epilepsy, hearing problems,
cleft palate and other facial deformities)
Foot problems
Dental malocclusion
102
Chipmunks
Siberian chipmunk (T. sibiricus) Eastern chipmunk (T. striatus)
Dominance-related problems (e.g., limited access to food
that can lead to malnutrition and poor coats)

Like other rodents, chipmunks have incisors that
continuously grow.
Some chipmunks will hibernate in the winter.

1. Britannica Encyclopedia Volume 3 (C&D) University of Chicago.
2. Grizimek’s Encyclopedia Mammals Volume 3. New York, McGraw-
Hill Publishing Company, 1990.
3. Jones JK, Anderson S: Orders and Families of Recent Mammals of
the World. New York, 1984.
4. Nowak RM (ed): Walker’s Mammals of the World 5th ed.
Baltimore, 1991.
Least chipmunk (T. minimus) Hopi chipmunk (T. rufus)
5. Weathers K: 1999. Tamias sibiricus, Animal Diversity Web.
Tamias_sibiricus.html. Accessed November 2006.
6. www.geocities.com/thechipmunkcrossing/history.html. Accessed
May 2006.
103
Kinkajous (honey bears)

(Potos flavus)
Kinkajou
By Dan Johnson, DVM Pet Care
ORIGIN
Central and South America
Arboreal; rainforest
CAPTIVE HOUSING
Kinkajous will dig or climb to escape; enclosure must
have escape-proof wire mesh walls and a closed
secured roof.
If kinkajous are allowed free roam of the house,
dangerous items and medication should be locked away.
Kinkajous are very good escape artists; locks on cages
are necessary.
A concrete floor will prevent escape by digging and may
be covered by sand, soil and vegetation.
Enclosure should be cleaned daily.
Access to clean water in a secured water dish to avoid VITAL STATISTICS
tipping is necessary.
Environmental temperature should remain above Adult size Body up to 18 inches (45 cm)
65°F (18°C). + tail up to 18 inches (45 cm)
If housed outside, heat must be provided in most places. Body weight 3-10 lbs (1.4-4.6 kg)
Dental formula I 3/3, C 1/1, P 3/3, M 2/2
104
Housing should be contain Kinkajous

tree branches for climbing
and sleeping quarters. ENVIRONMENTAL ENRICHMENT
Enclosure should contain tree branches for climbing and
large hollow logs.
Hammocks, hide boxes or ledges should be provided
away from direct sunlight to allow kinkajous to sleep
during the day.
Toys, such as ropes, balls and stuffed animals, help keep
kinkajous entertained.
RESTRAINT
Rob Coke, DVM

Kinkajous may be difficult to manually restrain and will
bite if threatened; attempt restraint only for injection of
medications and anesthesia.
may be necessary.
Housing should be constructed
of escape-proof wire mesh with
plastic or metal solid flooring. ANESTHESIA
Anesthetic combinations for IM injection:
• ketamine 10-30 mg/kg
• ketamine 10 mg/kg + diazepam 0.5 mg/kg
• ketamine 10 mg/kg + midazolam 0.25-0.5 mg/kg
• ketamine 2.5 mg/kg-5.0 mg/kg + medetomidine
25-50 mcg/kg
• teletamine/zolazepam 3-10 mg/kg
Induction involves exposure to sevoflurane or isoflurane in
a large cat induction chamber.
105
Kinkajous Kinkajous should be fed in the

evening, so they can eat at night.
DIET
Over 90% of a free-ranging kinkajou’s diet is composed
of fruit with less than 10% made up of insects, leaves
and flowers.
In captivity, fruit (e.g., bananas, grapes, mangoes,
apples, berries, figs and melons) makes a suitable staple
for kinkajous.
This diet should be supplemented by high-grade monkey
chow or dog food kibble (may be soaked in fruit juice),
Rob Coke, DVM

eggs, insects, baked chicken and fresh vegetables.
Honey may be given as a treat.
Avoid strawberries, avocados and dairy products.
Papaya may help prevent periodontal disease, which is
common due to their soft diet.
Kinkajous are
usually docile.
PET APPEAL
Kinkajous do not have any noticeable odor.
When hand-raised from very young, they are very social
and enjoy being handled.
BEHAVIOR
Kinkajous may be curious to look inside your mouth or
reach inside with their fingers.
May be trained to use a litter box.
Kinkajous require much stimulation, which they can get
from various toys and activities.
Nocturnal
Docile and gentle
Inquisitive and social
106
A hand-raised kinkajou baby for Kinkajous

a zoo’s educational program,
Kinkajous have 2 hairless areas on the face, which are
often mistaken for a Sarcoptes infection.
Kinkajous have prehensile tails, which are used for
climbing.

Obesity
Ectoparasites
Bite wounds
Foreign body impactions
Fractures
Periodontal disease
Neoplasia
Cardiomyopathy
Diarrhea

States, counties or cities may restrict keeping kinkajous
as pets.
Heartworm and flea preventives are recommended.
Kinkajous are capable of delivering painful, severe bites if
frightened or threatened.
They may transmit a number of zoonotic diseases.
Rob Coke, DVM
107
Kinkajous
VACCINES
Canine distemper (Merial PUREVAX® Ferret distemper
vaccine): vaccinate at 6-8 weeks and every 3-4 weeks
until 14 weeks of age; booster annually. Recombinant
canary pox-vectored CDV is recommended.
Rabies: vaccinate at 16 weeks; booster annually.
Only a killed rabies vaccine product should be used.

(eds): Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine 5th ed. Philadelphia, WB
Saunders, 2003, pp 516-523.
2. Fowler ME: Carnivora. In Fowler ME (ed): Zoo and Wild Animal
Medicine 2nd ed. Philadelphia, WB Saunders, 1986, pp 800-807.
3. Kays RW: Food preference of kinkajous (Potos flavus): A frugivo-
rous carnivore. J Mammalogy 80:589-599, 1999.
4. Labate AS, Nunes AL, Gomes M: Order Carnivora, Family
Procyonidae (raccoons, kinkajous). In Fowler ME, Cubas ZS
(eds) Biology, Medicine, and Surgery of South American Wild
Animals. Ames, Iowa State University Press, 2001, pp 317-
322.
5. Mehren KG: Procyonidae. In Fowler ME (ed): Zoo and Wild
Animal Medicine 2nd ed. Philadelphia, WB Saunders, 1986, pp
816-820.
6. Nowak RM (ed): Walker’s Mammals of the World 6th ed, Vol I.
Baltimore/London, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.
108
Meerkat Meerkats
(Suricata suricatta)
Pet Care ORIGIN
Meerkats will stand lookout while South African savannah
others are foraging to warn them
of approaching dangers.
Terrestrial
Savannah and arid grassland plains
Meerkats live on rock crevices and in underground
burrows as deep as 10 feet (3 m).
Free-ranging underground burrows average 5 m x
1.5-2 m deep.
CAPTIVE HOUSING
Captive housing can be a real challenge, because of their
burrowing nature.
Meerkats need access to sunlight.
Meerkats are more commonly kept as pets in South
Africa, because they can be housed outside where they
can roam, dig burrows and eat their natural diet.
Very low humidity and warm temperatures are necessary
for survival.
Grass-lined, wooden “houses” and hollow wooden logs
may be used to simulate their natural dens and provide
VITAL STATISTICS hiding places.
Life span 5-15 years Concrete or wire line enclosures may be necessary if they
Adult size 10-14 inches (25-35 cm) are housed outside.
head and body Meerkats may be considered potential injurious wildlife if
+ tail (7-9 inches [18-23 cm]) they escape; therefore, keeping them as pets is banned
Body weight 1-2 lbs (0.5-1 kg) by many city/state ordinances.
109
Meerkats Grass-lined, wooden “houses” and hollow

wooden logs may be to simulate their
RESTRAINT natural dens and provide hiding places.
Meerkats can deliver very painful bites.

Heavy leather gloves should be used for restraint.
Meerkats may be difficult to restrain manually because of
their ability to wiggle and twist while being held.
DIET
Free-ranging meerkats are mainly insectivores, but will
eat some animals, eggs and plants. Their diet consists of
scorpions (they tear off the stinger and are partially
immune to the venom), beetles, spiders, centipedes,
millipedes, worms, crickets, small mammals, reptiles and
birds and eggs.
In captivity, meerkats may be fed a diet consisting of
about 85% high quality feline kibble and 15% fresh finely
diced produce, including apple, carrot, sweet potato, Look out posts provide environ-
mental enrichment for meerkats.
banana and pear.
Meerkats may be fed insects as a daily treat. Other prey,
such as small mammals, lizards and amphibians, may
also be added.
Water bottles should be available at all times for fresh
water.
SUITABILITY AS PETS
Meerkats are often sought after because they are cute
and captivating, but they do not make good pets as they
require much attention and can be very destructive.
Adult animals often scent mark their territory.
Meerkats may bite, often viciously and seemingly
unprovoked.
110
Meerkats are highly social animals Meerkats

and are found in large groups.
Meerkats may be litter trained if kept indoors.
BEHAVIOR
Diurnal
Extremely social; live in large colonies for survival
Curious
Free-ranging meerkats are nomadic.
Meerkats are very territorial and will fight.
In captivity, removal of one member of the troop may
cause it to be rejected, attacked or killed when it is
reintroduced. When necessary, remove 2 or 3 meerkats
at once and distract the others with food when they are
reintroduced.
Meerkats regularly groom each other.
The group’s alpha pair often scent-mark other meerkats
Meerkats are very in the group to show their authority.
territorial and will fight. Most members of the group are siblings and offspring of
the alpha pair.

Foreign body ingestion
Coccidiosis
Bacterial hepatitis
Toxoplasmosis
Heart disease
Rabies
Spinal problems
111
Meerkats Meerkats have been observed having

wrestling matches and foot races.
VACCINES
Meerkats should be vaccinated against canine distemper
(Merial canarypox CDV vaccine) and feline panleukopenia
at 6-8 weeks, 9-12 weeks, 14-16 weeks of age, 1 year
and then every 2 years after that.
Rabies (for ferrets) if possible exposure or outbreak: first
vaccine at 16 weeks; booster annually.

Meerkats bite often.
Meerkats are illegal to own without the proper licenses
and permits, which are difficult to obtain.
The US government controls owners with strict
requirements for enclosures and climate.
Classified by USDA as Detrimental Species/Injurious
Wildlife. To warm their bodies on cold days, meerkats
may either lay on their backs or sit up to
expose the bare skin on their stomachs.
1. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/
Suricata_suricatta.html. Accessed December 2006.
2. www.fellowearthlings.org/info.html. Accessed December 2006.
3. www.meerkats.net/info.htm. Accessed December 2006.
112
Brushtail Possum Brushtail Possums

(Trichosurus vulpecula)
Pet Care ORIGIN
Australia and surrounding islands
Arboreal
Open eucalypti forest and woodland
Rest in hollow trees or shelters built by other animals
Often live in the roof space of houses
CAPTIVE HOUSING
Length: body length x 8 (min. 1.2 m [4 feet])
Width: body length x 4 (min. 0.6 m [2 feet])
Height: 1.8 m (6 feet)
Enclosure temperature range should be 50-86°F
(10-30°C) with a relative humidity of about 65%.
The enclosure should include numerous branches and
hollow limbs to simulate arboreal environment.
Hollow logs or boxes are necessary for sleeping quarters
VITAL STATISTICS (two per possum).

Adult size 35-50 cm (14-20 inches)
RESTRAINT
from head to rump Restraint should be used only for minor procedures or to
+ 25-40 cm (10-15 inches) tail
administer anesthesia.
Body weight
Possums may scratch or bite.
Males: 1.3-4.5 kg (2.8-10 lbs)
Females: 1.2-3.5 kg (2.6-7.7 lbs)
113
Brushtail Possums Sleeping quarters may

be made out of
Gloves are not recommended because the possum may blankets or cushions.
be crushed or injured.
The possum may be placed in a sack or pillowcase or
covered with a towel. The head or leg may be extracted
for examination.
Once covered, it may be grasped firmly behind its head
and at the base of the tail with the other hand or by
another person and gently stretched out.
ANESTHESIA
Inhalation anesthesia is recommended.
If the possum can be restrained, general anesthesia
should be given with a non-rebreathing circuit and a
mask.
The possum may be pre-oxygenated for 2-5 minutes
before isoflurane administration.
Induction involves exposure to 5% isoflurane delivered at
The enclosure must include
an oxygen flow rate of 200 ml/kg/min with a minimum of trees or numerous branches to
1 L/min. simulate arboreal environment.
The possum can be maintained at 2% isoflurane,
although it may vary with the animal.
If the possum cannot be restrained, an injectable
induction of diazepam (1-2 mg/kg) IM is acceptable;
effective for 1-2 hours.
For general anesthesia: xylazine (6 mg/kg) + ketamine
(30 mg/kg) IM; or tiletamine/zolazepam (2.5-10 mg/kg)
IM.
114
Brushtail possums enjoy Brushtail Possums

eucalyptus leaves.
BLOOD COLLECTION
Lateral tail vein is easily accessible for IV access. Tail
should be held at the base.
Alternative IV access sites include the jugular and
cephalic veins.
DIET
Free-ranging possums are primarily herbivores with a diet
that includes eucalyptus leaves, flowers, fruit and other
plant species (e.g., grasses and herbs). Occasionally they
also eat insects, grubs and bird eggs.
In captivity, possums may be fed a diet of vegetables,
nuts, fruit (e.g., apples, cherries, grapes and pears) and
A juvenile brushtail possum native vegetation (e.g., branches from eucalyptus,
can be fed vegetables. callistemon and grevillea) as well as crickets,
mealworms, waxworms and boiled eggs or small pieces
of boiled chicken.
Crystal Ocean Australian Wildlife Rescue & Rehabilitation

Water bottles should be available at all times for fresh
water.
SUITABILITY AS PETS
May be kept in captivity in a large aviary.
Males are capable of making loud noises.
BEHAVIOR
Brushtail possums are normally nocturnal; however,
the light cycle may be reversed to allow for human
interaction.
Docile as individuals
115
Brushtail Possums Golden brushtail Brushtail possum babies usually spend

possum about 6 months in their mother’s pouch.
Extremely territorial animals; will fight
Adult males will not tolerate another male, even a
juvenile, in their territory and will injure or kill it.
Solitary
Spend most of their time in trees
Females have marsupial pouch.
Male has bifurcated penis in floor of cloaca.
Use hindgut flora for digestion, similar to rabbits.
Brushtail possums have a powerful grip, which gives
them an excellent climbing ability.
At the age of 6-18 months, the juveniles
MOST COMMON DISORDERS will separate from their mother.
Malnutrition and its consequences (including

pneumonia and death)
Enteropathies
Dental/oral problems
Trauma
Obesity
Parasites (internal and external)
Heat stress
CAUTIONS
Possum s are reservoir species for bovine tuberculosis
(Mycobacterium bovis) in New Zealand.
They may carry zoonotic diseases, such as Sarcoptes
scabei and Salmonella spp.
116
Compound fracture of the hind Brushtail Possums

leg of a brushtail possum.
1. Department of Conservation and Land Management: Brushtail
possum (website), Government of Western Australia.
calm.wa.gov.au/plants_animals/pdf_files/ _brushtail_possum.pdf.
Accessed May 2006.
2. Holz P: Immobilization of marsupials with tiletamine and
zolazepam. J Zoo Wildl Med 23:426-428, 1992.
3. Johnson-Delaney CA: Marsupials. Exotic Companion Medicine
Handbook. Zoological Education Network, 2000.
4. Pass GJ, Foley WJ: Plant secondary metabolites as mammalian
feeding deterrents: Separating the effects of the taste of salicin
from its post-ingestive consequences in the common brushtail
possum (Trichosurus vulpecula). J Comp Physiol B 170:185-192,
2000.
5. Presidente PJA: Diseases seen in free-ranging marsupials and
those held in captivity. Fauna, Proceedings 36, Post Graduate
Committee in Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, Sydney,
Australia, 1978, pp 457-471.
6. Presidente PJA: Common ringtail possum Pseudocheirus peregri-
nus: Maintenance in captivity, blood values and diseases. In
Evans DD (ed): The Management of Australian Mammals in
Captivity. Melbourne, Victoria, Zoological Board of Victoria, 1982,
pp 75-81.
7. Restraint and anesthesia of possums (Diprotodontia: Burra-
myidae, Pseudocheiridae, Petauridae, Tarsipedidae, Acrobatidae)
In Heard D (ed): Zoological Restraint and Anesthesia.
International Veterinary Information Service, Ithaca, New York.
8. Strahan R: The Mammals of Australia. Australia, Chatswood,
Reed Books, 1995.
9. Viggers KL, Lindenmayer DB: Variation in hematological and
serum biochemical values of the mountain brushtail possum,
Trichosurus caninus Ogilby (Marsupialia: Phalangeridae). J Wildl
Dis 32:142-146, 1996.
10. Viggers, KL, Lindenmayer DB: Hematological and plasma bio-
chemical values of the greater glider in Australia. J Wildl Dis
37:370-374, 2001.
11. Vogelnest L: Chemical restraint of Australian native fauna. Wildlife
in Australia, Proceedings 327, Post Graduate Committee in
Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia. 1999,
pp 149-187.
12. Walker: Walker’s Mammals of the World. Baltimore, John Hopkins
University Press, 1991.
117
Patagonian Cavies (Mara)

(Dolichotis patagonum)
Patagonian Cavy
By Jack Kottwitz, DVM Pet Care
ORIGIN
Central Patagonian steppes of Argentina to southern
Argentina
Arid grasslands and brushlands with a great deal of
open space
Typical territory size for a pair can be as large as
40 hectares (0.4 km2).
CAPTIVE HOUSING
Although Patagonian cavies can be housed indoors, this
may lead to problems because of their predispositions for
chewing on nearly everything.
If housed indoors, care must be taken to remove all
potentially dangerous objects (e.g., electrical cords) that
might be chewed. Burrowing may lead to destruction of
walls and flooring.
Ideal captive housing should include access to a large VITAL STATISTICS
outdoor yard area for grazing and exercise. Life span 10 years (avg)
Outdoor yard may be cavy-proofed by using chain link Adult size: head and body 69-75 cm
fencing that is sunk into the ground at least 1-2 feet (27-30 inches)
tail 4 cm (1.6 inches)
(30-60 cm).
Body weight 18-35 lbs (8-16 kg)
Patagonian cavies can be intensive burrowers, so they
Dental formula I 1/1; C 0/0; P 1/1; M 3/3
should be carefully monitored to make sure they do not
Sexual maturity: females 2-3 months
burrow below the buried fence. males 6 months
118
It is important to provide Patagonian Cavies

adequate shade/shelter
during hot weather. Frightened cavies have been reported to jump as high as
6 feet (2 m) in the air. The use of a double fence may be
necessary to prevent escape, although they generally do
not jump fences.
Patagonian cavies in their native habitat experience
extremes of temperature ranging from 28-90°F (-2-32°C).
Cavies tolerate cold and hot temperatures very well. If
given a preference, cavies prefer cooler temperatures.
It is important to provide adequate shade/shelter during
hot weather.
Exposure to a variety of nontoxic plants, grasses and tree
limbs/wood for grazing is ideal.
If housed indoors, a dirt-filled “digging box” may provide
Cavies spend a large an outlet for burrowing behaviors.
part of their day grazing
on grass and plants.
DIET
Cavies are strict herbivores that spend a large part of
their day grazing on grass and plants.
Their ideal captive diet should be composed entirely of
plant material, such as timothy grass hay, grasses and
leafy vegetables.
A small amount of timothy-based guinea pig or chinchilla
pellets may be added to the diet.
Because Patagonian cavies and guinea pigs are members
of the same family, Cavidae, it may be extrapolated that
cavies may have similar dietary vitamin C requirements.
Feeding a diet rich in vitamin C is encouraged to prevent
deficiencies.
119
Patagonian Cavies Patagonum cavies are social animals,

and prefer to live in groups.
SUITABILITY AS PETS
If raised from birth among humans and properly
socialized, Patagonian cavies may be very social with
humans, interacting with grunts, grumbles and screams.
Normally Patagonian cavies are active during daylight
hours; however, if they are not accustomed to humans,
they may begin to become more active at night to avoid
interactions with humans.
Patagonian cavies can be litter box-trained, but patience
is required.
BEHAVIOR
In captivity, Patagonian cavies can be very social animals,
interacting with humans both through vocalizations and
attention-seeking behaviors.
Free-ranging Patagonian cavies usually live in groups of Patagonum cavies are
very curious animals.
10-15 and form monogamous pairs that last for life.
Very little territoriality is evident in free-ranging cavies,
but males appear to have a moderate dominance
hierarchy.
Like all rodents, they reach sexual maturity quickly.
The general body form of a Patagonian cavy is that of a
long-legged rodent with a body similar to a hoofed
animal.
The haircoat, while stiff and dense, should have a very
fine texture.
The front feet have 4 toes while the back feet have 3.
All toes have a sharp claw.
120
Patagonum cavy nursing young. Patagonian Cavies

It is necessary to provide a place
for a proper den for new babies. The hind legs are slightly larger than the front.
Patagonian cavies are elodonts with open-rooted teeth
like guinea pigs.

Dental malocclusion occurs in Patagonian cavies for
many of the same reasons it occurs in guinea pigs,
including genetic structural abnormalities (brachygna-
thism), inappropriate wear as a result of diets lacking in
dietary fiber, and injuries, such as broken incisors. The
approach to managing dental disease is the same as
with guinea pigs.
The long stature of the leg bones can predispose to limb
fractures, especially in the tibia.

If frightened, Patagonian cavies will try to escape.
Patagonians have reported sprint speeds up to 35 mph
(45 km/hour) for distances of more than half a mile
(1000 m). Their speed and jumping ability may
predispose them to injury.
• While generally non-aggressive, the sharp claws are
capable of causing deep scratches.
121
Two-toed Sloths
(Choloepus spp.)
Two-toed Sloth
By Marc Kramer, DVM Pet Care
SPECIES
Linnaeus’s two-toed sloth (C. didactylus)
Hoffmann’s two-toed sloth (C. hoffmanni)
ORIGIN
C. didactylus is from the New World tropics, ranging
throughout Central America, northern South America, and
south to southern Brazil
C. hoffmanni is from Central and South American from
Nicaragua to Peru and Brazil
Arboreal animal, found in tropical rainforests and
deciduous forests
CAPTIVE HOUSING
Several large trees for ample horizontal and vertical
Rob Coke, DVM

perching must be provided, with at least one parallel pair
of each.
A nest box should be included in the habitat.
Feeding pan or bowl should be placed high on a secure
platform with easy access by the animal from the
VITAL STATISTICS
branches.
Ideal environmental temperature is 82-85°F (28-30°C) Life span 15-30 years
with 60-70% humidity. Adult size 21-29 inches (53-73 cm)
Body weight 7-9 kg (15-20 lbs)
122
Hoffmann’s two-toed Linnaeus’s two-toed Two-toed Sloths

sloth (C. hoffmanni) sloth (C. didactylus)
Sloths have lower body temperatures compared to other
mammals, ranging from 90.9-95.9°F (32.7-35.5°C).
Their temperature will vary with their surroundings.
Sloths are poor regulators of body temperature. Heat
stress, hypothermia and disease may be precipitated by
sudden changes in environmental temperature.
Sloths generally do not fare well in cool temperate
latitudes unless provided with temperature and humidity
controlled habitats simulating a tropical climate.
RESTRAINT
Sloths may be dangerous, inflicting severe damage with
their claws and teeth.
They should be restrained with nets or contained in a
Sloths spend almost all of their time
in trees, usually upside down. nest box.
Administering immobilization drugs through blow darts or
quick administration by hand syringe in the hind
musculature may be necessary.
ANESTHESIA
Sloths may be anesthetized with isoflurane at 5% at 3-5
L/min O2 in a chamber and then the isoflurane is reduced
to 1-3% at 1-2 L/min O2 via face mask.
Anesthetic for IM injection may be either ketamine (5-10
mg/kg) or a combination of ketamine (3-4 mg/kg) and
medetomidine (0.03-0.04 mg/kg).
If necessary, reversal with atipemazole may be used to
shorten the recovery.
123
Two-toed Sloths Surprisingly, sloths Newborns cling to

are good swimmers. their mother until
DIET about 5 weeks old.
Free-ranging sloths are omnivores, eating a diet

consisting of leaves, buds, flowers, and fruits.
In captivity, a mix of vegetables (a variety of greens,
carrots, yams), leaves, fruits, omnivore biscuits, and
primate diets have been used.
SUITABILITY AS PETS
Sloths are not commonly kept nor advocated as pets.
BEHAVIOR
Sloths are solitary, and come together only to mate. Sloths rarely come
Sloths exhibit slow activity and are primarily nocturnal, down to the ground.
although bursts of crepuscular or diurnal activity may be
seen.
This species climbs down to the ground for defecation
and urination only, and with the sloth’s slow metabolism
it typically occurs once a week.
Almost everything is carried out in trees while suspended
upside down, including eating, sleeping, mating and
birth.
Sloths usually spend about 15 hours a day sleeping.
Two-toed sloths possess two digits on each forelimb and
three digits on each hindlimb.
Many internal organs of sloths (liver, stomach, spleen,
pancreas) are in different positions from other mammals.
124
Two-toed Sloths
The stomach in sloths is enormous and almost fills the

abdominal cavity. Gastrointestinal anatomy and
physiology are complex; they possess a multi-chambered
stomach and utilize foregut fermentation.
Determining gender in sloths can be especially
challenging. This is in part due to the presence of
internal abdominal testicles in males and genital areas in
both sexes that look rather similar to the untrained eye.

Hypothermia
Claw infections
Pneumonia
Enteritis
Diskospondylosis
Sloths use their long, Metastatic mineralization
curved claws for climbing. Interstitial nephritis
Trauma (from bite wounds)
Abscesses
Orphan (abandoned by mother)
REFERENCE AND FURTHER READING

Fowler, ME; Miller, RE: Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine, 5th ed,
Elsevier, 2003.
125
Mynahs (Myna)
(Family Sturnidae)
Mynah
Family Sturnidae consists of the starlings, mynahs, and
oxpeckers, about 107 species of birds
Pet Care
COMMON SPECIES
Common mynah (Acridotheres tristis)
Crested mynah (Acridotheres cristatellus)
Bank mynah (Acridotheres ginginianus)
Jungle mynah (Acridotheres fuscus)
White-vented mynah (Acridotheres grandis)
Javan mynah (Acridotheres javanicus)
Pale-bellied mynah (Acridotheres cinereus)
Collared mynah (Acridotheres albocinctus)
Bali mynah (Leucopsar rothschildi)
Hill mynah (Gracula religiosa)
Yellow-faced (Papuan) mynah (Mino dumontii)
Golden mynah (Mino anais)
Long-tailed mynah (Mino kreffti)
Sulawesi mynah (Basilornis celebensis)
Helmeted mynah (Basilornis galeatus)
Long-crested mynah (Basilornis corythaix)
Apo mynah (Basilornis miranda)
White-necked mynah (Streptocitta albicollis)
Bare-eyed mynah (Streptocitta albertinae)
Fiery-browed mynah (Enodes erythrophris) VITAL STATISTICS
Finch-billed mynah (Scissirostrum dubium) Life span 12-20 years
Golden-crested mynah (Ampeliceps coronatus) Adult size 30-45 cm (12-18 inches)
Southern hill mynah (Gracula indica) Size varies by species
Sri Lanka mynah (Gracula ptilogenys) Body weight 110-270 g
126
Common mynah Hill mynah Mynahs

(Acridotheres tristis) (Gracula religiosa)
ORIGIN
Common mynah: Indian sub-continent; from Afghanistan
east through India and Sri Lanka to Bangladesh
Hill mynah: Eastern India, southern China, Indochina,
Thailand, Malaysia and the Philippines
Arboreal
Common mynah: warm climates; roosts in isolated
Bank mynah Golden-crested mynah stands of tall trees
(Acridotheres ginginianus) (Ampeliceps coronatus) Hill mynah: Forests, particularly at the edge of dense
forests or in thinned or cultivated areas
Prefers high rainfall and humidity
CAPTIVE HOUSING
Mynahs are social birds and should be housed near the
Charles Lam
activity center of the household.
Enclosure: minimum size is 18 cubic ft: 2 x 3 x 3 feet
(60 x 90 x 90 cm).
Metal cage should be a horizontal rectangle to allow
Jungle mynah Crested mynah lateral movement from perch to perch.
(Acridotheres fuscus) (Acridotheres cristatellus) Newspaper or recycled newspaper product may be used
beneath cage floor.
Natural branch perches in a variety of sizes should be
provided.
Water should be available in a large dish (1½-2” depth of
water) for bathing.
Mynahs should be taken outside or provided access to
J M Garg
unfiltered sunlight 3 times a week for at least 15 minutes

a day or be provided with a UVA/UVB light source.
127
Mynahs Golden mynah Bali mynah

(Mino anais) (Leucopsar rothschildi)
Mynahs require an environment enriched with toys,
various branches and opportunities for activity.
Toys designed for smaller birds (e.g., mirrors, beads,
shiny bells) work best.
Mynahs may be given mist baths and showers in the
morning or outdoors when weather permits.
RESTRAINT
The bird should be positioned with the head protruding White-necked mynah Pied starling
between the index and middle fingers, with the thumb (Streptocitta albicollis) (Sturnus contra)
encircling one wing and the little and ring fingers around
the other wing.
An alternative method may be used with a small
washcloth or paper towel cradling the entire bird and the
three point hold around the head.
The bird should be held loosely enough so as not to
restrict respiration while still maintaining control.
DIET
Free-ranging common mynahs eat fruits, eggs and Javan mynah Yellow-faced mynah
nestlings of other birds. (Acridotheres javanicus) (Mino dumontii)
Free-ranging hill mynahs are arboreal frugivores; their diet
includes figs, berries, tree and shrub seeds, nectar,
insects and lizards.
In captivity, a commercial low-iron (<100 ppm) softbill
pellet food should be given as 75% or more of the diet.
The diet may be supplemented with a variety of low-iron
fruits (e.g., diced apples, bananas) and vegetables (e.g.,
diced sweet potato, greens) at 25% of the daily intake.
128
Natural branch perches should be Mynahs

provided in a large aviary.
Insects (e.g., mealworms), fruits, fruit juices, nectars and
balanced electrolyte formulas (Gatorade) may be offered
occasionally. Fruits with high levels of vitamin C should
be avoided.
Tannin-rich tea may be offered several times a week or
for 1-week intervals 2 times monthly to help prevent
hemochromatosis.
SUITABILITY AS PETS / BEHAVIOR

Extraordinary mimicking ability, especially the greater
Indian Hill and the Java Hill mynahs
Nondestructive
Mynahs can be trained to sit on a hand or shoulder,
although some prefer not to be handled.
Intelligent
Hollow logs with perches help Hill mynahs are monogamous; couples remain together
simulate mynah’s natural habitat. throughout the year.
Mynahs often hop sideways between branches.
May collect or play with shiny objects; caution should be
taken that the birds do not ingest them.

Hepatopathies, hepatic cirrhosis or neoplasia
Iron storage disease (hemochromatosis)*
Congestive heart disease*
Aspergillosis
Mycobacteriosis
Eye disorders (corneal scratches, keratitis, chronic
keratoconjunctivitis)*
Bacterial upper respiratory infections*
129
Mynahs Mynah’s nests are made with small twigs,

dry pine needles, leaves, dirt and feathers.
Foreign body ingestion They usually nest in a hole of a tall tree; in
Coccidiosis captivity they will nest in a cockatiel nest box.
Toxicosis
*Often related to malnutrition
Mynahs produce copious amounts of loose feces,
requiring many layers and frequent changes of enclosure
liners. Formulated diets with limited fruits should be fed
to minimize mess.
A vaccination for poxvirus is available.
Mynahs have 7 air sacs instead of 9.

1. Harrison GJ, Lightfoot TL (eds): Clinical Avian Medicine and
Surgery. Palm Beach, Spix Publishing, 2006.
2. Invasive Species Specialist Group: Acridotheres tristis (bird), Global Mynahs are either found in pairs
Invasive Species Database, The World Conservation Union (IUCN), or in flock of up to 50 birds.
2006. www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=108&
fr=1&sts= Accessed May 2006.
3. Johnson-Delaney CA: Passerines and softbills. Exotic Companion
Medicine Handbook, Lake Worth, Zoological Education Network,
2000.
Principles and Application. Brentwood, TN, HBD Intl, 1999.
5. Sims K: Gracula religiosa, Animal Diversity Web, 2000.
Gracula_religiosa.html. Accessed May 2006.
6. Tully TN, Dorrestein GM, Lawton M: Avian Medicine. Butterworth-
Heinemann, 2000, pp 144-179.
7. US Bali Mynah Species Survival Plan: Husbandry Guidelines for
the Bali Mynah (Leucopsar rothschildi). www.mynahbird.com/
articles/baliguide/baliguide.html. Accessed May 2006.
130
Turaco Turacos (Touracos)

(Family Musophagidae)
White-cheeked turaco (Tauraco leucotis)
Violaceous (violet) turaco (Musophaga violacea)
Green turaco (Tauraco persa)
Great blue turaco (Corythaeola cristata)
Red-crested turaco (Tauraco erythrolophus)
Schalow’s turaco (Tauraco schalowi)
Hartlaub’s turaco (Tauraco hartlaubi)
Lady Ross’ turaco (Musophaga rossae)
Fischer’s turaco (Tauraco fischeri)
Livingstone’s turaco (Tauraco livingstonii)
Purple-crested turaco (Tauraco porphyreolophus)
White-crested turaco (Tauraco leucolophus)
White-bellied go-away bird (Corythaixoides leucogaster)
Western grey plantain-eater (Crinifer piscator)
ORIGIN
Africa
VITAL STATISTICS Arboreal
Forests, woodland and savannah areas
Adult size Size varies according to species.
The green turaco is the smallest CAPTIVE HOUSING
(14 inches [35 cm], 200-300 Outdoor, well-planted flights are best.
g), and the great blue turaco is
the largest (up to 28 inches [71 Large aviary (flight cage) should be at least 6 x 12 x 8
cm], up to 1000 g) feet (2 x 3.5 x 2.5 m).
131
Turacos (touracos) White-cheeked turaco Violaceous turaco

(Tauraco leucotis) (Musophaga violacea)
For short-term use or if the bird is sick, smaller
David Jones - www.touracos.co.uk

enclosures (1 m3) may be used.
May be housed individually or as a pair, but not more
than one pair in the same enclosure in most cases.
Pairs may have to be separated due to aggression.
Juveniles must be separated from adults as soon as they
are able to care for themselves and may be kept in
groups until sexually mature.
Hiding places and sturdy perches should be provided.
Preferred ambient temperature range is 64-77°F
(18-25°C). Purple-crested turaco Fischer’s turaco
(Tauraco porphyreolophus) (Tauraco fischeri)
Most turacos can tolerate mild winters without
supplemental heat if they have access to shelter, but
some species may not do well with frost, e.g. western
grey plantain-eater (Crinifer piscator).
DIET
Free-ranging turacos eat leaves, fruits, berries, some soft
shoots, flowers, and occasionally small insects, snails,
slugs and invertebrates.
In captivity, turacos may be fed a low-iron softbill diet
Hartlaub’s turaco Great blue turaco
mixed well with fruit (e.g., apples, bananas, melons,
(Tauraco hartlaubi) (Corythaeola cristata)
papaya, pears) and dark green leafy vegetables. Citrus
should be avoided.
Fruit must be chopped into small pieces because turacos
cannot chew and will swallow fruit whole.
Calcium supplementation is recommended, especially
when breeding.
132
Schalow’s turaco Lady Ross’ turaco Turacos (touracos)

(Tauraco schalowi) (Musophaga rossae)
SUITABILITY AS PETS
Hardy and relatively easy to care for.
Curious birds, and if tamed, turacos will approach
familiar people and perch on the shoulder or head;
however, many do not want human contact.
Droppings are very messy.
BEHAVIOR
Territorial, especially when nesting
Red-crested Turaco White-crested Turaco
Turacos may become aggressive, especially during
(Tauraco erythrolophus) (Tauraco leucolophus) breeding season.
Free-ranging turacos live in flocks.
Turacos can fly, but more often run along and hop
between horizontal branches in the tree canopy.
When excited, turacos raise their head crest.
Outer toes (D1 and D4) rotate forward or backward and
inner toes (D2 and D3) rotate forward to grip branches
(zygodactylous).
Turacos do not have a crop.
Livingstone’s turaco White-bellied go-away bird
(Tauraco livingstonii) (Corythaixoides leucogaster) Ceca are rudimentary or absent.
Turacos have a short gastrointestinal tract.
Most are sexually monomorphic; feather coloration is due
to two unique copper-based pigments, coverdin (green)
and turacin (red), not light diffraction.
Long tails, short rounded wings and crests are common.

133
Turacos (touracos) Natural branch perches should be

provided in a large aviary.
Iron storage disease
Avian tuberculosis (Mycobacterium avium)
Bumblefoot
Hypothermia
Frostbite
Traumatic injuries
Egg binding
Coccidiosis
Infectious diseases, such as: Yersinia pseudotuberculosis,
Salmonella, E. coli, aspergillosis and candidiasis

May be aggressive towards humans.
Should be fasted prior to anesthesia as these birds may
regurgitate.
Turacos are CITES Appendix II listed (restricted trade). Turacos are typically found in pairs
or family groups. In some areas
pairs defend a territory year round.
1. Animal Bytes: Cuculiformes. Busch Gardens.
www.buschgardens.org/animal-info/animal-bytes/animalia/
eumetazoa/coelomates/deuterostomes/chordata/craniata/
aves/cuculiformes/index.htm. Accessed December 2006.
2. Bio Facts: Turaco. Jacksonville Zoo and Gardens, 2001.
www.jaxzoo.org/things/biofacts/Turaco.asp. Accessed May 2006.
3. Brannian RE: Disease of turacos, go-away birds and plantain
eaters. In Fowler ME (ed): Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine Current
Therapy 3, WB Saunders, 1993, pp 237-240.
4. Byles B: Captivating touracos. In: Cage & Aviary Birds, December
7, 2002. www.touracos.co.uk/articleCA.htm. Accessed May 2006.
5. Davis KJ: Turacos: Softbill beauties of Africa. Davis Lund Aviaries,
1998.
7. The turaco family. International Turaco Society, 2006.
www.turacos.org/link.htm. Accessed December 2006.
134
Domestic Duck Domestic Ducks

(Family Anatidae)
Mallard duck (Anas platyrhynchos)
Pekin duck (Anas domesticus)
Muscovy duck (Cairina moschata)
Crested duck (Lophonetta specularioides formerly
Anas specularioides)
ORIGIN
Mallards are found worldwide (northern hemisphere,
Oceania, Asia, Africa, South America) and are migratory.
Most domesticated ducks are descended from the
mallard (e.g., Pekin from China).
Muscovy duck: Mexico, Central and South America.
Lakes, ponds, streams, rivers and marshes
CAPTIVE HOUSING
Ideal captive housing is a clean, dry, warm shelter within
an area to roam safely (pen or fenced yard) with a pond.
A 3-sided enclosure is best with the sides and top secure
VITAL STATISTICS enough to keep predators out.
Life span 10-15 years Adequate ventilation is required to prevent aspergillosis.
Adult size 15-26 inches (38-66 cm) A minimum of 3 feet (1 m) high and 5-6 square feet
in length depending on species (1.5-2 m2) of floor space per duck is recommended.
Body weight: 2-12 lbs (1-5 kg) A concrete floor allows easy cleaning, but must be
depending on species
covered with substrate.
males are larger than females
135
Domestic Ducks Male mallard duck Female mallard duck

(Anas platyrhynchos) (Anas platyrhynchos)
Substrate may be straw, hay, peat moss or sand. An
alterative that is easy to clean with a hose is Astroturf.
Substrate should be cleaned daily.
Wood shavings should not be used because ingestion
can cause intestinal blockages.
If using a wire cage, the floor should be covered with
washable soft towels or blankets (changed daily).
Burlap or a soft cloth may be used to make a visual
barrier to predators.
Water for swimming and playing with a ramp for access
must be provided at all times. Water should be changed Male muscovy duck Female muscovy duck
(Cairina moschata) (Cairina moschata)
when cloudy or after swimming.
Muscovies require places for perching.
Supplemental heat should be provided in the cold, using
a 75-watt standard, infrared or ceramic bulb, positioned
above one end of the enclosure and placed on the
Gerard Hogervorst
outside of the cage to prevent burns.
Shelters should be insulated and water- and wind-
proofed.
Birds may be moved indoors in extreme weather
conditions or at night.
Shade and plentiful water should be available in hot Pekin duck Crested duck
climates. (Anas domesticus) (Lophonetta
specularioides)
Environmental tolerance varies among breeds.
RESTRAINT
Both hands should be used to support the bird’s weight
with the wings held against the body.
Alternatively, the duck may be supported by holding the
neck with one hand and cradling the body with other, and
the middle finger positioned between the hocks.
136
A chain link fence provides Domestic Ducks

security and prevents escape.
DIET
Free-ranging ducks are herbivorous and eat leaves,
stems, flowers, roots and seeds of aquatic plants.
In captivity, ducks may be fed pelleted mash:
- Ducklings: 18-22% protein starter feed (3 weeks)
- Adolescents: 16% protein
- Adults: 14-16% protein, increased to 16-18% when
laying
Adult ducks’ diet should be supplemented with calcium
(e.g., oyster shell), shredded vegetables (e.g., carrots,
greens), finely chopped hard-boiled eggs (with the shell),
tomatoes, cracked corn, garden snails and slugs, worms,
night crawlers, and bloodworms.
Bread, scratch grains, seeds, nuts, chocolate and foods
high in fat, sugar or salt should not be fed.
Straw makes a good substrate. Uneaten food should be removed daily.
Unlimited access to non-medicated fresh water should be
provided and changed frequently.
SUITABILITY AS PETS
Domestic ducks need human interaction and enrichment.
Ducks are entertaining, interactive, vocal animals that
may form a strong bond with their owner.
BEHAVIOR
Ducks spend their time foraging for food and swimming.
Males may be territorial.
Aggressive pinching behavior may occur and should be
addressed by gently holding the bill closed while issuing a
verbal reprimand.
137
Domestic Ducks Ideal housing has

access to a pond.
SEXING
Sexing by plumage color is dependent on age, species
and season.
Most ducks may be sexed by their voices from the time
they are about 6 weeks old. The females will quack
loudly while the males make a soft, muffled, hoarse
sound.
Male ducks (drakes) acquire a curled tail feather called a
drake feather when they mature.
Male muscovy ducks are 30-50% larger than females.
Ducks may also be vent sexed.

Respiratory infections: pneumonia, aspergillosis
Heavy metal toxicity
Toxicosis: dietary, aflatoxin (moldy bedding), insecticides Alternatively, small children’s
pools may be used.
and rodenticides
Nutritional deficiencies
Bumblefoot (pododermatitis) and joint infections
Limb deformities (housing on wire mesh or slats)
Fractures
Avian tuberculosis (Mycobacterium avium)
Frostbite

Ducks should be immunized against infectious diseases
(duck virus hepatitis, duck virus enteritis)
If presented with a native species on an emergency
basis, the bird may be triaged and sent to a licensed
rehabber within 24 hours.
138
Mallard duck nests are made with Domestic Ducks

sticks and leaves near water.
The legs of free-ranging ducks must not be amputated
above the carpus or they can no longer be released.

1. Anas platyrhynchos, Animal Diversity Web.
Anas_platyrhynchos.html. Accessed May 2006.
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Pigeons and Waterfowl. Ames, Iowa State University Press,
1996, pp 289-330.
3. Environmental Protection Agency and Queensland Parks and
Wildlife Service: Handling ducks and geese. The Carer’s Kit,
2005. www.epa.qld.gov.au/nature_conservation/wildlife/
caring_for_wildlife/carers_kit/birds/rescuing_birds. Accessed May
2006.
ed. Elsevier-Saunders, 2003.
5. Fudge AM, Gemtz EJ: Sem Avian and Exotic Pet Med, 117-222,
2004.
6. Goodman L, Goodman G: Pet duck care. Live Ducks,
Young mallard ducks stay with their www.liveducks.com/care.html, Accessed May 2006.
mother for the first few weeks. 7. Harrison GJ, Lightfoot TL (eds): Clinical Avian Medicine. Palm
Beach, Spix Publishing. 2006.
8. Oklahoma State University: Breeds of duck, 1997.
www.ansi.okstate.edu/poultry/ducks/index.htm. Accessed May
2006.
Principles and Application. Brentwood, TN, HBD International,
1999.
10. Sandhu TS: Duck health care. In Duck Care: A Data Resource for
Duck Keepers. Cornell University and International Duck
Research Cooperative, 2006. www.duckhealth.com. Accessed
May 2006.
11. Stern H: Care and feeding of pet ducks.
www.forthebirdsdvm.com/ducks.htm. Accessed May 2006.
12. Tully TN, Dorrestein GM, Lawton M: Avian Medicine. Butterworth-
Heinemann, 2000, pp 234-265.
13. USGS: Mallard: Anas platyrhynchos.
www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/Infocenter/i1320id.html. Accessed May
2006.
139
800-946-4782 or 561-641-6745 Fax: 561-641-0234
www.exoticdvm.com
Unusual
Pet Care
VOLUME III
35 SPECIES: Guinea pigs, African naked mole rats, Shrews, Ring-tailed possums,
Richardson’s ground squirrels, Flying squirrels, Bennett’s wallabies, Ring-tailed lemurs,
Servals, Ocelots, Jackson’s chameleons, Green anoles, Frilled lizards, African fat-tailed
geckos, Tegus, Solomon Island prehensile-tailed skinks, Savannah and white-throated
monitor lizards, Leopard tortoises, Hermann’s tortoises, Horsfield’s tortoises, Spiny
softshell turtles, Milk snakes, Green tree pythons, Oriental fire-bellied toads, White’s tree
frogs, Tomato frogs, African clawed frogs, Betta fish, Oscar fish, Pigeons, Japanese quail,
American crows, Mandarin ducks, Emperor scorpions
Unusual Pet Care
Volume III
publisher nor the reviewers shall be liable for any loss, damage or liability directly or indirectly caused or alleged to
be caused by this book. The material contained herein is not intended to provide specific advice or recommendation
for any specific situation.
Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system,
without written permission from the publisher.

www.exoticdvm.com

UNUSUAL PET CARE - VOL III
Guinea Pig Guinea pigs or cavies

(Cavia porcellus)
Pet Care *
Cathy Johnson-Delaney, DVM, Dipl ABVP-Avian Practice
ORIGIN
Guinea pigs are rodents that originated from South
America. They are related to the chinchilla and porcupine.
In South America, guinea pigs are often hunted or raised
for meat, but free-ranging animals are not trapped for the
pet trade.
In the United States, the guinea pig is kept as a pet and
also used in research.
There are 3 main breeds of guinea pigs: English/common
(with short, straight, fine hair), Abyssinian (rough, wiry
hair in rosettes or whorls), and the Peruvian (long,
straight, silky hair).
Crosses of all breeds result in a wide range of coat colors
and patterns. Pet stores usually sell cross-bred animals,
but hobbyists breed purebred guinea pigs for shows.
There are 11 guinea pig breeds recognized in the show
ring, including American/English, White-crested,
VITAL STATISTICS Abyssinian, Peruvian, Silky and Teddy.
Life span 4-8 years (avg Respiratory rate 42-104 breaths per
5 years in home) minute
PET APPEAL / BEHAVIOR
Adult size (body length) 12 inches Heart rate 230-380 beats per
(310 mm) minute Guinea pigs are intelligent and quiet animals that make
Adult body weight - male 900-1200 g Blood pressure 80-94/55-58 mmHg good pets.
- female 750-900 g Dental formula I 1/1 C 0/0 P 1/1 M 3/3 They are not aggressive, preferring to flee in the face of
Body temperature 37.2-39.5°C (all teeth open-rooted) danger rather than bite or scratch.
(101.5-103°F)
They are sensitive creatures and can become panicked if
(rectal)
startled by abrupt and loud noises.
1
Guinea Pigs Long-haired breeds, like this Peruvian,

need regular grooming to prevent tangles.
Because guinea pigs are social animals, it is best to
house them in pairs or trios rather that singly. As a
solitary pet, it may bond closely to the owner, greeting
him/her with chirps, purrs, squeaks or whistles.
Guinea pigs can learn to get along with other family pets,
e.g., cats, dogs, rabbits, but should not be housed with
these and other animal species that carry Bordetella as a
subclinical infection, as this may cause severe disease in
cavies.
In a group, they will establish a pecking order, frequently
male-dominated.
Overcrowding may incite aggression, and non-castrated
males may be aggressive toward other males in the
presence of females.
Introducing a new guinea pig should be done in a neutral
territory under supervision.
Because guinea pigs do not
Guinea pigs do not adapt well to changes in their food or jump or climb, they can be
environment. Hair barbering (chewing of the fur) may housed in an open-topped pen.
occur in situations of stress and overcrowding.
Guinea pigs are most active in the morning and early
evening, preferring to rest or sleep during the day.
HOUSING
A single guinea pig may be housed in an enclosure at
least 12 x 24 inches (30 x 60 cm), but the larger the
space, the better. The sides of the enclosure should be
at least 12 inches (30 cm) high.
Because guinea pigs do not jump or climb, they can be
housed in an open-topped pen, such as a plastic
children’s pool, as long as dogs or cats do not have
access to it.
2
Hide boxes are recommended Guinea Pigs

for pet guinea pigs.
Guinea pigs enjoy and need supervised exercise outside
their enclosure.
Like all rodents, guinea pigs explore their world through
nibbling on new items; therefore, the play area should be
checked for any potential hazards.
The enclosure should offer some access to sunlight
within an optimal room temperature range of 55-70°F
(13-21°C).
Shade must be available to prevent overheating, as
temperatures above 80-85°F (27-29°C) may cause heat
stroke. The pen should offer good ventilation.
The best flooring is solid, covered with an abundance of
dust-free bedding of shredded newspaper, composite
recycled paper materials, hay or commercial bedding
pellets.
Cavies produce a lot of urine and feces. While their fecal
A guinea pig’s diet should consist of a
commercial guinea pig feed and hay. pellets are relatively odorless, the bedding should be
changed weekly at a minimum to control urine odors and
prevent respiratory and skin disorders. Cavies are very
sensitive to the ammonia in urine.
Enrichment items may include toilet paper rolls,
untreated cardboard boxes, paper towel rolls, hay, straw,
paper bags and toys designed for large birds and cats.
Items for chewing should be included, such as fruit tree
branches.
Guinea pigs prefer quiet environments and appreciate
Dawn Hromanik
having a box or tunnel in which to hide and rest.
3
Guinea Pigs HEMATOLOGIC BIOCHEMISTRY

DIET
Erythrocytes 4.5-7.0 x 106/mm3 Acid phosphatase 22.3-38.6 IU/L
The basic food should consist of a commercial guinea
pig feed (e.g., Oxbow Cavy Cuisine,® Oxbow, Hematocrit 37-48% Albumin 2.1-3.9 g/dl
www.oxbowhay.com; Nature’s Promise Premium Guinea Hemoglobin 11-15 g/dl Alkaline 54.8-108 IU/L
Pig Food,® ZuPreem, www.zupreem.com; Mazuri Guinea phosphatase
Leukocytes 7-18 x 103/mm3
Pig Diet,® www.mazuri.com) and hay. Most commercial Neutrophils 28-44% ALT 24.8-58.6 IU/L
diets aim for approximately 20% protein and 16% fiber. Lymphocytes 39-72% Amylase 237-357 SU/dl
Treats should be limited to no more than 1-2 Tbs per AST 26.5-67.5 IU/L
Eosinophils 1-5%
24-hour period. Appropriate treats may include high fiber Bicarbonate 12.8-30.0 mEq/L
Monocytes 3-12%
foods, such as alfalfa cubes or small amounts of green
Basophils 0-3% Bilirubin (total) 0.3-0.9 mg/dl
vegetables, carrot tops or apple.
Platelets 250-850 x 10 /mm
3 3 BUN 9.0-31.5 mg/dl
Unlike other animals, guinea pigs are not able to
synthesize vitamin C on their own; therefore, a dietary Creatinine 0.62-2.18 mg/dl
source of vitamin C must be provided daily. Commercial Cholesterol 16.0-43.0 mg/dl
pellets specially formulated for guinea pigs contain Calcium 8.3-12.0 mg/dl
vitamin C, but the level may be affected by storage Chloride 90-115 mEq/L
conditions or time. Daily vitamin C supplementation may CPK 0.5-1.6 IU/L
be provided through ¼-½ cup cabbage or kale or a 50- Globulin 1.7-2.6 g/dl
mg stabilized vitamin C tablet (GTN-50, Oxbow,
www.oxbowhay.com) to ensure adequate intake. Vitamin
LDH 24.9-74.5 IU/L
C can be administered in the drinking water, although it
should not be the sole source for the cavy. Magnesium 1.8-3.0 mg/dl
Other nutritional supplements (e.g., HEALx Sunshine Phospholipids 25-75 mg/dl
Factor or Booster, www.heal-x.com) may be beneficial. Phosphorus 3.00-7.63 mg/dl
Cavies have sensitive intestinal tracts, and sudden Potassium 3.80-7.95 mEq/L
alterations in diet (including even a change in food Serum lipids 95-240 mg/dl
brand) may result in serious GI upset and anorexia. Serum protein 4.6-6.2 g/dl
Feed bowls should be cleaned regularly as a cavy may sit
in them to defecate.
Triglycerides 0-145 mg/dl
Guinea pigs usually eat at dawn or dusk and engage in
cecotrophy. Uric acid 1.3-5.6 mg/dl
4

a b Guinea Pigs
Guinea pigs should have fresh, filtered drinking water in a

water bottle at all times. The water bottle should be
checked frequently because cavies like to play with the
sipper tube, which may cause leakage; they even push
food up into the sipper tube. Sipper tubes should be
thoroughly cleaned daily (with a large pipe cleaner), and
the water changed daily.
Vitamin C administered in the drinking water may
become inactivated with exposure to water, light and the
metal sipper tube. For this reason, it is advisable for
a) The guinea pig should be restrained with one hand around the shoulders and a guinea pigs to receive vitamin C from their food or direct
second hand supporting its hindquarters. b) Restraint of a pregnant guinea pig. Hand supplementation.
beneath rear quarters prevents struggling and supports the heavy body.
RESTRAINT
The guinea pig should be restrained and picked up with
one hand around the shoulders. As the animal is lifted
V U A clear of its cage, the hindquarters should be supported
From Exotic Companion Medicine

(see illustration at left).
Harkness, Wagner, 1989 -

Male guinea pigs have large scrotal sacs, and their penis
can be easily extruded with gentle pressure. Females
have a vaginal membrane and are usually smaller than
Handbook
males.
The first breeding should take place prior to 6 months of
FEMALE MALE age of the sow (prior to pelvic symphysis fusion) or the
U = urethral orifice Digital pressure will protrude penis. sow may have problems delivering the young (resulting in
V = vaginal closure membrane
A = anus
dystocia and possibly necessitating a cesarean section).
Pregnant sows should be separated from other cavies
until the litter is weaned, as adult pigs may inadvertently
trample the young.
5
Guinea Pigs For examination, a towel should be Proper handling of guinea pigs should
placed on the table to provide traction be demonstrated to clients, such as
The babies are born with full body hair, open eyes and and warmth for the guinea pig. on this pet presented for a nail trim.
the ability to eat solid food within the first day.
FIRST VISIT/ANNUAL EXAMINATION

The physical examination, which should be performed
every 6-12 months, would include a dental exam,
evaluation of the husbandry and diet, skin and otoscopic
exam, fecal flotation and direct smear. Additionally,
Teresa Bradley, DVM
Teresa Bradley, DVM

particularly after 3 years of age, guinea pigs should be
offered a geriatric screening, CBC/serum chemistry,
urinalysis and radiography.
BLOOD COLLECTION
Lateral saphenous vein: fur clipped and wet with alcohol
Cephalic vein: use a 25-27, 23 g needle One can normally obtain 0.1-0.2 ml blood from the
cephalic vein. Immobilization of the forelimb is
Jugular vein: restrain the guinea pig like a cat; if it important; avoid applying excessive negative pressure.
stresses or becomes dyspneic, stop. Guinea pigs have a
short right vein that may be hard to find.
Cranial vena cava: place the cavy under sedation in a
dorsal position; there is risk of subsequent traumatic
bleeding into the thoracic cavity or pericardial sac.
Cardiac puncture: this procedure requires deep sedation
or anesthesia. Although large volumes can be obtained,
it is usually reserved for terminal procedures during
euthanasia.
Maximum draw is 10% blood volume (7 ml/100 g BW) =
0.7 ml/100 g BW (no more than every 2 weeks. If ill,
Espen Odberg, DVM

consider 0.5 ml/100 g BW maximum).
Note: Venipuncture of multiple veins is often necessary
for collection of an adequate volume of blood for analy-
sis. It is important not to stress the cavy.
6
RADIOGRAPHY *
Guinea Pigs
Injection Sites

Intravenous: jugular catheter, lateral, saphenous or
cephalic (hard). If necessary for indwelling catheters,
perform jugular cutdown (use anesthesia). If long-term IV
therapy needed, install a vascular access port.
Intramuscular: gluteal or biceps muscle
Subcutaneous: upper back over shoulders (skin is thick
and hard to penetrate with 25-ga needle or smaller)
Intraperitoneal: hold on
back with support under
In a normal radiographic forelegs and hind
appearance of an adult male
guinea pig, the thoracic cavity is
quarters, head slightly
relatively small and reveals only a lower than hind quarters;
few details. Lung parenchyma this allows the stomach
and vasculature are difficult to
evaluate because the lungs are and intestines to fall
small and not well-aerated. forward. Insert a 23- to
Extrathoracic structures, such as 25-ga needle to the right of midline 2.5 cm in front of
ribs, sternum, spine and
diaphragmatic outline, are clearly the pubis and direct forward at an angle of 45°. Can
visible. administer up to 15 ml.
1. trachea (lateral view)
2. liver
3. stomach MOST COMMON DISORDERS
4. small bowel and cecum Signs of vitamin C deficiency, such as bone and tooth
abnormalities, abnormal bruises or hemorrhages
Overgrown teeth/malocclusion
Diarrhea/enteritis
Anorexia/weight loss
Pneumonia
Pododermatitis
From Rübel A: Atlas of Diagnostic
*
Radiology of Exotic Pets.

Schluetersche, 1991.
7
Guinea Pigs These incisors are overgrown and Pododermatitis is common in guinea pigs.
demonstrate oblique malocclusion.
Abortion/pregnancy toxemia/dystocia
Pregnancy-associated alopecia
Dermatophytosis/mange dermatitis
Arthritis/septicemia
Mette Lybek Ruelokke, DVM

Bite wounds (if group housed)
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
Dermatophytosis
Trichophyton mentagrophytes
Joel Mills
Mange mites, Trixacarus caviae
Yersinia pseudotuberculosis
Allergic responses to allergens (e.g., hair, skin), rhinitis,
rashes, asthma Symmetric alopecia associated
Fleas (dog and cat) Shown are skin lesions associated with with cystic ovaries is a common
Trixacarus caviae infestation. condition in female guinea pigs.
Salmonella sp. (rare cavy pathogen)
Nico J. Schoemaker, DVM, Dipl ECAMS, Dipl ABVP -Avian Practice

THERAPY
Sick guinea pigs stress easily and do not tolerate much
handling; therefore, the emphasis in health care is on
prevention of problems.
Few antibiotics are safe to use in cavies; in particular,
do not use penicillin or erythromycin.
In general, with any disease or stress, extra vitamin C
should be supplemented.
Oral medications may be administered by syringe into the
Uwe Gille
side of the mouth.
Fluids are usually given SC via 25- to 22-ga butterfly
catheter @ 100 ml/kg body weight per day divided
q8-12h (25-35 ml per site).
8
Guinea Pigs
What to Look for in a Healthy Guinea Pig REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
1. Adamcak A, Otten B: Rodent therapeutics. Vet Clin No Am Exot
Skin free of rashes, sores, Anim Pract 3(1):221-237, 2000.
bruises or hair loss 2. Capello V: Dental diseases and surgical treatment in pet rodents.
Exotic DVM 5(3):21-27, 2003.
Clear eyes with Clean and 3. Capello V: Prescrotal approach to elective orchiectomy in guinea
no discharge unmatted fur pigs. Exotic DVM 8(5):29-32, 2006.
4. Capello V, Gracis M: Radiographic anatomy of the guinea pig
Clean, dry skull. Exotic DVM 8(4):27-30, 2006.
nose 5. Capello V, Gracis M: Handbook of Rabbit and Rodent Dentistry.
Wiley-Blackwell, 2005.
6. Carpenter JW, Mashima TY, Rupiper DJ: Exotic Animal Formulary
2nd ed. WB Saunders Co, 2001.
7. Eatwell K: Ovarian and uterine disease in guinea pigs: A review of
5 cases. Exotic DVM 5(5):37-39, 2003.
8. Flecknell P, Waterman-Pearson A: Pain Management in Animals.
WB Saunders Co, 2000.
Proper occlusion 9. Franklin JM, Guzman, DS-M: Dilated cardiomyopathy and conges-
of teeth tive heart failure in a guinea pig. Exotic DVM 7(6):9-12, 2005.
10. Garner MM: A pictorial of select diseases in guinea pigs. Exotic
Soft pink feet DVM 8(3):48-50, 2006.
with no sores An active and 11. Hawkins MG: Diagnostic evaluation of urinary tract calculi in
curious disposition guinea pigs. Exotic DVM 8(3):43-47, 2006.
12. Hoefer HL: Guinea pig urolithiasis. Exotic DVM 6(2):23-25, 2004.
13. Hrapkiewicz K, et al: Clinical Laboratory Animal Medicine: An
Introduction 2nd ed. Iowa State University Press, 1998.
14. Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine, official journal of the Association
of Exotic Mammal Veterinarians (AEMV), www.AEMV.org.
15. Quesenberry KE, Carpenter JW (eds): Ferrets, Rabbits and
Rodents Clinical Medicine and Surgery 2nd ed. WB Saunders Co,
2004.
16. Rueløkke ML, Arnbjerg J: Retrobulbar abscess secondary to
molar overgrowth in a guinea pig. Exotic DVM 5(2):10-16, 2003.
17. Rueløkke ML, McEvoy FJ, Nielsen, Holt S: Cystic ovaries in
guinea pigs. Exotic DVM 5(5):33-36, 2003.
18. Rueløkke ML, et al: Assessing gastrointestinal motility in guinea
pigs using contrast radiography. Exotic DVM 6(1):31-36, 2004.
19. Rueløkke ML, Arnbjerg J: Management of ileus in guinea pigs.
Exotic DVM 6(5):23, 2004.
20. Tennant B: Small Animal Formulary 3rd ed CD-ROM. Brit Sm
Anim Vet Assoc, UK, 1999.
21. Wolfensohn S, Lloyd M: Handbook of Laboratory Animal
Management and Welfare 2nd ed. Blackwell Science, 1998.
9
FORMUL ARY
Certain antibiotics should not be used in guinea pigs because they may result in dysbiosis/enterotoxemia. Antibiotics responsible for this disruption
include ampicillin, amoxicillin, streptomycin, bacitracin, cephalosporins, clindamycin, erythromycin, gentamicin, lincomycin, penicillins and
tetracyclines. The antibiotics that appear least like to cause disturbances are chloramphenicol, trimethoprim/sulfonamides and fluoroquinolones.
Probiotic supplements should be administered during any antibiotic treatment and continued for 5 days beyond termination of treatment, although
there is some controversy regarding the benefit of this therapy.
DRUG ROUTE DOSAGE / COMMENTS
Acepromazine IM 0.5-1.0 mg/kg
Acetylsalicylic acid PO 50-100 mg/kg q4h
Alphaxalone/alphadolone 12 mg/ml solution IM, IP 40 mg/kg
Aluminum hydroxide (Amphojel®) PO 0.5-1.0 ml PRN
Amikacin SC, IM, IV 10-20 mg/kg divided q8-12h
Aminophylline IM 50 mg/kg PRN
Amitraz (Mitaban®) per package directions Topical 3-6 treatments 14 days apart; CAUTION: may dilute more
Atipamezole IM, SC 1 mg/kg
Atropine IM, SC 0.1-0.2 mg/kg; organophosphate poisoning = 10 mg/kg SC;
May cause cardiovascular irregularities
Azithromycin PO 15 mg/kg q24h
Betamethasone SC 0.1 mg/kg
Buprenorphine SC 0.05 mg/kg q6-12h
Butorphanol SC 0.4-2.0 mg/kg q2-4h
Calcium carbonate PO 4 mg/kg q24h
Calcium EDTA SC 30 mg/kg q12h lead chelation
Calcium gluconate IM 100 mg/kg in dystocia, follow with oxytocin
Carbaryl 5% powder (Diryl®) Topical Dust lightly once weekly
Carprofen IV, IM, SC 4 mg/kg q12-24h
Ceftiofur sodium IM 1 mg/kg q24h
Cephalexin IM 50 mg/kg divided q12h, use for 14 days against Strep
Cephaloridine IM 10-25 mg/kg q8-24h
Cholestyramine Water 100 mg/ml
Chloramphenicol ophthalmic ointment Topical q8-12h
Chloramphenicol palmitate PO, water 50 mg/kg q12h; 1 mg/ml water
10

Chloramphenicol succinate PO 30-50 mg/kg q12h
Chlopromazine SC 25 mg/kg
Chlorpheniramine SC 5 mg/kg q24h
Cimetidine PO, SC, IM, IV 5-10 mg/kg q6-12h
Ciprofloxacin PO 10-15 mg/kg q12h
Cisapride PO 0.5 mg/kg q12h
Cyclophosphamide IP 300 mg/kg q24h
Dexamethasone PO, SC 0.5-2.0 mg/kg q12h
Diazepam IM 1-2 mg/kg; calming for pruritis and post partum; 0.5-3.0 mg/kg for sedation
Diovol Plus® PO 0.5-1 ml PRN
Diphenhydramine IP, SC, PO 12.5 mg/kg IP; 5 mg/kg SC; 24 mg/kg PO PRN
Primidone PO 25-50 mg/kg q12h
Dopamine IV 0.08 mg/kg PRN
Doxapram IM, SC, IV, IP 10-15 mg/kg; 2-5 mg/kg IV,IP
Doxycycline PO, SC 2.5-5.0 mg/kg PO q12h; long-acting parenteral formulation: 75 mg/kg SC q7d
Enilconazole Dip Dilute to 0.2% solution q7d
Enrofloxacin PO, SC, IM 5 mg/kg q12h
Ephedrine IV, PO 1 mg/kg PRN
Epinephrine IV 0.003 mg/kg PRN
Etomidate IV 1 mg/kg after midazolam has taken effect
Fenbendazole PO 20-50 mg/kg q24h x 5 days
Fentanyl (0.2 mg/ml)+ fluanisone (10 mg/ml) IM 0.5-1.0 ml/kg
Fentanyl/droperidol (Innovar-Vet™) IM 0.22-0.88 ml/kg, sedation, injection site inflammation at higher doses
Fentanyl/fluanisone (F) plus diazepam (D) IM 1 ml/kg (F) + 2.5 mg/kg (D)
Fentanyl/fluanisone (F) plus midazolam (M) IM, IP 1 part F, 1 part M, 2 parts water; 8 ml/kg - anesthesia 45-60 min duration
Flurbiprofen ophthalmic solution Topical 1 drop each eye q12h
Furazolidone Water 5.5 mg/ml
Furosemide SC, IM, PO 5-10 mg/kg q12h
Glycopyrrolate SC 0.01-0.02 mg/kg
Griseofulvin PO 15-25 mg/kg q24h 14-28 days (can dose up to 100 mg/kg)
11

Heparin IV 5 mg/kg PRN
Human chorionic gonadotropin IM 1000 USP units, repeat 7-10 days
Hydralazine IV 1 mg/kg PRN
Isoflurane Inhalation To effect
Isoproterenol IM 0.05 mg/kg PRN
Itraconazole IM 5 mg/kg q24h
Ivermectin PO, SC 0.2-0.4 mg/kg q7d x 3 weeks or 0.5 mg/kg SC q14d (Sarcoptes)
Kaopectate liquid PO 0.2 ml q6-8h per adult, symptomatically
Ketamine IM 22-64 mg/kg
Ketamine (K) + acepromazine (A) IM 25-55 mg/kg (K) + 0.75-3.00 mg/kg (A)
Ketamine (K) + diazepam (D) IM 20-30 mg/kg (K) + 1-2 mg/kg (D)
Ketamine (K) + medetomidine (M) IP 40 mg/kg (K) + 0.5 mg/kg (M)
Ketamine (K) + midazolam (M) IM 5-10 mg/kg (K) + 0.5-1.0 mg/kg (M)
Ketamine (K) + xylazine (X) IM 20-40 mg/kg (K) + 2 mg/kg (X)
Ketoconazole PO 10-40 mg/kg/day x 14d
Ketoprofen SC, IM 1 mg/kg q12-24h
Leuprolide acetate depot 30-day formulation IM 0.2-0.3 mg/kg q28d (cystic ovaries)
Lime sulfur (2.5% solution) / dip Topical, dip Apply once weekly x 4-6 weeks; dilute 1:40 with water, q7d x 6 weeks
Loperamide HCL (Immodium A-D) PO 0.1 mg/kg q8h x 3d, then q24h x 2d
Magnesium hydroxide PO 4 mg/kg q24h
Marbofloxacin PO, SC 3-5 mg/kg q24h
Medetomidine IM, IP, SC 0.3-0.5 mg/kg
Meloxicam PO, SC 0.2 mg/kg q24h
Meperidine SC, IM 20 mg/kg q2-3h
Metoclopramide (Reglan® 5 mg/ml) SC 0.5 mg/kg q8h, PRN
Metronidazole PO 20-25 mg/kg q12h
Midazolam IM, IV 0.3-0.5 mg/kg with sedative (etomidate or other) as part of pre-anesthesia
Morphine SC/IM 2-5 mg/kg q4h
Nalbuphine IM 1-2 mg/kg q3h
Nalorphine IV 2-5 mg/kg narcotic reversal
12

Naloxone IP, IV 0.01-0.1 mg/kg
Neomycin PO 15 mg/kg q12h
Neomycin/dexamethasone/polymixin B Topical in q8-12h, may cause GI stasis
ophthalmic drops or ointment eye
Nitrofurazone PO 50 mg/kg q24h x 3d
Oxymorphone SC, IM 0.2-0.5 mg/kg q6-12h
Oxytetracycline IM 5 mg/kg q8h
Oxytocin IM, SC 1 IU/guinea pig - if no young after 15 min of administration, perform c-section
Pentobarbital IP 25-35 mg/kg
Phenobarbital IP, IV 10-20 mg/kg PRN
Piperazine adipate Water 4-7 mg/ml x 3-10d
Piperazine citrate Water 2-5 mg/ml
Piroxicam PO 5.7-6.0 mg/kg q12-24h
Potassium chloride PO, IM 0.5-1.0 mg/kg q24h
Potassium citrate PO 10-30 mg/kg q12h
Praziquantel IM, SC, PO 5-10 mg/kg, repeat in 10d
Prednisone PO 0.5-2.0 mg/kg
Propofol IV 10 mg
Pyrethrin powder Topical Dust q7d x 3 weeks
Quinacrine HCL 75 mg/kg q8h
Selamectin Topical 6 mg/kg
Sevoflurane Inhalation To effect
Sucralfate PO 50 mg/kg q12-24h
Sulfadimethoxine PO 10-15 mg/kg q12h
Sulfamerazine Water 1 mg/ml
Sulfamethazine Water 1-5 mg/ml
Sulfaquinoxaline Water 1 mg/ml
Terbinafine PO 10-30 mg/kg q24h x 4-6 weeks, antifungal
Tetracycline IM, PO 5 mg/kg IM q8h, 10-20 mg/kg PO q8h, or 50 mg/kg/day PO
in 3 divided doses (toxicity has been reported in guinea pigs)
Thiabendazole PO 100 mg/kg x 5d
13

Thiopental IP 20-55 mg/kg
Tiletamine-zolazepam IM 20-40 mg/kg
Tobramycin SC 30 mg/kg q12h
Tresaderm Topical 1 drop per ear daily x 3-5d
Trimethoprim sulfadiazine SC 20 mg/kg/day, 0.5 ml/kg/day
Trimethoprim 20 mg sulfamethoxazole PO 15-30 mg/kg q12h
or sulfadiazine 100 mg
Tylosin IM, SC 10 mg/kg q24h; reported toxicity
Vitamin A IM 50-500 IU/100 g
Vitamin B complex SC, IM 0.02-0.2 ml/kg
Vitamin C IM, PO, Water 10-30 mg/kg; 50 mg/kg SC, IM q24h; 200-400 mg/L water daily
Vitamin D IM, SC 200-400 IU/kg
Vitamin E IM 5-10 mg/kg q24h
Vitamin E-selenium (Bo-Se) SC 0.1 ml/100-250 g
Vitamin K1 IM 1-10 mg/kg PRN
Xylazine IM, IP 5 mg/kg IM; 8-10 mg/kg IP
Yohimbine IV 0.5-1 mg/kg
14
African Naked African naked mole rats

(Heterocephalus glaber)
Mole Rat Pet Care Vladimír Jekl, MVDr, PhD
ORIGIN / FREE-RANGING HABITAT

Naked mole rats are endemic to arid regions of
northeastern Africa (Somalia, Ethiopia, Kenya).
These rodents live in low-oxygen, high-carbon dioxide
subterranean burrows.
SUITABILITY AS PETS
They could be recommended only for very experienced
owners because of their social life (large colonies) and
specific husbandry requirements, including very large
tanks.
Naked mole rats are adapted to their typical burrowing
lifestyle. Their body is cylindrical with the back arched
Roman Klementschitz
dorsally over the lumbosacral region.

The limbs are short and slender. The head is cone-shaped
with prominent jaw musculature. Their eyes are tiny, and
external pinnae are missing. Loose skin is brownish-pink
in color.
This species is not totally hairless—it possesses isolated
VITAL STATISTICS tactile hairs all over the body, and whiskers are prominent
Life span 10 years (avg); Dentition I 1/1, C 0/0, P 0/0, M 3/3 around the snout.
up to 28 years (with prominent elodont incisors)
The animal can move its mandibular incisors indepen-
Body weight 30-50 g (1.0-1.8 oz) Sexual maturity 1 year
(Queens are larger and may dently, spreading them apart and moving them together.
weigh over 50 g.)
Litter size 12-27
Body length 13-18 cm (5-7 inches)
Lactation 5 weeks
15
African Naked Mole Rats
BEHAVIOR
Naked mole rats are eusocial mammals that live in
colonies typically comprised of 60-80 individuals.
Each colony generally includes one breeding female
(queen) and 1-3 breeding males. Only this female in a
colony produces offspring. Other females within the
colony are not sterile but are simply sociologically
suppressed by the dominant queen.
Other smaller males and females are the primary
maintenance workers and foragers, and larger individuals
defend the colony against predators and foreign rats.
Living entirely underground, naked mole rats excavate an
extensive system of tunnels with their continuously
growing incisors.
The majority of the burrow is composed of several nests
and many foraging tunnels, constructed in search of an
underground food.
Free-ranging animals are active 24 hours a day.
CAPTIVE HOUSING
Naked mole rats can be maintained in a large aquarium.
If long plastic tubes that mimic tunnels and plastic boxes
filled with wood shavings or paper towels are provided,
the colony will establish a burrow system.
Cardboard tubes, cornhusks, larger tubes, wood shavings,
branches, soil or sand may be placed in tunnels to allow
proper chewing and foraging behavior.
ENVIRONMENTAL TEMPERATURE / HUMIDITY

Naked mole rats have a lower metabolic rate than other
Eutherian mammals and have only a very weak capacity
16
for physiological thermoregulation. They regulate body

temperature primarily through heat exchange by
conduction.
The preferred body/ambient temperature is 28-33°C
(82.4-91.4°F).
Humidity level should be kept at 30-50% with good air
ventilation.
DIET
These rodents are primarily herbivorous and eat a low-
quality and high-fiber diet (roots and tubers), which also
serves as their source of water and minerals.
Coprophagy contributes to the high digestive efficiency.
In captivity they will readily consume sweet potatoes,
various vegetables (carrots, corn and broccoli), ground
rodent pellets, tubers and fruits (apple, peach, banana
and pear).
RESTRAINT
When handling, the goal is to minimize the risk of being
bitten.
Towels, soft leather or gloves may be used for restraint.
ANESTHESIA
Inhalant isoflurane anesthesia is recommended.
Premedication with injectable anesthetics is used for
induction. Dosages used by the author include:
medetomidine (0.05-0.12 mg/kg), midazolam (0.1-0.3
mg/kg) and ketamine (3-10 mg/kg).
Premedication with butorphanol (0.3-0.6 mg/kg IM) and
then placement in an anesthetic chamber is possible.
17

Heterocephalus sp. are prone to E. coli enteral
infections, which can kill an entire colony.
This species is susceptible to incisor overgrow, especially
after an incisor fracture.
Mole rats that are seriously injured should be housed
separately until recovery; however, reintroduction back
into the group may be difficult.
It is suggested that this species uses a mechanism
independent of vitamin D3 in regulating mineral
homeostasis and therefore is well adapted to an
environment without sunlight.
Intestinal calcium transport in mole rats is independent
of vitamin D mediation, and no dietary vitamin D or
calcium is therefore provided.

1. Buffenstein R, et al: Effect of oral cholecalciferol supplementation
at physiological and supraphysiological doses in naturally vitamin
D3-deficient subterranean damara mole-rats (Cryptomys damaren-
sis). J Endocrin 131:197-202, 1991.
2. Buffenstein R: The naked mole-rat: A new long-living model for
human aging research. The Journals of Gerontology. Series A,
Biological Sciences and Medical Science 60:1369-1377, 2005.
3. Jarvis JUM, Sherman PW: Heterocephalus glaber. Mammalian
Species 706:1-9, 2002.
4. Pitcher T, Buffenstein R: Intestinal calcium transport in mole-rats
(Cryptomys damarensis and Heterocephalus glaber) is independent
of both genomic and non-genomic vitamin D mediation. Experim
Physiol 80:597-60, 1995.
5. Riccio AP, Goldman BD: Circadian rhythms of body temperature
and metabolic rate in naked mole rats. Physiol & Behav 71:15-
22, 2000.
18
Shrew Shrews (Sorex araneus)
Pet Care Vladimír Jekl, MVDr, PhD
Also known as Eurasian or common shrew

The family Soricidae is distributed worldwide, except in
Australia and New Zealand. The genus Sorex includes
common shrews of North America and Europe.
The S. araneus is a terrestrial species and is commonly
found in grasslands, woodlands and creek banks.
SUITABILITY AS PETS
Shrews are very prone to stress and therefore could be
recommended as pets only for very experienced owners.
In many countries this species is protected by law.
A shrew is characterized by its long flexible nose, small
eyes, short legs and very dense dark brown velvety fur,
which is lighter on the flanks and yellow/white on the belly.
The tail is slightly shorter than the body.
Scent glands, which are located on both flanks, are highly
developed only in adult males.
All 32 teeth have red-brown tips because of the deposi-
tion of iron compound. The deciduous teeth development
VITAL STATISTICS is suppressed, so only permanent dentition erupts.
Life span 2 years (avg) (captivity) Sexual maturity 9-10 months
The zygomatic bone is missing.
3+ years reported Estrus polyestrous
<1 year (free-ranging)
Gestation 19-21 days BEHAVIOR
Body weight 5-14 g (0.18-0.5 oz)
Litter size 6-7 Shrews are territorial animals. Their territory is marked by
Body size 50-82 mm (2.0-3.2 inches)
Time to weaning 26-30 days
Tail length 24-50 mm (1-2 inches) the secretions of lateral skin glands.
19
Shrews Shrews have a high metabolism rate,

and free-ranging shrews spend much
Free-ranging adults live separately except during the of their time foraging for food.
mating season (spring, autumn).
They can be active through the day and night, but are
most active after sunset.
They make small sleeping nests (burrows) of moss, dried
leaves and grass or use the burrows of small rodents.
Their olfactory and hearing senses are well developed.
Shrews produce ultrasound, which is used as a primitive
form of echolocation.
Shrews do not hibernate.
CAPTIVE HOUSING
This species can be housed in pairs.
The substrate should consist of earth, peat and turf sods.
Nest boxes are filled with hay, moss and/or cotton wool.
Dried leaves, cardboard boxes, hay and grass may be
provided as part of environmental enrichment.

The preferred ambient temperature is 15-23°C (58-73°F).
The humidity should be maintained between 50-60%.
To maintain the cool, moist conditions preferred by
shrews, the substrate should be misted with water.
DIET
Shrews are primarily insectivorous. In nature, the shrew’s
diet also includes carcasses of small vertebrates.
One recommended diet includes ox heart, cracked wheat,
rolled oats, fresh chicken and raw chicken eggs with
vitamin and mineral supplements. Earthworms, small
slugs and snails may also be part of their diet.
Because of a very high metabolism rate, shrews should be
20
An earthworm may be Shrews

part of a shrew’s diet.
offered food several times a day as they eat as much as
80-90% of their weight to maintain all requirements.
RESTRAINT / ANESTHESIA
When handling a shrew, the goal is to minimize the risk
of being bitten. Towels or soft leather may be used.
Inhalant anesthesia (isoflurane) is recommended. An
anesthetic chamber or premedication with injectable
anesthetics (e.g., medetomidine, midazolam, ketamine)
is used for induction.

Shrews suffer from skin diseases (i.e., trichophytosis).
Intestinal parasitism (Staphylocystis sp., Molluscotaenia
sp., Longistriata sp.) is very common.
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
Shrews are reservoirs of many zoonotic parasitic (Crypto-
sporidium sp.), mycotic (T. mentagrophytes), bacterial
(Bartonella sp., Borrelia sp., Leptospira sp.) and viral
(tick-borne encephalitis, hantavirus) infections.

1. Churchfield S: Shrews of the British Isles. Shire Natural History
Series No. 30. Shire Publications, Princes Risborough, 1988.
2. Nowak RM (ed): Walker’s Mammals of the World 6th ed Vol II.
Baltimore, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.
3. Searle JB: Breeding the common shrew (Sorex araneus) in captivi-
ty. Lab Anim 18:359-363, 1984.
4. Välimäki K, Hinten G, Hanski I: Inbreeding and competitive ability
in the common shrew (Sorex araneus). Behavl Ecol Sociobiol
61:997-1005, 2007.
5. Vlcek M: Small mammals on refuse dumps as sources of
pathogens and parasites. Vet Med-Czech 36:569-575, 1991.
21
Ring-tailed (ringtail) possums

(Pseudocheirus pereginus)
Ring-tailed Possum
Ariana Finkelstein, DVM Pet Care
Distributed along the east coast of Australia and south-
western Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea
Ring-tailed possums live in woodlands, rainforests, dense
scrub, eucalyptus forests, coastal shrub and suburban
gardens; they are almost exclusively arboreal.
SUITABILITY AS PETS
Ring-tailed possums require lots of attention.
They require a large outdoor area with trees for housing.
Ring-tailed possums are distinguished by their white-
tipped prehensile tail, which is used for grabbing
branches and nesting materials.
They have 5 clawed toes on their hands; the first 2 are
opposed; the hind feet also have 5 toes, but the only the
first is opposable and it has no claw.
Their molars have sharp ridges for grinding of leaves.
Females have a forward-opening marsupial pouch; the
mammary chain includes 4 nipples; only 2 are functional.
Males have a bifurcated penis. VITAL STATISTICS
Life span 4-5 years in the wild Body weight 1.5-2.5 lb (700-1200 g)
BEHAVIOR up to 10-12 years in captivity Dental 3 pairs of upper incisors,
Ring-tailed possums are nocturnal with very good night Adult size 12-14 inches (300-500 mm) 1 pair of lower incisors
vision; most of their activity takes place from dusk until body length with a tail the
same length (300-350 mm)
midnight when they eat, climb and play.
22
Ring-tailed Possums
Free-ranging ring-tailed possums may build as many as 5

nests (dreys) in tree hollows and dense undergrowth and
move often; they sleep in them during the day.
Vocalizations include a soft, high-pitched, twittering call.
Though generally not overly aggressive, they are territorial
and usually solitary, except for small family groups.
Occasionally, some animals will become extremely
aggressive and attack intruders within their territory.
Caution should be used when entering the aviary.
CAPTIVE HOUSING
They require a large, aviary-type enclosure, preferably
with large, flowering appropriate plants (some plants are
highly toxic to possums) and small trees.
An outdoor aviary is best because ring-tailed possums
mark their territory, which can be rather pungent.
Minimum recommended enclosure size is: 12 feet (3.7
m) long, 8 feet (2.4 m) high and 4 feet (1.2 m) wide.
Nesting logs, nesting materials, climbing branches, and
ropes and boxes are recommended accessories.
Branches and thick pieces of bark may be provided for
climbing and for gnawing and should be replaced regularly.
DIET
In the wild, they are herbivorous/folivorous; their diet
varies somewhat according to the range of each animal,
but they mostly eat blossoms, fruits and leaves in the
treetops at night (eucalyptus and acacia are preferred).
They have extended their foods to include introduced
plants, flowers and fruits, and they will also eat their own
fecal pellets (coprophagia).
23
Ring-tailed Possums
Fruits, nuts, greens, oats, nectars, flower and flower

petals, native vegetation (eucalyptus, acacia, gum, tea
trees, she-oak, bottlebrush, grevillia and wattles) are
important for a healthy life.
A reported zoo diet consists of ground alfalfa hay, banana,
carrot, celery stems, grapes, kale and primate diet.
A feeding platform should be provided above the ground.
They should be fed after dusk.
Fresh water must be available at all times.
RESTRAINT
Chemical restraint is recommended.
Unless hand-raised, they are difficult to restrain manually.
Thick leather gloves or a towel should be used.
A pillowcase can be used temporarily.
One may restrain the ring-tailed possum by the tail and
around the neck behind the head.
ANESTHESIA
Gas anesthesia is the anesthetic of choice; however,
intubation is difficult and requires an endoscope or a
long-bladed laryngoscope.
Animals that are not accustomed to handling may benefit
from a mild sedative administered IM prior to gas:
midazolam (0.1-0.2 mg/kg) or medetomidine (0.03-0.05
mg/kg), butorphanol (0.2-0.4 mg/kg) would be safe and
effective; buprenorphine (0.03 mg/kg) can also be used.
Alternatives: Telazol (4-10 mg/kg IM or 1-3 mg/kg IV),
but results are variable.
Medetomidine (0.04 mg/kg) and ketamine (4 mg/kg IM),
reverse with atipamizole (0.2 mg/kg IM) or, in combina-
24
Ring-tailed Possums
tion, medetomidine (0.2 mg/kg) / ketamine (2 mg/kg) /

butorphanol (0.2 mg/kg) are also used IM.
Propofol (6-8 mg/kg IV)

Leptospirosis
Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii
Coccidiosis
Internal parasites (treatment with ivermectin or
fenbendazole is recommended)
Salmonella
Tuberculosis
“Swollen paw syndrome” (edema of the paws followed by
ulceration, dermatitis)
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
Salmonella and dermatophytes
Certain states do not allow ring-tailed possums as pets.
The tail vein is present on the lateral aspect of the tail
and is good for catheter placement and blood collection.
The jugular vein can also be used for blood collection,
but the patient needs to be anesthetized.
Rabies vaccination should be considered in endemic
areas and if housed outdoors.

1. Baker RT, Beveridge I: Imidacloprid treatment of marsupials for
fleas (Pygiopsylla hoplia). J Zoo Wildl Med 32(3):391-392, 2001.
2. Holz P: Marsupialia. In Fowler ME, Miller RE (eds): Zoo and Wild
Animal Medicine 5th ed. Saunders, 2003, pp 288-303.
3. Wildlife. The TG Hungerford Refresher Course for Veterinarians.
Proc 233. Venue Western Plains Zoo Dubbo NSW, 1994.
25
Richardson’s ground squirrels

(Spermophilus richardsonii)
Richardson’s Ground
Kristin Sinclair, DVM
Squirrel Pet Care
Also known as gopher, prairie gopher, yellow gopher,
flicker tail or picket pin. There are at least 39 species of
Spermophilus ground squirrels.
ORIGIN
Northern United States and southern Canada
Richardson’s ground squirrels are found in burrows in
open grasslands, pastures and cultivated areas.
SUITABILITY AS PETS
Commercially available babies are from wild-caught
pregnant females.
These animals can be affectionate if handled gently and
frequently from a young age, and the prospective owner
must commit a large amount of time to this. Ultimately,
they are not a domesticated animal.
Lack of the ability to hibernate in captivity may pose a
health problem.
They can be destructive chewers; prospective owners
need to squirrel-proof the cage and home. VITAL STATISTICS
The Richardson’s ground squirrel is litter-trainable. Life span 4 years (avg) Sexual maturity 11 months
Adult body Litter size 6-8 offspring; 1 litter per
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS weight - male 500-600 g year; second not possible if
- female 400-450 g first is lost
These squirrels are stout-bodied with a short tail; they
Dental formula I 1/1 C 0/0 P 2/1 M 3/3 = 22 Estrus A few hours
resemble a small prairie dog. The incisors are open-rooted. Gestation 23 days (avg)
26
Richardson’s Ground Squirrels
The hair coat is short and dense, ranging in color from

cinnamon to pink buff on the dorsum. The underside is
lighter in color, and the dorsal tail is black.
BEHAVIOR
Free-ranging individuals hibernate for most of the year
and are active from early spring to mid-to-late summer
for mating and feeding. Hibernation consists of
approximately 90% torpor for lengthening periods as the
weather gets colder, interspersed with a few hours of
warming and brief activity within hibernation burrow.
Chuck Szmurlo
They are considerably lighter after hibernation.

Free-ranging female Richardson’s ground squirrels
maintain amicable interactions with female relatives.
However, they are aggressive to non-familial females and
all males aside from their brief estrus period.
A Richardson’s ground squirrel
exhibiting territorial behavior.
Males live singly and exhibit inter-male aggression during
the breeding season.
Vocalizations include chirps, whistles (warning calls) and
growls (upset, warning noise).
At 1 month of age the offspring emerge from maternal
burrows and are able to eat solid foods.
CAPTIVE HOUSING
A solid-bottomed wire cage suitable for a rabbit or a guinea
pig would be the minimum size requirement (3 x 2 x 1.5
feet [0.9 x 0.6 x 0.5 m]).
Substrate should be deep enough to allow burrowing and
Chuck Szmurlo
nesting; recycled paper and hay can be used.

Some authors recommend the use of a 3-story ferret
cage to mimic their natural burrow system. However, they
27
Richardson’s Ground Squirrels Male Richardson’s ground squirrels

often fight with other males.
are not good climbers so a 3-story enclosure should be
arranged so they cannot fall far from ramps or tubings.
Ideally, they should be housed at least in pairs (sisters or
females), but if housed alone, they will need regular
interaction with their owner.
Hide boxes, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes buried in the
substrate and chew toys are recommended.
Ambient household temperature is acceptable, but heat
extremes should be avoided (over 80°F [27°C]).
DIET
In the wild, the Richardson’s ground squirrel is primarily
herbivorous/granivorous, consuming native grasses and
seeds. In cultivated areas, they eat more crop foods
(e.g., wheat, oats). They occasionally eat a few insects.
Recommended foods in captivity are similar to those
recommended for a prairie dog: timothy hay, herbivore Free-ranging Richardson’s
ground squirrels spend most
pelleted diet or hay cubes (e.g., Oxbow Prairie Delight, of their time in burrows.
Brisky Prairie Dog Diet) and fresh, leafy vegetables.
RESTRAINT
These creatures cannot be scruffed easily.
They may be carried and held as with a rabbit, supporting
the chest in one hand and the rump with other.
If the animal is fractious, a towel or pair of heavy gloves
may be helpful.
ANESTHESIA
Fasting is not required, because they do not vomit.
One can extrapolate from other rodents (e.g., prairie dogs).
Inhalation anesthesia can be used for induction and
maintenance.
28
Richardson’s Ground Squirrels
Ketamine (40 mg/kg) with acepromazine (0.4 mg/kg IM)

has been used successfully in prairie dogs.
Analgesics include butorphanol (2 mg/kg SC),
buprenorphine (0.02 mg/kg SC) and meloxicam
(0.2 mg/kg SC or PO).

Ectoparasites: fleas, ticks
Endoparasites
Improper diet: inadequate hay intake
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
Vector-borne disease, such as Bartonella sp.
Colorado tick fever
Ownership may require a permit.
Castration may be feasible through an intra-abdominal
approach. The testicles are active for only 8 weeks after
emergence from hibernation, after which they regress
intra-abdominally.

1. http://people.uleth.ca/~michener/main.htm. Accessed September
2007.
2. Michener GR, Koeppl JW: Spermophilus richardsonii. Mammalian
Species No. 243, Dec 1985, pp 1-8.
3. www.centralpets.com/animals/mammals/rodents/rod4274.html.
Accessed September 2007.
4. Beran GW: “Colorado tick fever.” Handbook of Zoonoses 2nd ed.,
Section B: Viral, CRC Press, 1994, pp 81-88.
5. Jardine C, et al: Diversity of Bartonella genotypes in Richardson’s
ground squirrel populations. Vector-borne and Zoonotic Dis
6(4):395-403, 2006.
6. Johnson DH: Prairie dog medicine and surgery. Proc West Vet
Conf, 2004. www.vin.com, accessed September, 2007.
29
Flying squirrels
(Glaucomys spp.)
Flying Squirrel
Kristin Sinclair, DVM Pet Care
Northern flying squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus) A Northern flying squirrel
Southern flying squirrel (Glaucomys volans)

Glaucomys sp. originated in Alaska, Canada, northern
United States and Appalachian and Rocky Mountains.
They commonly inhabit boreal coniferous or mixed
coniferous/deciduous forests, but they have also been
found in deciduous forests in their southern range.
They typically nest in tree cavities, woodpecker holes and
bird houses and will also make nests of twigs and leaves.
SUITABILITY AS PETS
Flying squirrels require intensive owner interaction from a
young age to make acceptable pets. They can be difficult
to handle as juveniles but can be tamed with patience.
The cage and home must be squirrel-proofed, as they
can be destructive chewers.
The tail is long (80% of head and body length) and flat.
Fully furred patagial folds extending between the carpus
and tarsus bilaterally allow the flying squirrel to glide. VITAL STATISTICS
Life span 4 years (avg) in the wild; Dental formula I 1/1 C 0/0 P 2/1 M 3/3 = 22
10-15 years in captivity. Litters 2 litters a year; 2-4 offspring
BEHAVIOR
Adult size 10-12 inches (26-30 cm) in a litter
These squirrels are nocturnal and tend to be crepuscular in length (including tail) Gestation 37-42 days
(most active a few hours after dusk and before dawn). Body weight 90-140 g Weaning approximately 2 months
30
A Southern flying squirrel Flying Squirrels
While known for their gliding ability, they also climb

branches and trees and move along the ground. Gliding
distances average 65 feet (19.7 m).
Northern flying squirrels are social animals, often found
nesting in small groups (2-8 individuals in a nest). How-
ever, they are not known to form the large winter nesting
groups (as many as 50 individuals) as reported for the
southern flying squirrel.
Vocalizations include warning chirps and clucks.
CAPTIVE HOUSING
A wire mesh cage, minimum size 3 x 2 x 2 feet (90 x 60
x 60 cm), is an acceptable enclosure. The mesh should
not be larger than ½" (1.27 cm).
The squirrel should be provided with hide boxes and a
nesting box affixed to the side of the cage.
Vertical space and climbing room is important.
Squirrels preferentially should be housed in groups or at
least in pairs.
Ambient household temperature is acceptable; if kept
outdoors, shelter squirrel from extreme temperatures.
Climbing branches and rodent chew toys should be
provided. Some squirrels will use rodent exercise wheels.
DIET
Free-ranging flying squirrels consume large amounts of
fungi and lichens and some will consume tree sap.
Recommended captive diet consists of pelleted rodent
diet supplemented with approximately 10% vegetables,
seeds, acorns and other nuts.
A few insects may be offered.
31
Flying Squirrels An enclosure for a flying squirrel should

contain plenty of vertical space.
Calmer individuals can be restrained with a hand towel or
washcloth, but more fractious animals may require
sedation or anesthesia for a complete examination.
Inhalation anesthesia is recommended. The squirrel can
be induced in a small chamber or a large dog anesthesia
mask, and maintained via mask.

Hypocalcemia, ectoparasites, self-mutilation
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
There are reports of typhus fever (Rickettsia prowazekii)
and leptospirosis associated with flying squirrels.
Owners may require a permit to keep this animal.
Two subspecies are listed as endangered: G. s. coloratus
and G. s. fuscus (Carolina northern flying squirrel).

1. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: Appalachian Northern Flying Squirrels
(Glaucomys sabrinus fuscus and Glaucomys sabrinus coloratus)
Recovery Plan. Newton Corner, Massachusetts. 1990, p 53.
2. Wells-Gosling N, Heaney LR: Glaucomys sabrinus. Mammalian
Species, No. 229. J Mammology, 1984, pp 1-8.
3. www.centralpets.com/animals/mammals/rodents/rod3464.html.
Accessed September 2007.
4. www.awrc.org/Flying%20Squirrels.htm. Accessed September 2007.
5. Linzey DW, Alicia V: Growth and development of the southern flying
squirrel. J Mammalogy, 16(3): 615-620, 1979.
6. www.nfsa.us/. Accessed September 2007.
7. Reynolds MG, et al: Flying squirrel-associated typhus, United
States. Emerging Infectious Dis 9(10):1341-1343, 2003.
8. Kawabati H, et al: Leptospirosis in squirrels imported from United
States to Japan. Emerging Infectious Dis 12(7):1153-1155, 2006.
32
Bennett’s Wallaby Bennett’s wallabies

(Macropus rufogriseus)
Pet Care Ariana Finkelstein, DVM
SUBSPECIES
Bennett’s wallaby (Tasmanian) (M. r. rufogriseus)
Red-necked wallaby (M. r. banksianus)

Wallabies are from Australia and New Zealand, Bass
Strait islands
Bennett’s wallabies are abundant in Tasmania.
Bennett’s wallabies generally live in grasslands/open
plains for feeding and brush/scrublands for cover.
SUITABILITY AS PETS
A wallaby requires a large space for housing.
It is often mistaken for a kangaroo.
This species is brownish-gray with a light-colored ventrum
and a patch of reddish-brown on the neck and shoulder.
They have black paws and white stripes on their upper lip.
Muscular hindquarters make them excellent jumpers.
VITAL STATISTICS
A tapered tail acts as a balance while they are leaping.
Life span 10-15 years Heart rate 125-150 beats per minute
Body weight 24-59 lb (10.9-26.8 kg) Dentition 3/1 0-1/0 2/2 4/4 x 2 32-34
- male 46 lb (20.87 kg) (avg)
BEHAVIOR
Sexual maturity - female 14 months
- female 29 lb (13.15 kg) (avg) - male 19 months Bennett’s wallabies are largely solitary but gather in loose
Body height 24-31 inches (61-80 cm) Breeding strictly seasonal social groups called mobs to share feeding areas.
Body temperature 95-98°F Gestation period 30 days They will lie out in the sun and even in the rain.
(35-36.6°C +/- 1.2°C) They communicate silently through movement.
Pouch period 7-8 months
33
Bennett’s Wallabies
Vocalizations include a growl, hiss and chatter.

Females have a pecking order but are generally not
aggressive.
Males tend to be aggressive to one another; often they
box with their front legs and kick with their back legs.
CAPTIVE HOUSING
A pair of Bennett’s wallabies should be housed in an area
large enough so they can retreat from one side of the
fence to the other, feel safe and have a sheltered area
for hiding.
An area of at least 40 x 50 feet (12 x 15 m) is needed.
Glen Fergus
The presence of grass is important for foraging and
bedding.
Fencing should be a least 5 feet (1.5 m) tall with very
small openings.
Posts should be positioned on the outside of the pen to
help minimize trauma.
A wallaby can be housed indoors for the first year, but an
outside enclosure is eventually needed for space.
Trees and bushes are recommended for shelter from heat
and cold and to provide hiding places.
A 3-sided shelter from the cold should be provided.
Abundant shade should be available to wallabies in hot
weather.

Low humidity is necessary.
Trisha M Shears
Temperature range should be above freezing but no
higher than 85-92°F (30-33°C).
Lower temperatures require heated, dry shelter with
34
appropriate bedding, and hot weather requires shade.

In extremely cold climates, heat lamps or mats on the
floor of the shelter can be used (caution with fire hazard).
Browse should be provided; vegetables are also
recommended.
Hay nets can be used for enrichment.
Bunched branches are recommended for hiding places.
DIET
Wallabies are foragers, grazers and browsers by nature;
therefore, grasses, greens and hay are recommended as
the base diet (80%).
A pelleted diet (10-15%) can also be fed (several
commercial diets are available).
Fruits and vegetables can be offered in moderation (e.g.,
dark greens, carrots, sweet potatoes, apples; avoid
vegetables high in oxalate).
A salt/trace mineral supplement and fresh water should
be available at all times. The water should be covered to
decrease contamination.
The food dish or hanging feeder should be covered.
They feed at dusk, generally grazing on grass.
Bread may be fed as a treat or to aid in medication
administration.
RESTRAINT
Wallabies can be restrained by the tail and cradled if
hand-raised.
35

If not hand-raised, hold by the tail and stand off to the
side. Do not stand in front of the animal, as it can kick
out and cause injury.
A wallaby will probably need chemical restraint if not
hand-raised or if they are intractable.
They can be caught with a net and/or herded into it.
If attempts at manual restraint fail, consider rescheduling
procedure or immobilize for capture and restraint.
ANESTHESIA
A low dose of diazepam (0.5-2 mg/kg) to relax the
animal is recommended if not immobilizing completely. The wallaby’s front legs are restrained with one
hand and the tail is controlled with the other hand,
Other choices: midazolam (0.1-0.2 mg/kg) or in effect tipping the animal off balance to prevent
medetomidine (0.03-0.05 mg/kg) use of its powerful hindlimbs.
Medetomidine (0.04 mg/kg up to 1 mg/kg has been
reported) with ketamine (4 mg/kg IM up to 5 mg/kg);
reverse with atipamizole (0.2 mg/kg IM or 5 times
medetomidine dose in mg)
Medetomidine/ketamine/butorphanol
Telazol (5-10 mg/kg) = long recovery time; (dose range
2-30 mg/kg)
Butorphanol (0.2-0.4 mg/kg) is safe and effective.
Buprenorphine (0.01-0.03 mg/kg) can also be used.
Alternatively, propofol (6-8 mg/kg IV) can be administered
as a sole agent or after midazolam (reduce dose of
propofol to 4 mg/kg); should be given slowly and the
animal observed for apnea.
All injectable drugs can be supplemented with gas
anesthesia.
Glen Fergus
Intubation is difficult and requires an endoscope or a
long-bladed laryngoscope.
36

Tetanus
Toxoplasma gondii leading to sudden death
Trauma
Lumpy jaw (an inaccurate term used to describe chronic
alveolar abscesses or facial exostosis in herbivores):
bacterial abscesses are best prevented by improving
husbandry and decreasing stress
Stress/capture myopathy
Gastritis in macropods is commonly associated with
coccidia and nematodes.
Parasites: especially strongyloides. A routine deworming
program is important; behavior changes should be
monitored as a sign of a problem; ivermectin is
recommended annually
Coccidiosis, often causing fatal enteritis
Dermatophytosis - Trichophyton mentagrophytes
Hand-reared macropods sometimes have candidiasis,
bacterial pneumonia, cloacal prolapses.
Tuberculosis is a concern outside of Australia.
VACCINES
Vaccinate joeys for tetanus and then repeat every 5
years; equine vaccine is acceptable (doses of 0.25-0.5
ml have been anecdotally reported as safe).
Clostridial vaccination should be considered, based on
potential disease risk, but skin abscesses are a potential
side effect of the vaccine.
Rabies vaccination should be considered in endemic
areas and if housed outside.
37
Bennett’s Wallabies HEMATOLOGIC BIOCHEMISTRY

Band neutrophils 0.099 103/mm3 ± 0.306 BUN 24 mg/dl ± 5
Neutering is recommended prior to 8 months of age
(prior to puberty). Basophils 0.019 103/mm3 ± 0.055 Calcium 10.1 mg/dl ± 0.9
Certain states do not allow Bennett’s wallabies as pets. Eosinophils 0.103 103/mm3 ± 0.114 Chloride 97 mEq/L ± 5
The tail vein is present on the lateral aspect of the tail; HCO3 24.5 mEq/L ± 0.7 Cholesterol 83 mg/dl ± 29
good for catheter placement and blood drawing. Hematocrit 45.5% ± 7.0 CK (CPK) 1083 IU/L ± 1466
Jugular vein can also be used for blood collection, but Hemoglobin 16.4 g/dl ± 2.1 Creatinine 1.2 mg/dl ± 0.3
patient needs to be anesthetized.
Iron 196 mg/dl ± 75 Glucose 117 mg/dl ± 35
Physical examinations, with complete immobilization,
Lymphocytes 3.452 10 /mm ± 1.690
3 3 Magnesium 1.78 mg/dl ± 0.75
should include: complete blood count, chemistry,
Monocytes 0.157 103/mm3 ± 0.189 Phosphorus 6.8 mg/dl ± 2.0
toxoplasmosis titers and dental exam.
Fecal flotation and direct wet mounts every 3 months are Neutrophils 2.187 10 /mm ± 1.252
3 3 Potassium 4.5 mEq/L ± 0.7
recommended. Platelets 224 10 /mm ± 119
3 3 Sodium 141 mEq/L ± 5
RBC 5.21 106/mm3 ± 0.64 Triglycerides 56 mg/dl ± 30
REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING MCH 31.5 mmg ± 1.9 Uric acid 0.5 mg/% ± 0.5
1. Basso W, Venturini MC, Moré G, et al: Toxoplasmosis in captive
Bennett’s wallabies (Macropus rufogriseus) in Argentina. Vet MCHC 36.1 g/dl ± 2.6 ISIS Physiological Data Reference
Parasitol 144(1-2):157-61, 2007. Values August 1996
2. Holz P: Marsupialia (Marsupials). In Fowler ME, Miller RE (eds):
MCV 87.1 m3 ± 7.2
Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine 5th ed. Saunders, 2003, pp 288- WBC 5.864 103/mm3 ± 1.873
303.
3. Hume ID: Marsupial Nutrition. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, UK, 1999.
4. Jackson S: Australian Mammals. Biology and Captive
Management. CSIRO Publishing, Collingswood, Victoria, Australia,
2003. Available online through CSIRO publishing.
5. Johnson-Delaney CA: Common procedures in hedgehogs, prairie
dogs, exotic rodents, and companion marsupials. Vet Clin No Am
Exot Anim Pract 9(2):415-435, 2006.
6. McCauley D: Macropods, Their Care, Breeding, and the Rearing of
their Young. Daves Animal Farm, McQueeney, Texas, 2003.
Includes interactive CD-ROM: www.davesanimalfarm.com.
7. Pye GW: Marsupial, Insectivore, and Chiropteran anesthesia. Vet
Clin No Am Exot Anim Pract 4(1):211-237, 2001.
8. Sydney Postgraduate Proceedings on Wildlife. The TG Hungerford
Refresher Course for Veterinarians. Proc 233, 1994.
9. Tynsdale-Biscoe H: Life of Marsupials. CSIRO Publishing, 2005.
38
Ring-tailed Lemur Ring-tailed lemurs

(Lemur catta)
Pet Care Michelle L. Campbell-Ward, BSc, BVSc (Hons I),
DZooMed (Mammalian), MRCVS

South and southwestern Madagascar
Deciduous forests, closed canopy gallery forests, arid
bush/forest; an atypical mountain population has also
been described.
SUITABILITY AS PETS
Generally unsuitable; should be kept only by experienced
persons who have sufficient time and knowledge to care
for them appropriately.
As for other primates, it is challenging to meet physical
and behavioral needs in the captive setting.
Ring-tailed lemurs are extremely active and can be
destructive. They need spacious enclosures.
Their highly social nature means that they are best
housed in pairs or preferably a small group.
While they have many endearing traits when young, as
they become sexually mature, pet lemurs tend to develop
a behavioral repertoire that is unacceptable to their
owners. This frequently results in abandonment.
Gray-brown to rosy-brown back and rump; lighter limbs
and belly; extremities white; top of head, rings about eyes
and muzzle black; black and white banded tail
Short, dense coat
39
Ring-tailed Lemurs Enclosures need to be large and

varied to encourage exercise
Quadrupedal gait and normal behavior.
Digits end in pads; nails rather than claws (except for the
2nd toe which has a grooming claw)
The lower incisors and canines protrude forward, forming
a “comb” that is used for grooming.
Males have a horny spur on each wrist that they use to
pierce tree branches before scent-marking them.
BEHAVIOR
Diurnal
Largely arboreal but do spend approximately one-third of
their time on the ground.
Highly social and vocal with distinct dominance
hierarchies within groups; social bonds are established
and reinforced by grooming.
Adult females are dominant over males.
Basking and huddling behavior is related to energy
conservation (prosimians have a lower metabolic rate
compared to other primates).
Olfactory communication is important; facilitated via
scent glands on wrists and chest; secretions may be
Udo Schröter
rubbed on the tail and flicked at an opponent.
The tail and facial expressions are used to communicate.
CAPTIVE HOUSING
Enclosure needs to be large enough to allow for exercise
yet be secure and easy to clean.
VITAL STATISTICS
Minimum requirement (indoor): 161 ft2 (15 m2), height 8.2
Life span 25+ years Head/body length 15-18 inches (39-46 cm)
ft (2.5 m)
Adult weight 5.0-7.7 lb (2.2-3.5 kg) Tail length 22-25 inches (56-63 cm)
Minimum requirement (outdoor): 431 ft2 (40 m2), height Males and females are Dental formula I 2/2 C 1/1 P 3/3 M 3/3 = 36
8.2 ft (2.5 m) similar in size.
40
A group of ring-tailed lemurs demonstrates Ring-tailed Lemurs

their typical huddling behavior. The
individual on the far right is basking. Grass cover, bushes, live and dead trees and climbing
frames are appropriate in the enclosure.
Adequate shelter for protection from weather extremes
should be provided in outdoor enclosures.
Vertical and horizontal climbing places should be provided.
Also necessary are horizontal benches or platforms large
enough to allow groups to sit together.
Nest boxes should be provided in the upper part of the
enclosure.

Temperature: 64-75°F (18-24°C) (group size may affect
requirement for heating/cooling in indoor areas)
Moderate humidity: 30-70%
Indoor areas need to be well ventilated (10-15 air
changes per hour)
Photoperiod: 12 hours day; 12 hours night
Enrichment is essential to meet ethological and psycho-
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Malene
Lemurs are agile creatures as demonstrated by this individual’s leaping between branches. logical needs comprising the following components:
social (group housing), structure (access to varied indoor
and outdoor enclosures where appropriate), foraging
opportunities (e.g., provision of browse), novel items/
scents introduced at regular intervals to stimulate
exploratory behavior (e.g., puzzle feeders, toys, ropes,
autoclaved animal products (e.g., hair, skin) and training
(e.g., crate training).
Malene Thyssen, DIET

In the wild, they are herbivorous/folivorous, but will eat
bark, sap, flowers, occasional insects/small vertebrates.
41
Ring-tailed Lemurs
In captivity, nutritionally complete primate pellet/biscuit,

browse and fresh produce should be provided.
For groups, it is necessary to ensure multiple feed sites
to avoid competition for highly sought after dietary items.
RESTRAINT
Physical restraint is possible and straightforward.
To prevent being bitten, the person restraining the animal
should place a gloved hand around the neck and under
the jaw.
ANESTHESIA
Isoflurane or sevoflurane by mask/chamber induction
then via endotracheal tube for maintenance
Ketamine (5 mg/kg) and medetomidine (0.05 mg/kg) IM;
reverse with atipamizole
Ketamine (3 mg/kg), medetomidine (0.04 mg/kg) and
butorphanol (0.4 mg/kg) IM; reverse with atipamizole and
naloxone
Medetomidine (0.04 mg/kg), butorphanol (0.4 mg/kg) and
midazolam (0.3 mg/kg) IM; reverse with atipamizole,
naloxone and flumazenil
Ketamine (10 mg/kg) IM followed by diazepam (0.5-2.5
mg/kg) IV
Tiletamine/zolazepam (3-5 mg/kg) IM

Trauma; minor wounds heal rapidly, often without
treatment.
Bacterial gastrointestinal infections, e.g., Salmonella sp., Ring-tailed lemurs are largely arboreal
Campylobacter sp. and Yersinia enterocolitica and therefore require both horizontal
and vertical climbing opportunities.
42
In mixed sex groups, careful consideration should be Ring-tailed Lemurs

given to the potential for successful breeding and
therefore to population expansion. Gastrointestinal parasitism, e.g., Giardia, Trichomonas,
Entamoeba, Balantidium spp., ascarids, Strongyloides sp.
Toxoplasmosis (often presents as acute death)
Dental calculus/periodontitis
Obesity
Bacterial pneumonia (especially if kept in substandard,
stressful conditions)
Hemochromatosis (common in lemurs fed a lot of citrus
fruits; the high vitamin C content facilitates absorption of
iron from the gut)
Sterile pleural effusions are reported: cause unknown
Renal disease in geriatric individuals
Epilepsy
Diabetes
VACCINES
Rabies vaccination and the administration of tetanus
toxoid may be considered if the risk of either disease is
considered high. No other vaccines are given routinely.
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
Shigella
Salmonella
Campylobacter
Entamoeba
Balantidium
Giardia
Strongyloides
Trichuris
Infections via bite wounds
Tuberculosis (incidence low)
43
Ring-tailed Lemurs Veterinary examination of a ring-tailed lemur is performed to assess the likely cause of a right
fore limb lameness. The handler wears gloves and uses light physical restraint while the
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS veterinarian palpates the injured limb.
There are state/international differences regarding the
legality of keeping captive primate species.
New animals destined to be introduced to a pre-existing
group should undergo a period of quarantine for a
minimum of 30 days.
Intradermal tuberculin testing should be carried out during
quarantine and/or opportunistically.
Regular fecal examinations for parasites are recom-
mended for all captive ring-tailed lemurs (every 6-12
months; more frequently if a known parasite burden
exists).
Lemurs fed a commercial primate diet do not require
additional vitamin/mineral supplementation;
oversupplementation may result in iron overload.

1. Junge RE: Prosimians. In Fowler ME, Miller RE (eds): Zoo and Wild
2. Kappeler P: Typical lemurs. In Macdonald DW (ed): The
Encyclopedia of Mammals 3rd ed. Oxford University Press, 2006,
pp 288-291.
3. Mowry CB, Campbell JL: Nutrition. In Ring-tailed Lemur (Lemur
catta) Husbandry Manual. American Association of Zoos and
Aquariums, 2001.
4. Wolfensohn S, Honess P: Handbook of Primate Husbandry and
Welfare. Blackwell Publishing, 2005.
Michelle L. Campbell-Ward
44
Serval Servals (Leptailurus serval)
Pet Care Carol Lynn Yeisley, VMD
There are 14 recognized sub-species, but most may be

geographical populations and not true genetic subspecies.

Sub-saharan Africa; small populations in southwest and
north Africa
Well-watered savannahs, ranging from open plains
grasslands, alpine grasslands, woodland savannahs, dense
forest areas along waterways and rarely into arid areas.
SUITABILITY AS PETS
Servals have been kept in captivity for hundreds of years
but are still wild animals and maintain many instincts.
Servals are very active and require more attention and
socialization than most domestic cats.
They can become aggressive and territorial and can inflict
injury with their teeth and claws.
They are not recommended for households with small
children or other pets.
They may be litter-trained.
The serval has been bred with the domestic cat to form
the savannah breed.
VITAL STATISTICS Slender animal with long legs and fairly short tail
Life span 15-20 years Body length 28-40 inches (70-100 cm) Tall oval ears are set close together.
Body weight 20-40 lb (10-20 kg) (head and body) The fur is usually boldly spotted black on tawny. White fur
Body height 15-25 inches (45-62 cm) Tail length 8-16 inches (28-40 cm)
with silvery gray spots has been seen only in captivity.
(at shoulder) Sexual maturity 1½-2 years
Melanism is known to exist in this species.
45
Servals
BEHAVIOR
Primarily crepuscular (active at dawn and dusk), but
nocturnal activity is common.
Activity in the wild often correlates with the main activity
period of available prey in the area.
They are mostly solitary animals and are generally highly
territorial. Territorial spray-marking is a common behavior.
Predatory behavior in captivity is normal, including
stalking, pouncing, leaping, batting and clapping at “prey”
items.
Servals may become aggressive once they are sexually
Lukáš Mi och
mature, especially if not well-socialized as kittens.
Vocalizations may include a growl, hiss, purr and a cry.
Servals can climb and swim.
CAPTIVE HOUSING
Local regulations may have specific requirements for
housing.
Minimum enclosure requirements are at least 4 feet
(wide) x 10 feet (long) x 6 feet (high) (1.2 x 3 x 1.8 m).
Chain link or welded wire at least 14-gauge or thicker
should be used; a secure top is a must.
A concrete floor is necessary outdoors to prevent escape.
At least 2 litter pans of appropriate size need to be
provided and cleaned daily.
A water area (i.e., small pool for wading) is recommended.
Many pet servals are housed indoors similarly to domestic
house cats.
Cédric Gravelle
A den area for sleeping should be provided.
Pet servals should be acclimated to carriers for transport to
veterinary hospitals in case of emergency.
46
Servals
Compared to other exotic felines, servals require minimal

special care and can be housed outdoors even in colder
climates, provided that a warm nest box is available.
In captivity, scratching, chewing and biting may become a
problem, so items appropriate for these activities should
be provided to curb these behaviors.
Hollow logs, pools, scratching posts, climbing areas and
shelves are all appropriate.
Appropriately-sized toys may be used.
DIET
Free-ranging diet consists of various small prey, primarily
rodents, and also birds, reptiles (especially frogs), fish
and insects.
In captivity, some servals will readily eat commercial
carnivore diets (e.g., Mazuri Exotic Feline® or ZuPreem
Exotic Feline Diet®) or may eat one of a variety of raw
food or whole food diets.
Some servals have been successfully maintained on high
quality commercial pet cat food diets.
The diet must be animal protein-based and nutritionally
complete and balanced. The calcium to phosphorus ratio
is very important (Ca:Phos = 1-1.5:1).
Raw food and whole food diets need to be obtained from
reputable sources to assure quality.
Adult servals may be difficult to restrain and handle
without sedation.
47
Servals
Anesthetic protocols are the same as for aggressive feral

cats.
There are anecdotal reports from practitioners of concerns
regarding use of ketamine and Telazol in servals.
Isoflurane and sevoflurane can be used.

Intestinal foreign body obstruction
Cruciate ligament rupture
Feline hyperesthesia syndrome
Intestinal parasitism
Ectoparasitism
Dermatophytosis
Obesity
Dental diseases
Traumatic injury
VACCINES
Vaccinations with appropriate feline vaccines should be
determined by the attending veterinarian.
Protocols generally follow that of domestic cats starting at
6-8 weeks.
Killed virus vaccines are recommended, e.g., Fel-o-Vax
feline vaccines (Fort Dodge Animal Health) and IMRAB
rabies vaccine (Merial).
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
Steve Jurvetson
Rabies
Dermatophytosis (ringworm)
Scabies
48
Servals
Toxoplasmosis
Ascaridiasis
Potential complications to the human victim of scratches
or bites.
The serval is listed in CITES Appendix 2 (not currently
threatened with extinction but may become so unless
trade is closely controlled).
Ownership of a serval may require a permit, depending
on the locale, and may be illegal in some areas.
Pet serval owners must also check for insurance and
liability issues.
Because the serval is not a domestic cat, rabies vaccines
may be unrecognized by health officials in cases of
human exposure—consult local regulatory authorities.
Heartworm, intestinal parasite preventives and flea and
tick control, as for domestic cats, are recommended.
There are varied opinions on spay/neutering and
declawing of pet servals, but generally these are
recommended for household pets.

1. Fowler ME: Restraint and Handling of Wild and Domestic Animals.
Blackwell, 1999.
2. Fowler ME, Miller RE (eds): Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine 1-6th
editions. Elsevier (6th ed, 2008).
3. Green R (ed): Wild Cat Species of the World. Hyperion Books,
1989.
4. Kleiman DG, Allen ME, Thompson KV, et al: Wild Mammals in
Captivity. Univ of Chicago Press, 1997.
5. Sunquist M, Sunquist F: Wild Cats of the World. Univ of Chicago
Press, 2002.
6. Muir WV III, Hubbell JAE: Handbook of Veterinary Anesthesia 4th
ed. Elsevier, 2007.
49
Ocelots (Leopardus pardalis)

Lesa Longley, MA, BVM&S,
Ocelot
Also known as jaguatirica (Brazil) or manigordo (Costa

Pet Care
Rica)
SUBSPECIES
L. p. pardalis (Amazon Rainforest)
L. p. aequatorialis (northern Andes and Central America)
L. p. albescens (Mexico, southwestern Texas)
L. p. melanurus (Venezuela, Guyana, Trinidad, Barbados,
Grenada)
L. p. mitis (Argentina, Paraguay)
L. p. nelsoni (Mexico)
L. p. pseudopardalis (Colombia)
L. p. puseaus (Ecuador)
L. p. sonoriensis (Mexico)
L. p. steinbachi (Bolivia)
Marwell Zoological Park

Most ocelots in captivity are of unknown or hybrid
ancestry.

Arizona to North Argentina
Wide spectrum, preferably with dense vegetative cover.
Mainly forest and steppe habitats at elevations above
VITAL STATISTICS
1,200 m (4,000 ft). Range 18 km2 (7 square miles).
Life span 7-10 years (free-ranging), Sexual maturity female 18-22 months
There is declining population in the wild. The ocelot is on up to 20 years (captivity) male from 2½ years
CITES Appendix 1 list and is protected across most of its Body weight 11-16 kg (24-35 lb) Estrus approx. 5 days
range. Previously classed as IUCN Red List “vulnerable” Body length 65-97 cm (25-38 inches) with a cycle around 25 days
when hundreds of thousands were killed for their fur, it (head and body) Gestation 70-85 days
now has a status of “least concern.” Tail length 27-40 cm (10-16 inches) Litter size 1-4 kittens
50
A kitten ocelot with its mother Ocelots
Current risks are mainly due to deforestation, road traffic

accidents and attack by domestic dogs. The Texas ocelot
(L. p. albescens) is still classed as “endangered.”
SUITABILITY AS PETS
Ocelots are not recommended as pets.
Although some sources describe ocelots as docile, they
are still wild animals and may be aggressive and
territorial. Teeth and claws are their chief weapons.
Ocelots have black stripes (head, neck and tail), rosettes
(body) and spots (limbs) with brownish eyes.
The base coat color varies depending on the habitat: it is
ochre-yellow to orange-yellow in forested areas and grayer
in arid scrubland.
Elevated platforms or large trees A large white spot is located on the caudal surface of
are necessary in the enclosure
each pinna.
BEHAVIOR
Ocelots are mostly terrestrial but are excellent climbers and
swimmers.
They are mainly nocturnal, resting in trees or dense bush
for most of the day.
They can be highly vocal, e.g., when anticipating food.
The anal region may be rubbed on the ground after
defecating to scent mark. Excessive disinfection and
removal of scent marks in captivity may cause stress.
Threat postures include scraping with the hind feet or
standing with the back slightly arched and the tail base
raised but the tip lowered.
51
Ocelots A young ocelot at Alameda Park

Zoo in Alamogordo, New Mexico.
Stereotypic pacing may be seen in enclosures with
design problems, e.g., where a dead end is present.
Sub-adults up to 2 years old may be accepted within
adult ranges; thereafter they are strongly territorial and
usually solitary (only meeting to mate).
CAPTIVE HOUSING
A minimum area of 25 m2 (270 ft2) per animal is
required with 2-3 times this space for breeding. The
enclosure needs to be quiet and secluded for breeding.
Ocelots are highly arboreal, and the enclosure should be
>2.4 m (8 ft) high with trees/poles for exercise.
Housing must prevent escape by climbing, leaping or
swimming across barriers. The perimeter should be
checked frequently for points of weakness. Entrances
should be double-gated to reduce risk of escape.
A large pipe with straw bedding makes
Natural substrates with some flexibility (e.g., marine a good hide box for an ocelot.
plywood or strong plastic) are preferable to concrete.
Pest control is needed, e.g., to prevent feral cats.
Ocelots should be protected from temperature extremes.
A complex environment should be provided, with various
levels and surfaces, vegetation and elevated platforms.
Hiding places provide areas of security (e.g., shrubbery).
A hide box with straw or hay bedding should be provided.
Novel objects will stimulate explorative behavior, e.g.,
sticks, rawhide chews, cardboard boxes, lavender, cut
leafy branches or paper bags.
Juveniles will hunt invertebrates attracted by rotting logs
or rocks.
52
Ocelots
Hunting behavior may be stimulated by varying food and

feeding sites, e.g., in branches or cage wire, in a pipe or
wrapped in paper bags or cardboard boxes.
Socialization with a conspecific (e.g., young animals or
adults for breeding) should be gradual and monitored.
Operant conditioning may be used to stimulate animals
and assist in management procedures.
DIET
Ocelots are carnivorous; natural prey species include
small mammals, reptiles and birds.
The captive diet may be whole carcasses (e.g., rats,
mice, rabbits, chicks, pigeons, quail and pheasants), a
commercial meat-based complete diet (e.g., Dallas
Crown Inc., www.dallascrown.com) or kibble (e.g., Mazuri
Diets, www.mazuri.com and IAMS, www.iams.com).
Ocelots are carnivorous and whole
carcasses of small mammals are
A reliable source for meat (no road kill) should be used.
used as their primary diet. Food must be removed from an enclosure before spoilage.
Feline spongiform encephalopathy has been reported in
an ocelot, and many countries recommend not to feed
certain bovine material (e.g., brain) to felids.
RESTRAINT
Small individuals (<10 kg, 22 lb) may be netted for short
procedures, e.g., injections.
A squeeze cage is useful for larger animals, or darting
equipment may be used to administer drugs for chemical

immobilization.
ANESTHESIA
Ocelots should be fasted for 12 hours prior to anesthesia
53
Ocelots
to reduce the risk of emesis and aspiration during

induction and recovery.
Anesthetic protocols are similar to aggressive domestic
cats, e.g., ketamine +/- benzodiazepine or α2-agonist
(the latter may be reversed with atipamezole).
Intravenous propofol can be used to top-off anesthesia.
Oxygen supplementation should be provided and
intubation performed where possible. Gas agents (i.e.,
isoflurane, sevoflurane) are used to prolong anesthesia.

Nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism/metabolic
bone disease (>1% dietary calcium is necessary to
prevent deficiencies)
Dental disease
Osteoarthritis and pad ulceration
(especially on concrete substrate)
Trauma (e.g., digits caught in small mesh)
Obesity
Gastrointestinal foreign bodies
Infectious agents (as for domestic cats): viral (e.g.,
rhinotracheitis, calicivirus), bacterial (e.g., Helicobacter),
fungal (e.g., dermatophytosis), parasites (e.g., ascarids,
heartworm, fleas and ticks)
VACCINES
Ana Cotta
Risk assessment should be performed by a veterinarian.
Extralabel use of felid vaccines is possible, but it is
advisable to use killed virus vaccines, e.g., Fel-o-Vax
feline vaccines (Fort Dodge Laboratories Inc.,
www.wyeth.com/divisions/fort_dodge.asp) and IMRAB
54
Ocelots
rabies vaccine (Merial, www.merial.com). Boosters are

given only after antibody titers have been ascertained.
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
Similar to domestic cats, e.g., rabies, dermatophytosis,
toxoplasmosis, ascaridiasis.
Surgical neutering (i.e., castration or ovariohysterectomy)
is recommended in preference to chemical contraception
for animals not intended for breeding.
Endoparasite control is based on regular fecal screening.
Most medications, including ecto- and endoparasite
control, are used as for domestic cats.
A permit may be required to keep an ocelot in captivity.
The AB blood group system in cats requires donor and
recipient to be cross-matched before transfusions or
blood products are administered.

1. Burnie D: Animal. London, UK, Dorling Kindersley, 2001.
2. Fowler ME, Miller RE (eds): Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine: Current
Therapy 6. Saunders Elsevier, 2008.
3. Cat Specialist Group, IUCN. http://lynx.uio.no/lynx/catsgportal/cat-
website/catfolk/ocelot01.htm. (Accessed 09 October 2008).
4. Kanou Y, Fukui D, et al: Gastroinvasive Helicobacter infection in an
ocelot (Leopardus pardalis). J Comp Path 133(4):281-285, 2005.
5. MacDonald D: The New Encyclopedia of Mammals. Oxford, UK,
Oxford University Press, 2004.

6. BSAVA Scientific Committee: Feline spongiform encephalopathy. J
Small Anim Prac 37:198-199, 1996.
7. Wack RF: Felidae. In Fowler ME, Miller RE (eds): Zoo and Wild
8. Wozencraft WC: Mammal Species of the World 3rd ed. Johns
Hopkins University Press, 2005, p 539.
55
Jackson’s chameleons
(Chamaeleo jacksonii)
Jackson’s Chameleon
Jennifer Franklin, DVM
Pet Care
SUBSPECIES
Jackson’s chameleon (C. j. jacksonii)
Dwarf Jackson’s chameleon (C. j. merumontanus)
Yellow-crested Jackson’s chameleon (C. j. xantholophus)

East Africa (Kenya and Tanzania)
These arboreal species prefer humid, cooler regions,
especially altitudes over 3000-5000 m (1.8 miles)
SUITABILITY AS PETS
Not a beginner lizard but can be maintained and bred in
captivity with proper care.
Individuals have a sawtoothed-shaped dorsal ridge and no
gullar crest.
The length of the tongue is 1.5 times the length of the
body.
They can independently focus their eyes and have 360°
vision.
There is an accessory lung lobe in the ventral cervical
region just cranial to the pectoral girdle.
Males have 3 brown horns that develop around 4 months VITAL STATISTICS
of age. Life span 5-10 years
Females generally have no horns. Body weight 25-35 g
Body size 12 inches (30 cm)
56
Female Jackson’s Jackson’s Chameleons

chameleon
Normal coloring is bright green but can change
depending on mood, health and temperature.
Juveniles are light brown and turn bright green at maturity
(4-5 months of age).
BEHAVIOR
Jackson’s chameleons are less territorially aggressive
than most chameleons but tend to live singly in the wild.
Female gives birth to live offspring (8-30 young) after 5-6
months’ gestation.
CAPTIVE HOUSING
Mature males should not be housed together, and most
prefer to be solitary in the wild.
Enclosures should be as large and tall as possible and
made with screen sides for optimal ventilation (plastic-
coated screening or PVC mesh is recommended over
Male chameleons fighting metal screening).
Glass aquariums are not unacceptable enclosures as they
do not provide ventilation, have a tendency to collect
mold and are generally not large enough.
Jackson’s chameleons generally will not drink from bowls
but capture water droplets from leaves.
Newspaper or soil can be used as substrate.
They are generally believed to benefit from UVA and UVB
light exposure during daylight hours.

Daytime temperature: 75-78°F (25°C) with basking area
about 85°F (29°C) and nighttime temperature: 61°F (16°C)
Humidity 50-80%
57
Jackson’s Chameleons
Humidity should be maintained with an in-cage rain, drip

or automatic misting system as manual misting may not
provide enough moisture for adult chameleons. Adults
run the risk of developing kidney failure from chronic low-
level dehydration from inadequate misting.
All misting systems must be kept very clean. Monthly
disinfection with bleach is recommended (dilution of 1
part bleach to 32 parts water) for at least 15-20 minutes
with a thorough rinsing.
Sturdy climbing branches and ample hiding places must
be provided.
Live plants (i.e., pothos, ficus, hibiscus, schefflera) help
maintain humidity and provide climbing/hiding places.
DIET
Free-ranging chameleons eat hundreds of species of
insects and invertebrates (i.e., snails and spiders). Some
chameleons may also eat flowers, leaves and fruit.
A variety of small soft-bodied insects (e.g., crickets, flies,
butterflies, mealworms, waxworms, superworms) should
be offered.
All prey should be dusted with calcium powder.
Keeping the chameleon well-hydrated by providing
drinking water in an appropriate misting system is very
important.
Feed adults every other day; juveniles daily.
RESTRAINT
Support body weight, and do not restrain using tail.
58
Jackson’s chameleon shedding Jackson’s Chameleons
Minimize handling to reduce stress.

The majority of an examination can be done with the
individual sitting on a branch.
A towel can be placed over the head to reduce stress in
some individuals.
ANESTHESIA
Response to any medication is dependent on
environmental temperature.
Premedicate with butorphanol (2 mg/kg SC/IM)
NSAIDs: ketoprofen (2 mg/kg SC/IM q24h); carprofen
(2-4 mg/kg q24h PO/SC/IM); meloxicam (0.2 mg/kg
q24h PO/IM)
Induction: Telazol (2-6 mg/kg IM); DKT IM: ketamine
(4-10 mg/kg) + butorphanol (0.5-1 mg/kg) + Domitor
(40-150 mcg/kg); propofol (3-5 mg/kg IV)
Maintenance: propofol CRI (0.3-0.5 mg/kg IV)
Endotracheal intubation is relatively easy; the glottis is
located at the base of the tongue. Use uncuffed tube.
Surgical plane of anesthesia: righting reflex absent,
palpebral absent, corneal reflex present

Hyperkeratosis
Dermatomycosis
Dehydration
Gout
Hypovitaminosis A
Pinworms (Oxyurids sp.)
59
Jackson’s Chameleons A feral Jackson’s chameleon from a population

introduced to Hawaii in the 1970s.
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
Salmonella
Campylobacter
Zygomycoses
The subcutaneous (SC) route of drug administration is
not as reliable or predictable as intramuscular (IM) or
intravenous (IV).
IM injections are administered in the front limbs.
IV access: ventral coccygeal vein or ventral abdominal
vein

1. The Chameleon Information Network (CIN),
www.animalarkshelter.org/cin/
2. de Visjoli P, Fergusonm G: Care and Breeding of Chameleons
(Panthers, Jackson’s, Veiled, and Parson’s Chameleons). Lakeside,
Advanced Vivarium Systems, 1996.
3. Mader DL (ed): Reptile Medicine and Surgery. Elsevier, 2006.
4. www.grizzlyrun.com/Pets/Reptiles/Lizards/Chameleons/
Jacksons_Chameleon_Care_Information/
5. www.wellingtonzoo.com/animals/reptiles/chameleon.html
6. http://research.ucsb.edu/connect/acc/policy.html%23Reptilia
7. www.seavs.com/case_studies/lizards/chameleons.asp
60
Green Anole Green anoles

(Anolis carolinensis)
Pet Care Carol Lynn Yeisley, VMD
Also known as Carolina anole, American anole and

red-throated anole
ORIGIN / FREE-RANGE HABITAT

Southeastern United States, introduced into Hawaii
Tropical, arboreal
SUITABILITY AS PETS
These are a good lizard for novices, although their quick
movements and nervous nature may make them difficult
for young children who want to try to handle them.
They do not require a very large area, so most households
can find the space to provide an appropriate set up.
The cost of care and maintenance for an anole is the
same as for a more expensive lizard, but many people
may not be willing to invest properly in the care of such
an inexpensive species.
Paul Hirst
The green anole’s body is green unless the animal is
stressed, sick or cold, in which case the color may change
VITAL STATISTICS to a dull brown.
Life span 3-5 years (avg) The male has a pink dewlap that can be extended from
Body weight 3 g (avg) the chin as a courtship or territorial display.
Body size 5-8 inches (13-20 cm) Males have a larger dewlap than females.
Sexual maturity 1 year Males generally have enlarged anal pores compared to the
Breeding season April through July
females; the hemipenile bulge is not always obvious.
61
Green Anoles Anole lizard displaying

its dewlap.
BEHAVIOR
Diurnal activity
Males are territorial and may display with head bobbing
and colorful throat fanning.
Anoles are agile active lizards, climbing plants and
chasing prey during the spring and summer but are
generally less active in the autumn and winter.
Anoles periodically shed their skin as snakes and other
lizards do.
Their tails will detach with mild force/restraint; although
the missing tail will regenerate, it will not look or function
like the original.
If the green anole’s body is
Their eyes move independently of one another. brown, the animal may be
stressed, sick or cold.
CAPTIVE HOUSING
Tropical vivarium set-up is best.
Minimum size recommendation: 36 x 24 x 12 inches (90 x
60 x 30 cm)
Enclosures should be made with screen sides for optimal
ventilation (plastic-coated screening or PVC mesh is
recommended over metal screening).
Glass aquariums are not unacceptable enclosures as they
do not provide ventilation, have a tendency to collect
mold and are generally not large enough.
Green anoles may be housed in a community set-up with
1 male to 4 females. Housing more than 1 male in an
enclosure risks territorial aggression.
Basking area with infrared or heat-emitting bulb is
needed, as is full-spectrum lighting.
A drip system to provide drinking water is preferable to a
bowl.
62
A tropical vivarium with live Green Anoles

plants is the best enclosure.
Substrate will vary depending on whether or not live
plants or artificial plants are used to create the vivarium,
but care must be taken to remove areas of mold growth
or decaying organic material.
Commercial reptile bedding, various mulches, terrarium
soils can all be used in the viviarium.
Sand and gravel are not recommended.

Daytime temperature range is 74-86°F (23-30°C).
Night temperatures can drop to 68°F (20°C).
Adequate humidity is essential (60-70%).
Mist spraying daily usually provides adequate humidity.
Hiding areas, such as plants or commercial reptile hiding
Anole eating a dronefly. sites, should be provided.
Real or artificial plants, objects to climb and an area
suitable for basking are important for enrichment.
DIET
Green anoles are insectivores, eating primarily small to
medium live insect food.
They should be fed at least twice a week, with 2 or more
insects per lizard per feeding.
A small number of surplus insects may be kept in the
vivarium, but in a community set-up it is best to observe
that each lizard has a chance to get adequate insects.
Crickets should be either appropriately gut-loaded or
dusted with supplements prior to feeding.
Waxmoth larvae, grasshoppers, centipedes and spiders
may be fed.
63
Green Anoles Broad leaf plants should be

provided for climbing and jumping.
Care must be used to prevent injury and stress.
Protocols used for the green iguana can be extrapolated
to the small size of the anole.
One example of injectable anesthesia might be a ketamine
(5 mg/kg) / diazepam (0.5 mg/kg) combo that is carefully
diluted to facilitate accurate dose administration IM
followed with isoflurane if needed.
Isoflurane anesthesia may be induced via mask.

Intestinal foreign bodies
Intestinal impaction
Traumatic injury - both from aggression and handling
(vulnerable to fracture of legs and tail while handling)
Ectoparasites
Malnutrition (especially in communal tank settings)
Stress-related disorders (brown skin color is a sign)
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
Salmonella and E. coli as with other reptiles.

1. Barnard S: Reptile Keeper’s Handbook. Krieger Publishing
2. De Vosjoli P: The General Care and Maintenance of Green Anoles.
Advanced Vivarium Systems.
3. Frye F: Biological and Surgical Aspects of Captive Reptile
Husbandry. Krieger Publishing.
4. Hunziker R: Green Anoles: Selection, Care and Breeding. TFH Pub.
5. Manning D: Keeping Lizards. Harper Collins Publishers
6. Mader DR (ed): Reptile Medicine and Surgery 2nd ed. Elsevier,
2006.
64
Frilled Lizard Frilled lizard

(Chlamydosaurus kingii)
Pet Care Jennifer M. Periat, DVM
*Also known as frilled dragon, frilled neck lizard
SUBSPECIES
Visual differences in locales suggest that there may be
more than one species or subspecies, although this has
not been determined.

Northern Australia and southern New Guinea
Sub-tropical to semi-arid grassy woodlands and forests
Males are larger than females.
Size varies with locale; Australian specimens are larger
than those from New Guinea.
The very distinctive large frill around the neck lies like a
cape over the shoulders when the lizard is relaxed and
extends when alarmed.
Tim Vickers
Frilled lizards have long limbs and a long tail.

They are gray-brown in color with a pattern down the back
and tail.
VITAL STATISTICS Their mucous membranes and tongue are bright pink or
Life span up to 20 years yellow.
Body weight up to 1 lb (0.5 kg)
Body length 18-28 inches (46-71 cm)
BEHAVIOR
including the tail Frilled lizards are diurnal and arboreal.
Frill span up to 12 inches (30 cm) They can do well housed in groups, but males should be
when extended. separated to prevent fighting.
65
Frilled Lizards
They are known for bipedal locomotion when running.

Males will headbob and frill at females; females will move
their head in a slow circle.
Many pet frilled dragons are tame and rarely display their
frill.
CAPTIVE HOUSING
Hatchlings and juveniles can be housed in 10-20 gallon
(38-76 L) tanks.
A 3 feet x 2 feet x 4 feet tall (0.9 m x 0.6 m x 1.2 m)
enclosure is the minimum size recommended for 1 adult.
Miklos Schiberna
Newspaper or paper towel is suitable substrate.
Water should be provided in a container large enough for
the lizard to soak in.
UVB lighting is recommended.
A hiding place should be provided.

Basking spot should be about 100°F (38°C).
The cooler part of the tank should be 70-80°F (21-27°C).
Nighttime temperatures should not drop below 65°F
(18°C).
Humidity should be 55-65%; higher humidity levels may
contribute to respiratory problems.
Branches in various sizes are important for climbing and
basking.
Feeder insects should be offered to provide exercise and
enrichment.
66
Frilled Lizards
DIET
Frilled lizards are omnivores, although they are primarily
insectivores/carnivores.
They eat mostly insects, such as crickets, cockroaches,
superworms, mealworms and silkworms.
Insects should be gut-loaded and dusted with calcium prior
to feeding.
Vegetables and fruits, such as dark leafy greens, squash,
berries and banana, may be offered, although not all
frilled dragons will consume these items.
Pinky mice may be offered occasionally.
RESTRAINT
The entire body weight must be supported.
One hand may be used to restrain the front limbs against
the animal’s body and the other hand to support the
pelvic limbs.
Most frilled lizards are not prone to biting.
ANESTHESIA
Baseline blood work is recommended before anesthesia.
Premedication: butorphanol (0.5-2.0 mg/kg IM) or
buprenorphine (0.005 to 0.02 mg/kg IM) 20-30 minutes
prior to induction.
Induction may be performed with propofol (5-10 mg/kg
IV) or gas (5% isoflurane) using a face mask or induction
chamber.
Tracheal intubation is relatively easy; use a non-cuffed
tube and maintain with isoflurane.
Body temperature may be maintained with a warm air
blanket or circulating water blanket.
67
Frilled Lizards
Vital parameters, such as respiration and heart rate,

must be monitored during anesthesia. A Doppler or pulse
oximeter is useful for monitoring heart rate.
It may be necessary to mechanically breathe for the
patient.
NSAIDs: meloxicam (0.2-0.4 mg/kg q24h PO, IM) or
carprofen (1-4 mg/kg q24h PO, IM).
Other anesthetic protocols are available and can be
tailored to best fit the needs of the patient.

Respiratory infection
Nutritional metabolic bone disease
Ectoparasites
Dystocia
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
Salmonella, E. coli and Camplyobacter are possible, as
with other reptiles.
Imported animals may have disorders, such as parasitism
and dehydration, and may be difficult to acclimate.

1. Mader DR (ed): Reptile Medicine and Surgery 2nd ed. Elsevier
Saunders, 2006.
2. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu
3. http://www.the-lizard-lounge.com/content/species/frilled-dragon.asp
4. Reptiles Magazine 11(4), 2003.p
Tim Vickers
5. Carpenter JW: Exotic Animal Formulary 3rd ed. Elsevier Saunders,
2005.
68
African Fat-tailed African fat-tailed geckos

(Hemitheconyx caudicinctus)
Gecko Pet Care Michele Buono, DVM

West Africa, from Nigeria west to Senegal
Fat-tailed geckos use savannahs, rocky hillsides, dry open
woodland and river edges as habitats.
Their habitat is dry and arid, although they will spend
most of their time in a dark, humid hiding place.
SUITABILITY AS PETS
The fat-tailed gecko is a shy and relatively docile animal.
A new owner may cause the animal some distress, but
upon becoming accustomed to its owner, the fat-tailed
gecko is usually content to rest on a hand or arm.
The most notable feature is the large, thick tail (used for
Michele Buono, DVM
fat storage).
Like other geckos of the Eublepharidae family, such as
leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius), they have
moveable eyelids. They also have vertical pupils, and they
lack adhesive lamellae.
The normal coloring consists of brown and tan stripes.
The underbelly is usually a pale pink or off-white color.
VITAL STATISTICS
Life span 10-18 years (captivity) SEXING AND REPRODUCTION
Body length The male has 2 pronounced hemipenal bulges and pre-
male 25 cm (10 inches) (avg)
anal pores in a “V” shape just above the vent. Females
up to 30 cm (12 inches)
female 20-22 cm (8-9 inches) do not have the hemipenal bulges and pre-anal pores.
69
African Fat-tailed Geckos The most notable feature is the large, thick
tail; however, some species of banded
Breeders raise their geckos individually and place a male geckos (Coleonyx sp.) also have “fat” tails.
and female together after a period of 2 months’
brumation. When they are first brought together, the male
may seem to be aggressive toward the female, by biting
her on the neck. If she is not receptive, she will bite
back. The male will also shake the tip of its tail quickly.
Up to 4 weeks after a successful mating, the female will
lay her first clutch of eggs. Each clutch consists of 2
white oval eggs (although only a single egg may be laid
Michele Buono, DVM

by a young female).
Fat-tailed geckos can lay 8 clutches a year at 2-4 week
intervals.
The incubation temperature controls the sexual
differentiation of the hatchlings. At cool temperatures,
mostly females are produced; at intermediate
temperatures mostly males are produced; and at higher H. caudicinctus is a member of the Eublepharidae family, often called the “eyelid geckos,”
temperatures, females are again the dominant sex. with eyelids that can close. All other geckos have eyelids that are fused open.
The eggs will hatch in 35-100 days, depending on the
temperature.
BEHAVIOR
Fat-tailed geckos are nocturnal and terrestrial.
Although fat-tailed geckos may be more shy and
potentially tame than leopard geckos, adults may be
aggressive with humans and bite as a form of defense.
After introduction into a new terrarium, they need time to
Michele Buono, DVM

acclimate (weeks to months); manipulating the animals
during this period is very stressful. One should take this
process slowly by placing a hand in the terrarium and
waiting until the gecko voluntarily walks upon the hand.
70
Males, like this one shown, have a “V”- African Fat-tailed Geckos
shaped row of enlarged pre-anal pores and 2
hemipenal bulges at the base of the tail. CAPTIVE HOUSING
For a single gecko the minimum tank dimensions are 60
x 30 x 40 cm (12 x 24 x 16 inches).
Good ventilation is necessary; height is not as important.
Commercial reptile bedding, carpet, newspaper or paper
towels can be used as substrate. Sand should be
avoided as it may be ingested and cause impaction.
An appropriate light cycle with a little over 12 hours of
“daylight” must be provided. Seasonal changes in the
length of daylight may be offered, especially if a breeding
program is planned.
Fat-tailed geckos need a hide box shelter; because they
are nocturnal, they need to retreat from bright lights.
Fat-tails do not require a cage mate, but up to 5 females
can be housed in the same cage as 1 male.
Males should not be housed together because they will
fight with the possibility of serious injury or death.
Michele Buono, DVM

The daytime temperature gradient should be 29-32°C
(85-90°F) but can drop to 24-27°C (75-80°F) at night.
Under-tank heating is preferred, although a heat lamp (a
nocturnal bulb works well) can be used. UV lighting does
not appear to be necessary.
Humidity should be quite high (over 50%) and
maintained by misting the enclosure several times a
week and providing a shallow water dish at all times. A
humidity retreat is also a good idea (e.g., a small
container with damp spaghum moss inside).
Hides, logs, cork bark pieces, rocks, and plants should
be provided.
71
African Fat-tailed Geckos
DIET
Fat-tailed geckos may be fed primarily crickets and
mealworms, although adults may be offered the
occasional superworm or waxworm. Pinkie mice may also
be provided once a month.
Prey should be gut-loaded prior to feeding and dusted
with a mineral/vitamin supplement containing calcium.
Adults are fed every 2-3 days; juveniles every 1-2 days.
The gecko can be fed all it will eat within 15 minutes (or
approximately 3-5 crickets). Uneaten crickets should be
removed, as they may stress the animal.
Drinking water should be available in a shallow dish.
RESTRAINT
Gentle restraint is recommended during an examination,
and the whole body must be supported in a hand.
Excessive pressure on the tail must be avoided.
ANESTHESIA
A fat-tailed gecko may be placed in a small plastic bag
with 5% isoflurane or sevoflorane for 20-30 minutes and
then intubated. It is helpful during intubation of a fat-
tailed gecko to exteriorly elevate the throat with a finger
to better view and stabilize the trachea.
An injectable protocol for a small lizard has been
reported but has not been used by the author: ketamine
(30-50 mg/kg IM) or propofol (10 mg/kg IV).

Internal parasites (oxyurids, coccidia and flagellates;
clinical signs sometimes suggest cryptosporidia).
72
African Fat-tailed Geckos
Shedding problems (related to low humidity and the

absence of a humid hidebox; the retained shed is usually
associated with extremities, such as the toes and the
tail, which may lead to constrictions, necrosis and loss of
toes or a portion of the tail. Shed retained around the
eyelids may contribute to conjunctivitis.)
Female reproductive disorders (very common and often
related to a husbandry error, such as absence of a
suitable nesting place).
Metabolic bone disease (MBD - it is necessary to feed
invertebrates a high quality, balanced diet with a calcium
and vitamin D supplement to improve the calcium-to-
phosphorus ratio of dietary intake. Clinically, MBD in fat-
tailed geckos is expressed as swelling and soft mandi-
bular and maxillary bones and fractures or abnormal
anatomy of long bones).
Substrate impaction
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
Salmonella, as with other reptiles.
The fat-tailed gecko is equipped with the natural defense
of being able to lose its tail when attacked by a predator.
The tail is also where it stores fat, an important energy
reserve. The gecko should not be handled by the tail.

1. Mader DR (ed): Reptile Medicine and Surgery 2nd ed. Elsevier
Saunders, 2006.
2. DeVosjoli P, Klingenberg R, Tremper R, Viets B: The Leopard Gecko
Manual: Includes African Fat-Tailed Geckos. Herpetocultural
Library, 2003.
73
Tegus
(Tupinambis sp.)
Tegu Pet Care
Jennifer M. Periat, DVM
Argentine black and white tegu (T. merianae)
SUBSPECIES
Argentine black and white tegu, giant tegu and blue tegu
(all believed to be T. merianae)
Argentine red tegu (T. rufescens)
Colombian black and white tegu or gold tegu (T. teguixin)

South America, specifically Argentina and Columbia
Mountain and forest areas of the Amazon basin
SUITABILITY AS PETS
While not considered a beginning lizard due to the large
size and temperament of some species, tegus can be
rewarding to keep when properly cared for.
Jennifer M. Periat
Tegus are similar in build to monitor lizards.
Males have much larger heads and jowls as well as an
enlarged, thickened scale on either side of the vent.
Their bodies have unique, smooth scaling.
The color and pattern vary by species: the Argentine and
Colombian black and whites both have a distinct pattern
of stripes and dots, which are more distinct in the VITAL STATISTICS
Argentine species.
Body length Argentine tegus up to 4.5 ft (1.4 m) including tail;
Hatchling Argentine black and white tegus have some green the red tegu is largest of this species
coloration. Colombian tegu up to 3 ft (0.9 m), including tail;
males are larger than females.
74
Argentine red tegu (T. rufescens) Tegus
BEHAVIOR
Tegus are diurnal and terrestrial.
Colombian tegus are known to be the most aggressive,
while the other species tend to be more tame and easier
to handle.
All species can display aggressive feeding behavior.
It is not recommended to house males together as fighting
may occur.
If given the opportunity, tegus frequently burrow.
Many tegus will slow down and even hibernate in the
Stephanie Beiser
winter months.
CAPTIVE HOUSING
Hatchlings can do well for a short period of time in a
20-gallon (75 L) aquarium; however, they will outgrow
this quickly.
Colombian black and white
tegu or gold tegu (T. teguixin) Adults should be housed in a custom-built enclosure that
is 6 x 3 x 2 ft (1.8 x 0.9 x 0.6 m); height is less
significant.
Cypress mulch or similar is ideal for substrate so the tegu
can burrow and humidity can be maintained (avoid corn
cob, gravel and small wood chips due to ingestion risk).
Fresh water should be available at all times, preferably in
a container large enough for soaking.
A hiding place should be provided on each end of the
temperature gradient, and the mulch in the hide should
be kept slightly damp.

The basking spot should be about 110°F (43°C).
The cooler part should be approximately 75°F (24°C).
75
Tegus A tegu hatching
Supplemental heat is not generally needed at night.

UVB lighting is recommended.
Humidity should be 60-70% to help prevent shedding
problems.
Mulch substrate enables the tegu to burrow and dig.
Hides and logs for climbing provide enrichment and aid in
shedding.
Tegus can be offered feeder insects, which may provide
some exercise and enrichment, although larger animals
may not be interested in such small food items.
DIET
Bobby Hill
Tegus are carnivorous, although some species will also
accept fruit (e.g., strawberries, melon, tomatoes,
banana) in small amounts.
Juvenile animals should be offered feeder insects (e.g., Juvenile tegus
crickets, cockroaches, superworms, mealworms) and,
once they are large enough, pinky mice.
Adult animals should be fed appropriately-sized feeder
rodents.
Variety is important; many tegus will accept fish (tilapia,
catfish), cooked eggs, supplemented ground turkey and
feeder chicks.
Feeding live rodents is not recommended due to the risk
of injury to the tegu.
Feeding in a separate enclosure is often recommended
to reduce aggressive feeding behavior and avoid
Bobby Hill
substrate ingestion.
76
Tegus
RESTRAINT
With docile individuals, minimal restraint with one hand
on the neck and shoulders and the other hand
supporting the pelvis and hind limbs may be all that is
needed.
More aggressive animals may require towel restraint; the
handler must be cautious to avoid being bit, scratched
with claws or whipped with the tail.
Some tegus may require chemical restraint in order for a
full physical exam to be performed.
ANESTHESIA
Baseline blood work is recommended before anesthesia,
if possible.
Premedication: butorphanol (0.5-2.0 mg/kg IM) or
buprenorphine (0.005-0.020 mg/kg IM) 20-30 minutes
prior to induction.
Jennifer M. Periat
Induction may be performed with propofol (5-10 mg/kg

IV) or gas (5% isoflurane) using a face mask or induction
chamber.
Tracheal intubation is relatively easy; use a non-cuffed
tube and maintain with isoflurane.
Body temperature may be maintained using a warm air
blanket or circulating water blanket.
Vital parameters, such as respiration and heart rate,
should be monitored during anesthesia. A Doppler or
pulse oximeter is useful for monitoring heart rate.
It may be necessary to mechanically breathe for the
patient.
NSAIDs may include meloxicam (0.2 to 0.4 mg/kg q24h
PO, IM) or carprofen (1-4 mg/kg q24h PO, IM).
77
Tegus
Other anesthetic protocols are available and can be

tailored to best fit the needs of the patient.

Dermatitis/dysecdysis, resulting in lost toes, tail tips and
infection
Cloacal prolapse
Ectoparasites
Nutritional metabolic bone disease
Dystocia/egg yolk coelomitis
Stephanie Beiser
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
Salmonella, E. coli and Camplyobacter are possible, as
with other reptiles.
The ability to house and care for such a large lizard is an
important factor to consider before obtaining a tegu.
Tegus have quite voracious appetites and can be
expensive to feed.

1. Mader D (ed): Reptile Medicine and Surgery 2nd ed. Elsevier
Saunders, 2006.
2. www.TeguTalk.com
3. http://exoticpets.about.com/od/lizardsaspets/p/argtegu.htm
4. www.thetegu.com
5. Bartlett R: Monitors, Tegus, and Related Lizards. Barron’s
Educational Series, 1996.
6. Carpenter J: Exotic Animal Formulary 3rd ed. Elsevier Saunders,
2005.
78
Solomon Island Solomon Island prehensile-

tailed skinks (Corucia zebrata)*
Prehensile-tailed *Also known as monkey-tailed skink
Skink Pet Care Kenneth Harkewicz, VMD
COMMON SUBSPECIES
The most common of the subspecies is C. z. zebrata.
As of 1997, a second subspecies was described:
C. z. alfredschmidt.

Tropical montane rainforests of any of the 10 islands of
the Solomon Islands in the South Pacific
These skinks are almost completely arboreal, residing
mainly in strangler fig trees (Ficus watkinsiana).
SUITABILITY AS PETS
A prehensile-tailed skink is better suited for the inter-
mediate to advanced hobbyist.
The overall color is either black to olive or green-yellow to
pale green depending on the locale collected. The body
may have transverse stripes.
The ventrum of the skink is cream to light green in color.
Tim Vickers
C. z. alfredschmidt have yellow eyes, while the nominate

species, C. z. zebrata, have olive-green eyes.
The prehensile tail is typically two times the body length;
VITAL STATISTICS it holds the skink’s body weight as it maneuvers in trees.
Life span 15-20 years in captivity (avg) Body weight 8-10 pounds (3.7-4.5 kg) Prehensile-tailed skinks have long, very sharp nails to aid
Body length 28-30 inches (71-76 cm) in climbing.
79
Solomon Island Prehensile-tailed Skinks
BEHAVIOR
Corucia zebrata are generally nocturnal but will bask
during the day under heat sources or the sun.
These skinks are shy by nature and often remain hidden
in shelter during the daytime hours.
If hand-raised and handled frequently, they will often
tolerate handling and become unafraid of human activity.
Fighting may occur if adult males are housed together or
if a new individual is introduced into an enclosure.
CAPTIVE HOUSING
They do best housed individually in an enclosure.
A captive enclosure should measure at least 4 ft (1.2 m)
long by 2 ft (0.6 m) wide by 4 ft (1.2 m) high.
Circulation of air is important for this species, so at least
2 sides of the enclosure should be partially screened.
The screening must be heavy enough to support the
skink and allow for free movement.
A low wattage heat source (50-75 watt depending on the
size of the enclosure) is necessary as is a mid-range full
spectrum light source.
Substrate should be one that holds moisture and allows
for high humidity. Orchid bark or coconut coir makes a
good choice as a substrate.
A water bowl with 2-4 inches (5-10 cm) fresh water

Daytime temperature should be 82-90°F (27.7-32.2°C).
Olaf Leillinger
Nighttime temperature can drop to 70-75°F (21-24°C).
Cage relative humidity should be approximately 70-75%.
80
A water bowl should be available at all times. Solomon Island Prehensile-tailed Skinks
Humidity may be maintained by spraying the enclosure

several times daily or using a commercial humidifier.
Live, nontoxic plants help raise humidity, provide visual
barriers and may be consumed by the skinks.
Pothos, hibiscus, scheffelera and ficus trees or plants
make good choices and are all nontoxic if ingested.
Branches of various diameters are necessary to provide
climbing areas for the skinks.
Artificial “jungle vines” are readily used by the animal.
A hiding spot, such as a hollow log, can be placed off the
floor to provide daytime shelter and a sleeping area.
DIET
Corucia zebrata are primarily herbivorous. They will eat
insects and snails but may develop digestive problems or
Hiding places are essential to relieving metabolic disorders if these are a large part of the diet.
stress of prehensile-tailed skinks. The vegetable-to-fruit ratio should be about 80:20. If the
skinks are offered too much fruit, they will eat these food
items in preference to the more nutritious vegetables.
Vegetable food items include mustard greens, collard
greens, kale, bok choy, endive, turnip greens, spinach,
winter and summer squash, carrot (shredded) and
cooked sweet potatoes.
Suggested fruits include apple, pear, plum, kiwi, papaya
and peach.
Pothos plants, grown in the enclosure, are readily eaten.
Juveniles are fed daily; adults are fed every other day.
Being nocturnal, food items are best offered at night.
Noneaten food items should be removed each morning.
81
RESTRAINT
Prehensile-tailed skinks are large, heavy-bodied animals.
Their bite can be quite painful and cause serious injury.
These skinks may have very sharp long claws with which
they may scratch and possibly cause infection. Keeping
nails short with a nail clipper or Dremel®-type grinding
device helps to prevent injury and infection.
Prehensile-tailed skinks should not be grasped or
restrained by their tail, as this may result in injury.
Skinks are best held in a soft towel or restrained with
heavy gloves to prevent injury to the handler. They should
be supported under the abdomen so they feel secure.
ANESTHESIA
Butorphanol (1.0-1.5 mg/kg SC, IM) may be used to
premedicate the skink.
This prehensile-tailed skink was
Propofol (5-10 mg/kg IV) may be used for either anesthetized using isoflurane via
induction or short surgical procedures; accessing the tail mask and then intubated.
vein with a butterfly catheter produces best results.
A tiletamine/zolazepam mixture (3-5 mg/kg SC, IM) may
be used for short surgical procedures or induction.
Prehensile-tailed skinks may be maintained on gas
anesthesia once they are intubated with either isofurane
(1-3%) or sevoflurane (4-6%). They may also be masked
down with either inhalant at a higher percentage flow.
The animal should be confirmed as fully sedated prior to
intubation to prevent a biting injury to the handler. A
Kevin Wright, DVM

mouth gag may be fashioned from a plastic hypodermic
needle sleeve cut at one end to the proper length.
The surgical plane of anesthesia may be assessed by a
lack of righting response or palprebral reflex.
82

Metabolic bone disease (due to a lack of adequate
calcium in the diet and/or insufficient exposure to full
spectrum UVB light)
Necrosis of digits or tail tip secondary to a poor shed
(The dried retained skin on these body parts acts like a
tourniquet, cutting off blood supply to the affected area.
A gentle teasing off of the dead skin with a thumb
forceps post-shed will help prevent this from occurring.
The humidity must be increased to ensure a good shed.)
Bite wounds and secondary abscessation or infection
Internal and external parasites
Dystocia in gravid females (skinks are born live)
Ingested shed skin (a normal occurrence)
Yolk sac infections in newborns
Stomatitis
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
Salmonella and Campylobacter may be acquired via a
fecal/oral route from skinks. Hands must be washed after
handling and skinks must be kept away from human food.

1. Carpenter JW: Exotic Animal Formulary 3rd ed. Elsevier Sanders,
2005.
2. DeVosjoli P: General Care and Maintenance of Prehensile-tailed
Skinks 1998 ed. Bowtie Press, 2005.
3. McCoy M: Reptiles of the Solomon Islands. WRU Ecology Institute,
Handbook #7, Papua, New Guinea, 1980.
4. Wright KM: Captive husbandry of the Solomon Island prehensile-
tailed skink, Corucia zebrat. Bull Assoc Reptil Amphib Vet 3(1):8-
21, 1993.
5. Wright KM: Medical management of the Solomon Island prehen-
sile-tailed skink. Bull Assoc Reptil Amphib Vet 3(1):9-17, 1993.
83
Savannah and white-throated

monitor lizards (Varanus sp.)
Savannah and
Niklos Weber, DVM, Dipl ABVP-Avian Practice,
Dipl ABVP-Canine and Feline Practice
White-throated
Savannah (Bosc’s) monitor (Varanus exanthematicus) Monitor Lizards
White-throated monitor (Varanus albigularis albigularis)
SUBSPECIES
Pet Care
There are a number of subspecies of Varanus; exactly
how many is controversial. The white-throated monitor
was considered a subspecies of the savannah monitor
until 1989 when it was identified as a separate species.

Savannah and white-throated monitors are native to
grassland areas of central to southern Africa.
Savannah monitors live in tropical savannahs that
experience seasonal monsoons with periods of drought.
White-throated monitors live in tropical savannahs, steppes
and woodlands. They can be arboreal or terrestrial.
George Chernilevsky
SUITABILITY AS PETS
Monitor lizards are generally not a good choice for first
time reptile keepers.
Monitors are capable of becoming tame with effort, but
grow large and require a correspondingly large habitat.
If obtained when they are older, they have the potential to
VITAL STATISTICS
Life span up to 10-12 years
be skittish.
Body weight white-throated monitors up to 20 lb (10 kg)
If provoked, monitors may fight aggressively with their
Body length savannah monitors up to 2.5-4.0 ft (0.8-1.3 m)
claws and tail. white-throated monitors up to 4-6 ft in length (1.3-2.0 m)
84
Savannah monitor Savannah and White-throated Monitor Lizards

(Varanus exanthematicus)
Both the savannah and white-throated monitors are
typically brown, black and grey with paler spots.
The stocky savannah monitor is considered a medium-
sized monitor with a wide head and short neck and tail.
Besides being smaller than white-throated monitors,
savannah monitors have larger osteoderms, and their
nostrils are located closer to the end of the snout.
The white-throated monitor is large and muscular with a
domed head and strong, thick legs and tail. It has very
sharp claws on the front legs for digging and climbing,
and the tail is somewhat prehensile.
BEHAVIOR
Monitors are considered to be intelligent reptiles.
They can be quite aggressive when cornered or if another
White-throated monitor
(Varanus albigularis albigularis) monitor invades their territory; they are especially
aggressive during the spring breeding season.
Savannah monitors are active during the day and may
hide in their burrows if it gets too hot.
White-throated monitors are active during the day during
the wet season (January-February). During the dry season
(July-December), they fast due to the lack of prey.
CAPTIVE HOUSING
Adult monitors should be housed in a large, solidly built
enclosure at a minimum size of 4 x 8 x 4 ft (L x W x H)
(1.3 x 2.6 x 1.3 m); a room with vertical space is best.
The enclosure must be secure because monitors can
escape easily.
The floor may be wood, concrete or glass covered with
85
Savannah and White-throated Monitor Lizards Enclosures for monitors should include
rocks for cover and basking and rocks
brown paper, newspaper or paper towels for easy cleaning. and branches for climbing.
An area of deep substrate for digging and burrowing must
be available; this may consist of soil, cypress mulch or
small grade (orchid) bark to reduce dust.
Monitors need a large shallow water pan for soaking; this
will need frequent cleaning as they may defecate in it.
Supplemental ultraviolet light (UVA/UVB) is recommended.
Enclosures should include rock features or a hide box for
cover and rocks and branches for climbing.
ENVIRONMENTAL TEMPERATURE/HUMIDITY
The hot end of the cage should be 90-100°F (32-38°C)
with a basking spot that exceeds 110°F (43°C); the cool
end should be 75-80°F (24-27°C).
Humidity should be fairly high without being wet: 70-80%
with good ventilation is appropriate.
DIET An area of deep substrate for

burrowing must be available.
Savannah monitors are carnivores and thrive on a rodent
diet, although they primarily eat invertebrates in the wild.
White-throated monitors eat a large number of small
reptiles and birds in the wild.
Young monitors can be fed crickets and pinkies.
RESTRAINT
Monitors can bite and scratch but are usually calm for
typical veterinary procedures. If they move excessively,
they can be restrained like an iguana, with the front legs
held back along the body and the rear legs along the tail.
The tail whip of white-throated monitors is the hardest of
any monitor, so it is best to restrain the tail.
86
An obese savannah monitor with distension Savannah and White-throated Monitor Lizards
of “abdomen” and stoutness of tail base.
ANESTHESIA
Anesthesia in monitors is similar to that of other reptiles,
e.g., premedication with butorphanol, induction with
isoflurane or sevoflurane by chamber or mask and
maintenance with gas anesthesia via endotracheal tube.
Reptiles should be housed in their optimal temperature
zone during induction, anesthesia and recovery.
Preoperative blood work should be performed and IV or
intraosseous fluids given during anesthesia.

Intermittent positive pressure ventilation should be per-
formed 4-6 times/min at a pressure below 12 cm H2O.

Parasites (especially wild-caught monitors)
Obesity (monitors eat voraciously when food is available)
Monitors use their forked tongues Trauma
constantly to sense the environment,
more so when they are eating. Metabolic bone disease
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
Salmonella, as with any reptile.

1. Bennett D: Monitor Lizards: Natural History, Biology and
Husbandry. Chimaira Bucnhandelsgesellschaft, 1998.
2. The Complete Guide to Keeping Monitors. Reptile News Press,
1992.
3. Diemer D: Varanus exanthematicus (online). Animal Diversity Web.
Accessed September 17, 2008 at
http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/
Varanus_exanthematicus.html.
4. Sprackland RG: Savannah and Grassland Monitors. Advanced
Vivarium Systems, 2000.
5. www.anapsid.org/savannah.html
87
Leopard tortoises
(Geochelone pardalis)
Leopard Tortoise
Jennifer Mosier, DVM Pet Care
Arid grassland savannahs of Africa from the Sudan south
to the Cape Province of South Africa
SUITABILITY AS PETS
Wild-caught leopard tortoises suffer from stress and many
diseases; therefore, captive-bred animals are best.
It is a generally docile species and breeds well in captivity.
The leopard tortoise is large and uniquely marked, with
primarily a yellow carapace and high contrast black
markings.
The carapace is relatively highly domed, with a height
usually greater than half its width.

Free-ranging leopard tortoises are not sexually mature
until 12-15 years of age, although captive-raised
Chris Eason
individuals may mature by age 6.
Males have a longer and thicker tail than females.
Mature adult females have more elongated rear claws
than males. VITAL STATISTICS
The female lays a clutch of 5-18 eggs. Life span up to 100 years
Body weight 18 kg (40 lb)
BEHAVIOR
Leopard tortoises are solitary animals in the wild; there- (avg); up to 81 cm (32
fore, they can be aggressive if housing is overcrowded or inches)
88
Leopard Tortoises
there is a limited food supply or a large difference in size

among individuals housed together.
This terrestrial tortoise typically spends time divided
between roaming and grazing and burrowing.
It does not hibernate in the wild.
CAPTIVE HOUSING
Outdoor pens are strongly recommended if possible. Pens
need to be predator proof and provide shelter and shade.
Muhammad Mahdi Karim
The perimeter must be buried deep enough to prevent

digging out underneath.
Indoor habitats should be a minimum of 120 cm x 240
cm (4 x 8 feet) for a single adult. The combined
carapace area for all individuals in the enclosure should
not be more than 25% of the enclosure’s area.
Males should not be housed together because of their
Leopard tortoises can be aggressive tendency to spar for territory and breeding rights.
if housing is overcrowded. Males
should be housed separately. Food, water and nesting containers should be sunken
flush with the bottom of the enclosure to allow access.
The ideal substrate is grass hay. Sand may be used, but
sand impactions from ingestion are a risk. Soil and mulch
may retain moisture and are not recommended.
Large spaces with planted grasses are necessary for
natural grazing, and arid grassy areas with dry sandy
spaces for basking are required.
Sunken ponds that are large enough to allow soaking but
shallow enough to prevent drowning are needed.

Recommended daytime temperatures are 28-30°C (82-
86°F) with a basking area of 32°C (90°F); nighttime
temperatures are 24°C (75°F).
89
Leopard Tortoises Free-ranging leopard tortoises

spend most of their time
Low humidity (40-70%) is important for respiratory health. roaming and foraging.
A UVB source is necessary for vitamin D3 synthesis.
DIET
Leopard tortoises are herbivorous. The diet should
consist of high-fiber, low-protein and high-calcium
sources, which may be obtained with a variety of grasses
including dandelions and succulents (planted live grasses
are preferred over cut purchased grasses).
Plants high in oxalates should be limited.
Fruit should be avoided.
Small amounts of leafy greens, sliced carrots, cucum-
Ryan Harvey
bers, pumpkin and squash may be offered twice weekly.
Formulated diets (e.g., Mazuri Tortoise Diet,
www.mazuri.com) may be used. Rabbit pellets may be
fed if necessary, but dog or cat kibble should be avoided
due to the high levels of protein. Juvenile leopard tortoise
Adults are fed 2-3 times per week, hatchlings fed daily.
RESTRAINT
An individual may be held by its shell in the middle of the
body.
The head and front limbs may often be exteriorized by
pressing the hind limbs into the shell; the hind limbs may
be exteriorized by pressing the front legs inside.
Stephen J. Hernandez-Divers
If the tortoise is uncooperative, chemical restraint may be
necessary for an examination and diagnostic sampling.
ANESTHESIA
Butorphanol (IM) may be used for premedication.
Analgesia may be achieved with butorphanol, buprenor-
phine and/or ketoprofen, but more information is needed.
90
Leopard Tortoises
Induction with propofol is preferred when IV access is

available.
A combination of ketamine, medetomidine and
butorphanol IM can also be used.
Chamber or mask induction with inhalants is not
Charles J. Innis, VMD

recommended due to their prolonged breath holding.
Maintenance may be accomplished via inhalants after
endotracheal intubation with an uncuffed tube. Take care
to intubate the bronchus, as they have a short trachea.

Pyramiding of carapace (metabolic bone disease)
Diarrhea (secondary to improper diet)
Muscle atrophy and joint problems due to lack of
exercise
Runny nose syndrome (from high humidity)
Charles J. Innis, VMD
Aural abscess
Internal parasites
Chronic eye infections (hypovitaminosis A)
Shell rot
Trauma
A normal (top) and a “pyramided” (bottom) tortoise. ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL

Salmonella, as with other reptiles.

1. Mader D (ed): Reptile Medicine and Surgery 2nd ed. Saunders
Elsevier, 2006.
2. McArthur S, Wilkinson R, Meyer J: Medicine and Surgery of
Tortoises and Turtles. Blackwell Publishing, 2004.
3. Wappel SM, Schulte MS: Turtle care and husbandry. Vet Clin No
Am Exotic Anim Pract 7(2):447-472, 2004.
4. World Chelonian Trust (http://www.chelonia.org/articles/
pardaliscare.htm)
91
Hermann’s tortoises
(Testudo hermanni)
Hermann’s Tortoise
COMMON SUBSPECIES
Western Hermann’s tortoise (T. h. hermanni)
Eastern Hermann’s tortoise (T. h. boettgeri)

T. h. hermanni is found in eastern Spain, southern France,
the Baleares Islands, Sardinia, Corsica and Tuscany
T. h. boettgeri is found in Croatia, Romania, Macedonia,
Bulgaria, Albania and Greece
Mediterranean oak forest with arid, rocky hill slopes and
scrubby vegetation
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS (WESTERN)

Highly arched shell with intense yellow coloration against
a dark background.
Underside has 2 connected black bands along the central
Richard Mayer
seam.
Coloration of head is olive/yellow with dark patches. Most
have a characteristic yellow fleck on the cheek.
Tail in males is larger than in females and has a spike.
VITAL STATISTICS
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS (EASTERN) Life span 70-100 years
Most have an arched, rounded carapace. Body weight
Underside almost always solid in color with separate, Western: 2-5 lb (1-2 kg)
isolated black patches on either side of central seam. Eastern: 7-9 lb (3-4 kg)
Body size Western: 3-7 inches (7-18 cm)
Head is brown to black with fine scales.
Eastern: up to 11 inches (28 cm)
Limbs have 5 claws, which are darkly colored at the base.
92
Testudo hermanni hermanni Testudo hermanni boettgeri Hermann’s Tortoises
Hindlegs are noticeably thicker than forelegs.

Females have much smaller tail spikes than males.
BEHAVIOR
Most active in the early morning and late afternoon.
Males will fight with each other and should not be
housed together.
Ideal group consists of 1 male with 2-3 females of
similar size.
Generally docile, but can be aggressive towards
significantly smaller individuals.
Free-ranging tortoises hibernate; individuals dig a shelter
and sleep for 4-5 months.
CAPTIVE HOUSING
Outdoor housing is preferred, if possible.
A juvenile Testudo Must have shelter available, and at least part of pen
hermanni boettgeri
should be placed in a very sunny area.
Shelter should be made of wood to keep humidity low.
Dirt/soil is the best substrate to allow burrowing and
temperature regulation.
Indoor housing must be large enough to allow roaming.
UVA and UVB lighting are essential and should be
checked regularly to maintain UVB levels.

Daytime temperature: 80-86°F (27-30°C)
Basking temperature: 90-95°F (32-35°C)
Nighttime temperature: 65-70°F (18-21°C)
Richard Mayer
Hibernation temperature should be maintained around

50°F (5°C) and not permitted to fall below zero.
93
Hermann’s Tortoises A female Hermann’s

tortoise with eggs.
DIET
Hermann’s tortoises are herbivores. A variety of mixed
leafy greens/grasses should be the majority of the diet.
They need a high-fiber, low-protein and calcium-rich diet.
Fruits should be given only in very small amounts, as
they are high in sugar and can cause digestive problems.
High-protein diets (e.g., dog food) can lead to renal
failure or urinary bladder stones.
Adding a calcium and vitamin D3 supplement can be
beneficial: daily for young; weekly for adults.
RESTRAINT
Most individuals will retract their head within the
Richard Mayer
carapace when handled. In order to examine the head,
you can try pushing the hind limbs into the inguinal
fossa, tipping the tortoise downward, or using sedation.
ANESTHESIA A T. hermanni hatchling

Local anesthesia: bupivicane (1-2 mg/kg) emerges from an egg.
q24h PO/IM)
Induction: Telazol (2-6 mg/kg IM); DKT IM: ketamine
(4-10 mg/kg) + butorphanol (0.5-1.0 mg/kg) + Domitor
(40-150 mcg/kg); propofol (3-5 mg/kg IV)
Endotracheal intubation is relatively easy; glottis located
Berthold Werner
at the base of the tongue. An uncuffed tube is used.
94
Hermann’s Tortoises

Upper respiratory infections
Pneumonia
Stomatitis
Osteodystrophy
Diarrhea (ascarids common)
Aural abscesses
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
Salmonella
Campylobacter
Massimo Lazzari
Zygomycoses
Considered a beginner turtle.
SC route of administration of drugs is not as reliable or
predictable as IM or IV.
IM injections should be in front limbs.
IV access: ventral coccygeal vein or jugular vein.
Listed as Near Threatened IUCN classification.
Care should be used when mixing species of tortoises
(e.g., Western and Eastern Hermann’s tortoises) in the
same enclosure due to transmission of parasites.

1. McArthur S, Wilkinson R, Meyer J (eds): Medicine and Surgery of
2. Mader D (ed): Reptile Medicine and Surgery. Elsevier, 2006.
3. www.wnyherp.org
4. research.ucsb.edu/connect/acc/policy.html%23Reptilia
5. www.tortoisetrust.org
6. www.anapsid.org
7. Tortoise and freshwater turtle specialist group (1996) Testudo
hermanni, (www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/21648/all).
2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN 2006.
95
Horsfield’s (Russian) tortoises

(Testudo horsfieldii)
Horsfield’s Tortoise
COMMON SUBSPECIES (DEBATED)
T. h. horsfieldii
T. h. kazachstanica
T. h. rustamovi

Afghanistan to northwestern China
Dry areas with sparse vegetation
SUITABILITY AS PETS
A generally hardy species.
Its small size makes it a reasonable choice for captivity.
The shell is generally greenish-brown to black, fading to
yellow between the scutes with a yellowish-brown body.
They have highly developed claws and 4 toes on each foot.
Richard Mayer
The carapace is rounded and “stocky.”
This is a sexually dimorphic species: females are slightly
larger and have flared scutes on their shells; males have
a longer tail, which is usually tucked to the side, and
smooth scutes.
VITAL STATISTICS
BEHAVIOR Life span 50-100 years
They are avid burrowers, decent climbers and persistent Body size 5-8 inches (12-20 cm)
escapers. Sexual maturity 10 years
In the wild, they hibernate in the winter months. Breeding season spring
96
Horsfield’s Tortoises
Russian tortoises generally do not mix well with other

species of tortoise.
Males can be highly aggressive and should be housed
separately to prevent fighting, especially during the spring.
CAPTIVE HOUSING
Outside housing is best if temperatures allow.
If temperatures fall below 40°F (4°C), they should be
housed indoors.
Enclosure walls need to be at least 12 inches (30 cm)
below ground and at least 12 inches (30 cm) above
Richard Mayer
ground to prevent escape.

Lighting must provide UVA and UVB.
Substrates range from soil to newspaper and wood
shavings and should be deep enough to allow for normal
burrowing behavior.
Hide spots and cover from sun need to be available.
A low pan should be available for soaking and drinking.
Outdoor pens in areas of high rainfall must ensure proper
drainage of the enclosure.
Glass is not ideal for tortoise enclosures. The animal is
stressed and may be injured by attempting to go through
it repeatedly. Also glass tends to increase humidity too
high as well as limit air circulation.
A 50-gallon opaque Rubbermaid™ storage container is
inexpensive, easy to clean and an adequate size for 1
tortoise.
Richard Mayer

Daytime temperatures should be 70-80°F (21-27°C) with
a basking area of 85°F (30°C).
97
Horsfield’s Tortoises Testudo horsfieldii rustamovi
Nighttime temperatures can be 65-75°F (18-24°C).

Humidity must be kept relatively low (no higher than 70%).
DIET
Horsfield’s tortoises are herbivores. A variety of mixed
leafy greens/grasses should be the majority of the diet.
They need a high-fiber, low-protein and calcium-rich diet.
Fruits should be given only in very small amounts, as
they are high in sugar and can cause digestive problems.
High-protein diets (e.g., dog food) can lead to renal
failure or urinary bladder stones.
RESTRAINT
Massimo Lazzari
Most individuals will retract their head within the
carapace when handled. In order to examine the head,
you can try pushing the hind limbs into the inguinal
fossa, tipping the tortoise downward or using sedation.
A Horsfield’s tortoise
ANESTHESIA burrowing in wood chips.
Local anesthesia: bupivicane (1-2 mg/kg)
q24h PO/IM)
Induction: Telazol (2-6 mg/kg IM); DKT IM = ketamine
(4-10 mg/kg) + butorphanol (0.5-1.0 mg/kg) + Domitor
(40-150 mcg/kg)
Propofol (3-5 mg/kg IV)
Endotracheal intubation is relatively easy; the glottis is
located at the base of the tongue. Use uncuffed tube.
98
A Horsfield’s tortoise Horsfield’s Tortoises

with spurs.

Pneumonia
Renal failure
Bladder stones
Eye infections
Hexamita parva (renal/urinary parasite)
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
Salmonella
Campylobacter
Zygomycoses
Healthy adults benefit from hibernation during the winter.
SC route of administration of drugs is not as reliable or
predictable as IM or IV.
IM injections should be in front limbs.
IV access: ventral coccygeal vein or jugular vein.

1. Mader DL (ed): Reptile Medicine and Surgery. Elsevier, 2006.
2. www.wnyherp.org
3. Highfield AC: Testudo horsfieldii (GRAY 1844) A Brief Review of its
Biology, Ecology and Captive Breeding. ASRA Monographs. 2
(2):9-15, 1992.
4. McArthur S, Wilkinson R, Meyer J (eds): Medicine and Surgery of
Massimo Lazzari

5. www.anapsid.org
6. http://research.ucsb.edu/connect/acc/policy.html%23Reptilia
7. www.russiantortoise.org
8. www.tortoisetrust.org
99
Spiny softshell turtles

(Apalone spinifera)
Spiny Softshell Turtle
formerly Trionyx spiniferus Pet Care
Filipe Martinho, DVM
SUBSPECIES
Seven recognized subspecies, distinguished primarily by
geography, not physical appearance: Gulf Coast (A. s.
aspera), black (A. s. ater), Texas (A. s. emoryi), Guadalupe
(A. s. guadalupensis), western (A. s. hartwegi), pallid
(A. s. pallida) and eastern (A. s. spinifera)

Midwestern and southeastern United States, southern
Canada and northeastern Mexico with isolated
populations in the southwestern United States.
Spiny softshell turtles are found in slow-moving rivers and
lakes. Their numbers are threatened by pollution, shore-
line development and over-harvesting.
SUITABILITY AS PETS
Softshell turtles’ large size, particular husbandry
requirements and aggressive behavior would exclude it
from most pet owners.
These turtles can inflict scratches and a painful bite in
self defense.
VITAL STATISTICS
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS Life span up to 50 years in captivity
Softshell turtles have flat, round shells that lack bony Body length 12-45 cm (5-18 inches)
scutes and are covered with thick leathery skin. in carapace length
Males are smaller than females.
The marginal scutes are absent or strongly reduced,
100
Spiny Softshell Turtles
allowing some flexibility of shell edges. The plastron is

cartilaginous or partly ossified. These adaptations allow
them to swim and move at increased speed.
The head is narrow with a long snout with the nostrils
opening at its end. The neck is rather long but can be
completely withdrawn into the shell.
The feet are broadly webbed and paddle-like, and only
the three inner digits have nails.
The front edge of the spiny softshell turtle is usually
covered with tubercles.
The overall color of the shell is olive or grayish-brown with
darker spots and a cream border. The plastron is usually
much lighter colored and unmarked.

Males have longer and thicker tails. The coloring is more
contrasting, and the shell has a rougher texture. The shell
of females is smoother with blotches rather than spots.
Mating takes place underwater, and females can lay 1-2
clutches of 4-30 eggs in sand during the spring with
eclosion taking place in late summer or autumn.
BEHAVIOR
Spiny softshell turtles are an aquatic species and spend
a lot of time underwater, usually buried in the mud/sand.
They are very fast swimmers and are agile on land.
They bask along the water edges or on top of logs.
In shallow water they can extend their necks to the water
surface for breathing, but softshell turtles are also
capable of some gas exchange at the pharyngeal and
cloacal mucosa, allowing them to extract oxygen from
101
water and stay underwater for extended periods.

The northern populations are active from April to
September but the southern ones are active year-round.
HOUSING
Because of their aggressive behavior, spiny softshell
turtles should be housed alone in large aquariums. Extra
space is necessary if housed as breeding pairs.

This species is highly aquatic and should be housed in a
large aquarium (100-200 L [26-53 gal] tank for one
adult) with a small terrestrial area for basking (a piece of
cork bark or a large log or tree root will do nicely).
A water depth of 20-30 cm (8-12 inches) is adequate.
Water quality is very important. The water should be
changed frequently to remove food remnants and other
waste, and pH should be kept slightly acid (6.0-6.5).
This enclosure should be maintained as a freshwater
aquarium with appropriate filtering system.
Water temperature should be 22-27°C (72-80°F).
The bottom of the tank can be barren, but ideally there
should be a 2-5 cm (0.8-2.0 inches) layer of fine sand
so the animals can bury themselves in the substrate.
The basking area should allow the turtle to get
completely out of the water and be exposed both to
ultraviolet (UVB) and incandescent lighting.
Aquarium plants can be used as decorative items but
they can be easily uprooted or eaten by some animals.
DIET
Their natural diet, which is mainly carnivorous, consists of
invertebrates (e.g., earthworms, snails, crustaceans,
102
insects), fish, amphibians and their larvae and occasion-

ally, plant matter.
Usually, softshell turtles are eager eaters and readily take
pelleted food, minces of raw meat and fish, snails,
minnows and other small fish, shrimp, earthworms and
almost any animal prey that they can swallow.
Pelleted food will not foul the water as quickly as other
food items, and live prey, especially wild-caught fish and
snails, can transmit some pathogens to the turtle.
The diet should be supplemented with daily calcium and
weekly vitamins.
RESTRAINT
Although most chelonian species are gentle and don’t
pose many difficulties in handling and restraint, soft-
shells, especially adult individuals, are more aggressive
and frequently bite when handled. In these cases, they
should be handled by the lateral or caudal margins of the
shell. Even when handled this way, some turtles can
stretch their long necks and bite a distracted handler.
ANESTHESIA
In the author’s experience, the best anesthetic protocol
is propofol (10-14 mg/kg IV) given alone or followed by
endotracheal intubation and isoflurane. Even when
propofol is used alone, because of the induced apnea,
all individuals should be intubated and maintained under
oxygen and assisted ventilation (2-4 breaths/minute).
A number of different tranquilizers and other injectable
anesthetics have been used in reptiles, but their effects
are usually erratic and tend to prolong anesthetic recovery.
103

Spiny softshell turtles can suffer from the same health
problems that afflict other chelonian species, e.g.,
malnutrition, metabolic bone disease and bacterial
infections.
Because of their aggressive behavior, it is common to see
bite wounds and other trauma in individuals kept in pairs
or small groups.
Softshell turtles are very prone to skin trauma and
infections, which frequently develop into deeper or
systemic infections. These conditions arise as a result of
a number of predisposing factors, such as improper
husbandry (low water temperature, high pH, poor water
quality, abrasive sand or substrate) and malnutrition.
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
Aquatic turtles have been associated mostly with trans-
mission of Salmonella spp. and other enteric bacteria.
Other pathogens that can be transmitted are Aeromonas
spp., Campylobacter spp. and Mycobacterium spp.
Good husbandry and nutrition and appropriate hygiene
measures after handling turtles and their enclosures
make transmission highly improbable.

1. Mader DR (ed): Reptile Medicine and Surgery. WB Saunders Co,
1996.
2. Purser PA: Trionyx spiniferus—Keeping the spiny softshell turtle.
Reptilia 30:51-54, 2003.
3. Valverde J: Softshell turtles. Reptilia 55:8-15, 2007.
4. Woodwoard DL, Khakhria R, Johnson WM: Human salmonellosis
associated with exotic pets. J Clin Micro 35:2786-2790, 1997.
104
Milk Snake Milk snakes

(Lampropeltis triangulum)
Pet Care Filipe Martinho, DVM
COMMON SUBSPECIES
There are 25 subspecies; some have a strikingly different
appearance.

Southeastern Canada to Ecuador
Milk snakes can be found in a variety of habitats, ranging
from temperate to tropical forests, prairies, semi-deserts,
mountains to farmland and suburban areas, from sea
level to around 2740 m.
Milk snakes get their name because they were often
found in barnyards and were erroneously accused of
drinking milk from cows.
SUITABILITY AS PETS
Edward J. Wozniak, DVM, PhD
Milk snakes are considered a “beginner’s snake” because

they are fairly docile and nonvenomous.
Milk snakes have 3 pattern types: tri-colored rings of
white/yellow, black and red/orange; light tan, gray with
Common milk snake subspecies include
the Mexican milk snake (L. t. annulata). dark red/brown dorsal and lateral spots; and all black. The
black milk snake (L. t. gaigeae) starts out tri-colored but
VITAL STATISTICS loses its pattern after 1-2 years.
Life span 15 years (avg), Many natural variations of pattern and color have been
up to 30 years produced in captivity.
Body weight up to 1.8 kg (4 lb)) The color pattern of certain milk snakes can be
distinguished from the venomous coral snake (Micrurus
105
Milk Snakes Common milk snake subspecies include

the Sinaloan milk snake (L. t. sinaloae).
spp.) by a slightly different pattern: in milk snakes, red
bands are bordered by black bands while in coral snakes,
red bands are bordered by white ones.

Males usually have longer tails with a thicker base than
females, but the best method of sexing them is by
cloacal probing (males have 7-10 ventral scales and
females have 1-2).
Mating takes place in the spring, and a clutch of 2-17
eggs is laid in June-July.
BEHAVIOR
Milk snakes are nocturnal and will hide during the day.
Milk snakes should be housed individually because they
may engage in cannibalistic behavior.
Common milk snake subspecies include
CAPTIVE HOUSING the Eastern milk snake (L. t. triangulum)
With the exception of lids to prevent escape and
individual housing, milk snakes require quite simple
conditions in captivity.
The size of the terrarium should be proportionate to the
length of the snake; while hatchlings can be housed in a
40 L (10.5 gal) capacity terrarium, adults should have a
120 L (32 gal) capacity enclosure.
As substrate, it is possible to use paper towels (the
simplest and most hygienic option), Astroturf® carpets,
clean and dried sand, untinted aspen shavings (cedar
and redwood are toxic) or sterile potting soil. Substrate
should be changed every 6 months.
Rocks, logs, pieces of bark and safe nontoxic materials
are necessary for hiding and aiding in skin shedding.
106
Milk snakes like to climb on top of and hide Milk Snakes

under rocks in their enclosure, as seen with
this Honduran milk snake (L. t. hondurensis). ENVIRONMENTAL TEMPERATURE / HUMIDITY
The temperature should range between 25-30°C (77-
86°F). A hot spot of around 38-40°C (100-104°F) under
a heat lamp should be turned off at night. Under-the-
tank heating pads or cables can be safely used for
maintaining temperature.
Milk snakes should be housed in fairly dry environments.
As with all reptiles maintained in captivity, milk snakes
require unfiltered UVB light exposure.
DIET
Milk snakes eat primarily other snakes and reptiles and
their eggs, small mammals and birds and, occasionally,
insects and earthworms.
Captive-bred milk snakes readily accept appropriately
sized mice, which should be presented dead to avoid bite
Common milk snake subspecies include the trauma from prey.
Campbell’s milk snake (L. t. campbelli).
Earthworms and small lizards may also be offered.
Usually there is no need to supplement the snake’s diet
with calcium or vitamins because they ingest whole prey.
Nevertheless, it is a good idea to offer an adequate diet
to prey animals or gut-load them.
The water bowl should be changed daily.
RESTRAINT
Milk snakes are usually quite docile and don’t mind being
handled, although some individuals may defecate when
manipulated.
As with all snakes, the head should be grasped with one
hand to prevent biting, while the other hand supports the
rest of the body.
107
Milk Snakes This Nelson’s milk snake (L. t. nelsoni)

is considered an albino milk snake.
ANESTHESIA
In the author’s experience, the best anesthetic protocol
is propofol (10 mg/kg IV) given alone or followed by
endotracheal intubation and isoflurane.
Even when propofol is used alone, because of the
induced apnea, all individuals should be intubated and
maintained under oxygen and assisted ventilation (2-4
breaths/minute).
A number of different tranquilizers and other injectable
anesthetics have been used in reptiles, but their effects
are erratic and tend to prolong anesthetic recovery.

Dysecdysis
Dystocia
Ecto- and endoparasites
Fungal and/or bacterial dermatitis, which can progress to
deeper infections or sepsis
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
Snakes have been associated mostly with transmission of
Salmonella spp. and other enteric bacteria to man, but
also Cryptosporidium spp. and some pentastomids.
May act as reservoir host for Western Equine Encephalitis.

1. Mader DR (ed): Reptile Medicine and Surgery. WB Saunders,
1996.
2. Stebbins RC: Western Reptiles and Amphibians 2nd ed. Houghton
Mifflin Co, 1985.
3. Woodward DL, Khakhria R, Johnson WM: Human salmonellosis
associated with exotic pets. J Clin Micro 35:2786-2790, 1997.
108
Green Tree Python Green tree pythons

(Morelia viridis)
Pet Care Jeffrey S. Stillie, DVM
A 4-year-old, 950-g male from the lineage
Also known as chondro (for former genus Chondropython)
of Sorong/Papua New Guinea/Dallas Zoo

New Guinea, Indonesia and Australia
Rainforest; primarily arboreal but can be occasionally
found prowling the forest floor at night
Adults are usually green, but many individuals will exhibit
varying degrees of blue, yellow, white and black.
All hatchlings are yellow or red but undergo a phenomenal
ontogenic color change between 6-12 months of age.
Have broad heads with heat-seeking labial pits.
Streamlined bodies compliment the arboreal nature.
Very long teeth
Prehensile tails
Jeffrey S. Stillie
Females are generally larger than males.

Males generally have more developed spurs and produce
sperm plugs. Males probe deeper than females.
Sex deterimination by probe depth: male 9-10; female 2
VITAL STATISTICS BEHAVIOR

Nocturnal; generally sit coiled on a branch during the day.
Life span 10-20+ years
Body size 4-6 feet (1.2-1.8 m) (avg) Often quite docile with routine handling.
Body weight Solitary: males may combat during the breeding season
Male 900-1200 g (avg) (2.0-2.5 lb) and inflict serious wounds on one another.
Female 1000-2000 g (avg) (2.2-4.4 lb) Caudal luring (using tail to attract prey)
109
Green Tree Pythons An unsexed, 10-month-old, red neonate that

has yet to start its ontogenic color change.
CAPTIVE HOUSING
Vertical space is necessary due to arboreal nature, but
horizontal space is essential for exercise and maintaining
an appropriate thermal gradient.
House individually in a well-ventilated enclosure that can
hold adequate humidity.
Minimum cage size for an adult male: 24 x 24 x 24
inches (61 x 61 x 61 cm); adult female: 36 x 24 x 24
inches (91 x 61 x 61 cm)
Hatchlings adapt better / feed sooner if kept in smaller
enclosures.
Jeffrey S. Stillie
Full-spectrum lighting with a 12-hour photoperiod is
recommended.
Basking area at one end of enclosure is necessary to
achieve thermal gradient (accomplished with heat panel,
ceramic heat emitter or nocturnal reptile light). An unsexed, 11-month-old, yellow neonate
Newspaper is a good overall substrate because it is that is starting its ontogenic color change.
sanitary, readily available, easy to clean and can collect
fecal specimens. Drawbacks include its decreased ability
to hold humidity (requires more frequent misting), and
the newspaper ink may discolor the specimen.
Cypress mulch holds humidity well and is not prone to
molding if it is properly aerated; it can aid in ecdysis and
is aesthetically pleasing. (In its natural environment, the
green tree python, as with other snakes, will inadvertently
ingest foreign material, which normally passes the
gastrointestinal tract without complication. However, care
should be taken when feeding, as this could be a
Jeffrey S. Stillie
potential foreign body if ingested.)
A large water dish should be included in enclosure.
Mist 1-2 times daily depending on ventilation.
110
Green tree python eggs nearing their hatch date. The dimpling is Green Tree Pythons
visible on some of the eggs. Red baby pipping on day 52 post lay.
A thermal gradient of 75-90°F (24-32°C) should be
maintained, although most individuals prefer temper-
atures of 81-85°F (27-29°C).
Humidity >60% (good ventilation must be ensured).
Jeffrey S. Stillie
Numerous well-secured, removable, horizontal perches

(wood or PVC) should be provided; size should vary, but
correlate with the largest diameter of the snake’s body.
Silk or live plants (e.g., pothos) provide a sense of
security, aid in ecdysis, plus help maintain humidity.
Green tree python eating a rodent.
DIET
Free-ranging specimens consume frogs, lizards, birds and
rodents.
Captive specimens thrive on frozen/thawed or fresh/killed
rodents. (Live prey items may bite or injure snake.)
Food items should be offered with 12-inch (30 cm) or
longer hemostats.
Neonates should be fed every 5-7 days.
Adults should be fed every 7-10 days.
Seasonal anorexia in males may persist for 6+ months.
Some individuals drink from a water dish while others
prefer drinking the water droplets that accumulate on
their body post-misting.
RESTRAINT
Jens Raschendorf
Minimal restraint is recommended with docile specimens.

Aggressive pythons may be grasped with a firm but gentle
hand at the base of the neck, while supporting the body
111
Green Tree Pythons
with the opposite hand.

Green tree pythons may be difficult to remove from a
resting perch and may become agitated or injured with
forceful removal. Easily removable perches facilitate
extraction from enclosure, allowing minimal disturbance
to the snake, as both perch and snake are removed from
the enclosure in a single motion.
ANESTHESIA
Prior to anesthesia: evaluate vital parameters for baseline
(heart rate, respiratory rate); assess fluid, nutritional and
thermal status; perform preanesthetic blood profile
(PCV / total solids easily performed in-house), if possible.
Premedications ease induction and are likely to provide
analgesic properties: butorphanol (1-4 mg/kg IM) or
buprenorphine (0.005-0.01 mg/kg IM).
Premedication is recommended 20-30 minutes prior to
induction.
Induce with inhalant agent: isoflurane (5%) + oxygen via
face mask or induction chamber.
Alternatively, induce with injectable: propofol (3-5 mg/kg
IV) in ventral tail vein.
Maintenance of inhalation anesthesia using a precision
vaporizer allows for better control of anesthetic depth:
isoflurane/oxygen via uncuffed endotracheal tube;
nonrebreathing system (O2 flow rate 300-500
ml/kg/min); intermittent positive pressure ventilation
(IPPV): 4-6 breaths per minute; manual or mechanical
ventilator; pressure <12 cm H20.
Maintain temperature with circulating warm water
blanket, warm air blanket or heating pad (with caution to
112
Green Tree Pythons
guard against thermal burns).

Hypercapnia stimulates increased respiration.
When anesthesia is discontinued, let snake breathe room
air, and decrease frequency of IPPV to hasten recovery.

Dysecdysis (difficulty in or failure to shed)
Internal/external parasites (especially imported animals)
Cloacal prolapse
Vertebral kinks secondary to inappropriate handling
Dystocia
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
Salmonella (as per any reptile)
Pentastomiasis
Green tree pythons can inflict serious bites.
They are highly alert at night; may instinctively strike.
Do not sex neonates less than 1 year of age by probing
or attempt manual popping of hemipenes as it may
result in vertebral kinking and probe-induced injury to the
snake’s delicate anatomy.
Frank Wouters

1. Maxwell G: The Complete Chondro, Lansing, MI, ECO Pub, 2003.
2. Barker DG, Barker TM: Pythons of the World: Australia, Lakeside,
CA, Advanced Vivarium Systems, Inc, 1994.
3. Grace MS, Grace TK: Ontogenic color change in green tree
pythons, Reptiles 9(9):48-54, 2001.
4. Walder R: Why be bitten. Reptiles 14(4):74-79, 2006.
Saunders, 2006.
113
Oriental fire-belly toads

(Bombina orientalis)
Oriental Fire-belly
Toad Pet Care
Eastern China, North and South Korea, southeastern
Russia
In its natural home range, it is a common species with
diurnal and semi-aquatic habits, inhabiting slow-moving or
still waters surrounded by forests or moors.
SUITABILITY AS PETS
Fire-belly toads are one of the most common anurans
kept in captivity worldwide because of their small size,
interesting behavior and simple husbandry.
Oriental fire-belly toads are quite hardy.
They are often called the “beginner’s amphibian.”
The ventral region is bright red (hence the common
name) with dark blotches and white spots, and the
dorsum is brown or bright green, depending on the
population, with darker blotches and numerous small
tubercles.
Males are usually smaller than females, have small skin VITAL STATISTICS
tubercles on the first and second digits of the front legs Life span 14 years (avg),
(used to grasp the female during courtship), and are the up to 20 years
only ones that vocalize (resembling a short pipping sound). Body weight 28-56 g (1-2 oz)
The pupil is vertical or heart-shaped. Body size 1.5-2.3 inches (4-6 cm)
snout to vent
Only the hind feet are webbed.
Sexual maturity 5 years
114
Oriental Fire-belly Toads
BEHAVIOR
Free-ranging fire-belly toads hibernate from September/
October to April/May in groups of 2-6; they hide under
rocks, vegetation or decomposing wood.
The breeding period starts around May and lasts until
September, although there is no peak of reproductive
activity, and the eggs are laid gradually during this period.
Although their skin produces a number of toxic and
irritating substances, as most amphibians do, they are
prey of a number mammals and birds.
When threatened, they exhibit a characteristic display,
exposing the bright red and dark belly, announcing their
toxicity to a potential predator. This behavior is usually
lost in captive-bred individuals.
CAPTIVE HOUSING
Oriental fire-belly toads should be housed in small groups
of equal-sized individuals in an aqua-terrarium with 1/3 to
1/4 land area.
A 24 x 12 x 12 inch (60 x 30 x 30 cm) aquarium can
house up to 4 adult toads, although a larger area is more
desirable.
The bottom surface can be bare or covered with fine river
sand.
The water should be filtered (a mechanic filter for fresh-
water fish is suitable) and free of chlorine, chloramines
and heavy metals; it should be changed every 1-2 weeks.
Although the ultraviolet (UV) needs of most amphibian
Mark Pellegrini
species are still unknown, it is best to provide some kind

of artificial UV lighting to help prevent calcium-related
nutritional disorders.
115

Temperature should be 71-79°F (22-26°C); values over
84°F (29°C) should be avoided.
At night, temperature can be decreased a few degrees,
and drops up to 61°F (16°C) are usually well tolerated.
An enclosure kept at room temperature needs no
additional heat.
Rocks, driftwood and other suitable material, covered
with moss or live plants, can be used as a land area,
assuring some hideouts for the animals.
There should also be abundant aquatic and floating
plants in the aquatic area, which the animals use as
support while on the water.
DIET
Adults and terrestrial juveniles feed on invertebrates,
including insects and other arthropods, snails and worms.
Adult toads can be fed 2-3 times a week with a variety of
invertebrates (earthworms, snails, slugs, silkworms, wax
moths, mealworms and other appropriately-sized prey).
Eigenes Werk
Items high in fat, such has wax moths and flour beetles,
should be fed sparingly.
If flour beetles are fed, only those that have recently
shed their skin should be offered (to prevent gastro-
intestinal blockage), and their heads should be crushed
prior to feeding to prevent digestive wall trauma from
their mouth armour.
All food prey should be gut-loaded or lightly dusted with
vitamins and calcium.
116
Wild-caught prey may also be fed but can potentially

introduce pathogens or toxins.
Terrestrial juveniles should be fed daily with appropriately-
sized prey (chopped earthworms, white worms, small
silkworms or fruit flies).
RESTRAINT
Fire-belly toads should be handled with slightly moist,
talc-free latex gloves, not only to minimize contact with
the animals’ defensive skin secretions but also to reduce
trauma to their delicate skin.
They should be grasped around the forelegs or with a
loose grip around the whole body.
Small individuals and tadpoles can also be examined
while inside transparent plastic containers or plastic bags
filled with water.
ANESTHESIA
Amphibians can be anesthetized with baths of a buffered
tricaine methanosulfonate (MS-222) solution. The con-
centration of MS-222 can range from 0.2 g/L for tadpoles
to 1 g/L for adults; induction time is about 30 minutes.
The ideal anesthetic plane is characterized by loss of
righting and corneal reflexes and abdominal erythema.
Deeper planes of anesthesia can be achieved by longer
baths; the animal loses its withdrawal reflex while
maintaining a visible heartbeat.
After reaching the desired anesthetic plane, the animal
Mark Pellegrini
should be placed in a container with well-oxygenated

water.
At the end of the procedure or to remove excess MS-
117
222, the animal should be rinsed with clean water.

Isoflurane can also be delivered at 5% saturation via
anesthetic chamber. A small volume of water should be
placed inside the chamber to minimize dehydration.
Induction takes 5-20 minutes and recovery less than
100 minutes.

Malnutrition
Trauma
Disorders caused by incorrect water parameters
(e.g., bacterial and fungal skin infections)
Heat stress
All amphibians should have their stool checked for
parasites and should be medicated appropriately.
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
Few, if any, zoonoses are reportedly transmitted by
White’s tree frogs, but there are anecdotal reports of
isolation of Leptospira spp., Listeria monocytogenes,
Yersinia enterocolitica and atypical Mycobacteria in other
amphibian species. The ability of these species to transmit
these pathogens to human beings remains controversial.

1. Veiga M: The Oriental fire-belly toad Bombina orientalis. Reptilia
45:78-82, 2006.
2. Whitaker BR, Wright KM, Barnett SL: Basic husbandry and clinical
assessment of the amphibian patient. Vet Clin No Am Exot Anim
Pract 2:265-290, 1999.
3. Woodward DL, Khakhria R, Johnson WM: Human salmonellosis
associated with exotic pets. J Clin Microb 35:2786-2790, 1997.
4. Wright KM, Whitaker BR: Amphibian Medicine and Captive
Husbandry. Malabar, FL, Krieger Publishing Co, 2001.
118
White’s Tree Frog White’s tree frogs

(Litoria caerulea)
Pet Care Filipe Martinho, DVM
Also known as dumpy tree frog or green tree frog.

North and northeastern Australia and southern Papua,
New Guinea; introduced into New Zealand
White’s tree frogs can be found in a variety of habitats,
from moist to relatively dry forests to even around human
settlements like parks and gardens, where they are
usually found climbing branches, bushes or trees.
SUITABILITY AS PETS
White’s tree frogs are popular amphibians in captivity
because of their moderate size and interesting behavior.
They may be considered a beginner’s frog.
As with most members of this family, White’s tree frogs
possess small discs at the tip of the digits, which function
as climbing aids. The fingers and toes are partly webbed.
The skin is smooth and quite dry for an amphibian
because of its waxy secretions, which decrease excessive
water loss.
Coloration is variable, ranging from brown to green,
VITAL STATISTICS sometimes even bluish. Some individuals have white or
Life span 15 years (avg), up to 25 years
yellow spots and an irregular white stripe from the corner
Body size 2.8-4.3 inches (7-11 cm) of the mouth to the shoulder.
snout to vent (medium-sized) This species can partially change its skin color, depending
119
White’s Tree Frogs
on the surrounding environment (temperature, humidity,

vegetation, light intensity) or health status.
Some adult individuals, especially obese ones, can
develop large skin flaps over the eyes.
Males are smaller than females, often have a green tinge
on the throat and are the only ones that call during
mating season.
BEHAVIOR
White’s tree frogs are docile and can become relatively
tame to tolerate handling.
They are mostly nocturnal, remaining inactive during the
day to reduce water losses.
They are opportunistic predators, feeding on any insect,
small bird, mammal, frog or other prey they can fit into
their mouths.
The breeding period occurs between November and May,
and the males call loudly to attract female partners.
The 200-2000 eggs are laid at the surface of still water
bodies, and after 24 hours they sink to the bottom. The
eggs hatch after 3 days, and metamorphosis occurs 2
months later.
CAPTIVE HOUSING
This is a moderately-sized and quite active frog that
needs a large enclosure in captivity. A terrarium 31 x 12
x 20 inches (80 x 30 x 50 cm) should be suitable for 1-2
adult individuals, but more space is desirable.
Since they are arboreal animals, a vertical terrarium is
more suitable than a horizontal one.
A number of substrate materials, such as coconut fiber,
120
potting soil (without fertilizers or pesticides), artificial grass

carpets or moist paper towels, can be used with safety.
Gravel, sand and small-sized tree bark should be
avoided, because these can be inadvertently swallowed
by the animals or cause skin irritation.
A large but not very deep water bowl should be placed on
the bottom of the terrarium; the water should be free of
chlorine, chloramines and heavy metals and changed
frequently.
Because the UV lighting requirements for most amphibian
species are not completely known, it is best to include a
UV bulb to help prevent nutritional disorders.

Daytime temperatures should be approximately 75-84°F
(24-29°C) and slightly lower at night.
Heat should be provided by an incandescent or infrared
light bulb that is placed at a safe distance from the
animals to prevent thermal burns.
A temperature gradient should be created inside the
terrarium, with a slightly cool corner and a slightly
warmer basking spot, so the frogs can choose the most
adequate temperature.
Hideouts, such as hollow logs or tilted flower pots,
should be provided.
Live sturdy plants can be safely used; besides the
aesthetic function, they provide extra climbing surfaces
and hideouts and help to maintain humidity in the
terrarium.
121
Because of their climbing habits, White’s tree frogs need

branches and vines across the terrarium.
Plants used in the terrarium should be nontoxic and
oxalate-free; live prey, such as crickets, may feed on
some oxalate-containing plants and can cause oxalate
toxicity in frogs after the prey are ingested.
DIET
Adult frogs can be fed 2-3 times a week with a variety of
invertebrates (crickets, cockroaches, earthworms, silk-
worms, wax moths, mealworms and other appropriately-
sized prey).
Items high in fat, such as wax moths and flour beetles,
should be fed sparingly.
If flour beetles are fed, only those that have recently
shed their skin should be offered (to prevent gastro-
intestinal blockage), and their heads should be crushed
prior to feeding to prevent digestive wall trauma from
their mouth armour.
All food prey should be gut-loaded or lightly dusted with
vitamins and calcium before feeding.
Wild-caught prey may also be fed but can potentially
introduce pathogens or toxins.
Rodent prey should not be fed in captivity because of the
tendency to induce obesity.
RESTRAINT
White’s tree frogs should be handled with slightly moist,
talc-free, latex gloves, not only to minimize contact with
the animals’ defensive skin secretions, but also to reduce
trauma to their delicate skin.
122
They should be grasped around the forelegs or

immediately anterior to the hind legs.
Small individuals and tadpoles can also be examined
while inside transparent plastic containers or plastic bags
containing water.
ANESTHESIA
Amphibians can be anesthetized with baths of a buffered
tricaine methanosulfonate (MS-222) solution. The con-
centration of MS-222 can range from 0.2 g/L for tadpoles
to 1 g/L for adults; induction time is about 30 minutes.
Amos T Fairchild
The ideal anesthetic plane is characterized by loss of

righting and corneal reflexes and abdominal erythema.
Deeper planes of anesthesia can be achieved by longer
baths; the animal loses its withdrawal reflex while
maintaining a visible heartbeat.
After reaching the desired anesthetic plane, the animal
should be placed in a container with well-oxygenated
water.
At the end of the procedure or to remove excess MS-
222, the animal should be rinsed with clean water.
Isoflurane can also be delivered at 5% saturation via
anesthetic chamber. A small volume of water should be
placed inside the chamber to minimize dehydration.
Induction takes 5-20 minutes, and recovery is less than
100 minutes.
Korallen Laubfrosch

Malnutrition
Trauma
Bacterial or fungal infections
123
Obesity (affected animals can develop large skin flaps

over the eyes that can obscure vision)
Obese individuals can also be at increased risk of
developing liver and heart disease, although rarely
reported in amphibians.
Some animals frequently fed rodent prey can develop
lipid keratopathy with deposition of cholesterol crystals
over the cornea.
All amphibians should have their stool checked for
parasites and should be medicated appropriately.
Phillie Casablanca
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
Few, if any, zoonoses are reportedly transmitted by
White’s tree frogs, but there are anecdotal reports of
isolation of Leptospira spp., Listeria monocytogenes,
Yersinia enterocolitica and atypical Mycobacteria in other
amphibian species. The ability of these species to transmit
these pathogens to human beings remains controversial.

1. Whitaker BR, Wright KM, Barnett SL: Basic husbandry and clinical
assessment of the amphibian patient. Vet Clin No Am Exot Anim
Pract 2:265-290, 1999.
2. Woodword DL, Khakhria R, Johnson WM: Human salmonellosis
associated with exotic pets. J Clin Microb 35:2786-2790, 1997.
Husbandry. Malabar, FL, Krieger Publishing Company, 2001.
124
Tomato Frog Tomato frogs

(Dyscophus sp.)
Pet Care Kenneth Harkewicz, VMD

Tomato frogs originate in the northeast coastal areas of
Madagascar.
They live in humid forest habitats from sea level to 660 ft
(200 m).
COMMON SUBSPECIES
All tomato frogs belong to the Microhylaidae family and
the genus Dyscophus. There are 3 subspecies recognized.
D. antongilli is not common in the pet trade because
their importation out of Madagascar is prohibited under
CITES Appendix I. They are the most vividly red of the
three subspecies.
D. guineti is common in the pet trade and known as the
false tomato frog (also called the Sambava frog or
Guinet’s frog). They are red to yellow-orange in color with
brown lines running down the sides of the body.
D. insularis is the smallest of the subspecies, rarely
getting over 2 inches (5 cm) in length from snout to vent.
This subspecies is brownish-orange in color and is never
VITAL STATISTICS as vivid red as the other two subspecies.
Life span 10-18 years (captivity)
FREE-RANGING HABITS
D. guineti body weight
male 40 g (1.5 oz) The tomato frog is found in areas with soft soil and high
female 227 g (8 oz) humidity, as they burrow most of the day.
D. guineti body length They are often found near accumulations of water during
male 2.5 inches (65 mm)
the rainy season, because they need water to breed.
female 4 inches (10.1 cm)
125
Tomato Frogs Dyscophus antongilli
SUITABILITY AS PETS
Tomato frogs require a minimal environmental setup.
D. guineti is bred in captivity. This is always a plus over
wild-caught specimens.
Tomato frogs make good “first frog pets,” as they are
hardy and easy to care for.
The name “tomato frog” comes both from their red
coloration and the shape they assume when they fill their
bodies with air (often when threatened or frightened).
The ventrum of the frog varies from white to cream in
color. The color is usually darker in the throat area,
especially in males during the breeding season.

Mature female tomato frogs are larger than males. Dyscophus guineti
Female tomato frogs have the most vivid colors; males
and juveniles often have more muted coloration.
BEHAVIOR
Tomato frogs are nocturnal.
They lack adhesive discs on their fingers and toes so they
do not climb well.
Being round in shape with small legs, they are poor
swimmers.
They are ambush-type hunters when looking for food
items. They stay buried in substrate, waiting to ambush
prey that comes along.
The bright red color of tomato frogs serves as a warning
to predators; the skin contains a toxic secretion.
126
Shallow water should be Tomato Frogs

provided for swimming.
CAPTIVE HOUSING
Terrestrial vivariums are best for tomato frogs. An
enclosure that is 3 feet (91.4 cm) long, 15 inches (38
cm) deep and 18 inches (45.7 cm) in height will easily
house 3-4 adult tomato frogs.
Because the frogs burrow, a substrate of at least 2.5
inches (6.3 cm) in depth should be provided. Coconut
coir makes an excellent substrate and holds humidity well.
Ventilation is important, so partial screening on the
enclosure’s sides and top is essential.
Only shallow water bowls (with either spring or filtered
water) should be used, as the frogs are poor swimmers.
A low-intensity UVB full-spectrum light is advisable to
help prevent metabolic bone disease disorders.

Free-ranging tomato frogs
burrow most of the day. Temperature should not get above 80°F (26°C) for
juveniles or above 85°F (29°C) for adults. Juvenile tomato
frogs cannot tolerate heat extremes as well as adults.
A temperature gradient is preferred. The cooler side of
the enclosure can drop to 75°F (23°C).
Nighttime temperature should be 60-65°F (15.5-18.3°C).
A humidity of 70-80% is best for tomato frogs.
Spraying the enclosure with filtered spring water several
times daily helps to maintain high humidity.
Hollow logs, ceramic flower pots cut in half, or artificial
reptile huts help to provide good hiding spots for frogs.
Olaf Leillinger
Live plants can be used but are often destroyed or

damaged by the frog’s digging behavior.
127
Tomato Frogs Tomato frogs can be

restrained with the thumb
DIET and forefinger method.
The tomato frog’s diet is mainly insects and small
invertebrates.
Crickets, wax worms, phoenix worms, small silkworms,
mealworms and earthworms may all be offered.
Food items that ingest food can be gut-loaded with a
commercial insect chow. Some food items (e.g., wax
worms and phoenix worms) do not eat.
Kenneth Harkewicz, VMD

Food items should also be dusted with a vitamin/mineral
powder made for reptiles/amphibians before feeding to
further enhance their nutritional status.
Adults are fed every 2-3 days; juveniles are fed daily.
If not ingested, live food items should be removed from
the enclosure within a few hours of being introduced.
RESTRAINT
Tomato frogs have a mild toxin in their skin, so gloves
should be worn when handled.
Prior to picking up the frog, gloves should be rinsed in
filtered water to remove any powder/dust.
To grasp a frog, use a thumb and forefinger grip behind
the hind legs.
Tomato frogs will often inflate their bodies with air when
they are handled.
ANESTHESIA
MS-222 (tricane methanosulfate) may be used to sedate
tomato frogs in a bath. A dose of 1.0 g/ L water and a
30-minute soak will sedate nicely.
Propofol applied topically at 100-140 mg/kg can be used
for sedation. It can also be given ICe at 10-30 mg/kg.
128
An oral examination Tomato Frogs

may reveal glossitis.
Isoflurane may be used either as a gas (3-5% induction,
1-2% maintenance) or applied as a topical mixture to the
frog’s skin (3.0 ml isoflurane, 3.5 ml K/Y Jelly mixed in
1.5 ml water and applied to effect).

Malnutrition, especially due to a lack of adequate
calcium (metabolic bone disease)
Rostral abrasions/abscesses
Trauma secondary to improper handling
Skin ulcerations (and secondary infection) due to unclean
Kenneth Harkewicz, VMD
surroundings or improper care

Renal disease
Fecal checks for internal parasites are important.
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
Bacterial infections, such as Salmonella, may be passed
to humans through a fecal-oral route.
D. antongilli tadpole
The skin toxin can cause a burning sensation if it comes
into contact with mucous membranes.
Hands must always be washed after handling these
frogs, even if gloves are used.

1. Brandt H, et al: Madagascar Wildlife 2nd ed - A Visitor’s Guide.
Brandt Travel Guides, Buckinghamshire, UK, 2001.
2. Carpenter JW: Exotic Animal Formulary 3rd ed. WB Saunders,
2004.
3. Hutrichter R: Amphibians: The Worlds of Frogs, Toads, Salamander,
and Newts, Tonawanda, NY, Firefly Books, 2001.
129
African clawed frogs

(Xenopus laevis)
African Clawed Frog
Bruce Maclean, BSc (VetSci), BVM&S, MRCVS Pet Care
Also called platanna
COMMON SUBSPECIES / SIMIL AR SPECIES

Several subspecies have been recognized, but they are
not generally recognized in the hobby/pet trade.
Occasional specimens of other Xenopus species or some
hybrids between different species may be encountered,
but specific identification can be difficult. Fortunately,
care is essentially similar.
X. tropicalis are generally smaller and darker in color and
require slightly higher temperatures (23-26°C [73-79°F]).

Clawed frogs are widely spread in sub-Saharan Africa.
There are feral breeding populations in many places in
the United States, Europe, South America and Africa.
Bruce Maclean
Clawed frogs are generally found in still, often fairly
stagnant/muddy bodies of water. Xenopus laevis usually
live in semi-arid grassland.
The body of these frogs is dorsoventrally flattened, with
small eyes positioned dorsally on the head.
They lack tongues and teeth.
VITAL STATISTICS
Life span up to 20 years
The front toes are unwebbed, the hind toes are fully
Body weight up to 100 g (3.5 oz)
webbed. The medial three digits of the hind feet (digits I,
Body length
II, III) have short black claws, while the front toes are male 5-8 cm (2-3 inches)
relatively long and pointed. female 10-15 cm (4-6 inches)
130
The natural color of clawed African Clawed Frogs

frogs is olive/grey/brown.
The natural color of clawed frogs is olive/gray/brown
blotching dorsally, creamy white ventrally, with a “stitched
appearance” along lateral lines. Various albino/
hypomelanistic forms are common as pets.

Females are larger and generally more plump than males.
They also have obvious slightly protruding papillae (labial
flaps) around the cloaca, which the males lack.
Males in breeding condition develop black nuptial pads
on the front feet and forelegs (although note that females
Bruce Maclean
may develop dark palmar surfaces with age).

Breeding occurs after spring rains, which can be simu-
lated by a 25-40% water change and slight reduction in
water temperature. Hundreds of eggs may be laid.
An albino African clawed frog shown BEHAVIOR

in its typical out-stretched pose. Clawed frogs are essentially totally aquatic (although they
come to the surface for air).
They can migrate short distances or dig into moist soil
and aestivate, if conditions dictate. They spend most of
time lying motionless below the surface of the water.
They are opportunistic predators, using their sensitive
lateral line organs and fingers to search for food items in
muddy water. They will take non-moving prey, stuffing
anything edible into their mouths with their forefeet.
CAPTIVE HOUSING
A large aquarium is necessary (minimum: 10 gallons [40
L] for first adult frog, 5 gallons per frog after that). Water
depth should be more than the frog is long (but care
must be taken with water level too close to the top of the
131
African Clawed Frogs The hind toes of the clawed

frog are fully webbed.
tank, as these frogs are escape artists).
Water must be free of chlorine, chloramines and heavy
metals. Tap water must be treated and quality monitored.
Substrate should be such that it cannot be swallowed.
Gravel is best avoided, as ingestion can be a problem.
These are quite messy frogs, and filtration is necessary.
This must involve as little water disturbance as possible,
however, as the frogs are sensitive to water movements.
Lighting is controversial, but overhead lower-intensity full-
spectrum lighting is probably advisable, with timed
photoperiod (12:12).
Bruce Maclean
These frogs are relatively tolerant of varying temperatures,
but a water temperature of 20-22°C (68-72°F) is
recommended. Temperature changes should be gradual.
MALE FEMALE
Multiple hiding places are necessary and must be secure
to prevent displacement.
Live plants, if used, must be hardy as well as nontoxic
(anubias are recommended). Plastic plants need to be
assessed for sharp edges.
Cage companions are not recommended, except other
clawed frogs of approximately equal size.
DIET
Bruce Maclean
In captivity, complete pelleted foods, supplemented with
a variety of live invertebrates and freeze-dried
bloodworms should be offered.
Live small fish, such as guppies, are often used but risk
Females can be identified by the protruding papillae around the cloaca.
introducing pathogens.
132
Anubia nana are suitable live plants African Clawed Frogs

in an aquarium for clawed frogs.
The commonly used beef heart may be used as a treat
but is inadequate as the sole diet.
The tadpoles are filter feeders; suspension fish fry food or
flake may be used.
RESTRAINT
Clawed frogs should be handled gently with moist,
powder-free gloves (preferably vinyl). They should always
be handled in such a position that they cannot damage
themselves from a fall (i.e., low, over a soft surface/water).
As much visual examination as possible should be carried
out in a transparent container before handling.
Note: netting should be avoided; the front toes are very
easy to damage or even amputate with netting.
ANESTHESIA
Clawed frog tadpoles Anesthesia is by immersion to effect in buffered MS-222
are filter feeders. (tricaine methane sulphonate), typically at 1 g/L for
adults, 0.2 g/L for tadpoles, or in water through which
isoflurane is bubbled.
Alternatively, isoflurane in KY jelly applied topically has
been described (3 ml isoflurane in 3.5 ml KY jelly + 1.5
ml water, dosed at 0.025 ml/g, wiped off when desired
depth of anesthesia is reached; care must be taken to
avoid overdosing).
Loss of righting and corneal reflexes indicates light
anesthesia; loss of withdrawal reflexes indicates deep
anesthesia. Note that drowning is possible; monitoring
during induction is essential.
Recovery may be encouraged by rinsing in clean, well-
oxygenated water once the procedure is completed.
133
African Clawed Frogs Water level should not be too

close to the top of the tank, as
For longer-term maintenance, isoflurane in oxygen may these frogs are escape artists.
be administered by mask or tube; positive-pressure
ventilation may be necessary to maintain anesthesia.
The frog must be kept moist during surgery, and the
heartbeat should be monitored visually or with Doppler
ultrasound during anesthesia.

Bloat is the most common clinical sign seen; it can be
related to a wide variety of problems, including internal
infection (various pathogens), liver problems,
Bruce Maclean
heart/circulatory problems, kidney problems and parasitic
problems. Diagnosing the cause can be challenging, but
a logical work-up, as far as feasible, is recommended.
Metabolic bone disease/nutritional osteodystrophy is not
as common in clawed frogs as in many captive
amphibians but can occur (signs include: lethargy,
weakness, anorexia, pathological fractures, tremors).
Red leg (septicemia) is also often seen and may be
associated with a variety of (mainly bacterial) pathogens.
Dermatitis may be related to water quality or fungal,
bacterial, mycobacterial and/or nematode infection.
Granulomatous disease is usually associated with
mycobacterial or fungal infection.
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
Zoonotic diseases from clawed frogs are rarely reported,
but they may carry and/or suffer from many bacteria that
Berliner Tiergarten
can affect humans, including notably Salmonella species
and atypical mycobacteria.
134
African Clawed Frogs
Clawed frogs are feral in many places and have been
implicated as a reservoir and/or agent of spread of
chytrid fungus, to which they are relatively resistant. As a
result, their keeping is controlled in several places.
Permits are required for owning, selling and transporting
these frogs in several U.S. states.
Due to their relative resistance and potential carrier state
for chytrid fungus, strict precautions are necessary when
they are in a collection with other amphibians, including
other aquatic frogs.
Historically and to some extent still, clawed frogs are
widely used as research animals, originally for human
pregnancy diagnosis and now more for genetic and
developmental studies.

1. Bertelsen M, Crawshaw G: 5-minute guide to amphibian disease.
Exotic DVM 5(2): 23-26, 2003.
2. Davies R, Davies V: The Question and Answer Manual of Reptiles
and Amphibians. Salamander Books, London, 1997.
3. Mattison C: Keeping and Breeding Amphibians. Blandford Press,
London, 1993.
Peter Halasz
4. Williams DL: Amphibians. In Meredith A, Redrobe S (eds): BSAVA

Manual of Exotic Pets 4th ed. BSAVA Publications, Gloucester,
2002.
5. Wright KM: Overview of amphibian medicine. In Mader D (ed):
Reptile Medicine and Surgery 2nd ed. Saunders Elsevier, 2006.
Husbandry. Krieger Publishing, 2001.
7. www.xlaevis.com
8. www.clawedfrogs.com
9. http://aquaticfrogs.tripod.com
10. http://pipidae.net
11. www.columbia.edu/itc/cerc/danoff-burg/invasion_bio/inv_spp_summ/
xenopus_laevis.htm
135
Betta Fish (Betta splendens) Betta Fish

Helen E. Roberts, DVM
Also known as Siamese fighting fish.

Pet Care
Blue and red super-
ORIGIN / FREE-RANGING HABITAT delta Betta splendens
Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam
Wild populations have been introduced to Dominican
Republic, Brazil, Columbia, Malaysia and Singapore
Typically found in standing or slow-moving water of flood
plains, canals, rice paddies, drainage ditches and rivers.
Most bettas found in the pet trade are imported from
several Asian countries where they are farmed.
SUITABILITY AS PETS
Bettas make excellent pets and can be housed in small
aquaria, making them suitable for small spaces such as
offices, dorm rooms and apartments.
Most bettas are 7-10 months old when purchased at a
pet store.
The species is sexually dimorphic, with males exhibiting
long, flowing colorful fins and tails.
Most bettas sold in the pet trade are males.
Healthy bettas are available in many colors.
Several tail types have developed through selective
breeding, including halfmoon, delta, super delta, veiltail
and crowntail. VITAL STATISTICS
Life span 2-3 (avg), up to 5 years
Body size 2.25 inches (5.0-6.5 cm)
136
Bubble nest made Betta Fish

by the male betta
BEHAVIOR
Male bettas will display or “flare” when another male
betta (and occasionally a female) is present.
The opercula (gill plates, which cover and protect the
gills) are flared wide open, exposing a membrane inside
the opercula, the colors intensify and the fins are
extended, making the fish appear larger and more
threatening.
The fish will occasionally exhibit this behavior when the
owner appears. This reaction can also be induced with
the use of a mirror. When the male sees the “other”
male, he will typically display.
Repeated induction of flaring or displaying may cause
stress in the fish.
Betta half moon Bettas are usually found at the top of the water column.
Males will produce bubble nests by mixing air with a
mucoid fluid in their buccal cavity.
The nest is protected by the male after spawning.
The presence of a nest is usually associated with a
healthy betta.
CAPTIVE HOUSING
Aquaria: 1-2 gallons of water is sufficient, although
bettas can be housed with other community species.
Males must be housed individually, as they will fight.
Water quality issues may arise when they are kept in
small bowls.
The ideal pH is 7.0 with a range of 6.8-7.5.
137
Betta Fish Female bettas in a community tank

with mollies and rainbow fish.
Preferred temperature is 75-86°F (24-30°C).
Temperature fluctuations can be stressful and may lead
to disease.
A small wattage heater can be used to maintain a
constant water temperature.
Tank decorations may serve as hiding places.
Silk or live plants that will not cause trauma to the long
fins and tails should be used.
DIET
Bettas are carnivorous and eat insect larvae, crusta-
ceans, small fish and zooplankton in their native habitats.
Several good quality commercial betta diets are available
in flaked, freeze-dried, gel, frozen and pelleted forms.
50-100 ppm (mg/L) MS-222: tricaine methanesulfonate
(TMS), (Finquel® - Argent Chemical Laboratories,
Redmond, WA), (Tricaine-S® - Western Chemical Inc,
Ferndale, WA)
Due to the unique anatomy of the labyrinth organ
(enabling the fish to breath atmospheric oxygen) and the
gills of these fish (thick lamellae and decreased lamellar
surface area), it is possible to “drown” the fish if an
overdose of an anesthetic agent is used.
138
Bettas being packed for Betta Fish

shipment from Thailand.
Mycobacterial infections
Traumatic injuries from fin and tail nipping of conspecifics
(when 2 males are housed together) and tank mates in a
community tank
Exophthalmia
“Dropsy” or renal insufficiency/failure secondary to
bacterial or mycobacterial disease
Coelomic cavity swelling
Nicholas St. Erne, DVM
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
Bettas have a high incidence of mycobacterial infections.
Other zoonoses not specific to bettas include bacterial
pathogens that may gain entry through existing open
wounds or punctures obtained during handling of fish.
Betta fish with ventral SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS

coelomic cavity swelling.
Maintenance of excellent water quality cannot be over-
emphasized, particularly if the betta is kept in a small
volume of water.

1. Lowry T, Smith SA: Aquatic zoonoses associated with food, bait,
ornamental, and tropical fish. J Am Vet Med Assoc 231:876-880,
2007.
2. Riehl R, Baensch H: Aquarium Atlas 6th ed. Germany, Mergus,
1996.
3. Stoskopf M (ed): Fish Medicine. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co,
1993.
Helen E. Roberts
139
Oscar fish
(Astronotus ocellatus)
Oscar Fish
Helen E. Roberts, DVM Pet Care
Also known as oscar cichlid, tiger oscar, velvet cichlid,
marble cichlid, red oscar, red tiger oscar, Acara ocellatus,
A. crassipinnis

South America; native to Peru, Colombia, Brazil and
French Guyana.
As a result of the illegal release of pet oscars into non-
native waters, feral populations occur in China and
northern Australia. In the US, feral populations have been
found in Florida, Hawaii, Georgia, Louisiana,
Massachusetts, Mississippi, New Jersey, Pennsylvania,
Rhode Island, Texas and Virginia.
Most oscars sold in pet stores are either of Asian import
or bred domestically in Florida.
Oscars are usually found in slow-moving white-water
habitats, such as the Amazon River basin and related
drainage areas.
SUITABILITY AS PETS
Excellent, intelligent, personable fish
They are fast-growing and relatively hardy.
They can be hand-fed and learn to recognize owners as
the source of food.
One major disadvantage is their large size at adulthood, VITAL STATISTICS
requiring a large aquarium. Life span 7-8 years
Body size 12 inches (30 cm) (avg)
140
Oscar Fish
Oscars can be housed with
Other disadvantages include their tendency to uproot
other fish of similar size.
plants and be messy eaters.
Color forms: Captive breeding programs have led to
different colors and patterns including albino, leucistic
and xanthistic varieties.
A. ocellatus, with patches of red pigmentation, are sold
as red tiger oscars, while those strains with mainly red
coloration of the flanks are frequently sold under the
trade name of red oscars.
Long-finned varieties may be found in some pet stores.
The wild-caught forms of the species are typically darkly
colored with orange-ringed spots or ocelli on the caudal
peduncle (tail) and on the dorsal fin.
Ocelli may be important for intra-specific communication
and to limit fin- and tail-nipping by piranha in the oscar’s
natural environment.
Communication may occur with quick color changes.
Juvenile oscars are striped with white and orange wavy
bands and spotted heads.
Poor husbandry and/or water quality may result in much
smaller fish.
BEHAVIOR
Healthy oscars are normally found in the bottom or
middle of the water column unless they are feeding.
They will often “dance” in anticipation of being fed.
They are mistakenly thought to be very aggressive but
can be housed with other fish that are too large to be
considered prey.
141
Oscar Fish
CAPTIVE HOUSING
Aquaria: 50 gallons of water is minimum to accom-
modate adult size.

Preferred range is 74-80°F (23-27°C)
Temperatures of 55.2°F (12.9°C) or lower are usually
lethal.
Plants for uprooting and “redecorating,” live food
DIET
Carnivorous, piscivorous
Live food or commercial carnivorous cichlid diet
RESTRAINT / ANESTHESIA Oscar with HITH (Hole-

50-100 ppm (mg/L) MS-222: tricaine methanesulfonate in-the-head) disease
(TMS), (Finquel® - Argent Chemical Laboratories,
Redmond, WA), (Tricaine-S® - Western Chemical Inc,
Ferndale, WA)

HITH (Hole-in-the-head) disease or HLLE (head and
lateral line erosion)
Intestinal parasites, such as Hexamita and Spironucleus
Coelomic neoplasia
Traumatic injuries (fin-nipping, intra-specific fighting)
Helen E. Roberts
Renal adenomas (rare but may have genetic
predisposition)
142
An albino oscar fish Oscar Fish

“attacking” glass cleaner
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
There are no zoonotic pathogens reported to be specific
to oscars.
All fish should be considered potential carriers of
Mycobacterium sp.
Bacterial pathogens of fish may gain entry through
existing open wounds or punctures obtained during
handling of fish.
To reduce the risk of disease, live foods should be
quarantined for several weeks prior to feeding.
Feeder fish may have pre-existing parasitic infections, act
as paratenic hosts for intestinal parasites and be carriers
of pathogenic bacteria.

1. Ferguson H: Systemic Pathology of Fish 2nd ed. London, Scotian
Press, 2006.
2. Francis-Floyd R, Reed P: Management of Hexamita in Ornamental
Cichlids, VM-67. Florida Cooperative Extension Service, UF-IFAS.
1994. Available at http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu.
3. Gumpenberger M, Hochwartner O, Loupal G: Diagnostic imaging of
a renal adenoma in a red oscar, Astronotus ocellatus (Cuvier,
1829). Vet Rad & Ultra 45(2):139-142, 2004.
4. Lowry T, Smith SA: Aquatic zoonoses associated with food, bait,
ornamental, and tropical fish. J Am Vet Med Assoc 231:876-880,
2007.
5. Noga EJ: Fish Disease: Diagnosis and Treatment. St. Louis, Mosby,
1996.
6. Riehl R, Baensch H: Aquarium Atlas 6th ed. Germany, Mergus,
1996.
7. United States Geological Survey. NAS - Species Fact Sheet
Astronotus ocellatus (Agassiz 1831). United States Government.
Retrieved on Sept 9, 2007.
8. Wildgoose WH (ed): BSAVA Manual of Ornamental Fish 2nd ed.
British Small Animal Veterinary Association, 2001.
143
Pigeons (rock doves)

(Columba livia domestica)
Pigeon
Niklos Weber, DVM, Dipl ABVP - Avian Practice
Dipl ABVP - Canine and Feline Practice
Pet Care
Archangel pigeons
COMMON BREEDS
Homing or racing pigeons (e.g., sions, van loons)
Meat pigeons (e.g., king and carneaux breeds, “squab”)
Flying breeds (e.g., rollers, tumblers, high flyers)
Fancy pigeons (e.g., fantails, pouters, archangels)
ORIGIN
The rock dove is ubiquitous and has been domesticated
for over 5,000 years. It was first domesticated in the
Middle East and Egypt.
Pigeons have adapted well to human settlements and
seem to prefer to live in cities.
In the wild, they are cliff nesters, and buildings offer
Niklos Weber
enough flat areas to nest comfortably.
Free-ranging pigeons have the ability to “home,” i.e., find
their way back to their nests, and racing pigeons have
been selected for this ability.
Fancy and meat pigeons have generally lost the homing VITAL STATISTICS
instinct, as they were bred for appearance or growth. Life span 11 years (avg) Respiratory rate 20-30 breaths per minute
Body weight 240-550 g (up to 2000 g) (resting)
SUITABILITY AS PETS Body size 12.5-40 cm (5-16 inches) Sexual maturity 4 months
Fancy pigeons have the potential to make very good pets, Body temperature 39.8-43.3°C (cloacal) First breeding 7-8 months
especially if hand-raised. Heart rate 160-300 beats per minute Clutch size 2
They are friendly and easy to take care of and don’t have (resting) Nestling period 21-28 days
144
Roller pigeon Pigeons
the ability to bite very hard.

Racing pigeons have been bred as high-activity, elite
athletes, so they do not do very well inside a house.
However, if protected from predators, they can make
good pets in an aviary.
Pigeons have very large, bilobed crops and are unique in
that both parents make “crop milk” for their young up to
10-14 days of age.
They have small uropygial glands, so most of their water-
proofing is achieved through the use of powderdown.
They have no gallbladder, and their cecae are very small.
BEHAVIOR
Pigeons are generally monogamous and mate for life.
They establish a definite pecking order in the loft and
may scalp the lower-ranking birds if they are overcrowded.
Pigeon racers commonly use mating behavior to their
advantage by separating the males and females all week
and letting them see each other before the race, so they
fly home faster to their mates (“widowhood”).
CAPTIVE HOUSING
Pigeons are generally housed in outdoor lofts large
enough to allow them to fly up to flat perches.
The lofts usually contain separate sections for young
birds, hens, breeders and the racing team.
Breeder lofts contain nest boxes or cages, and lofts for
racing or show birds contain flat perches, which best
support their foot structure.
145
Pigeons Pigeon loft
Show birds are sometimes housed in individual cages.

The lofts should be cleaned frequently and have
adequate ventilation.
Supplemental heat or cooling is usually not necessary,
but in cold areas the lofts are usually insulated for winter.
DIET
There are a number of commercially available pigeon
diets, most based on seed or grain.
Protein content for pigeons’ diets ranges from 12-18%.
Grit is necessary for grinding of the grain in the ventric-
ulus; pigeons consume whole seeds, including the hull.
Mineral supplementation is necessary if only grain is fed.
Mineral blocks should be available. Free-flying birds will
forage for minerals on the ground if they are deficient.
Many vitamin and racing supplements are also available.
Pigeon fanciers have a specific restraint method for their
birds: the legs are pulled caudally, and the legs and base
of the tail are grasped usually in the left hand, while the
a b c
bird’s chest is held against the restrainer’s chest.
From Exotic Companion Medicine

The band is usually on the right leg and upside down, so
it can be read in the restraint position described above.
Anesthetic protocols are similar to those of psittacine
species, except intramuscular injections should not be
given into the breast muscles of flying or meat birds.
The basic method of restraint in pigeons is the horizontal hold (a).
Handbook
Large pigeons may require both hands for proper restraint; a second
MOST COMMON DISORDERS person may be needed to facilitate the physical examination (b). The
Most fanciers will attempt to treat problems before the bird is held upright with the vertical restraint technique (c).
birds are brought to a veterinarian.
146
Indian fantail pigeon Pigeons
Birds may be brought to a veterinarian only in cases of

catastrophic losses or problems with breeding stock.
Trichomonas or “canker” - very common; can lead to
severe disease, breakdown of the crop epithelium and
sepsis; clinical signs are head-shaking and yellow
plaques in the mouth.
Upper respiratory infections or “respiratory” - various
bacterial causes; signs include sneezing, nasal discharge
on the shoulders where the birds wipe their nares.
Chlamydiosis or “one-eyed cold” - conjunctivitis; signs
are commonly in one eye but can be in both or only in
the upper respiratory tract.
Coccidiosis or “cocci” - the most common sign is weight
loss or “going light.” Most pigeons have coccidia present
in the gastrointestinal tract.
Viral diseases - including paramyxovirus or “PMV,” a
Feral pigeons are derived from
escaped domestic pigeons. mesogenic strain of PMV-1 that causes severe neurologic
disease in pigeons; poxvirus; circovirus (“young bird
disease”) and herpesvirus. Viruses usually cause immune
suppression, hepatitis and/or death.
Bacterial diseases - including E. coli and salmonellosis or
“paratyphoid” - usually cause green diarrhea; Salmonella
can cause joint infections and lameness.
VACCINES
Most pigeon fanciers vaccinate birds for paramyxovirus
(PMV-1, inactivated virus in an oil emulsion), pox (live
attenuated virus) and sometimes Salmonella typhimurium
(inactivated bacteria), depending on exposure potential.
LaSota Newcastle’s vaccine for poultry has been shown
to be ineffective for preventing pigeon PMV-1.
147
Pigeons Racing pigeon with babies
Routine preventive measures include periodic treatment

for coccidia, trichomonas and external parasites.
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
Chlamydiosis and Cryptococcus neoformans are both
reported to be potential zoonoses.
Commonly, pigeon fanciers will acquire allergic lung
disease from chronic exposure to the dust in their lofts.
It is difficult to draw blood from the jugular vein due to
the lack of feather tracts on their necks, thick skin and
the presence of the plexus venosus intracutaneous
collaris, a large cuticular vascular plexus that can bleed
profusely when lacerated.
Blood can be drawn from the medial metatarsal vein or
the ulnar vein, but care must be taken not to damage
Niklos Weber
any wing structures in flying or racing birds.
Pigeons are treated as “pet birds,” not “poultry” for
international shipping.
Trichomonas and Coccidia are almost ubiquitous in the
pigeon population.

1. Hooimeijer J, Dorrenstein GM: Pigeons and doves. In RB Altman,
et al (eds): Avian Medicine and Surgery, Philadelphia, WB
Saunders Co, 1997, pp 886-909.
2. Harlin RW: Practical pigeon medicine. Proc Assoc Avian Vet, 2006,
pp 249-262.
3. Peters W: The New Fit to Win. Somerset West, South Africa,
Peters Publications, 1995.
4. Marx D: A Veterinary Approach to Pigeon Health. Lake Charles, LA,
Racing Pigeon Digest Publishing Co, 1997.
148
Japanese Quail Japanese quail

(Coturnix coturnix japonica)
Pet Care Rose Ann Fiskett, VMD, Dipl ABVP-Avian Practice

Japanese quail are native to all continents except the
Americas.
Their natural habitat consists of grasslands, riverbanks
and rice fields.
SUITABILITY AS PETS
Japanese quail are gentle and easy to handle, but they
frighten easily.
Some behavioral characteristics make them unsuitable in
apartments or small houses (e.g., sexually mature males
crow throughout the night during the breeding season).
They are most suited to aviaries but can also be caged.

The birds are sexually dimorphic. Adult males have
cinnamon-colored feathers on the upper throat and lower
breast region; these feathers are apparent at about 3
weeks of age.
Males have a large glandular or bulbous structure above
the cloacal opening that produces a foamy secretion.
Females have long, pointed feathers on the throat and
the upper breast. The cinnamon color is less intense than
VITAL STATISTICS
Life span up to 7 years (captivity) Sexual maturity 6 weeks
in the male.
Body weight Hatching time 14-19 days They have a pronounced sensitivity to inbreeding with a
male 100-140 g (3.5-5.0 oz) Clutch 200-300 eggs a year marked decrease in production if paired with a closely
female 120-160 g (4.2-5.6 oz) related mate.
149
Japanese Quail Japanese quail eggs
Eggs range from dark brown, blue and white to buff with
heavy mottling in black, brown and blue; the color pattern
of the egg mottling is the same as the hen.
BEHAVIOR
©BrokenSphere / Wikimedia Commons

Japanese quail can die suddenly if frightened.
Cannibalism has been associated with overcrowding,
inadequate diet, excessive disturbances and handling.
CAPTIVE HOUSING
Quail can be housed individually or in a colony using
standard chicken houses or cages made of 18-gauge
welded wire.
Large enclosures must be secure from other birds
(magpies, starlings, crows) and rodents.
In production settings, brooders for chickens or game
birds can be used with some modifications: rough paper 1 week old chicks
floor and ¼" (0.64 cm) hardware cloth to prevent escape
through feeders and add access to a water supply.
In a large group housing, each adult quail needs 16-25
inches (40-64 cm) floor space per bird.
For maximum egg production they need 14-18 hours of

daylight.
Litter, such as chopped straw, chopped corn cobs, saw-
dust or wood shavings, should be about 2 inches (5 cm)
thick for birds housed directly on the floor.
Daily cage cleaning is recommended. The most ideal
housing is an aviary with natural surroundings.

Adult birds can be housed outdoors in temperate
150
2-week-old chicks Japanese Quail
climates if provided with adequate protection from the

cold, wind and direct sunlight. Supplemental heat bulbs
are needed in extremely cold temperatures.
Quail are more heat tolerant than chickens, but a
ventilation fan or indoor air cooling is needed at
extremely high temperatures.
Natural surroundings (growing grasses) can be mimicked
in an aviary with potted plants and replaceable bedding
for ease of cleaning. Grasses can create hide areas.
Straw or hay can be used in caged housing.
DIET
Free-ranging quail eat many kinds of grass seeds,
including white millet. Their protein sources include small
Juvenile quail worms, insect larvae and small invertebrates. They will
also consume grit.
Captive quail can be fed turkey starter, chicken starter or
game bird starter; breeding hens should have free choice
access to calcium (limestone or oyster shell).
Clean water is essential.
RESTRAINT
Because of their small size, the quail may be covered
with a small towel until the feet and legs are restrained.
The bird may be gently held by the hocks with one hand
and the other hand used to prevent the wings from
flapping.
The eyes may be covered or the lights dimmed to reduce
stress. It is best to minimize handling to avoid stress.
151
Japanese Quail
ANESTHESIA
Careful attention must be paid to the ambient and core
body temperature of quail under anesthesia.
The author routinely has anesthetized a towel-wrapped
quail in a darkened room with isoflurane alone via face
mask to effect.
Ketamine (20 mg/kg IM) and xylazine (2-3 mg/kg) can be
used for short-term anesthesia when sedation, analgesia
and muscle relaxation are needed.
Midazolam (0.25-0.5 mg/kg IM) with butorphanol (2-4
mg/kg) is used in many avian species. Midazolam (0.2-
Jaime Samour
4.0 mg/kg IM) has been used for heavy sedation.

Medical conditions contracted from predators include
ornithosis, tuberculosis and paratyphoid.
External parasites include the fowl mite, lice and ticks.
Coccidiosis is common.
Quail are susceptible to fowl pox, Newcastle’s disease
virus, infectious bronchitis virus and a virus causing avian
encephalomyelitis in adults.
Bacterial pathogens include Salmonella pullorum,
S. gallinarum, S. typhimurium, Pasteurella multocida,
and a pathogenic E. coli as well as Aspergillus fumigatus.
Leukosis and fowl paralysis have also been observed.
Other common ailments based on necropsies include
abscesses, candidiasis, hemorrhage (trauma related?),
cannibalism, impaction, emaciation, nephritis, peritonitis,
reproductive disorders, staphylococcal infections.
152
Japanese Quail
VACCINES
The following vaccines are available for off-label use only
in endemic areas with virulent strains: avian
encephalomyelitis, Newcastle’s disease virus, fowl
cholera, infectious laryngotracheitis, avian influenza virus.
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
Ornithosis, Salmonella, avian tuberculosis (immuno-
compromised caretakers), and Staphylococcus infections
Japanese quail may serve as an amplifier for influenza
virus.

1. Woodard AE, Abplanalp H, Wilson WO, et al: Japanese Quail
Husbandry in the Laboratory. 1973.
http://animalscience.ucdavis.edu/Avian/Coturnix.pdf.
2. Jacob JP, Butcher GD, Mather FB: Vaccination of small poultry
flocks. University of Florida IFAS Extension,
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/ps030.
3. Japanese Quail. www.gbwf.org/quail/coturnixquail.html
4. Coturnix japonica. www.animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/
site/accounts/information/Coturnix japonica.html
5. Japanese quail - Birdlife Species Factsheet - www.birdlife.org/data
zone/species/index.html?action=SpcHTMDetails.asp&sid=195.
6. Alves NA, Nicolau A, Desouze SH, et al: Evaluation of tiletamine-
zolazepam as an anesthestic in quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica).
J Contemp Top Lab Anim Sci 38(1):73-75, 1999.
7. Makarova NV, Ozaki H, Kida H, et al: Replication and transmis-
sion of influenza virus in Japanese quail. Virology 310(1):8-15,
2003.
8. www.feathersite.com/poultry/stuff/freatherfancier/feathfancquail.
html. Feather fancier newspaper, the Japanese quail aka
Coturnix.
9. Feeding quail. www.msstate.edu/dept/poultry/pubs/pub2383.htm.
10. Fitzgerald TC: The Coturnix Quail Anatomy and Histology. Iowa
State University Press, 1969.
153
American crow
(Corvus brachyrhynchos)
American Crow
Sharmie Johnson, DVM Pet Care
SUBSPECIES
C. b. brachyrhynchos (northern/interior North America)
C. b. hesperis (western USA)
C. b. pascuus (Florida)
C. b. paulus (southern USA)
ORIGIN
The American crow is ubiquitous throughout North
America. It ranges from British Columbia to Newfound-
land. The southern range extends to the most northern
regions of Baja, California.
SUITABILITY AS PETS/LEGAL STATUS

American crows are social animals. They readily coexist
with man and domestic animals.
There are federal and state laws prohibiting the capture
and possession of these birds without specific permits.
Legally, veterinarians are permitted to provide care for ill
or injured American crows. Federal (United States Fish
and Wildlife Service) and state (Game and Fish)
authorities should be notified when an American crow is
being medically or surgically treated.
The American crow is smaller in comparison to the VITAL STATISTICS
common raven (Corvus corax). Life span 7-15; 20+ years (captivity) Sexual maturity 2 years (avg)
The plumage, beak and legs are black. There is an Body weight 438-458 g (15-16 oz) Clutch size 3-7
Body length 15-19 inches (39-49 cm) Incubation period 18 days
iridescent violet-blue gloss to the feathers on the body,
154
There is an iridescent violet- American Crows

blue gloss to the feathers.
with a green-blue gloss to the wings.
Black nasal bristles cover the basal one-third of the
upper mandible.
The irides are dark brown, and the oral cavity is dark
pigmented.
Juveniles have a dull, dusky-black plumage with gray-blue
irides.
The oral mucosa is non-pigmented and red in color for
the first year of life.

Adult birds are monomorphic.
Crows are monogamous and solitary nesters.
The young are cared for by both sexes as well as other
crows, usually older offspring.
BEHAVIOR
Crows are gregarious and commonly observed in agri-
cultural areas, city dump sites, parks and shorelines.
They are highly intelligent birds that have the ability to
count, solve puzzles, learn symbols, retain information
and imitate other animal voices, including humans.
Crows are usually found in pairs or family groups. In the
fall they congregate into flocks of many hundreds to
thousands of birds.
CAPTIVE HOUSING
Guidelines have been established by the National Wildlife
Rehabilitation Association (NWRA). Restricted (short-
term) care standards require that an enclosure be at
least 16 inches (wide) x 22 inches (long) x 22 inches
(high) (40 x 55 x 55 cm), followed by limited care
155
American Crows Juvenile crows have dull,

dusky black plumage.
minimums of 24 x 24 x 24 inches (60 x 60 x 60 cm),
and finally unlimited enclosure space of 10 x 30 x 15
feet (3 x 9 x 4.5 m).
Wire cages can be used, but aviary netting is preferred.
Protection must be provided from environmental
elements, predators, vermin and insects (i.e.,
mosquitoes, ants and bees).
Perches should be selected to prevent pododermatitis
and splay leg. They should be variable in size and covered
with natural or artificial products (e.g., rope, Astroturf®).
Cage furniture should not interfere with flight or cause
entrapment.
Environmental stimuli may include approved toys, forage/
browse and paper for shredding, caches and hiding food.
DIET
Free-ranging crows are omnivorous. They feed on a
variety of insects, small mammals, amphibians and
reptiles. They will consume grain, carrion, eggs and
young of other birds, fruit and garbage.
In captivity, they should be offered a nutritious and
complete diet. They can be fed commercial bird of prey
diets, insects (e.g., mealworms, waxworms,
grasshoppers), eggs, fruit, vegetables and grains.
RESTRAINT
Crows have tremendous strength in their jaws and feet.
Protective clothing and gloves should be considered.
Trained birds can be restrained by a tether/jess “on fist.”
Free-ranging birds can be restrained similar to psittacine
156
American Crows
species, with the bird’s head and body restrained in one

hand, while the other hand holds the feet and legs.
Birds can also be handled with one hand by grasping the
tail and wing tips together.
ANESTHESIA
Anesthetic techniques are identical to those
recommended for psittacine and raptor species. Gas
anesthesia (isoflurane or sevoflurane) is preferred, initially
with mask induction followed by intubation with an
appropriately sized non-cuffed endotracheal tube.

Most crows are admitted to veterinary hospitals due to
injury, usually vehicular or gunshot. Fractures of the legs
and wings are commonplace, as are ocular and head
injuries. Electrocution and poisoning are also seen.
Ectoparasites (feather lice) and endoparasites (coccidia,
nematodes [Diplotriaena triceps], filaria [Splendidofilaria
George Gastin
caperata]) are treated in a standard manner as for

raptors or psittacine species.
Crows are highly susceptible to West Nile virus. Birds can
be found acutely dead or with neurologic dysfunction.
The author has had success treating members of the
Corvidae family and other avian species with supportive
care (fluids, force-feeding, antimicrobials for secondary
infections, hyper-immune sera from previously immunized
birds, and equine-based antibody products). If the birds
survive, recovery is on average of 2 weeks.
Aspergillosis, candidiasis and trichomoniasis are common
in debilitated or immune-compromised birds.
157
American Crows American crows have been used for

tracking the spread of the West Nile Virus.
VACCINES
There are no commercial vaccines approved for use in
crows. Extra-label use of equine vaccines against West
Nile virus has been tried in a variety of avian species.
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
Crows are avid consumers of carrion and other decaying
matter. They are susceptible to organisms to which they
are exposed through their feeding practices.
Erysipelas rhusiopathiae, Pasteurella multocida,
Salmonella typhimurium, Francisella tularensis,
Mycobacterium avium and Campylobacter jejuni have
been isolated in crows.
West Nile virus can be found in the body fluids, tissues
and excrement of affected birds.
Venipuncture is easily accomplished at the right jugular
vein. The ulnar and medial metatarsal veins can also be
used. Reference values may be obtained through the
International Species Inventory System (ISIS), raptor
centers and zoological institutions.

1. Alsop F: American crow. In R Greenberg (ed): Birds of North
America. DK Publishing, Inc, 2001.
2. Burnett H, Madge S (eds): American crow. In: Crows & Jays.
Princeton University Press, 1994, pp 152-153.
3. Kilham L: The American Crow and the Common Raven. Texas A &
M University Press, College Station, TX, 1997.
4. http://wildlifedisease.nbii.gov/diseasepublications
5. www.fws.gov/forms/3-200-10b.pdf
6. www.iwrc-online.org
7. www.nwhc.usgs.gov/publications/field_manual
8. www.nwrawildlife.org
158
Mandarin Duck Mandarin duck

(Aix galericulata)
A male mandarin duck
China; current range includes Russia, Siberia, China and
Japan. Feral populations exist in northern Europe.
Mandarin ducks prefer any aquatic environment with
nearby trees, e.g., small lakes, rivers, marshes and
swamps in thick deciduous forests.
SUITABILITY AS PETS
Mandarin ducks are one of the most popular ducks due
to their beauty and charming behavior.
They are relatively easy to maintain in captivity.
BEHAVIOR
Free-ranging mandarin ducks are semi-migratory (can
cover 500 miles per day) and semi-colonial.
Most active foraging occurs at dawn and dusk.
They are surface-feeders and hunt by head-dipping in
shallow waters.
They spend much of the day resting in shady areas.
Mandarin ducks are highly social.
They seek out forests or dense branching during a molt.
VITAL STATISTICS
Life span up to 20 years Wingspan 71 cm (28 inches)
Mandarin ducks are dimorphic.
Body length body 43-51 cm (17-20 Weight 444-630 g (1.0-1.4 lb);
inches); tail 10.2-10.4 cm males are heavier Males have a black iridescent crown extending to a long
(4 inches); bill 27.9 mm orange/cream crest and chestnut cheeks; maroon breast
(1 inch)
159
Mandarin Ducks A female mandarin duck
with black and white vertical stripes; abdomen and

underside white with gold/black flanks; olive/brown back
and tail; blue/green upper tail coverts and iridescent blue
scapulars; wing feathers are chestnut, orange, green and
black with distinctive orange “sail” feathers; a broad white
eye-stripe is present and extends from the red bill.
Females are less colorful than males; they lack the
crested head; color varies from gray/white to brown/
green; crown and sides of the head and neck are gray
with a white eye ring and streak; throat and foreneck are
white; breast and sides of the body are buff/gray; the back
is gray/brown with white spots on the under parts; wings
are similar to the males but lack sail feathers; bill is pink/
brown with a pale tip.
During a molt the males may resemble the females but
can be distinguished by their red bill.
Mating
Females bear a strong resemblance to the female wood
duck but can be distinguished by the longer and more
pointed eye stripe in the mandarin duck.
Juveniles resemble the females.
The males guard ducklings until they are able to fly.
Mandarin ducks are often monogamous.
CAPTIVE HOUSING
They require a predator-proof enclosure with some form
of shelter, a pond and a dry nest box.
Overhead netting to limit wild bird access is recommended.
Shelters must be well ventilated with a minimum of 0.75
x 0.75 m (2.5 x 2.5 ft) floor space for each duck.
The shelter may have solid, slatted or mesh floor, and
wheat straw or wood shavings are good litter materials.
160
Mandarin Ducks
Winter heating may be provided if necessary.

A pond area of at least 1.8 m2 (19 ft2) is recommended.
Water must be fresh and preferably flowing.
Minimum water depth is 15 cm (6 inches).
Various designs of nest boxes are suitable. A raised
square plywood structure or hollowed log can be used:
inside diameter 22.5-30 cm (9-12 inches), an entrance
hole of about 10 cm (4 inches) diameter ideally
positioned near/overhanging the pond.
Nesting materials, such as wood shavings and grass,
should be provided.
Mandarins can be housed with other waterfowl species
but should be monitored for interspecific aggression.
Winter-hardy; tolerant of a range of temperatures and
humidity provided enclosure allows shelter from extremes.
Shaded areas should be provided as well as hide areas.
A number of feeding stations should be provided or food
may be scattered to promote normal foraging behavior.
Live, nontoxic plants can decorate an enclosure.
Social needs are met by housing in pairs or groups (e.g.,
one male with several females).
DIET
Free-ranging diet (often seasonal) consists of: seeds,
acorns, grain, aquatic plants, other vegetation, worms,
insects, land snails, mollusks, small snakes and fish.
Captive diet may include: commercial waterfowl pellets,
fresh dark leafy greens and access to natural vegetation.
Small amounts of assorted grains may also be fed but
161
Mandarin Ducks
care must be taken not to overfeed.

Feeds designed for commercial ducks raised for meat
production are not suitable.
Grit should be provided, especially if grains are fed.
Ad libitum access to clean, fresh water is essential.
Juveniles are best fed on dry crumbs (some water
initially); the addition of finely-chopped weeds or dark
greens and hard-boiled egg is useful to promote feeding.
RESTRAINT
A net may be used if attempting restraint in a large
enclosure and/or if the animal is unfamiliar with handling.
One hand may be used to loosely restrain the neck while
the other hand is placed under the breast and advanced
caudally to restrain the legs between the fingers. The
duck is then lifted and rested on one forearm with the
cranial end at the elbow and the caudal end pointing
away from the handler. The hand that was holding the
neck can then be moved to rest on the back, gently
holding the wings to prevent flapping.
ANESTHESIA
Pre-anesthetic fasting is not required.
Pre-medication (not always required): butorphanol (0.5-
1.0 mg/kg IM/IV) or midazolam (0.1-1.0 mg/kg IM/IV)
Mandarin ducks have sharp, long claws that enable them to live effectively
Inhalation (via mask and/or endotracheal tube): in a forest environment and climb up to and nest inside tree cavities.
isoflurane (5% induction; 2-3% maintenance) or
sevoflurane (8% induction; 4-5% maintenance)
Injectable option 1: medetomidine (0.15 mg/kg IV) +
ketamine (3 mg/kg IV); reverse with atipamezole
(0.75 mg/kg IM)
162
Mandarin Ducks
Injectable option 2: propofol (10-15 mg/kg IV) followed

by intubation and maintenance on isoflurane/sevoflurane
Assisted ventilation may be required.

Pododermatitis
Amyloidosis
Botulism
Algal and mycotoxicosis
Yolk coelomitis
Dystocia
Cloacal organ prolapse
Viral diseases, e.g., duck viral enteritis, duck viral
hepatitis type 1
Bacterial diseases, e.g., Mycobacterium avium, pseudo-
tuberculosis, mycoplasmosis, salmonellosis, colibacillosis,
chlamydiosis, Pasteurella multocida (avian cholera),
Pasteurella anatipestifer
Fungal diseases, e.g., aspergillosis, candidiasis
Parasitic diseases, e.g., coccidiosis, gapeworms, mites
Neonatal disorders, e.g., yolk sac infection/retention,
enteritis, leg/wing deformities
VACCINES
No vaccines are essential but if significant risk factors:
duck viral enteritis, Newcastle disease, avian influenza,
duck viral hepatitis 1, West Nile virus.
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
Avian influenza
Avian tuberculosis
163
Mandarin Ducks
Campylobacteriosis
Chlamydiosis
Erysipelas
Escherichia coli infection
Newcastle disease
Salmonellosis
New birds should ideally be quarantined for 30 days prior
to introduction to an established group.
To aid restraint and to permanently limit flying ability
where open enclosures are used, pinioning may be
performed on conscious ducklings at 1-7 days of age.
In older birds, anesthesia is required.
REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING:

1. Davies AK, Baggott GK: Clutch size and nesting sites of the
Mandarin duck Aix galericulata. Bird Study 36:32-36, 1989.
2. Harris M: Aix galericulata (online). Animal Diversity Web, 1999
(http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/
Aix_galericulata.html, accessed 1st October 2008).
3. Kear J, Hulme M: Ducks, Geese and Swans. Oxford University
Press, 2005.
4. Lever C: The mandarin duck. Shire Publications, 1990.
5. Roberts V: Waterfowl: Health and husbandry. In Roberts V, Scott-
Park F (eds): BSAVA Manual of Farm Pets. British Small Animal
Veterinary Association, 2008, pp 237-249.
6. Robinson RA: BirdFacts: Profiles of birds occurring in Britain &
Ireland (v1.22). BTO Research Report 407, BTO, Thetford, 2005
(http://www.bto.org/birdfacts, accessed 1st October 2008).
7. Shurtleff L: The wood duck and the mandarin: The northern wood
ducks. California UP, 1996.
8. Smith S, Rodriguez Barbon A: Waterfowl: Medicine and surgery. In
Roberts V, Scott-Park F (eds): BSAVA Manual of Farm Pets. British
Small Animal Veterinary Association, 2008, pp 250-273.
9. Wildlife Information Network. Wildpro Multimedia CDE: Waterfowl.
The Royal Veterinary College, 2000.
164
Emperor Scorpion Emperor scorpions

(Pandinus imperator)
Pet Care Bruce Maclean, BSc (VetSci), BVM&S, MRCVS
COMMON SUBSPECIES/SIMIL AR SPECIES

There are around 20 species of Pandinus, all found in
Africa or Yemen.
Similar species include Hetrometrus sp. (Asian, but
otherwise approximately similar habits and care).
Some other species could resemble emperor scorpions to
the novice, such as the much more dangerous fat tail
scorpions (Androctonus sp.), although these have a much
thicker tail and smaller pincers.

Emperor scorpions originate from sub-Saharan Africa and
west Africa.
They are typically found in tropical rainforests in the litter,
although there are reports of them in rocky, drier areas.
SUITABILITY AS PETS
The emperor is probably the most suitable scorpion
Bruce Maclean
species as a pet.
It is generally docile (although there are exceptions).
Wild-caught specimens and gravid females are more
prone to aggression.
VITAL STATISTICS
Life span 5-8 years
This is a relatively large, heavily built scorpion species
Body weight up to 20 g (0.7 oz);
pregnant females 50 g (1.7 oz) with large chelicerae (pincers).
Body length up to 20 cm (8 inches) It has the typical scorpion features of 4 pairs of walking
165
Emperor Scorpions The ventrum of the

emperor scorpion
legs, paired pedipalps (pincers), body consisting of
prosoma and mesosoma, and segmented tail
Pectineal teeth
(metasoma) bearing a terminal telson (stinger).
Base color is usually glossy black, but some may be dark
brown or even greenish. Notably adult scorpions fluoresce
greenish under ultraviolet light. The telson is red/brown. Book lung
openings
Sexing requires experience. Males are typically smaller
and slimmer than females. They also have longer
pectines with more teeth. The genital opening is more
Bruce Maclean
oval in the male and heart-shaped in the female.
The female may kill and eat the male following mating; a
larger enclosure may give him a better chance to escape.
Typically 5-20 (up to 40) live young are born after 7-11
months’ gestation. They are white when newborn.
Scorpion showing
The young may be reared separately or housed with the fluorescence under a flash
mother, who may help them by catching and crushing
food. However, if stressed, she may eat the young.
BEHAVIOR
Emperor scorpions are essentially nocturnal, although
they may be observed active in dawn/dusk.
They are a timid and reclusive species.
They generally do well housed in groups, especially with
siblings, but aggressive (possibly fatal) interactions may
occur.
Bruce Maclean
CAPTIVE HOUSING
The enclosure should be at least 60 cm x 30 cm x 30
cm (2 ft x 1 ft x 1 ft) for a single adult or adult pair.
166
A basic enclosure for Emperor Scorpions

an emperor scorpion
The substrate should allow some burrowing or at least
excavation. Peat, soil or a mix of the two is
recommended at a depth of 10+ cm (4+ inches).
A water dish must be reasonably shallow with easy
access and exit to avoid the risk of drowning. It should
also be resistant to tipping over as the scorpion(s) may
well try to burrow under it.
Emperor scorpions prefer dim to no lighting; normal room
ambient lighting is more than sufficient. A room with
bright lighting for 12+ hours is not recommended.
Bruce Maclean

Ambient temperature in the enclosure should be 23-
28°C (73-84°F). A gradient should be provided with a
heat source at one end (under-floor heating is NOT
recommended; they will try to burrow to escape heat).
An elaborate enclosure with many
hiding places for an emperor scorpion
Humidity needs to be kept high (80%+), although
reasonable ventilation is also necessary.
Hiding places are essential for these scorpions—at least
two at opposite ends of the heat gradient and preferably
more than the number of scorpions to minimize the risk
of aggressive interactions.
DIET
In captivity, a variety of invertebrates should be offered.
Small rodents may also be eaten but should be offered
Bruce Maclean
sparingly due to this species’ tendency towards obesity.

Amount should be varied according to body condition of
the scorpion, but one invertebrate prey item 3-4 times a
167
Emperor Scorpions An emperor scorpion can be examined

on glass to minimize contact.
week for young, 1-2 times a week for adults is a
reasonable starting point.
Little is known about supplementation needs for these
animals, but gut loading of invertebrate prey is advisable,
especially if only one type of invertebrate is offered.
Uneaten live prey, particularly crickets, should be
removed, as they may attack the scorpion, particularly if
the scorpion is vulnerable around shedding time.
RESTRAINT
Direct handling of conscious scorpions is discouraged.
Bruce Maclean
They should be encouraged into and examined in a
transparent container or gently “pinned” to a transparent
sheet to allow visual examination from all angles.
If handled, it should be done low over a soft/padded
surface, to minimize damage from any fall.
A grossly overweight
Padded forceps may be used to lift the scorpion by its emperor scorpion
tail for short distances if necessary, but gentle directing
with surfaces or long instruments is preferred.
ANESTHESIA
Anesthesia may be induced in a chamber with isoflurane
(induction at 3-4%); immobility and loss of righting reflex
indicate anesthesia. The stinger should always be
restrained even when the scorpion is anesthetized.
As they respire through spiracular openings on the ventral
abdomen, maintaining anesthetic gas is challenging.
Bruce Maclean
Emperor scorpions are prone to obesity, although
associated pathologic lesions are unknown.
168
A pregnant female scorpion Emperor Scorpions
Shedding problems are uncommon but can occur.

Failure of juveniles to emerge from their embryonic
membrane has been described; moistening and gentle
manipulation may resolve the problem.
Traumatic damage to the exoskeleton may occur; repair
may be attempted with tissue glue or superglue. Non-
fatal trauma will repair at the next ecdysis.
Parasitic mites may be seen; these should be gently
brushed off under anesthesia to control numbers.
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
Specific zoonoses from scorpions are not recorded,
although some potentially zoonotic microorganisms have
been isolated from scorpions.
A female scorpion with its The pincers can draw blood and be painful.
newborn babies on its back
The venom of emperor scorpions is considered
approximately equivalent to a bee sting in severity, but
permanent local paralysis has been recorded and
anaphylactic shock reaction is possible.
Pandinus imperator, as well as a couple of other
Pandinus species, are listed on CITES Appendix II.

1. Lewbart GA: Invertebrate Medicine. Blackwell Publishing, 2006.
2. www.atshq.org (American Tarantula Society)
3. www.thebts.co.uk (British Tarantula Society)
4. www.pandinus.net
5. http://home.mindspring.com/~drrod1/
6. http://www.thedailylink.com/thespiralburrow/anatomy
(useful anatomy site)
169
800-946-4782 or 561-641-6745 Fax: 561-641-0234
www.exoticdvm.com
Unusual
Pet Care
VOLUME IV
23 SPECIES: Sugar gliders, Pygmy goats, Llamas, Deer, Miniature pigs,
Genets, Capybaras, Bushbabies, Corn snakes, Blood pythons, Boa
constrictors, Horned frogs, Alligator snapping turtles, Mud turtles,
Koi, Seahorses, Axolotls, Mudpuppies, Pet chickens, Ornamental geese,
Peafowl, Eclectus parrots and Toco toucans
Quick Reference Guide
Sugar Glider Sugar Glider

(Petaurus breviceps)
Pet Care David M. Brust, DVM

Sugar gliders are native to Australia and New Guinea.

Each of the 4 hands possesses sharp, scimitar-like claws
and opposable thumbs.
Teeth do not continually grow like rodents and should not
be routinely trimmed unless presenting serious issues.
Sugar gliders exhibit exceptional muscular control over the
gliding membrane (patagium), allowing the animal to glide
Courtesy of ASGV™ and www.asgv.org.
up to 50 m.
The semi-prehensile tail is primarily used for steering when
gliding.
BEHAVIOR
ugar gliders are colony animals; it is strongly recom
S
mended they should be housed in groups of two or more.
If housed alone, owners must be advised to spend at least
of 2 hours per day interacting with the animal to provide
necessary companionship and prevent malaise.
Sugar gliders may self-mutilate if not given enough social
vital statistics stimulation.
Life span 12-15 years (captivity) Cloacal Although nocturnal by nature, sugar gliders are able to
Adult length Head and body temperature 89.6°F (32°C)
adjust to any schedule.
13-19 cm (5.0-7.5 in) Rectal
temperature 97.3°F +/- 0.7°F (36.3°C) They enjoy playing outside their enclosure; however, careful
Adult weight
Male 113-170 g (4-6 oz) Heart rate 200-300 beats per min supervision is strongly recommended to prevent encounters
Female 85-142 g (3-5 oz) Respiratory rate 16-40 breaths per min with common household hazards, such as floor or halogen
Sugar Gliders One of the most distinguishing features about sugar gliders is that they have 4
hands. Each hand has 4 fingers and an opposable thumb.
lamps, metal venetian blinds and houseplants.
When properly trained, they may exhibit behavior similar to
many dogs, e.g., expressing affection, recognizing their
name, coming on command. With training, they will ride
around in the owner’s pocket for hours without restraint.

Common vocalizations include “crabbing” (when
frightened), barking (lonely or playing), purring/chirping
(contentment) and sneezing/hissing (grooming or playing).
Aggression is rare in well-acclimated animals and is
typically limited to young joeys or unsocialized adults.
When threatened, a sugar glider will stand on its back legs
and charge at the threat, feigning strikes and making loud
sounds similar to a locust.
Males should be neutered whenever possible to avoid
anti-social behaviors and self-mutilation.
CAPTIVE HOUSING A sugar glider’s nails may become sharp. Nails may be filed but not clipped;
clipping nails may reduce the animal’s ability to firmly grasp its surroundings,

The recommended enclosure size for 1 or 2 adult animals
allowing it to fall.
over 5 months of age is: 36 inches (91 cm) wide by 24
inches (61 cm) deep by 40 inches (102 cm) high.
Large aviary cages are the most practical option for adult
sugar gliders. Additional height is the primary consideration.

The ideal enclosure size for 1-2 babies or juveniles younger
than 5 months out of the pouch is: 18-20 inches (46-51
cm) wide and deep and 24-30 inches (61-76 cm) high.
PVC-coated wire is preferred over epoxy, paint, powder-
coated or galvanized wire due to potential health hazards.
Rectangular openings should be no larger than ½” x 1”
(1.25-2.5 cm).
Enclosures consisting primarily of vertical bars (e.g., bird
cages) are not recommended for babies or juveniles, as
While the patagium is similar in appearance to that of a flying squirrel, sugar Sugar Gliders
gliders exhibit muscular control over it and can steer themselves to their target.
soft tissue tears may occur between the digits from sliding
down the bars.
A removable plastic waste tray should be at least 1” (2.5
cm) from the floor of the enclosure.
Paper lining is preferred over wood shavings.
Daily removal of feces and soiled papers and cleaning of

an enclosure and all supplies are recommended as well as
a quarterly sterilization of the housing and accessories.
The ideal temperature range is 75-80°F (24-27°C). Night
time temperature should not drop below 70°F (21°C).
The use of a supplemental heat source is strongly
recommended.
A conventional heat rock is preferable to a heat lamp or UV
lighting, especially during the bonding period.
Alternatively, ceramic heat emitters positioned with a linen
Males have 2 scent glands—a diamond-shaped “bald spot” on the forehead and a towel or surgical huck towel can be used for regulating the
smaller sternal spot in the center of the chest. Females do not have either of heat.
these characteristics. The use of both a conventional water bottle and a weighted
secondary water dish is recommended.
environmental enrichment

Sugar gliders enjoy most traditional pet toys.
Any item with loose strings or wires that could entangle the
animal should be avoided.
Solid exercise wheels provide an important opportunity for
necessary exercise. Traditional hamster or rodent wheels
should be avoided because of sugar glider’s prehensile tail.
Plants and branches are recommended to promote leaping
and climbing.
Quality artificial plants are preferred to natural fauna due to
health and sanitary considerations.
Sugar Gliders Males have a bifurcated penis with a Female sugar gliders have a prominent,
preputial covering; the scrotum is mid-abdominal pouch (marsupium)

Varied sizes of branches of nontoxic trees can be used (for anterior to the cloaca. where they carry their young.
a list of safe plants go to www.asgv.org).
Trees should be removed and cleaned every 2-3 weeks

and must be thoroughly rinsed.
A preferable alternative to foliage is 1-inch plastic chain. Marsupium
DIET
ree-ranging sugar gliders’ diet consists primarily of pollens,
F
arthropods and plant and insect exudates; however, their Cloaca
diets can vary greatly by season, location and climate.
Attempts to replicate this type of diet for domesticated
animals may be impractical.
Sugar gliders should not be presented with a wide selection
of high-sugar, high-fat items as they will almost always eat
these foods to the exclusion of other more nutritious foods.
Inappropriate feeding practices and inadequate homemade
Due to an instinctual fear of falling, sugar gliders will become significantly less
diets are believed to be a substantial contributing factor to
active when they cannot firmly grasp their surroundings.
many illnesses and reduces the animal’s life span.
Although some homemade diets may be adequately
designed, they are rarely practical for the average owner
because it is often more difficult for them to secure
necessary ingredients and maintain precise feeding ratios.

Various sugar glider diets/recipes are available, including
• Nutritionally-balanced kibble 75%/sliced fresh fruits and
vegetables 25%/calcium-based multivitamin
• 50% Leadbeater’s Mixture/50% insectivore-
carnivore diet
• Diet reported by the Chicago Zoological Park adapted
from AAZK Animal Diet Notebook
• Diet reported by Taronga Zoo, Sydney Australia
Fresh portions should be fed in the evening.
A “starter” cage is better for joeys olid-construction (not wire mesh) exercise
S Sugar Gliders
under 5 months out of pouch. The wheels provide a good source of environmental
ideal cage size for 1-2 joeys is enrichment and exercise for sugar gliders. reservatives, pesticides and excessive fat should be
P
18-20 inches (46-51 cm) deep x avoided.
24-30 inches (61-76 cm) high. Treats should be no more than 5% of daily intake.
Acceptable treats include small portions of fruit (e.g.,
melons, peaches, mangos, blueberries, papaya), yogurt
and applesauce.
Owners should be cautioned against feeding fatty, nutrient-
deficient insects as treats because gliders will often refuse
anything else once they become accustomed to insects.
Kibble or supplements designed for cats, primates or
reptiles should not be fed to sugar gliders.
Uneaten fruits/vegetables should be removed from the
cage each morning.
Filtered spring or drinking water (not unfiltered tap water)
A nesting cloth, loosely draped over a heat rock is recommended
rather than traditional nesting boxes or hanging pouches, as a Sexing and REPRODUCTION
sleeping area, especially for young joeys.
Males have a large pendulous scrotum and a bifurcated
penis. Prominent scent glands are visible on the forehead
and chest.
Females exhibit a ventral pouch (marsupium) with 4
internal teats.
The breeding cycle is year round for gliders in captivity.

Gliders average 1-2 litters per year; with twins born 80% of
the time.
Females are polyestrous with a 29-days estrous cycle.
Gestation lasts 5-17 days. After migration, the fetus will
remain in pouch 50-75 days, and weaning is 35-60 days
out of pouch.
Sugar Gliders Gliders can be safely restrained by placing a thumb

under the jaw and an index finger on top of the head.
RESTRAINT

Manual restraint is best accomplished using either a
surgical huck towel or fleece bonding pouch as a glove.
These animals should not be scruffed or held by the tail.
Sugar gliders can be transported to the clinic in a zippered,
fleece pouch.

Blood Collection
nly small volumes of blood may safely be drawn, up to a
O
maximum of 1% of the animal’s body weight in grams.
A 1-ml tuberculin (or 0.5-ml insulin) syringe, with a 25- to
29-gauge needle, is recommended for most diagnostic
sampling, depending on the site selected.
The cranial vena cava may be accessed at the thoracic
inlet by directing the needle caudally at 30° off midline
toward the contralateral hind limb. To avoid inadvertent
cardiac puncture, insert the needle halfway of its length as Large samples (up to 1 ml) may be Care should be taken not to administer
the vessel is superficial in location. (View instructional obtained from the cranial vena cava. fluids laterally, as they can pool in the
collection videos at www.asgv.org.) With practice, blood Notice the needle is not completely patagium, resulting in slow absorption and
inserted. discomfort to the patient.
collection at this site is usually the most successful
regardless of the animal’s size or condition.
The medial tibial artery is highly mobile and easiest to

access just distal to the stifle using a 29-gauge needle. As
much as 0.5 ml blood may be obtained from each side.
Cardiac puncture and orbital bleeding are not
recommended.
INJECTION SITES
Intravenous: Cephalic or lateral saphenous veins, using a
25-gauge needle
Intramuscular: Quadriceps, epaxial muscles of the neck
The least stressful method of sedation is achieved by using a large Sugar Gliders
face mask as an induction chamber while 5% isoflurane is inhaled.
and biceps/triceps, using a 25-gauge needle. Avoid the use
of medications that sting.
Subcutaneous: Dorsal midline of the thorax, using a
25-gauge needle. Check for pooling in the patagium.
ANESTHESIA

edation is usually required for a clinical examination or
S
diagnostic sampling.
Isoflurane may be used at 5% for induction, using a large
face mask as an induction chamber, and 1-3% for
maintenance with a small face mask.
A non-rebreathing circuit should be used for both induction
and maintenance.
If isoflurane is used for induction, application of a topical
methylcellulose eye lubricant should be used.
Alternatively, sugar gliders may be sedated first with
Once induced, 1-3% isoflurane is delivered for maintenance using either a small administration of an anxiolytic, such as midazolam (0.3-0.5
face mask or 1 mm Cook endotracheal tube. mg/kg IM).
The use of an electrocardiogram (ECG) may be useful to
help monitor the animal if it is anesthetized longer than
5-10 minutes.
Fluid therapy is required to maintain homeostasis.

Malnutrition, which may be expressed as hind-limb
paralysis, blindness, dehydration, cataracts, metabolic
bone disease and seizures
Obesity
Hair loss, typically resulting from poor nutrition
Pneumonia, including discharge from the eyes/nose
Sugar Gliders Hair loss in an obese sugar glider.
iarrhea, resulting from a change in diet, inappropriate diet

D
containing too high sugar content, bacterial overgrowths,
Giardia, Cryptosporidia or Clostridium sp.
Stress-related diseases, including self-mutilation
(particularly solitary animals), cannibalism of young and

eating disorders
Endocrine disorders
Trauma (fractures, burns)
Dental Disease
Neoplasia
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
T here are no records of sugar gliders being susceptible to
any specific pathogen or infectious disease.
In over 15 years of widespread domestication and practical
observation, Clostridium piliforme infections have been the Cataract causes may include: genetics, vitamin A deficiency,
most common diagnosis, and no documented cases of pouch infections and an improper diet too rich in sugars or fat.
zoonotic transfer have been recorded.
Like other mammals, it is believed that sugar gliders
naturally host trace levels of various bacteria and flagellates
in their digestive tracts. Under normal presentation, no
treatment is typically required. During periods of abnormally

high stress (e.g., adoption, transportation, introduction of
new foods), the immune system often becomes com
promised, and bacteria/flagellate levels increase. The most
common presentation is diarrhea, with Giardia often
suspected as the causative agent in chronic cases.
To date, no documented case has confirmed a Giardia
transfer from sugar gliders to humans.
Radiograph shows warped bone development in the rear Sugar Gliders

leg (circle) consistent with metabolic bone disease.
wners should thoroughly wash their hands, including
O
under their fingernails, before handling animals in order to
avoid accidental transfer of toxins or bacteria.

Sugar gliders are susceptible to toxicosis and household
hazards due to their highly inquisitive nature.
They are legal companion pets in 46 of the contiguous
states (with the exception of California and Pennsylvania);
breeding and sales are strictly regulated by the USDA.

1. B everidge I: Marsupial parasitic diseases. In Fowler ME (ed): Zoo
& Wild Animal Medicine Current Therapy 3, Philadelphia, WB
Saunders, 1993, p 288-293.
2. Booth RJ: General husbandry and medical care of sugar gliders.
In Bonagura JD (ed): Kirk’s Current Veterinary Therapy XIII. WB
Saunders, 2000.
Sugar gliders are particularly prone to obesity. 3. Booth, R: Sugar gliders. In Seminars in Avian and Exotic Pet
Medicine, Vol 12, No 4, 2003.
4. Bradley-Bays T, Lightfoot T, Mayer J: Sugar gliders. Exotic Pet
Behavior: Birds, Reptiles, and Small Mammals. Elsevier, 2006.
5. Carpenter JW: A guide to medicine and surgery in sugar gliders.
Vet Med 94:893, 1999.
6. Carpenter JW: Exotic Animal Formulary 3rd ed. Elsevier, 2005.
7. Dierenfeld ES, Thomas D, Ives, R: Comparison of commonly
used diets on intake, digestion, growth, and health in captive
sugar gliders, Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine, vol 15, 2006.
8. Dierenfeld ES: Feeding behavior and nutrition of the sugar glider

(Petaurus breviceps). Vet Clin No Am Exot Anim Pract, vol 12
issue 2, 2009.
9. Finnie EP: Restraint. In Fowler ME (ed): Zoo & Wild Animal
Medicine ed 2, Philadelphia, WB Saunders, 1986, p 570-572.
10. Hough I, Reuter RE, Rahaley RS, et al: Cutaneous
lymphosarcoma in a sugar glider. Aust Vet J 69:93-94, 1992.
11. Johnson D: Diagnosing and treating sugar gliders. Western
Veterinary Conference. Las Vegas 2004.
12. Johnson SD: Orchiectomy of the mature sugar glider (Petaurus
breviceps). Exotic Pet Pract 2:71, 1997.
13. Johnson-Delaney CA: Medical update for sugar gliders. Exotic
Sugar Gliders Normal internal organ placement

DVM, 2(3):91-93 2000.
14. Johnson-Delaney CA, Marsupials. In Johnson-Delaney, CA;
Meredith A. (eds) BSAVA Manual of Exotic Pets, 5th edition.
British Small Animal Veterinary Association, Quedgeley UK, at
press.
15. Johnson-Delaney CA: Marsupials. Exotic Companion Medicine
Handbook. Zoological Education Network, 2000.
16. Johnson-Delaney CA: Practical marsupial medicine. Proc Asso
Exot Mamm Vet, 2006.
17. Lennox A: Emergency and critical care procedures in sugar glid-
ers, African hedgehogs and prairie dogs. Vet Clin No Am Exot
Anim Pract Vol 10: 539, 2007.
18. Lightfoot TL: Clinical examination of chinchillas, hedgehogs, prai-
rie dogs, and sugar gliders, Vet Clin No Am Exot Anim Pract 2(2):
1999.
19. Mitchell MA, Tully T: Manual of exotic pet practice. Saunders,
Elservier. 2009.
20. Ness RD, Booth R: Sugar gliders. In Quesenberry KE, Carpenter
JW (eds): Ferrets, Rabbits and Rodents Clinical Medicine and
Surgery 2nd ed. WB Saunders, 2004, p 332.
21. Pye GW, Carpenter JW: A guide to medicine and surgery in sugar
gliders. Vet Med, 1999.
22. Shima AL: Sedation and anesthesia in marsupials. In Fowler ME,
Miller RE (eds): Zoo & Wild Animal Medicine Current Therapy 4,
Philadelphia, WB Saunders, 1999, p 333-336.
23. Smith H, Caccio S, Cook N, Nichols, R, Tait A: Cryptosporidium
and Giardia as foodborne zoonoses. Veterinary Parasitology 149,
2007.
24. Thompson A, Palmer C, O’Handley R: The public health and clini-
cal significance of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in domestic ani-
mals. The Veterinary Journal 177, 2008.

25. Thompson J, Yang R, Power M, Hufschmid J, Beveridge I, Reid S,
Ng J, Armson, A, Ryan, U: Identification of zoonotic Giardia geno-
types in marsupials in Australia. Experimental Parasitology vol.
120.
26. Wallach JD, Boever WJ: Marsupialia and monotremes. In
Diseases of Exotic Animals Medical and Surgical Management.
Philadelphia, WB Saunders, 1983.
Updated veterinary-oriented resources, including an online veterinary
care guide, procedural videos and extensive client education materi-
als are available at the Association of Sugar Glider Veterinarians™
website, www.asgv.org. Due to an educational grant, first-year
memberships are free for a limited time.
QUICK REFERENCE GUIDE
HEMATOLOGIC REFERENCE RANGES BIOCHEMISTRY REFERENCE RANGES

Parameter Reference range Sample size Parameter Reference range Sample size
Basophills 29.50-62.75 x 10 /µL
3
8 Albumin 3.12-4.64 g/dL 99
Eosinophills 92.02-281.18 x 103/µL 10 Alk phos 89.37-115.04 IU/L 75
HCT 51.29-54.49% 62 ALT 96.76-136.60 IU/L 81
HGB 15.83-16.86 g/dL 53 Amylase 2117.18-3350.82 IU/L 8
Lymphocytes 3693.98-7157.15 x 103/µL 62 AST 54.42-99.79 IU/L 38
MCH 18.79-19.39 pg 53 BUN 15.07-18.07 mg/dL 100
MCHC 30.63-30.99 g/dL 53 Calcium 8.53-8.85 mg/dL 97
MCV 60.17-68.05 fL 54 Chloride 105.97-108.64 mEq/L 94
Monocytes 112.55-170.69 x 103/µL 45 Cholesterol 111.70-123.99 mg/dL 78
Neutrophills 1461.03-2204.57 x 103/µL 61 CPK 1080.78-1636.71 IU/L 47
Platelets 292.18-400.32 x 10 /µL
3
53 Creatinine 0.47-0.59 mg/dL 100
RBC 8.31-8.83 x 106/µL 53 Globulin 2.9-3.1 g/dL 92
WBC 5.49-9.31 x 103/µL 62 Glucose** 152.70-171.89 mg/dL 85
Values shown are the 95% confidence intervals after outliers were removed. Magnesium 1.63-2.14 mEq/L 13
Blood was collected from the cranial vena cava. Statistically, 90% of the popula-
tion should have values within these limits. Phosphorus 4.35-6.12 mg/dL 62
**Glucose levels measured immediately after collection. Potassium 4.60-5.53 mEq/L 93
Sodium 138.76-143.06 mEq/L 92
Total bilirubin 0.12-0.70 mg/dL 72
Total protein 6.74-7.01 g/dL 92
FORMUL ARY FOR SUGAR GLIDERS *

Although every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of the information presented herein (particularly doses), in all cases the clinician is
responsible for the use of any pharmaceuticals. Most drugs used in exotic companion species are considered extra-label, and few
pharmacokinetic studies have been conducted; therefore, the clinician must critically evaluate the information provided and stay informed of
recommendations in the literature.
Dosages listed in this formulary are anecdotal as reported in the literature except where noted. Sugar gliders have carnivore/omnivore
gastrointestinal tracts; therefore, carnivore guidelines should be followed for antibiotic choice. Pain resulting from an injection can cause the
rapid induction of shock in small species of marsupials.9,15
Compounding note: Due to sugar gliders’ overwhelming predilection for sweets, most sugar gliders respond favorably to medications that are
compounded with a fruity flavor. Tutti-fruity typically works best, although other fruit flavors, such as apple, peach have also been used with favor-
able results.
DRUG ROUTE DOSAGE COMMENTS REFS

Acepromazine (A) + keta- SC (A) 1 mg/kg + (K) 10 mg/kg Postoperative analgesia and sedation to prevent 6, 20
mine (K) self-trauma to incision site
Acepromazine (A) + butor- PO (A) 1.7 mg/kg + (B) 1.7 mg/kg Tranquilization, analgesia post op 6, 20
phanol (B)
Alfaxalone-alfadolone IV 0.1-0.2 ml/kg Immobilization sedation 9,22
acetate (Saffan, Glaxo, IM 0.25-0.5 ml/kg
London) SC 15 mg/kg
Amikacin (A) + Penicillin G SC (A) 3 mg/kg q12h + (P) 25,000 Respiratory infection 11
(P) IU/kg q12h (with fluid support)
Amoxicillin PO, IM 30 mg/kg q24h x 14d Dermatitis, general 6,10
Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid SC 12.5 mg/kg q24h Inject form not avail US 6
Atropine IM, IV, SC 0.02-0.04 mg/kg Control salivation during sedation 9,22
Bismuth subsalicylate PO 1 ml/kg q8-12h x 5-7d Diarrhea related to Giardia, coccidia 11
Buprenorphine IM 0.01-0.03 mg/kg Analgesic 11
Butorphanol IM, SC, PO 0.1-0.5 mg/kg q6-8h prn Analgesic 6,12,15,20
Butorphanol (B) + acepro- PO (B) 1.7 mg/kg + (A) 1.7 mg/kg; Post-op sedative, analgesic 6
mazine (A) dilute with saline to administer

Calcium glubionate PO 150 mg/kg q24h long term Calcium deficiency/nutritional osteodystrophy 6
Calcium gluconate SC 100 mg/kg q12h x 3-5d (diluted in Calcium deficiency/nutritional osteodystrophy 11
saline to 10 mg/ml)
Calcium glycerophosphate/ IM 7 mg/kg IM Calcium deficiency/nutritional osteodystrophy 6
lactate
Carbaryl powder (5%) Topical Sparingly, also in nest boxes Ectoparasites 6,11,20
Cephalexin SC 30 mg/kg q24h 6
Ciprofloxacin PO 10 mg/kg q12h x 7-10d Similar use as enrofloxacin 6
Cisapride PO, IM 0.25 mg/kg q8-24h GI motility enhancer 6,15
Dexamethasone IV, IM, SC 0.2 mg/kg q12-24h Antiinflammatory; higher dosages for shock 6,15
Diazepam IM, PO, IV 0.5-2.0 mg/kg Calming, higher dosages IV for seizures 6,15,22
Doxapram IV 2 mg/kg General CNS stimulant, especially respiration 17
Enalapril PO 0.5 mg/kg Vasodialator in the treatment of heart failure and 17
hypertension
Enrofloxacin PO, IM, SC 2.5-5.0 mg/kg q12-24h Antibiotic; note: may cause tissue necrosis SC 6,15
Epinephrine IV 0.003 mg/kg Stimulates heart, antagonizes effects of histamine, 17
raises blood sugar
Fenbendazole PO 20-50 mg/kg q24h x 3d repeat Anthelmintic 2,6,11
in 14d
Fluoxetine PO 1-5 mg/kg q8h Self-mutilation 11,16
Furosemide SC, IM 1-4 mg/kg q6-8h Diuretic 15,17
Glycopyrrolate IM, IV, SC 0.01-0.02 mg/kg Control salivation during sedation 6,22
Griseofulvin PO 20 mg/kg q24h x 30-60d Antifungal, Trichophyton spp. 26
Hyaluronidase Fluids (150 IU/ml) 0.5-1.0 ml/L Speeds fluid absorption 11
Isoflurane 5% induction/1-3% maintenance Preferred anesthesia 6
Itraconazole PO 5-10 mg/kg q12h Fungal treatment 1,6
Ivermectin PO, SC 0.2 mg/kg once, repeat in 10-14d Anthelmintic 2,6,11
Ketamine IM 20 mg/kg Follow with isoflurane 6
Ketamine (K) + IM (K) 2-3 mg/kg + (M) 0.05-0.1 mg/kg Immobilization. Reverse medetomidine with 22
medetomidine (M) atipamezole 0.05-0.4 mg/kg IV

Lactulose PO 0.2 ml q24h Constipation 6
Lincomycin IM 30 mg/kg q24h x 7d Dermatitis 10
Meloxicam PO 0.1-0.2 mg/kg q12h; Use Analgesia and nonsteroidal antiinflammatory; 11
0.5 mg/ml concentration animals like sweet taste
Metoclopramide IV, IM, SC, 0.05-0.1 mg/kg q6-12h prn GI motility enhancer 6,15
PO
Metronidazole PO 80 mg/kg q24h Infection 10
Midazolam IM 0.25-0.5 mg/kg Anxiolytic, preanesthetic sedation 14
Oxfendazole PO 5 mg/kg once Anthelmintic 2,6
Piperazine PO 100 mg/kg Anthelmintic 26
Prednisolone IM, SC, PO 0.1-0.2 mg/kg q24h Corticosteroid 15
Pyrantel pamoate (P) / PO (P) 14.4 mg/kg + (F) 15 mg/kg Roundworms, strongyles 6
Febantel (F)
Pyrethrin powder Topical Product safe for kittens, same Ectoparasites 6
dosage, frequency
Selamectin Topical 6-18 mg/kg repeat in 30d Ectoparasites 11
Sevoflurane 1-5% to effect Anesthesia 6
Sulfadimethoxine PO 5-10 mg/kg q12-24h x7-10d Antibiotic; make sure well hydrated 6,11,15
Trimethoprim / sulfa IM, PO, SC 10-20 mg/kg q12-24h x7-10d Antibiotic; make sure well hydrated; 6,15
SC may cause necrosis
PO 50-57 mg/kg q24h 6
Vitamin A 500-5000 IU/kg Skin disorders 6
Vitamin B complex IM 0.01-0.02 ml/kg Vitamin; be very careful of “sting”; administer under 15
anesthetic or dilute
Vitamin E PO 25 mg/animal/day Vitamin 26
Yohimbine IV 0.2 mg/kg Reverse xylazine 22
*Adapted from Association of Sugar Glider Veterinarians’™ web site, www.asgv.org ©2009 by David Brust, DVM
and Marsupial Formulary ©2002 by Cathy Johnson-Delaney, DVM, Dipl ABVP (Avian)
Pygmy Goat Pygmy Goat

(Capra aegagrus hircus)
Pet Care Sharmie Johnson, DVM
SPECIES
T here are 9 species in the genus Capra: Markhor (C.
falconeri), East Caucasian tur (C. caucasica cylindricornis,
West Caucasian tur (C. caucasica), Walia ibex (C. walie),
Alpine ibex (C. ibex), Nubian ibex (C. nubiana), Siberian
Agadez - Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike 3.0
ibex (C. sibirica), Spanish ibex (C. pyrenaicais) and wild

goat (C. aegagrus)
The pygmy goat is a subspecies of the wild goat
(C. aegagrus). It is smaller and domesticated.

ncestors of the modern American pygmy goat originated
A
from west Africa. This subspecies is still in existence and
is called the Cameroon dwarf goat.
The true African pygmy goats come from arid to semi-arid
regions along the western coast of Africa. They subsist on
grasses and shrubs found along roadsides and villages.
Markhor goat (C. falconeri)
The National Pygmy Goat Association has established
breed standards—to be classified as a pygmy goat, it
vital statistics must be 16-23 in (41-58 cm) at the withers (shoulder).
Life span 15-19 years (captivity) Rectal temperature 102-104°F (39-40°C) Breed standard for color is caramel, agouti or black.
Adult size Heart/pulse rate 70-90 beats per min • Caramel ranges from white to intense red or brown with
Height (withers) 16-23 in (41-58 cm) Respiratory rate 15-30 breaths per min dark trim on the head, legs, dorsal stripe and abdomen.
Adult weight Contraction/ There is also a light stripe running up the stockings.
Male 40-80 lb (18-36 kg) rumination rate 1-2 per min • Agouti includes what is referred to as grizzled (mixing of
Female 35-60 lb (16-27 kg)
Pygmy Goats Older male pygmy goat. Note the prominent horns and beard.
light and dark colors) grey or brown with solid, darker-

colored legs and no stripes up the stockings.
• Agouti coloration may include a dark trim on the head,
legs and dorsal stripe and partial or complete belly
bands of white and white stars on the forehead.
• Black may be accented with lighter shades involving the
muzzle, forehead, eyes and ears.
The hair is straight. Bucks have a long beard and mane.
Does may also have a small beard.
Pygmy goats are short and stocky with a well-developed,
widened barrel (abdomen) when compared to dairy goats.
Aging of goats may be done by examining dentition:
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• Eruption rates of deciduous incisors: I1 (birth-1 week),
I2 (1-2 weeks), I3 (2-3 weeks), I4 (3-4 weeks)
• Permanent incisor eruption schedule: I1 (1-1.5 years),
I2 (1.5-2 years), I3 (2.5-3 years), I4 (3.5-4 years)
Solid black coat color in a debudded, female pygmy goat.
BEHAVIOR

Pygmy goats are naturally social and inquisitive creatures.
They are very gentle and easily trainable.
They are intelligent and capable of performing small tasks
repetitively, such as opening gates and latches.
Goats jump on everything (other animals, people).
Goats spar by rising on rear legs while falling head-wise
into an opponent.
Goats ram other goats as well as other animals as a
means of establishing dominance.
They sneeze as part of an alarm call.
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CAPTIVE HOUSING
Housing depends on the climate.
Grizzled haircoat in an animal with the agouti color pattern. Pygmy Goats

Shade should be provided in warmer areas. Fans and
misters may also be considered.
Barns are a necessity in cold climates. Barn size should
be large enough to provide at least 15-20 ft2 (1.3-1.8
m2) per animal.
The barn floor substrate may be dirt, wood, cement or
clay. Clay is the preferred substrate. It is generally placed
over gravel and packed down. It absorbs moisture and
wicks it to the gravel below. It keeps hooves trimmed and
is easy to sweep out and replace as needed.
Regardless of the region, shelter should be available to
protect the animals from wind, rain and snow.
Fresh water should be available at all times. In colder
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climates, a water tank heater should be considered.

Fencing is standard for any type of livestock. Chain-link
may potentially entrap limbs. Welded wire panels may be
used instead.
Pygmy goats have a short-medium length haircoat. Cement footers should be considered because goats like
to push their full body weight into the sides of the fence,
allowing for escape at the bottom.
Fences should be tall enough to prevent predators from
gaining access. The average fence height recommended
for containment is 4-5 ft (1.2-1.5 m). Objects that are
easily climbed on should not be placed against the fence.
Goats should not be housed near toxic plants.
Goats are enjoy the companionship of other animals and
are best housed within a herd.
Nontoxic browse may be offered frequently. Besides
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enrichment, it is important for dental and digestive health.

Toys safe for other animals may be offered, such as
Boomerballs.® Goats enjoy objects that they can run and
Pygmy Goats Goats ramming each other
Marius Kallhardt - Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike

jump on, such as large wooden spools used for cables,
stacked logs or bricks, children’s plastic or wooden play
forts, car-wash brushes and tether balls. The safety of any
object provided should be evaluated before using it.
DIET

Goats are ruminants and are considered intermediate
feeders. They graze (grasses) and browse (leaves, twigs).
Hay and feeds should be offered off the ground in contain
ers or hay mangers to prevent contamination and soiling.
A good quality hay, grass or legume (alfalfa) should be fed
at a rate of < 2% of body weight. Hay-based pellets or
cubes may also be offered; however, there is increased
risk of choke, urolithiasis and ulcers.
Cereal grains are available in many formulations. Great
care should be taken if offering these because of risk of
obesity and rumen acidosis. Pygmy goats are naturally social animals.
All feeds must be stored in tightly sealed canisters.
Animals are very efficient at getting into food containers,
and a lot of accidental exposures happen this way.
A complete mineral mix that is specially formulated for
sheep and goats should be provided.
Salt blocks are not recommended due to mineral
imbalance and potential for broken teeth.
Goats are commonly used for weed clearing, but their
potential exposure to toxic plants should be evaluated.
REPRODUCTION

The reproductive anatomy of bucks and does is similar to
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other ruminants; however, the buck has a 0.8-1 in (2-3
cm) villiform appendage (urethral process) at the distal
Three-month-old kid with eruption of horn buds. Pygmy Goats
most aspect of the penis, which is a common place for

urethral calculi to lodge.
Bucks enter puberty as early as 2-3 months of age.
Does enter puberty as early as 3 months of age. They
breed year round. The estrous cycle averages 21 days.
Gestation period is 147-155 days. Twins and triplets are
the usual number of kids born.
Neonates (kids) average a birth weight of 2.2 lb (1 kg).
RESTRAINT

Goats should be approached in a quiet and non-
threatening manner. They remember bad experiences,
making follow-up encounters more difficult.
Goats should not be restrained by their ears or caught by
grabbing a hind limb, which can lead to hip dislocation.
Recommended methods of restraint involve grabbing the
beard, horns, collar or halter. An arm may be wrapped
around a goat’s neck.
An assistant may steady a goat against a wall or straddle
them and back into a corner. Chutes may also be used.
MEDICATING

Administering oral medications should be accomplished
with the goat standing with the head held parallel to the
ground. Elevation of the head/neck may result in aspiration.
Dose medications into the caudal buccal pouch.
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If using a balling gun, place the device over the base of
the tongue, but not into the pharynx: administer the
medication, remove the gun and hold the mouth closed
until the animal swallows.
Pygmy Goats Well-developed testicles in a 3-month-old, male pygmy goat (left).

Well-developed udder in a lactating doe (right).
INJECTION SITES

Prior to the administration of any injections, discuss the
method with the owner. Medications may cause reactions
that affect the quality of the hide or meat in production
animals or result in disqualification or loss of placement
in show animals. Meat producers prefer that injections be
given in the neck, while breeders and show people prefer
that medications be administered in the axillary region.
IM medications may be administered in the neck by form
ing an imaginary triangle using the nuchal crest dorsally,
the cervical vertebrae ventrally and the shoulder caudally.
Injections may also be placed in the longissimus (lumbar),
triceps, semimembranosus, semitendinosis and gluteal
muscles.
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Subcutaneous injections may be given in the neck as for
IM injections, in the axilla or in the lateral chest wall.
IV injections or blood collection procedures are usually
performed at the jugular vein. Cephalic and lateral
saphenous veins are also visible with dampening of the Over-grown hooves (left). Trimming should involve the medial, lateral and cranial
hair or clipping (if allowed). IV catheters may be placed in aspects of the hoof wall on both toes. Normal hoof length (right).
any of these veins, but usually the jugular vein is the
preferred site, which reduces the risk of entanglement.
The author uses a 20-gauge, 1½- to 2-inch needle.
Intraperitoneal injections are used occasionally—most
commonly with neonates. Using aseptic technique, the kid
is suspended by its front legs. An 18-20 gauge, 1-inch
needle is inserted perpendicularly to the skin, approximately
1.8 cm depth and 1 cm to the left side of the navel.
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ANESTHESIA
Adult animals should be fasted for 12-24 hours prior to
Normal conformation in a pygmy goat. Pygmy Goats
Anneli Salo - Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike 3.0

the procedure (8-12 hours for water). Neonates should
not be fasted due to potential for hypoglycemia.
Endotracheal intubation is recommended, especially if the
animal has not been fasted.
The trachea is manually palpated prior to induction to
estimate the size of the tube. The animal should be
placed in sternal recumbency. A technician should extend
the head and neck, keeping them parallel to the table or
ground, while opening the mouth with gauze loops.
The oral cavity is narrow and the base of the tongue is
thick, which narrows visibility.
A laryngoscope with an elongated blade will facilitate
placement of the tube or guide tube by depressing the
base of the tongue. A canine urethral catheter that is
This goat has carpal osteoarthritis. The weight is placed over the back legs while smaller and longer than the endotracheal tube may be
rising. Arthritic goats can be placed on anti-inflammatory medications and joint used as a guide device, allowing for the sliding of the
supplements. tube over the catheter. A small rigid endoscope can also
facilitate intubation.
A comprehensive list of preanesthetics and injectable and
inhalational anesthetics may be found in the references.
It is advisable to thoroughly research any anesthetics prior
to use, as goats are sensitive to certain drugs.
Positioning of the head (if possible), where the throat is
elevated with relation to the mouth and the thorax, will
decrease the risk of aspiration of saliva or regurgitated
stomach contents.
Common complications related to anesthesia are bloat,
regurgitation and aspiration of saliva or rumen contents.
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Overgrown hooves: firm, compact substrate for prevention.
Pygmy Goats A wild goat (C. aegagrus)
Dystocia: breed does to smaller bucks helps prevent this.
Nevit Dilmen - Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike

Parasites (internal and external parasites [mites, lice])
Neoplasia
Arthritis: carpal area in bucks, stifle and hips in older does
Caprine arthritis, encephalitis
Toxicities: mycotoxins in moldy feed, poisonous plants
Heat prostration/heat stroke: pursuit and manual restraint/
struggling during hot weather
Gastrointestinal disorders: bloat, choke, diarrhea
Rumen acidosis (grain overload): severe, often fatal. Avoid
feeding concentrates.
Pregnancy toxemia
Worn teeth in older animals: pellets may need to be
soaked prior to feeding.
Necrobacillosis (lumpy jaw)
Caseous lymphadenitis
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
B
acterial: Brucella melitensis, Chlamydophila psittaci,
Coxiella burnetii, Francisella tularensis, Leptospirosis
interrogans, Listeria monocytogenes, Yersinia entero
colitica and Y. pseudotuberculosis and mycobacteria (M.
bovis and M. avium subspecies paratuberculosis).

Viral: rabies, contagious ecthyma, goat pox; prion -
scrapie?

Parasitic: Giardia lamblia, Cryptosporidium parvum,
Echinococcosis granulosis
Fungal: Trichophyton verrucosum, T. mentagrophytes and
Trisha M Shears
Microsporum canis
Pygmy Goats
VACCINES
T he most important vaccine administered to goats is a
combination product that protects against Clostridium
perfringens type C and D, and Clostridium tetani.
Unvaccinated goats or those with unknown history receive
1 vaccine, followed by a second in 3-4 weeks, then
annually.
Pregnant does receive their annual vaccine 1 month prior
to parturition.
Animals receiving large amounts of concentrates should
be vaccinated every 6 months.
Trisha M Shears
Kids from immunized dams are initially vaccinated at 4-8
weeks of age, then again in 3-4 weeks.
Kids from non-immunized or unknown-status does should
be vaccinated earlier at 1-3 weeks, then again 3-4 weeks.
Pygmy goat kid In the event of failure of passive transfer, kids can receive
antitoxin made against Clostridium perfringens type C/D
and tetanus.
Mistvan-GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2
Care should be taken when administering vaccines due to

vaccine site reactions. Many goats are used for show or
meat, and blemishes can lead to disqualification or
condemning of a carcass.
The recommended route and site for administration of
vaccine is subcutaneously in the caudolateral neck or
behind the elbow. Avoid the prescapular lymph node area
(point of the shoulder), as a vaccine reaction may be
confused with caseous lymphadenitis.
Rabies vaccines are not approved for use in goats, but
some veterinarians in endemic areas follow the same
protocol used for sheep. Authorities may not recognize
the vaccine status of the animal(s) in question.
Pygmy Goats
G
oats may also be vaccinated against contagious

ecthyma, caseous lymphadenitis, chlamydia, leptospirosis
and campylobacter. Most of these vaccines are extra-label
use, and doses are extrapolated from use in sheep.

B
ecause pygmy goats may be used for meat and milk
production, the veterinarian and owner need to be
cognizant of drug withdrawal times.
iosecurity: new and sick goats need to be quarantined
B
from the rest of the herd. Provisions should be made for
separate facilities and equipment.
Because of their non-aggressive nature and small size,
they make ideal companions for other non-predatory
animals and children—the only caveat being that they are
debudded (dehorned).
Like other breeds of goats, they enjoy head-butting, so
one needs to keep this in mind before exposing them to

individuals who could be injured by this behavior.

1. Fowler ME: Sheep, goats, and goatlike animals. In Fowler ME,
Miller RE (eds): Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine 5th ed. Saunders,
2003.
2. Pugh DG: Sheep & Goat Medicine. Saunders, 2002.
3. Taylor M: Parasites of goats: A guide to diagnosis and control.
In Practice 24:76-89, 2002.
4. Huston JE: Nutrient Requirements of Small Ruminants: Sheep,
Goats, Cervids, and New World Camelids. The National Academies
Press, 2007.
5. National Pygmy Goat Association: www.npga-pygmy.com
6. www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pygmy_goat
7. www.goatworld.com
Llama Llama
(Lama glama)
CL ASSIFICATIONS

There are no specific subspecies or breeds of llamas.
Some breed distinctions are made in South America as
either heavy-neck fiber (chaku, lanuda, tapada) or short-
neck fiber (cara, pelada). Otherwise, classification of
llamas is based on fiber length (appearance, weaver’s
interest), conformation, temperament or color.

The llama and other camelids (camels, alpacas,
guanacos, vicuña) originated from the central plains of
North America. Llamas migrated into South America.
The native habitat is scrub brush and grasses along
plateaus from sea level up to 13,123 ft (4,000 m).
BEHAVIOR

Llamas are very social animals that tend to make other
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non-predatory animals and humans part of the “pack.”

Because of their tendency to be protective of other animals
besides their own species, llamas are commonly used as
Normal position of the head, neck, and ears in a calm llama.
guard animals for flocks. If a predator approaches, the
vital statistics llama will alert other herd members with a warning bray.
Life span 12-15 years (captivity) Body temperature 99.5-102°F (37.5-38.9°C) Llamas have been observed to attack predators by biting,
Adult size Heart/pulse rate 60-90 beats per min spitting, kicking and butting.
Height 4 ft (1.2 m) to shoulders Respiratory rate 10-30 breaths per min Female llamas typically attempt to control herd members
Length 4 ft (1.2 m) head to tail and other species when disgruntled by laying their ears
Gastric
Adult weight 248-550 lb (113-250 kg) motility rate 3-4 per min at rest back and spitting.
Llamas Llama hair is graded on length of fiber and consistency.
ales will show dramatic displays of chest butting, biting

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and neck wrestling to the ground. A sign of submission is
when an opponent lies in lateral recumbency with the
neck extended and tail raised.
Llamas communicate vocally by humming to one another.
They can also make grunting or what has been described
as a “mwa” sound when alerted to danger.
The communal dung heap is thought to represent
territorial marking.
Hand-raised or over-handled baby llamas (crias) may grow
to become unpredictable and dangerous to humans. They
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have come to treat humans as they would each other, by
biting, wrestling and spitting to obtain dominance.
L lamas have long, thick coats that vary in color from solid
dark colors to mottled patterns. Typical fiber length for llamas residing in the southwestern United States.
They have 2 toes on each foot with a nail located at the
tip (digits 3 and 4) and a thick, leathery pad present on
the underside of the sole.
Llamas carry their head and neck in an almost vertical
position. This differs from the alpaca that has a neck
carriage at about 70°. Llamas are larger than alpacas.
The bottom incisors protrude rostrally, while the single
upper incisor is positioned caudally and has the
appearance and function of a canine tooth.
The dental formula for deciduous teeth is 2 x (I 1/3,
C 1/1, PM 2-3/1-2) and for permanent teeth is 2 x
(I 1/3, C 1/1, PM 1-2/1-2, M 3/3).
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The upper lip has a natural division called a philtrum.
The lips are prehensile, but the tongue is not. The
The upper lip has a cleft called a philtrum (left), which allows independent move- Llamas
ment of the lips to sort through food and avoid foreign bodies. The llama is an
obligate nasal breather. Note the large nares and small mouth (right). oropharynx is very narrow, and the oral cavity is occupied
primarily by an immobile tongue, making the llama an
obligate nasal breather.
The stomach is divided into 3 compartments, which differ
in number, morphology and motility from that of the
ruminant forestomach.
Llamas process ingesta to ultimately form a pellet instead
of a fecal ball.
Llamas have 4 natural gaits: walk, trot, pace and gallop.
REPRODUCTION
ale llamas have visible external testicles.
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Male llamas are capable of breeding at 1.5-2.0 years of

age, but most lack libido and size until 3 years of age.
Females have a discernible vulva located distal to the
anus. Females do not have an estrous cycle, so it is
Male llama displaying aggressive facial posture
difficult to determine when they reach sexual maturity.
(left). Erect ears in an alert llama (right).
Follicular development and hormone assays suggest that
they may reach puberty at 5-10 months of age.
Female llamas are induced ovulators.
Typically 1 male is housed with 6 females, which is
referred to as a harem.
The length of gestation is 335-360 days.
Crias (baby camelids) usually weigh 18-45 lb (8-20 kg).
HOUSING
T here are no special housing requirements for llamas
other than providing shelter from the elements. Shade,
fans and misters may be used in hot climates.
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Barns or shelters should be available in cooler climates;

however, it is not unusual to witness these animals out in
Llamas There are 2 toes on each foot. Nails are present at the
cranial aspect, and there is a leathery pad for a sole.
the rain or snow even though shelter is available.
Standard livestock fencing can be used for containment.
Llamas are not known for their jumping ability, so a fence
that approximates or exceeds their height is appropriate.
A fence system needs to be set up and maintained so
that the animal cannot become entrapped or injured.
An owner should consider predatory prevention as well.
Even though llamas are used for flock protection, they
can still be a victim of predation, both human and animal.
DIET
L lamas may be maintained on a grass pasture or receive
good quality grass or mixed grass and legume hay.
They consume 1.0-1.5% body weight in roughage daily.
If there are no excessive energy demands, such as
pregnancy or lactation, they do not need to receive
concentrates.
Llamas are prone to obesity and choking.
Providing a salt-mineral mix and supplemental vitamin E
(15-60 IU of dl-a tocopherol acetate/kg of dry matter fed)
is recommended.
Consulting with a local or state agricultural extension
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service is recommended in order to determine the
appropriate supplements for a particular area.
Llamas do not have the capacity to lick; therefore, salt
blocks are unwarranted.
An ample fresh water must be available at all times.
RESTRAINT
L lamas are very tractable to work with in general.
Exceptions to the rule are hand-reared animals, which
Aggressive stance (left). Note the caudoventral position of the ears and open Llamas
mouth. Normal posture in a non-aggressive llama (right).
may inflict serious injury to their handlers.
Manual restraint is the most common means of subduing
llamas. The best technique is to use at least a minimum
of 2 people whose objective is to work the animal into a
corner of a small pen.
If possible, clients should be advised to build a small
paddock into their pasture or enclosure and feed the
animals there in order to desensitize them to the area.
Outstretched ropes or poles may be used to guide the
animal into the area and hold them there until a halter
can be placed. Most people find it easier to rope off all
the animals and then select the animal in question.
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Halters may be made from ropes or purchased. Llamas

typically do not like their head or face touched and may
rear their head and neck in different directions, possibly
injuring the handler. Also, a spit rag may be placed over
Classical facial pose in an angry llama prior to spitting. the muzzle if indicated.
During restraint, the llama may communicate displeasure
by the position of the ears and tail, vocalizing, spitting
and possibly biting. The ears held back and the tail held
in a vertical position indicate aggression, as does a snort
(short burst of air through the lips).
Screaming is common when the animal is frightened.
Cowkicking can also occur during restraint as does
spitting of stomach contents. Prior to being spewed on, a
handler will hear a gurgling/gulping sound.
Llamas also have a tendency to kush (sit in a recumbent
position) and then rise up frequently during restraint.
Hand-made (Fowler or Ebel design) or commercial llama
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chutes work well when trying to perform minimally

invasive procedures.
Llamas Female llama using the communal dung heap (arrow).
ANESTHESIA
L ocal anesthesia is used following standard guidelines for
other species. Regional blocks are not typically done due
to lack of detailed information for llamas.
Epidural anesthesia is commonly used for procedures
involving the perineum.
Injectable and inhalation anesthetics are commonly used.
The references contain information specific to doses,
routes of administration, intubation techniques and
precautionary statements regarding usage.
BLOOD COLLECTION
enipuncture may be accomplished at the jugular vein,
V
cephalic vein (cranial aspect of the radius), ear vein,
ventral midline tail vein or lateral saphenous vein.
The jugular vein is difficult to identify because of the
depth in the neck, lack of a jugular furrow, thick skin and
hair. It is best to pursue this vessel low on the neck in the
area of the thoracic inlet. The vein lies medial to the
ventral projection of the transverse process of the cervical
vertebrae. The vein may also be approached high on the
neck adjacent to the ramus of the mandible.
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One should avoid clipping the hair because it may take up
to 1½ years to grow back.

Neoplasia, nutritional deficiencies/excesses, congenital
diseases, toxins
Parasites (susceptible to ruminant parasites, both
endo- and ecto-)
Fungal (coccidioidomycosis), dermatophytosis
Llamas

Bacterial (colibacillosis, mycobacterial, enterotoxemia -
Clostridium perfringens types A, C, D, botulism, tetanus,
Luc Viatour - www.lucnix.be - Creative Commons brucellosis, necrobacillosis)
Viral (equine herpesvirus type 1, West Nile virus)
Attribution ShareAlike Unported 3.0 license
References provide a more complete list of diseases and

potential treatment strategies.
Actinomyces lamae - unique to South American camelids.
This organism causes soft tissue abscesses and osteitis.
VACCINES

Vaccine strategies are similar to other ruminants.
Llamas are vaccinated against tetanus and
enterotoxemia, type C and D.
Killed vaccines against rabies and leptospirosis are given
in endemic regions.
Some practitioners vaccinate against West Nile virus and
equine herpesvirus type 1.
MilborneOne - Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL

There are several organisms to which llamas are
susceptible that pose health concerns for humans.
Among the viruses, rabies virus is paramount.
Contagious ecthyma, a parapox virus, is known to cause
severe ulcerative skin lesions in man.
Fungal infections resulting from dermatophytes, such as
Trichophyton verrucosum, T. mentagrophytes and
Microsporum spp., have also been responsible for causing
skin disease in humans.
Unported license
Bacterial diseases, such as tuberculosis (Mycobacterium

bovis, M. tuberculosis, M. avium, M. paratuberculosis),
brucellosis (Brucella melitensis), listeriosis (Listeria
Llamas
monocytogenes) and leptospirosis (Leptospira spp.,
Anakin - Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0

especially L. grippotyphosa), have been identified in
lamoids.
Experimentally, llamas are susceptible to B. abortus.
L lamas may require shearing in hot and/or humid climates
to prevent heat prostration/heat stroke.
Hand-raised or over-handled/over-socialized parent-raised
crias may become aggressive to humans and inflict severe
injury when they become adults. They can force a human
Unported license
to the ground and attempt to trample that person. This is
especially a concern with a hand-reared, intact male llama.
The animal views the human as another male llama.
Castration does not deter this behavior once it has started.
If hand-raising a male llama is the only option, avoid
additional contact beyond feeding and return the animal Young llamas resting in the shade
to the herd as soon as possible. Castration should be
considered by 2 months of age in these animals.
Llamas are susceptible to chemical, plant, mycotoxin and
Rlevse - Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike

heavy metal toxicosis. Cases of rattlesnake envenomation
and stings from bees and ants have been reported.

1. Fowler ME: Medicine and Surgery of South American Camelids—
Llama, Alpaca, Vicuña, Guanaco 2nd ed. Iowa State University
Press, 1998.
2. Fowler ME: Camelidae. In ME Fowler, RE Miller (eds.): Zoo and
Wild Animal Medicine 5th ed. Saunders, 2003.
Unported license
3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llama
4. www.llamaweb.com
5. www.aasrp.org
Miniature (Potbellied) Miniature (Potbellied) Pig

(Sus scrofa domestica)
Pig Pet Care Valarie V. Tynes, DVM, Dipl ACVB
breeds / physical attributes
T he most common breed kept as a pet in the United States
is the Vietnamese potbellied pig.
Vietnamese potbellied pigs have a short nose, sway back,
pot belly, small upright ears and a straight tail.
The coat color was originally black, but varieties of black
and white or red coats now exist.
Pet pigs with long snouts, long legs and/or curly tails may
be a result of mixing feral or commercial swine with
Vietnamese potbellied pigs.
L aws and Permits

any cities, counties and municipalities do not allow pet
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pigs within their boundaries.
Laws that restrict the keeping of livestock within city limits
are often applied to miniature pet pigs as well.
Pet potbellied pigs are livestock and transportation is
regulated by strict rules that may differ from state to state.
Most states require a health certificate that has been signed
by an accredited veterinarian, and/or an entry permit.
vital statistics Many states require that the pigs be tested for pseudo
Life span 10-15 years Body temperature 37-40°C (99-104°F) rabies and brucellosis (performed by state laboratories at a
Breed standard Respiratory rate 20-30 breaths per min
reasonable cost) before a health certificate can be issued.
weight* <95 lb (43 kg) Heart rate 70-110 beats per min
Breed standard
height at shoulder* <18 inches (45 cm) Behavior
(1 year of age) otbellied pigs can make excellent pets if owners are aware
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of their normal behavior and needs.
*North American Potbellied Pig Association
Miniature (Potbellied) Pigs An insulated house for sleeping and nesting

is necessary if the pig is housed outdoors.
T he pig that is well socialized and trained from an early age
is a better pet for the family.
Miniature pigs are foraging animals that spend much of
©Susan Armstrong-Magidson - Ross Mill Farm

their day either in search of food or resting.
When kept as a pet and fed 2-3 small meals daily, the pig
may spend as little as 20 minutes a day eating.
The pig’s remaining time is often spent sleeping; therefore,
the pig becomes an extremely sedentary animal and prone
to obesity.
www.rossmillfarm.com
Pigs are highly social, and housing multiple pigs together
may decrease the chances of behavior problems.
Aggression toward people is a common problem in the pet
pig and may occur when the pig is not given enough
enrichment or is not properly trained or socialized.
Pet pigs may be taught some tricks to keep them mentally
stimulated.
A 3-month-old potbellied piglet.
Pigs are usually quiet but will scream when frightened,
firmly restrained or when begging for food.
It is normal for pigs to foam and froth at the mouth when
they are excited about food.
Unpredictable behavior, aggression, urination in the house
or destructive nest-building can occur with estrus.
It is recommended that the pig be spayed at 3-6 months.
captive Housing and Management

minimum pen size of 8 x 15 feet (2.5 x 4.5 m) per pig is
A
recommended (larger is desirable for exploration/activity).
An insulated house with 6 ft2 (2 m2) per pig for sleeping
and nesting is necessary if the pig is housed outdoors.
Jenny Blaney
The house should be clean, dry, sanitary and draft free.
With a linoleum or tile floor, blankets or other bedding
A rooting box and ample space must be provided for the pig to explore. Miniature (Potbellied) Pigs
material should be provided to improve footing.

Indoor pigs should be confined to a pig-safe room when
unsupervised.

All house pigs should be allowed outdoor exercise time.
Pigs that spend time outdoors are more likely to have
healthy coats and hooves.
Outdoor enclosures need at least 1 foot (30 cm) of the
mesh fence below ground, as pigs may attempt to dig
under the fencing.
Bedding must be dry and deep enough to allow for rooting

or for an animal to completely cover itself.
Old blankets, comforters, sleeping bags, hay, straw or
hardwood shavings are acceptable (cedar avoided).
Wet or dirty bedding should be cleaned daily.
An indoor rooting box requires an accessible entry. Temperature

T he ideal environment range is 60-75ºF (15-24ºC) with a
humidity of 50%.
Pigs do not have the ability to sweat. Supplemental cooling
(e.g., shade, fans and water for wallowing) is necessary
Angela Lennox, DVM, Dipl ABVP-Avian Practice
when the outside temperature exceeds 85ºF (30ºC).

A mud wallow is acceptable provided it is not used as the
defecation area by the pigs.
Pigs have sensitive skin that can sunburn.
Commercial pig heating blankets or a heat lamp placed out
of reach are recommended during the winter.
Litter Pans
igs can be trained to use a litter box.
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Older pigs will prefer to go outside to eliminate if given the
choice.
Miniature (Potbellied) Pigs Foraging is a natural behavior for miniature pigs

and should be encouraged.
ans must be large enough for the pig to turn around
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completely and shallow enough to step into easily.
A shallow child’s pool with an entry way cut out can be used
as long as it is fastened down to prevent being turned over.
The litter pan should be placed at the opposite end of the

room from the sleeping and resting area.
Environmental Enrichment
ooting is a normal exploratory behavior that is also
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motivated by the pig’s drive to forage for food.
A rooting box and ample space must be provided for the
pig to explore. A large, low container (e.g., a child’s wading
pool) filled with a layer of smooth, large stone may be used
as a rooting box.
The box should be cleaned monthly or if it becomes wet.
Dry foods and treats may be fed in the rooting box to
reduce boredom and help decrease destructive rooting.
Toys must be disposable, not easily dismantled into small A miniature pig shown at an ideal weight.
pieces and cleaned at least once a week.
Safe, chewable toys include beach balls, tennis balls,

cardboard boxes and newspapers.
Indoor damage is likely: the pig may tear up carpet and
linoleum, remove loose items from low shelves.
Destruction of the lawn and landscaping is common if the
pig is housed outdoors.
Diet
igs are omnivorous, foraging animals.
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Pet pigs should be fed diets formulated especially for
miniature pigs that do not require supplementation.
Some examples are Mazuri® Mini-Pig, Heartland and Ross
Another miniature pig shown at an ideal weight. Miniature (Potbellied) Pigs
Mill Farm’s Champion™ Premium Pet Pig Food.

Commercial hog feeds are formulated to produce rapid

growth in a relatively short time period and should not be
fed to pet pigs. Feeds for miniature pigs are lower in
protein and fat and higher in fiber.
A pig fed a diet too high in fat and protein (e.g., dog or cat
food) can exceed its genetic potential and achieve a larger
frame size as well as storing an extraordinary amount of fat.
Feeds are often classified as starter, grower, breeder or
maintenance, or alternately as youth, active adult and elder.
Maintenance rations contain approximately 12% protein,
2% fat and 12-15% fiber and should be given to pigs
after about 8 weeks of age.
Food and water bowls should be fastened to the ground
so the pig cannot climb in or tip them over.
Obese pigs often have a red discharge from their eyes that stays in the folds of fat Adults should be fed approximately 2-2.5% body weight or
on their face.
1 cup pelleted food for each 23 kg (50 lb), divided into at
least 2 feedings each day.
Frequent feedings in multiple locations encourage activity.
The Manna Ball (www.pigs4ever.com) and Buster® Cube
(www.bustercube.com) contain strategically placed holes in

which the pig’s ration is placed, allowing the pig to
manipulate the toys in order to slowly acquire its food.
Treats may include occasional small amounts of fresh
vegetables and fruits cut into pieces, unsalted popcorn or
whole grain cereals (without sugar coating).
Small amounts of grass hay (not alfalfa or clover, which are

too high in protein/calories) may be used to control hunger.
The amount of a commercial diet should be decreased
accordingly for pigs allowed to graze or fed supplemental
fruits, vegetables or treats.
Miniature (Potbellied) Pigs Placing pellets in a plastic ball with holes helps to prolong feeding time.
oods to avoid include: sweet or salty snacks, cookies,

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candy, chips, beef or pork, canned or dry cat or dog foods,
chocolate, fried foods, sunflower seeds, iceberg lettuce,
dried corn and food containing a high percentage of fat.
Valarie V. Tynes, DVM, Dipl ACVB

Water
ood and water should be placed in an easy to clean
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environment (e.g., shower stall or a large shallow tray).
If allowed, pigs will alternate between eating and drinking.
This pattern of moving back and forth between water and
food bowls creates a lot of spillage, often resulting in the
pet owner restricting water availability to their pig. However,
water restriction is related to urolithiasis, cystitis and salt
poisoning (sodium ion toxicosis).
Water for soaking and cooling outdoors should be provided The patient is gently corralled after being placed on the exam table.
in a separate container from drinking water.
Water intake appears to be regulated by abdominal fill. A
pig that is fed a restricted amount of food will drink
substantially more water.
When the pet pig owner overly restricts the pig’s food, it
may become polyuric and polydipsic.
Restraint
T he natural fear response of pigs is to flee or to squeal and

struggle.
Pigs must be habituated to human handling.
A panicking pig is unpleasant to work with and may also be
in grave physical danger.
Potbellied pigs have an unstable circulatory physiology and
can easily succumb to the effects of stress.
Any procedure that appears to be inducing panic in the pig
Several designs for slings to restrain pigs are Miniature (Potbellied) Pigs
commercially available or one can be made, should be discontinued until it calms down or until the
such as the sling shown. anesthesia is administered.
Struggling is often more dangerous than anesthesia.
A rubber mat or other slip-proof surface will help to keep
the pig from panicking.
A pig may be restrained by corralling it rather than holding
it tight, using as little restraint as possible.
The pig should be anesthetized for anything other than
routine exams.
A pig should not be picked up or restrained by the legs.
Frederik Frøen
Potbellied pigs are more prone to lower back and leg
injuries than commercial swine.
A small to medium-sized pig may be scooped up with one
hand under the rump and the other hand placed in front of
Obese pigs may become “fat” blind when their eyes are covered by rolls of fat. the forelimbs and under the neck.
A lift table must be used for larger pigs.
While a pig is on the exam table, contact with it must be
maintained at all times.
A pig may be kept calm by offering frequent treats or by
scratching/petting its neck, sides or abdomen while it is
being examined or vaccinated.

Snout snares are not recommended for pet pigs.
Pig slings (www.panepinto.com) may help examinations.
Physical Examination
emiannual physical examinations are recommended and
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may include nail trimming, teeth examination, hoof

trimming, vaccination and body scoring.
The pig should be checked for external parasites during the
physical exam.
Fecal samples should be tested every 3 months from 10
Miniature (Potbellied) Pigs

What to Look for in a Healthy Miniature Pig
weeks of age to 1 year and rechecked annually.
Most illness is related to sub-optimal husbandry practices Tusks trimmed with
(e.g., inappropriate diet, overheating, trauma from dogs). no sharp edges
Clear serous nasal discharge is common and may be Firm lean body
normal for most pigs, but the snout should be examined
for other discharge that might indicate respiratory infection.
The abdomen should be examined for the presence of
umbilical or inguinal hernias (both common).
Grooming Teeth free

ental Care: Pigs’ canine teeth (tusks) grow throughout
D of tartar
its lifetime and can become sharp. Boar tusks grow longer
and thicker than tusks of sows, castrated males or spayed
females. Annual trimming is usually sufficient. Tusks may
be trimmed short every 6-12 months; removal is not
recommended. The pig should be anesthetized to cut the Body free of
tooth, using a cutting blade on the Dremel™ tool, high lumps and bumps
speed dental tool, or Gigli wire. A large syringe full of water Nails and hooves of
should be available to squirt over the tusk as it is cut, appropriate length
aimed to ensure the water runs out of the pig’s mouth and
not down its throat. The tooth is cut even with the gum
line. Sharp edges can be removed with a Dremel™ tool,
leaving a rounded “button.” The handler must wear goggles
and a mask for protection during tusk or hoof trimming.
Hoof Care: Hooves require routine trimming once or twice
annually starting at 2-3 years of age. Most pigs must be
anesthetized. Small horse hoof trimmers may be used. For
smoothing and shaping, a Dremel™ tool may be used.
Long hooves cause the foot to hyperextend and the pig to
become lame.
Skin Care: Dry, scaly, itchy skin is common in pet pigs.
Hematologic Reference Ranges Biochemistry Reference Ranges Miniature (Potbellied) Pigs

Basophills 0-0.382 x 103/µL Albumin 4.1-5.6 (4.7) g/dL2 Skin over the shoulders can be extremely scaly and greasy.
Eosinophills 0.186-4.584 x 103/µL 3.4-4.3 g/dL1 Skin secretions are reddish or orange. The pig will scratch
Hematocrit 36.7-51.4% Alk phos 35-563 µ/L1 itself using stationary objects in the environment (furniture,
Hemoglobin 11.1-14.9 g/dL ALT 23-83 µ/L1 doors and walls). Sarcoptes scabiei should be ruled out.
Lymphocytes 4.464-26.71 x 103/µL AST < 109 µ/L1 Shedding once or twice a year is normal. Sudden hair loss
Bilirubin 0.0-0.3 (0.1) mg/dL2 may occur (sometimes in hours) in response to some
MCH 14.1-22.3 pg
<0.295 mg/dl1 stressor, such as pregnancy, lactation, weaning and illness.
MCHC 28.4-33 g/dL
BUN (urea 10-29 (19.2) mg/dL2 Eyes: Excessive tearing may be normal or due to a dry or
Mean corp- 46.7-68 fL dusty environment. Tears may leave reddish-brown stains
nitrogen) 10.81-46.88 mg/dL1
uscular vol.
Calcium 9.3-11.6 (10.6) mg/dL2 on the pig’s face that pet owners often mistake for blood.
Monocytes 0.558-4.966 x 103/µL Ears: A large amount of reddish-brown debris in the
10.16-12.24 mg/dL1
Neutrophills 0-0.382 x 103/µL external canal and the inside of the pinnae is normal. Pigs
(bands) Chloride 91-103 mEq/L1
may present with head shaking or head tilt. The pig should
Cholesterol 47.3-173.0 (101.8)
Neutrophills 3.348-24.066 x 103/µL be anesthetized to clean the ear canal, and a thorough
mg/dL2
(segmented) otoscopic examination should be performed.
Creatinine 1.2-2.0 (1.6) mg/dL2
Plasma 100-400 g/dL
0.4-1.10 mg/dL1
fibrinogen Blood Collection and Catheterization
GGT 21-57 µ/L T he primary venipuncture sites include the auricular vein,
Plasma 5.4-8.5 g/dL
protein Globulin 1.4-3.6 (2.8) g/dL2 anterior vena cava, jugular vein and subcutaneous
1.5-3.5 g/dL1 abdominal vein.
Red blood 6.15-8.25 x 106/µL
cells Glucose 56-153 (79.8) mg/dL2 Isoflurane anesthesia is preferred for accessing the jugular
68.4-154.8 mg/dL1 vein and the anterior vena cava and is necessary for
White blood 18.6-38.2 x 103/µL
cells Magnesium 1.48-3.82 mg/dL1 inserting an IV catheter.
Phosphorus 5.0-8.3 (6.9) mg/dL2 L ateral auricular vein, the most accessible vein in the
4.96-10.66 mg/dL1 large conscious pig that is ill or traumatized, is found on
Potassium 3.0-5.9 mEq/L1 the outer surface of the external ear. EMLA topical
Protein 6.3-9.4 (7.5) g/dL2 anesthetic may be applied 1-15 minutes prior to veni
4.6-7.8 g/dL1 puncture. A 25-gauge needle and a small tourniquet
Sodium 134-150 mEq/L1 should be used. An IV catheter must be secured well by
1From Merck Veterinary Manual, 8th Edition, 1998. taping and suturing it in the auricular vein.
2Braun & Casteel, p.156
Anterior vena cava: The anesthetized pig is held in dorsal
Miniature (Potbellied) Pigs For the external jugular vein, the needle is directed dorsally and slightly
medially into the right jugular groove.
recumbency with the head and neck extended and the
forelimbs pulled caudally. An 18- to 22-gauge, 1½-inch
needle is used. The anterior vena cava should be
approached from the right jugular furrow at the level of the
manubrium, with the needle directed toward the top of the
opposite shoulder. A slight vacuum on the syringe should
be used so that it will quickly fill with blood. First pair of
Cathy A. Johnson-Delaney, DVM, Dipl ABVP-Avian

Jugular vein may be accessed in the conscious or ribs
anesthetized pig, but can be challenging to locate due to
the short jugular furrow. The anesthetized pig is held in
dorsal recumbency with the head and neck extended and
the forelimbs pulled caudally. In the conscious pig, an
External jugular vein
assistant should stand over the pig and back it into a
corner. The assistant stretches the pig’s neck out by
clasping his hands under the chin and lifting upward. An Cranial
18- to 22-gauge, 1½-inch needle is directed dorsally and vena cava
slightly medially into the right jugular groove.
Manubrium sterni
Subcutaneous abdominal vein: The use of the
subcutaneous abdominal vein may be less stressful and
could be used on conscious pigs for blood sampling or IV
catheterization. The vein is dorsolateral to the mammary
chain along the ventral portion of abdomen. With the pig
standing or in lateral recumbency, the vein is palpated and/
or visualized, and firm pressure is applied directly behind
the elbow joint, along the thorax, to fill the vein. A
longitudinal depression in the abdominal musculature in
which the vein lies is palpated. An 18- to 22-gauge,
1½-inch needle is used with care to avoid entering the
abdominal cavity.
Accessory cephalic vein runs medially over the anterior
surface of the carpus and should be palpable in all but
One hand is used to scratch or pinch the skin behind the pig’s ear, while Miniature (Potbellied) Pigs
the needle is gently eased into the muscles of the pig’s neck and the
handler offers food to the pig. mature boars that develop thick skin that obscures the
vein. A 23- to 25-gauge needle should be used; too much
suction collapses the vein.
Cephalic Vein: Some practitioners find the cephalic vein
fairly easy to catheterize. A cut-down over the vein is
usually necessary due to the thick skin of the pig’s legs.
Vaccination
accination should be performed for both indoor and
V
outdoor pet pigs, regardless of exposure to other pigs.
Some swine diseases are zoonotic.
Vaccines and bacterins for commercial swine are not
specifically approved for use in the potbellied pig but may
be used safely. Canine vaccines should not be used.
Routine vaccines (bacterins) for adult pets may include:
Erysipelas (Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae); all 6 serovars of
Once the pig resumes eating, the syringe is gently reattached and the vaccine is
slowly injected into the site. Leptospira (Leptospira icterohemorrhagica, L. canicola, L.
pomona, L. hardjo, L. grippotyphosa and L. bratislava); and
Actinobacillus pleuropneumonia.
For young pigs and adults exposed to other pigs, other
vaccines to consider are: Mycoplasma hyopneumonia,
Bordetella bronchiseptica, Pasteurella multocida, swine
influenza and tetanus toxoid if risk of exposure exists
(wounds, post-surgery).
No rabies vaccine is approved for swine.

Young pigs begin a vaccination schedule at 6-8 weeks of
age. The initial series (regardless of age) consists of 2
injections, 3-4 weeks apart. Semiannual or annual
vaccinations are administered thereafter.
Miniature (Potbellied) Pigs A 5-month-old female potbellied piglet.
Common Medical Conditions

besity
O
Other nutritional diseases, when fed inappropriate diets
Dystocia
Internal parasites: They do not share parasites with dogs or
cats. The swine ascarid (Ascaris suum) is the most
common intestinal parasite and is most likely to be present
in a pig under 1 year of age. It is a potential human health
hazard. Stomach worms (Hyostrongylus), threadworms
(Strongyloides ransomi), nodular worms (Oesophago
stomum), whipworms (Trichuris suis), lungworms
Jenny Blaney
(Metastrongylus) and coccidia (Isospora suis) also are
found. Ascarids, stomach worms, nodular worms,
threadworms and lungworms should be treated with
ivermectin (300 mcg/kg SC, IM, PO). Pyrantel is also
effective against ascarids and nodular worms (6.6 mg/kg A 2-year-old female potbellied pig.
PO, repeated as needed).
External parasites:
• Clinical signs of scabies (Sarcoptes scabiei), which
include severe pruritus, erythema and thickened crusty
skin, are most noticeable on the forelegs, ears and
trunk. Deep skin scrapings allow diagnosis. Scabies can
be treated with ivermectin (300 mcg/kg SC; repeat in
10-14 days). Subclinical sarcoptic mange occurs in large
groups of swine.
• Haematopinus suis is a large sucking louse, readily
seen with the naked eye. Lice are easily treated with
ivermectin injections, administered at 18-day intervals
Jenny Blaney
or insecticidal powders, dips or sprays applied at 7-14
day intervals.
A 17-year-old female potbellied pig. Miniature (Potbellied) Pigs
Therapeutics
edications approved for use in swine can generally be
M
used at the label doses. If swine medications are not
available, most medications/dosages used to treat dogs in
an emergency can be used.
Medications may be hidden in food treats, especially sweet
or fruity treats. Capsules can be opened and mixed with
food. Flavored pediatric suspensions may also be used.
Attempting to “pill” a pig, as is done with a cat or dog,
does not usually work well.

Jenny Blaney
1. A llen DG, Pringle JK, Smith D, et al: Handbook of Veterinary

Drugs. JB Lippincott Co, 1993.
3. Hawk CT, Leary SL: Formulary for Laboratory Animals 2nd. Iowa
State University Press, 1999.
Two 7-month-old female potbellied pigs. 4. Lawhorn B: Potbellied pigs. In Aiello BS (ed): The Merck Veterinary
Manual 8th ed. Merck & Co, 1998, pp 1378-1386.
5. Prescott JF, Baggot JD, Walker RD (eds.): Antimicrobial Therapy in
Veterinary Medicine 3rd ed. Iowa State Univ Press, 2000.
6. Reeves DE (ed): Care and Management of Miniature Pet Pigs.
Veterinary Practice Publishing Company, 1993.
7. Straw B, D’Allaire S, Mengeling WL, et al (eds): Diseases of Swine
8th ed. Iowa State University Press, 1999.
8. Swindle MM: Surgery, Anesthesia, and Experimental Techniques in
Swine. Iowa State University Press, 1998.
9. Tynes VV: Emergency care for potbellied pigs. Vet Clin No Am Exot
Anim Pract 1:193-208, 1998.
10. Tynes VV: Pot bellied pig husbandry and nutrition. Vet Clin No Am
Exot Anim Pract 2:193-208, 1999.
11. Tynes VV: Behavior of miniature pet pigs. Vet Clin No Am Exot
Anim Pract 4, 2001.
12. Tynes VV: Preventing behavior problems in pet potbellied pigs.
Exotic DVM 7(6):13-19, 2006.
13. Tynes VV: Preventive health care for pet potbellied pigs. Vet Clin
Jenny Blaney
No Am Exot Anim Pract 2:495-509, 1999.

14. North American Potbellied Pig Association (NAPPA), Neenah WI,
www.petpigs.com.
FORMUL ARY FOR PET PIGS

DRUG ROUTE DOSAGE COMMENTS
Acepromazine SC, IM, IV 0.3-1.1 mg/kg once Tranquilizer, preanesthetic
Amforal suspension PO 5 cc/9 kg q8h x 5d Diarrhea
Amprolium PO 1 ml/day Piglets 5-14 days old, coccidiosis
Food, water 100 mg/kg q24h
Amoxicillin PO 10 mg/kg q12h
Amoxicillin/clavulanate PO 11-13 mg/kg q24h
Ampicillin IV 4-10 mg/kg Can be used as loading dose
IM 10-20 mg/kg q6-8h
Atropine sulfate injectable IM, IV 0.02-0.07 mg/kg Pre-op, pre-dental exam
Azaperone IM 0.25-0.50 mg/kg (relaxation); 2-8 mg/kg Range of dosages give different effects.
(sedation, ataxia, immobilization); Tranquilizer, give 5-10 min before handling
2.2 mg/kg (calm sows for nursing)
Buprenorphine IM, IV 0.05-0.10 mg/kg q8-12h Analgesic
Butorphanol SC, IV 0.05-0.20 mg/kg q3-4h Analgesic
IM, IV 0.1-0.3 mg/kg q8-12h Analgesic
Ceftiofur (Naxcel) IM 1.1-2.2 mg/kg q24h x 7d; Rhinitis
3-10 mg/kg q24h
Ceftriaxone IM 50-75 mg/kg q24h
Cephalexin PO 20 mg/kg PO q12h
Cephradine PO 24-50 mg/kg q12h
Chlorpromazine IM 0.5-4.0 mg/kg Antiemetic
IV 0.55-3.3 mg/kg Antiemetic
Cimetidine PO 150-300 mg q12h Gastric ulcers
Dantrolene sodium PO, IV 2-5 mg/kg q8h Malignant hyperthermia
Dexamethasone IV 1-2 mg/kg Shock
Dextrose 5% in water IP 17-22 ml/kg Piglets, weak, hypoglycemic
Diazepam SC 0.22 mg/kg Tranquilizer, pre-op
Detomidine + butorphanol IM D: 0.125 mg/kg, B: 0.3 mg/kg,, M: 0.3 Anesthesia; reverse with naloxone and yohimbine;
+ midazolam + atropine mg/kg, A: 0.06 mg/kg combination BB Can also reverse with flumazenil if needed

Acepromazine SC, IM, IV 0.3-1.1 mg/kg once Tranquilizer, preanesthetic
Amforal suspension PO 5 cc/9 kg q8h x 5d Diarrhea
Amprolium PO 1 ml/day Piglets 5-14 days old, coccidiosis
Food, water 100 mg/kg q24h
Amoxicillin PO 10 mg/kg q12h
Amoxicillin/clavulanate PO 11-13 mg/kg q24h
Ampicillin IV 4-10 mg/kg Can be used as loading dose
IM 10-20 mg/kg q6-8h
Atropine sulfate injectable IM, IV 0.02-0.07 mg/kg Pre-op, pre-dental exam
Azaperone IM 0.25-0.50 mg/kg (relaxation); 2-8 mg/kg Range of dosages give different effects.
(sedation, ataxia, immobilization); Tranquilizer, give 5-10 min before handling
2.2 mg/kg (calm sows for nursing)
Buprenorphine IM, IV 0.05-0.10 mg/kg q8-12h Analgesic
Butorphanol SC, IV 0.05-0.20 mg/kg q3-4h Analgesic
IM, IV 0.1-0.3 mg/kg q8-12h Analgesic
Ceftiofur (Naxcel) IM 1.1-2.2 mg/kg q24h x 7d; Rhinitis
3-10 mg/kg q24h
Ceftriaxone IM 50-75 mg/kg q24h
Cephalexin PO 20 mg/kg PO q12h
Cephradine PO 24-50 mg/kg q12h
Chlorpromazine IM 0.5-4.0 mg/kg Antiemetic
IV 0.55-3.3 mg/kg Antiemetic
Cimetidine PO 150-300 mg q12h Gastric ulcers
Dantrolene sodium PO, IV 2-5 mg/kg q8h Malignant hyperthermia
Dexamethasone IV 1-2 mg/kg Shock
Dextrose 5% in water IP 17-22 ml/kg Piglets, weak, hypoglycemic
Diazepam SC 0.22 mg/kg Tranquilizer, pre-op
Detomidine + butorphanol IM D: 0.125 mg/kg, B: 0.3 mg/kg,, M: 0.3 Anesthesia; reverse with naloxone and yohimbine;
+ midazolam + atropine mg/kg, A: 0.06 mg/kg combination BB Can also reverse with flumazenil if needed

Ketamine + diazepam IM 1-2 mg/kg diaz then 12-20 mg/kg ket Short-term anesthesia, can prolong with IV addi-
tional ketamine as needed 2-4 mg/kg
7 mg/kg ket + 0.5 mg/kg diaz Sedation
Ketamine + xylazine IV 1-2 mg/kg ket + 0.5 mg/kg xyla Tranquilization
2 mg/kg ket + 2 mg/kg xyla Sedation
IM 5-20 mg/kg ket + 1-2 mg/kg xyla Anesthesic
Give 2.2 mg/kg xyla, then 12-20 mg/kg ket Short-term anesthesic; Can prolong with addition-
al ketamine as needed 2-4 mg/kg IV
IV 1.5 mg/kg ket + 0.75 mg/kg xyla Sedation for C-section; Use local anesthetic at inci-
sion, inhalation isoflurane for closure
Ketamine + xylazine + IM 11 mg/kg ket + 2 mg/kg xyla + 0.22 mg/kg Anesthesic
butorphanol butor
Lactated Ringer’s solution IV, IP 17-22 ml/kg Fluid therapy (IP in piglets if vein cannot be used)
Levamisole PO, SC 7.5-8 mg/kg Ascarids, lungworms
Lincomycin IM 11 mg/kg q24h Antibiotic
Meperidine IM 2-10 mg/kg q4h Analgesic
Metoclopramide IV, IM, PO 0.2-0.5 mg/kg q6-8h Anti-emetic
Metronidazole PO 66 mg/kg q24h
Midazolam IM 0.1-0.5 mg/kg Sedation
Mineral oil PO 25-300 ml Lubricant laxative
Morphine IM 0.2 mg/kg q4h Analgesic; max dose not more than 20 mg total
Mylanta PO Dose per bottle, like human Symptomatic, gastroenteritis
Naloxone IV 4 mg total dose Narcotic reversal
Neomycin PO 7-12 mg/kg q12h; 10 mg/kg q6h
Orbifloxacin IM 2.5-5 mg/kg q24h
Oxymorphone IM 0.15 mg/kg Analgesic
Oxytetracycline IM, IV 6-11 mg/kg
PO 10-20 mg/kg q6h
PO 100 mg/pig on day 1, then 200 mg q7d x 3 tx Rhinitis
Oxytocin IM 10-20 IU/sow Dystocia, if not obstructed
Penicillin G, procaine IM 22,000-45,000 IU/kg q24h

Penicillin G, procaine/ IM 40,000 IU/kg q3d Per label
benzathine combination
Phenylbutazone PO 4-8 mg/kg q12h Analgesic, NSAIDs
Piperazine PO 200 mg/kg
Prednisolone injectable IM 0.5-2.0 mg/kg For pruritis as in dogs/cats; allergic reactions
Prostaglandin F2a IM 5 mg/sow Induce parturition in 24-30 hr when within 3 days
of expected parturition. Will cause abortion after
12 days of gestation
Pyrantel PO 6.6 mg/kg, repeat in 2-3 wk Ascarids
Ranitidine PO 150 mg/pig q12h Gastric ulcers
Spectinomycin PO 10 mg/kg q12h
Sulfadimethoxine PO 25 mg/kg Coccidiosis
Sulfaquinoxaline PO 0.0125-0.025% (in drinking water) Coccidiosis
Tetanus antitoxin IM 50 IU/23-70 kg pig Prophylactic if contaminated wound
Thiabendazole PO 50-75 mg/kg Ascarids
Thiopental IP 24-30 mg/kg Anesthetic
IV 5-19 mg/kg Anesthetic
Tiletamine (Telazol)/zolazepam IM 4-6 mg/kg Sedation, immobilization, anesthetic
Tiletamine/zolazepam + IV 2 mg/kg + 2 mg/kg xyla Rapid induction
xylazine IM 6 mg/kg + 2.2 mg/kg xyla Anesthetic
2.2 mg/kg xyla then 2-4 mg/kg telazol Anesthetic
Trimethoprim/sulfa (Tribrissen IM, SC 1 ml/9 kg q12h; 5 mg/kg IM q24h
24% injectable)
Trimethoprim/sulfa PO 0.07-0.14 ml/kg; 25-50 mg/kg q24h
(Sulfatrim oral suspension)
Tylosin IM 8.8 mg/kg q12h not to exceed 3 d; Large animal formulation
2-10 mg/kg q24h
Vitamins A, D, E IM 0.25 ml/4.5 kg Large animal formulation
Vitamin E PO 100-200 IU/day/adult pig
Xylazine IM 1-4 mg/kg Sedative, immobilization, analgesic
Yohimbine IV 0.125-0.3 mg/kg Xylazine reversal
Deer Deer
(Cervidae Family)
Common Deer Species in Captivity

ative deer (44 species) are distributed among all the
N
continents except Antarctica and Australia (introduced).
Deer comprise the family Cervidae and are members of the
order Artiodactyla, the even-toed ruminants.
Indian muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak)
Reeve’s muntjac or Chinese muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi)
Leaf muntjac (Muntiacus putaoensis)
Red (Cervus elaphus)
vital statistics Wapiti (elk [United States]) (Cervus canadensis)
Parameter Reeve’s Fallow Red White-tailed Axis Axis (chital or spotted) (Axis axis)
Muntjac
Fallow (Dama dama)
Life span (years) 19 12-16 15-20 10-20 18-22
Adult weight 22-40 lb 88- 220 lb 132-396 lb 132-330 lb 88-242 lb Chinese water (Hydropotes inermis)
(10-18 kg) (40-100 kg) (60-180 kg) (60-150 kg) (40-110 kg) White-tailed (Odocoileus virginianus)
Heart rate 60 (avg) 55-70 70-80 70-80 95-141 Mule (Odocoileus hemionus)
(beats/min)
Northern pudu (Pudu mephistophiles)
Respiratory rate 48-60 30-45 13-27 16-20 28-60
(breaths/min) Roe (Capreolus capreolus)
Reindeer (caribou) (Rangifer tarandus)
Rectal 98.6-109.4°F 98.6-104°F 98.6-104°F 95-105.8°F 95-105.8°F
temperature† (37-43°C) (37-40°C) (38-40°C) (35-41°C) (39.9°C) Moose (elk [Europe]) (Alces alces)
Age at puberty 12 12-24 12-24 12-24 <12
(months) L aws and Permits

The presence of deer in a municipality may be restricted.
Estrous cycle 14-21 21-23 18-20 25-30 27-30
(days)
City, state and federal agencies may have regulations
Gestation (days) 210 225-234 223-238 210 229 regarding the acquisition, care and transport of deer.
Number of Usually 1 1 1- 2 1-3 Usually 1 Testing requirements for diseases may differ; contact the
offspring state regarding interstate and intrastate regulations.
†Temperatures exceeding 40°C are usually associated with hyperthermia. In general all attempts
should be made to keep the rectal temperature in the lower ranges given.
Deer Chinese water deer have specialized canine

teeth that are used for self-defense.
BEHAVIOR
Deer are social animals. Female deer (does or hinds) and
fawns (neonates and juveniles) are frequently found in
groups, and it is not unusual for male deer (bucks or
stags) to run together during the non-breeding season.
Hand-raised cervids accept humans as “part of the herd.”
Bottle-fed deer are very affectionate with their owners.
This may result in dangerous situations once the animals
mature, particularly with bucks during rut.
Even females and castrated males have been known to
attack their owners with little or no provocation.
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Deer commonly bite and head butt their conspecifics as
part of their social interaction, and they are not afraid to
include other species (humans, livestock) if provoked.
Bucks and female reindeer have antlers and/or canine
tusks, while females of other species and non-antlered
Deer often groom one another like this male and female Reeve’s muntjac.
(post-shed or castrated) males will strike with their
forefeet, while supporting their weight on their rear limbs.
Mehmet Karatay-Creative Commons-Share Alike License

Usually, sexual segregation occurs, and hierarchy revolves
around size or age. Males out-rank females.
All deer have well-developed scent glands located
craniomedial to the eyes and between the toes.
Alarm barking occurs when a threat is perceived.
Housing and Management

Free-ranging deer live in variety of environments, including
deserts, mountains, grasslands, forests and tundra.
The natural environment should be mimicked in captivity to
reduce the stress and subsequently the risk of disease.
Deer coexist readily with other non-predatory animals
(horses, donkeys, pigs, barnyard fowl).
An enclosure for white-tailed deer includes a high chainlink fence to prevent escape. Deer

Deer should be tested for parasites, tuberculosis and
brucellosis before adding them to a multi-species habitat.
Guidelines for enclosure size from the Minimum Standards
Sage Ross - GNU Free Documentation License
for Wildlife Rehabilitation: 1-2 neonatal fawns may be
housed in an area 4 x 4 x 4 ft (1.2 x 1.2 x 1.2 m); older
but pre-weaned fawns (n = 4): 10 x 15 x 6 ft (3 x 4.5 x
1.8 m); and juvenile and adult deer (n = 6): 30 x 50 x 6 ft
(9.1 x 15.2 x 1.8 m).
Deer are capable of jumping great heights; an average-
sized deer is capable of clearing a 7-ft (2.1-m) fence. In
general, it is best to have a fence height of 10-12 ft (3-3.6
m) to prevent escape and discourage most predators.
Chainlink is probably the most common fence material
used. High tensile wire and electric fencing are alternatives.
Close spacing of the stay wires prevents entanglement and
injury.
A visual barrier, such as shade cloth attached to the fence,
will help prevent a deer’s attempt to go through the fence.
Nontoxic thorny bushes that grow well on fences can serve
as attractive biological barriers.
Double barriers will prevent close contact with free-ranging
deer, thus reducing the potential spread diseases.
Cement footers or recessed rebar may be used to prevent
GNU Free Documentation License
a digging predator from getting under the fence.

Specialized rollers that are attached to the top of the fence
or electric wires placed at multiple levels, prevent predators
and humans from climbing over.
Most pastures used for deer are either grass or dirt lots.
Ample shade should be available.
Deer should be provided with “hide” areas (sheds, barns,
bushes, trees).
Deer A deer’s body weight should be checked regularly.

The muntjac shown and inset is too thin.
DIET
eer may be offered food once to twice daily based on
D
their physiological needs and weight.
Deer ruminate. Chewing and re-chewing their cud
facilitates digestion and maintenance of a healthy pH in
the gut by continually mixing bicarbonate-rich saliva with
the food.
The types and quantities of foods consumed reflect the
free-ranging environment as well as seasonality, sex and
reproductive status.
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Deer are generally categorized into 3 groups of feeders:
concentrate, bulk and intermediate feeders.
Concentrate feeders are typically small animals with a long,
face and narrow incisor arcade. The rumen is small, and
the other 3 chambers are not well-defined. Therefore, they
rely on highly digestible, low-fiber plants. Dusty conditions in hay indicate mold. Hay should also be examined for baling
Examples of concentrate feeders are Chinese water deer, string, wires and insects, such as the blister beetle.
muntjacs, roe, mule and white-tailed deer.
Concentrate feeders may be offered good quality alfalfa
hay, which should be very leafy.
Often, they are housed on a grass lot or pasture and eat
the young shoots from the grass or the grass heads when
in seed. They also enjoy fruits, vegetables and browse.
Deer have larger livers and salivary glands compared with
most ruminants, which enable them to detoxify plants
better; however, it is probably best to consider them relative
to horses when considering supplementation with browse.
Small alfalfa-based mini-pellets or browser-specific pellets
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may also be offered. One should be careful if feeding
pellets with grain or molasses, as even the concentrate
feeders can die from rumenitis, which is a condition
Muntjacs enjoy leaves, flowers and branches from nontoxic trees and bushes. Deer
associated with a change in microflora and pH of the

gastrointestinal tract. This can happen if the animal
consumes greater than 1-2% of its body weight in
concentrates within a short time period.
Bulk feeders (e.g., fallow deer) have a large forestomach
with advanced chamber development similar to domestic
cattle, enabling them to subsist on poor-quality, high-fiber
roughage. They may be offered good quality grass hay,
such as Bermuda or Timothy.
Most deer maintained in captivity fit in the intermediate
feeding category. These deer are opportunistic feeders.
They have the ability to derive energy from both concen
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trates and grasses. Reindeer, red, axis and wapiti are

intermediate feeders. They are offered a combination of
grass and alfalfa hay, alfalfa or Bermuda pellets, browse
This axis deer stag is shedding velvet. and a small amount of fruit and vegetables for enrichment
(1 handful per head/day, which may be increased as long
as the stool remains normal).
feeding disorders
oncentrate feeders will do poorly on a grass-based diet,
C
resulting in starvation, stomach impaction and increased
susceptibility to disease due to malnutrition.
Bulk and intermediate feeders may suffer the same fate if
fed diets designed for concentrate feeders. There is also an
increased risk of clostridial-associated diarrheas and rumen
overload (rumenitis/bloat).
Overfeeding deer may lead to lameness, dystocia, bloat,
inability to tolerate heat and other metabolic disorders.
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Deer normally increase their body weight during the spring

and summer for breeding.
Deer Blood collection from the jugular vein in the deepened

jugular furrows located laterally to the trachea.
upplementation of hay or pasture is dependent on the
S
quality of roughage available, season and physical state of
the animals.
A good rule of thumb for the amount of hay to feed is
approximately ¼ flake per animal.
The clinician should examine the hay and pellets that their
client is feeding and make recommendations regarding
proper storage to prevent mold and pest infestation. Hay
should be dry and smell fresh. The pellet size should be
appropriate for the animals’ mouth size. Choke can develop
rapidly and ultimately be fatal if the pellets are too large.
Clean water should be provided as well as a balanced salt
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mix or block commonly used for domestic hoof stock.
If deer are raised on pasture or given forage that is
deficient in copper, they may be supplemented with 100
mg/adult animal/day of copper sulfate or 0.09 mg/kg/day of
Blood collection may be obtained from the lateral saphenous vein (arrow).
copper gluconate.
Vitamin E (200 IU/kg of dry matter fed/day) supplementa
tion is recommended to prevent capture myopathy.
Blood Collection

Blood may be collected from the jugular, cephalic, lateral
and medial saphenous veins (proximal to hock joint).
The animal may need to be sedated or anesthetized
depending on its demeanor.
The veins are easy to observe with minimal pressure, but
the use of topically applied isopropyl alcohol or shaving
may be required.
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Catheterization
Catheterization may be accomplished at the same sites as
blood collection with 16-22 gauge catheters, depending on
The cervical area is suited to intramuscular injections and TB testing sites. Deer
the size of the animal and circumstance.

If the animal is hospitalized and a catheter is required for
any length of time, placing a jugular catheter used for large
animals with appropriate extension sets would be best.
Fluids and medications may be administered in the same
sites recommended for domestic mammals.
Restraint /
general Chemical Immobilization

Deer do not like to be manually restrained.
They have a high flight drive when frightened, which
prevents performing physical examinations and procedures
that are routine in other species.
Trying to overpower even a small deer will typically result in
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severe injury to both the deer and the handler.

If a pet deer has been conditioned and responds to
positive reinforcement with food or grooming, it is possible
Shown is the placement of a dilute lidocaine/mar- to administer injections, perform venipuncture and treat
caine mixture surrounding a skin laceration, which superficial wounds without physically confining the animal.
will reduce the pain for several hours after the The use of nets and bags are not recommended because
reversal of the general anesthetic. deer typically respond by thrashing violently.
Most pet deer owners do not have chutes; therefore,
chemical immobilization is employed.
Anesthesia on exotic ruminants carries increased risk of
morbidity and mortality.
It is highly advisable to gain experience by working with or
observing experienced veterinarians, zoo staff or wildlife
agents if possible. Familiarity with the most common
anesthetics and remote delivery systems (pressurized gas-
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powered rifles, pistols, blow pipes and darts) is

imperative.
Deer “Lumpy jaw” in a stag
efore initiating any procedure, the veterinarian should

B
discuss the risks of anesthesia and consider having signed
release documentation by the owner.
The owner should be advised to administer vitamin E orally
(200 IU/kg of dry matter fed/day) 1 week prior to any
elective procedure. Vitamin E aids in the prevention of
capture myopathy.
Proper monitoring (i.e., temperature, pulse, respiration,
blood pressure, pulse oximetry) is the key to prevention of
complications.
Capture myopathy and hyperthermia are two of the most
Casie Phillips
common complications observed in pet deer. They are
usually observed together and result from overexertion or
chasing/intense muscular exertion (restraint), anesthetic
use, elevated environmental temperature (greater than
80ºF [26.7°C]) and humidity, fear and hypovitaminosis E. This male axis deer has a walled off abdominal hernia as a
For a complete information about chemical immobilization result of antler penetration from sparring with another stag.
with the use of darts, including chemical restraint agents
and dosages, see Exotic DVM Volume 12.2.

apture myopathy
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Neonatal diarrhea
Limb and antler fractures
Trauma to the jaw
Dental abscesses
Lumpy jaw
Bloat
Rumen acidosis
Casie Phillips
Malnutrition
Male Reeve’s muntjac deer Deer
vergrown hooves
O
Copper deficiency
Hematomas, abscesses or hernias associated with trauma
caused by antlers
GNU Free Documentation License-Margo

Head and neck trauma
Common Infectious Diseases

acterial diseases: brucellosis, yersiniosis, pasteurellosis,
B
leptospirosis, Clostridial spp. colibacillosis,
campylobacteriois, mycobacteriosis, paratuberculosis
(Johne’s disease), listeriosis, salmonellosis,
Fusobacterium necrophorum
Prion: chronic wasting disease
Parasites: lungworm, liver flukes, gastrointestinal nemato
diasis, nasal bots, babesiosis
Viral diseases: rabies, bovine viral diarrhea, malignant
Female Reeve’s muntjac deer catarrhal fever, epizootic hemorrhagic disease, deer
herpesvirus, foot and mouth disease
Guidelines for Vaccination Programs

ay use vaccines approved for domestic animals
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(although considered extra-label).
Use only inactivated viral vaccines or bacterins to avoid
potential virulence in an exotic species.
Only healthy animals should be vaccinated.
When using remote delivery systems, such as darts, the
veterinarian should keep in mind that the full dose may
not have been delivered due to operator or equipment
failure (failure to impact, hitting a bone, rapid rebound of
Casie Phillips
the dart).
For rabies, use only killed vaccine (Imrab 3®) - same
Deer Male white-tailed deer

dose and frequency as sheep.
For tetanus, use dose and frequency as for sheep and
goats.
Clostridium perfringens (types B, C, and D) - commonly
included with tetanus vaccine. Other Clostridium spp. are
found in polyvalent bacterins (e.g., Covexin 8®) and are
used in endemic regions.
Some veterinarians vaccinate against bovine viral diarrhea
and shipping fever depending on risk: doses are extra
polated from bovine recommendations.
USDA - Scott Bauer

Currently there are no efficacious vaccines against
malignant catarrhal fever, epizootic hemorrhagic disease
or bluetongue.

ed. Saunders/Elsevier, 2008.
2. International Species Information System (ISIS). Female white-tailed deer
3. Haigh JC, Hudson RJ: Farming Wapiti and Red Deer. Mosby, 1993.
4. Huston JE: Nutrient Requirements of Small Ruminants: Sheep,
Goats, Cervids, and New World Camelids. The National
Academies Press, 2007.
5. Jensen JM: Preventative medicine for ranched hoofstock. In
Fowler ME, Miller RE (eds): Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine
Current Therapy 4. WB Saunders Co, 1999.
6. Kreeger TJ: Handbook of Wildlife Chemical Immobilization.
International Wildlife Veterinary Service, Inc., 1997.
7. Putman R: The Natural History of Deer. Comstock Publishing
Associates, 1988.
8. Van Soest PJ: Nutritional Ecology of the Ruminant 2nd ed.
Cornell University, 1994.
9. West G, Heard D, Caulkett N: Zoo Animal and Wildlife:
Immobilization and Anesthesia. Wiley, 2008.
10. Ebedes H, Raath JP: Use of tranquilizers in wild herbivores. In
Ken Thomas
Fowler ME, Miller RE (eds): Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, Current
Therapy 4. WB Saunders Co, 1999, pp 575-585.
11. Jalanka, HH: The use of medetomidine, medetomidine-ketamine
Male fallow deer Deer
combinations and atipamezole at Helsinki zoo: A review of 240

cases. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 85:193-197, 1989.
12. Miller BF, Muller, Doherty T, et al: Effectiveness of antagonists for
tiletamine-zolazepam/xylazine immobilization in female white-
Johann Nikolaus Creative Commons-Share Alike

tailed deer. J Wildl Dis 40(3):533-537, 2004.
13. Siegal-Willott J, Citino SB, Wade S, et al: Butorphanol, azaper-
one, and medetomidine anesthesia in free-ranging white-tailed
deer (Odocoileus virginianus) using radiotransmitter darts. J Wildl
Dis 45(2):468-480, 2009.
14. Plumb DC: Veterinary Drug Handbook 4th ed. Iowa State Press,
2002.
15. United States Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife
Service, www.fws.gov
16. United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health
Service, www.aphis.usda.gov,
www.cwd-info.org/index.php/fuseaction/policy.regulationsMap
17. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia,
www.en.wikipedia.org/Deer
18. Journal of Wildlife Diseases, www.wildlife.org
19. Safe-Capture International Inc., www.safecapture.com
20. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine,
http://jzwm.allentrack.net
21. American Association of Zoo Veterinarians,
Female fallow deer www.aazv.org
22. American Association of Wildlife Veterinarians,
www.aawv.net
23. National Wildlife Rehabilitators Association,
www.nwrawildlife.org
24. American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty
to Animals, www.aspca.org/pet-care/poison-control/plants
25. Centers for Disease Control, www.cdc.gov
26. University of Wisconsin, School of Veterinary Medicine - Johne’s
Information Center, www.johnes.org
27. Irish Wildlife Matters, www.irishwildlifematters.com
28. Chronic Wasting Disease Alliance,
www.cwd-info.org
29. Agricultural Extension Service
(check telephone directory for listing)*
30. State Game and Fish Department*
Adrian Pingstone
31. State Veterinarian*

32. State Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory*
*Check online for specific state

Genet Genet
(Genetta spp.)
Pet Care Dawn Zimmerman, DVM, MS
SUBSPECIES
Family Viverridae, Subfamily Viverrinae, Genus Genetta,
3 subgenera, up to 17 recognized species.
The common, small-spotted or European genet (G.
genetta) and the large-spotted, blotched, caped or South
African genet (G. tigrina) are the most common species.
origin / FREE-RANGING HABITAT

enetta is an Old World genus, inhabiting most of Africa
G
and western Europe.
Genets inhabit forests, savannahs and grasslands with a
maximum average home range of 3 square miles (7.8 km2).
Physical Characteristics
Adrienne Saunders
enets are long-bodied, short-legged carnivores with

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pointed snouts and large rounded ears.
They have a dense hair coat of variable coloration (gray to
yellow with rows of brown or black spots) and a very long
banded tail. Melanistic individuals are not uncommon.
A pointed snout and large rounded ears are typical of a large-spotted genet Genets have a prominent dorsal crest of hair that they can
(Genetta tigrina). erect when frightened.
vital statistics They have 2 pair of mammae and 40 teeth (I 3/3, C 1/1,
Life span 12-20 years in captivity PM 4/4, M 2/2).
Adult size They have 5 digits on both front and hind feet with well-
Length Head and body: furred soles and partially retractable claws.
16.5-23.0 in (42-58 cm)
Tail: 15-21 in (39-53 cm) Generally, vital statistics, including hematology and serum
Weight 2.2-6.6 lb (1-3 kg) chemistry values, fall within normal mammalian limits.
Genets Shown is a large-spotted genet with a long lean

body, spotted hair coat and long banded tail.
SEXING and reproduction
enets have easily recognizable mammalian sex organs;
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males have a baculum.
Sexual maturity occurs at 2 years of age.
Breeding is year round and gestation ranges from 56-77
days, depending on species.
Two litters are produced per year in captivity, generally April-
May and July-August.
Litter size is 1-5 young, but usually 2-3.
Behavior
enets are primarily nocturnal and spend days in hollow
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Angela Price
trees, on large branches, in rock crevices or in burrows.
They are both terrestrial and arboreal, being very agile
climbers.
They are usually solitary but may travel in pairs; females
Shown is a small-spotted genet (Genetta genetta).
Guérin Nicolas - Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike 3.0

are thought to be territorial while males are not.
Genets are excellent stealth hunters with acute vision,
hearing and olfaction. They scent mark when frightened
and to mark territory.
Behavioral problems in captivity may be observed if genets
are confined to small cages and are manifested by pacing,
self-mutilation, regurgitation and excessive scent marking.
Genets tend to bond to only one person, and as such are
not considered good social or education animals.
Genets may be litter-box trained.
Captive Housing
enets should be housed singly or in a single hetero
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sexual pair, as aggression is observed in larger groups.
License
Minimum cage size is 40 ft2 (3.7 m2) of floor space for 1
Example of a nest box for housing of a captive genet. Note the Genets
use of artificial foliage, which some report genets will ingest.
animal and 64 ft2 m2)
(6 for 2 animals, with a minimum
height of 7 ft (2.1 m).
Enclosures should include a nest box, such as an open-
topped box lined with straw, in a sheltered corner or a
recess, such as a pipe or hollow log.
One box or recess per adult is required, but each should
be large enough for 2 adults to enter.
Elevated sleeping platforms and climbing branches should
be provided.
It is important to note that genets are able to enter or exit
any area they can get their head through. In addition,
genets are agile climbers, and escape-proof cages must
Angela Price
have non-climbable walls or a ceiling.

Spot cleaning is recommended; complete cage disinfection
daily may cause undue stress, as genets will scent mark
their area daily. The substrate of the enclosure should be
cleaned but not the “furniture” (e.g., rocks, trees).
Genets housed in the home have similar requirements to
that of the domestic cat.
The use of artificial (silk) leaves and foliage should be
avoided to prevent ingestion.
Examples of environmental enrichment used to encourage
hunting behavior and stimulate senses include:
• live crickets placed in a hamster ball or paper bag
• live cave roaches, hissing roaches or mealworms
placed within the enclosure
• banana pieces spread on branches
• various scents or spices (e.g., cinnamon, allspice)
sprinkled on substrate, rocks and logs
• chicks or mice as supplement to diet
• bells, mirrors and various other bird toys.
Genets Crickets placed around the enclosure and within a plastic ball,
an example of environmental enrichment for a captive genet.
ENVIRONMENTAL TEMPERATURE / humidity
T emperature should be between 68-78°F (20-25°C).
If housed outdoors, shelter and shade must be provided
for summer months, and heated quarters provided when
temperatures are low.
Humidity recommendations depend on the species. A
wide humidity range is tolerated, desert species prefer
~30% humidity, while aquatic species prefer ~60%.
Diet
enets are classified as carnivores but are actually more
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omnivorous in the wild. The diet varies according to
availability and typically includes rodents, birds/eggs,
reptiles, amphibians, insects and fruits.
In captivity, diets should consist of ground meat supple
mented with vitamins and minerals (e.g., Nebraska
canine diet), fruits (bananas, apples, grapes), vegetables
and occasional whole animals (mice), eggs and insects.
Commercially available feline diets may be used as the
diet base, as it is assumed that the nutritional require
ments of genets are similar to those of domestic cats.
enets are nearly impossible to manually restrain. If it is
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necessary to use physical restraint over chemical restraint,
leather gloves are recommended.
For anesthesia, chamber induction with isoflurane is ideal.
Adrienne Saunders
Alternatively, a combination of ketamine (7 mg/kg) and
xylazine (10 mg/kg) IM appears to be safe and effective
for immobilization.
Other anesthetic combinations may be just as effective:
Small-spotted genet (Genetta genetta) Genets
ketamine at 10 mg/kg with xylazine at 2 mg/kg IM.
Most Common Disorders

GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 ost medical problems of domestic canids and felids apply
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to genets.
Infectious diseases reported include canine distemper,
feline panleukopenia and rabies. In Africa, genets are
thought to be a wildlife reservoir for the rabies virus.
Other diseases reported in wild genets include bovine
tuberculosis, lymphocytic choriomeningitis associated with
the ingestion of rodents and ebola hemorrhagic fever.
Parasitic diseases in genets are similar to other domestic
carnivores and include roundworms, Physaloptera, Oxyuris,
Dirofilaria repens, tapeworms, hookworms, whipworms,
fleas, ticks and mites. Control and treatment is as used for
domestic dogs and cats.
Small-spotted genet in a nest box. Bite wounds and lacerations are common as a result of
conspecific aggression when genets are housed in groups.
VACCINES
enets are susceptible to feline panleukopenia and canine
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GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2
distemper; vaccination is warranted at 8 weeks of age

(series of 3 vaccines at 3-4 week intervals, booster yearly).
For canine distemper virus, vaccination with an avian cell
modified live vaccine is recommended (Merial Purevax™
Ferret Distemper).
In areas where rabies, canine leptospirosis and canine
hepatitis are of concern, vaccination should be considered.
Zoonotic Potential
T here are no known reports of zoonotic disease trans
mission from captive genets; however, possible diseases
Genets
acquired from genets include rabies, and the animals may

serve as hosts for toxoplasmosis, Toxocara canis larval
migrans, Trichinella, Angiostrongylus and leishmaniasis.
enets are subject to state legal restrictions, which may
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include specific housing mandates.
They are easily startled, exhibit a strong musk odor when
scent marking and are agile climbers.
References and Further Reading

1. A nderson RC: Nematode Parasites of Vertebrates: Their Develop
ment and Transmission, 2nd ed. CABI Publishing, New York, 2000.
2. Carnio J: American Zoo and Aquarium Association Mammal
Standards Task Force. Minimum Husbandry Guidelines: Viverrids
and Mongooses, 1997.
3. Dupouy-Camet J, Murrell KD (eds): FAO/WHO/OIE Guidelines for
the Surveillance, Management, Prevention, and Control of
Trichinellosis, 2007.
4. Lundrigan B, Conley M: “Genetta genetta” (On-line, 2000),
Animal Diversity Web. http:animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/
accounts/information/Genetta_genetta.html
5. Morand S, Krasnov BR, Poulin R: Micromammals and Macro
parasites from Evolutionary Ecology to Management. Springer,
Japan, 2006.
6. Nowak RM: Walker’s Mammals of the World, Volume I 6th ed.
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.
7. Palomares F: Immobilization of common genets, Genetta genetta,
with a combination of ketamine and xylazine. J Wildl Dis
29(1):174-176, 1993.
8. Rettig T, Divers BJ: Viverridae. In Fowler ME (ed): Zoo & Wild
Animal Medicine, 2nd ed. WB Saunders Co, Philadelphia, 1986.
9. Sobrino R, Cabezón O, Millán J, et al: Seroprevalence of
Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in wild carnivores from Spain. Vet
Parasit 148:187-192, 2007.
10. Sobrino R, Ferroglio E, Oleaga A, et al: Characterization of wide-
spread canine leishmaniasis among wild carnivores from Spain.
Vet Parasit 155(3-4):198-203, 2008.
11. Wallach JD, Boever WJ: Diseases of Exotic Animals: Medical and
Surgical Management. WB Saunders Co, 1983.
Capybara Capybara
(Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris)
Pet Care André Becker Saidenberg, DVM, MS, PhD candidate

Capybaras are native to South America.
Capybaras reside in areas from rainforests to flooded
Embreus, Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported
savannahs, where there is access to a constant source of

standing water, as they are semi-aquatic in nature.
Capybaras are the largest rodents.
The coat is coarse and thin, with reddish brown coloration
over the body and turning yellowish brown on the belly.
Capybaras have no tail.
Their back legs are taller than the front. Four digits are pre
sent on the forelegs and 3 on the rear legs, with connect
ing skin between them as an adaptation for swimming.
Capybaras have an extremely efficient digestive system.
The caecum is exceptionally well-developed where active
fermentation occurs, producing volatile fatty acids.

license
T here is no obvious sexual dimorphism (a pouch of

cutaneous skin folds covers the genitals).
Males have a larger sebaceous scent gland that forms a
bump between the eyes and nose and is used to mark
vital statistics
Life span 10-12 years in captivity
territory. It is more visible in males after the first year of
Adult size age. Dominant females may also have a prominent gland.
Length 3.3-5.0 ft (1.0-1.5 m) Males do not have a scrotum, and testicles are adhered to
Weight 110-198 lb (50-90 kg) the abdomen.
Capybaras Wild groups of capybaras in Brazil often become habituated to human presence.
emales have spontaneous ovulation and are continuously

F
polyestrus.
Females reach sexual maturity at about 10-12 months and
males at 15-24 months.
Copulation occurs in the water.
Gestation lasts 5 months with an average birth of 4 young.
Two births per year are possible because the female is able
Associacao Bichos da Mata NGO

to enter estrus and become pregnant while still nursing.
Youngsters are nursed by all lactating females for a
minimum of 5 weeks besides eating solid food on their own
or by regurgitation from adults.
Behavior
Capybaras are semi-aquatic herbivores.
They are gregarious; family groups usually consist of 3-4
males (1 dominant male) and 6 females, but numbers
may reach up to 50 members or more.
Young capybaras nursing from their mother.
Aggression against individuals not belonging to the family
group is frequent and may have serious results.
Grazing occurs during the early hours of the day and again
in late afternoon until dusk.
Fidel León Darder - GNU Free Documentation

They usually swim, bathe, play and rest in the water
during the warmer hours of the day.
Capybaras regurgitate their food and masticate it before
swallowing it a second time.
They exhibit coprophagic behavior.
License, Version 1.2

Captive Housing
Capybaras must have access to water in a pond to avoid
overheating; suggested size is 107 ft2 (10 m2) with 1.6 ft
(0.5 m) depth. Mud is important to prevent sunburn.
Capybaras usually stay in family groups of Capybaras

10-30 animals, like this group at Zoo Prague.
or a group of 5 individuals, an enclosure of at least 1076
F
Packa - Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike 3.0 License

ft2 (100 m2) with soft substrate or grass is necessary.
An area with trees or a small open corral provides shade
and protection from the weather.
In colder climates, a heated indoor enclosure of 215-323
ft2 (20-30 m2) must be provided to maintain a minimum
temperature of 54°F (12°C).
A system to renovate the water pond is important to
maintain its quality and prevent diseases, as capybaras
frequently defecate in the water.
It is extremely important to house capybaras in groups
because they have a well developed social order.
An opportunity for foraging inside and outside the water
should be provided, as well as a water supply in which
they can rest during the heat of the day.
Natural branches are important for wearing down the
continuously growing teeth.
Capybaras are excellent swimmers
and have partially webbed feet. Diet
Captive adults consume 6.6-8.8 lb (3-4 kg) of food a day
consisting of grasses, aquatic plants, fresh vegetables

and a commercial pelleted diet rich in vitamin C for large
rodents. This could be supplemented with small quantities
of corn, sugar cane, pumpkin and rice.
RESTRAINT
separate confinement area within the enclosure is useful
A
to prevent capybaras from seeking shelter in the water
during capture attempts.
Snares or nets might be used for capture, taking care not
to cause additional stress that would lead to traumatic
Capybaras must have access to water at all times.
Packa - Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike 3.0 License

Capybaras
injury. Following capture, juvenile animals may be

transferred to a strong fabric bag; adults require a squeeze
cage or injectable anesthetic agent for longer procedures.
Covering the eyes with a piece of cloth helps reduce stress.
Capybaras may bite.
ANESTHESIA
Injectable anesthetics are the preferred drugs (delivered by
blow gun or following physical restraint).
A combination of alpha 2 adrenergic agonists with atropine
and tiletamine hydrochloride + zolazepam (Telazol®) in
varying doses provides surgical anesthesia (employ
allometric scaling).10
Ketamine hydrochloride combined only with xylazine was
reported to cause death in individuals presenting hyper
thermia.2
Most Common Disorders Foraging opportunities should be provided for capybaras.

Intraspecific aggression
Infanticide among unfamiliar females
Trauma (inappropriate restraining methods, concrete
substrate leading to pododermatitis)
Malocclusion
Scurvy

Bacterial infectious diseases (microflora imbalance/
opportunistic diseases: Staphylococcus sp., Streptococcus
sp., Corynebacterium sp., Escherichia coli)
Other bacterial infections (Pasteurella spp.)
Fungal diseases (dermatomycoses - Trychophyton spp. and
Microsporum spp.)
Viruses (coronavirus, causing diarrhea)
Hemoparasites (Trypanosoma evansi)
When not swimming, the capybaras
Kulmalukko - Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License

Capybaras
like to just lie in the sun and rest.
ndoparasites (nematodes, trematodes, cestodes, Coccidia
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- the latter is of special importance in young animals,
causing hepatic coccidiosis and conjunctivitis)
Ectoparasites (Sarcoptes scabiei, fleas, lice, ticks - mainly
Amblyomma spp.)
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
L eptospira spp.
Brucella spp.
Salmonella spp.
Campylobacter jejuni
Rickettsia rickettsii (Brazilian spotted fever)
apybaras excrete two different types of feces: one consists
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of hard oval pellets and the other is pasty and clearer in
color. The second type, produced by the caecum, contains
an average of 37% more protein than the first type.
As with other rodents, especially guinea pigs, certain oral
antibiotics should be avoided in order to prevent disrupting
the intestinal microflora. Most practitioners employ
aminoglycosides, sulphonamides, chloramphenicol and
quinolones.
Injectable enrofloxacin is usually the drug of choice for
most bacterial infections, but culture and sensitivity should

be performed when possible and appropriate therapy based
on the results.
Clostridial enterotoxemia has not been described for
capybaras but is possible as with other rodents.
It may be helpful to include probiotics (lactobacillus) during
antibiotic use.
Capybaras

1. Catroxo MHB, Miranda LB, Batalha LM, et al: Determinação mor-
fológica de partículas semelhantes ao Coronavírus associado a um
surto de diarréia em capivara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris). In 8
Reunião Anual do Instituto Biológico de São Paulo, São Paulo/SP/
Brazil, 1995.
2. Cruz ML, Luna SPL, Moura CA, et al: Injectable anesthetic tech-
niques in capybaras (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris). Ciencia Rural
28:411-415, 1998.
3. Cueto GR, Allekotte R, Kravetz FO: Scurvy in capybaras bred in
captivity in Argentine. J Wildl Dis 36(1):97-101. 2000.
4. Franke CR, Greiner M, Lehlitz D: Investigations on naturally occur-
ring Trypanosoma evansi infections in horses, cattle, dogs and
capybaras (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) in Pantanal de Poconé
(Mato Grosso, Brazil). Acta Tropica 58:159-169, 1994.
Arthur Chapman
5. Geser S, Dollinger P: Capybara factsheet. World Association of
Zoos and Aquariums, 2008. <www.waza.org/virtualzoo/factsheet.
php?id=110-020-001-001&view=Rodents%20and%20
Hares&main=virtualzoo>
6. Lord VR, Flores R: Brucella spp. from the capybara (Hydrochoerus
hydrochaeris) in Venezuela: Serologic studies and metabolic char-
acterization of isolates. J Wildl Dis 19:308-314, 1983.
7. Lord-Rexford D: A descriptive account of capybara behaviour.
Studies on Neotropical Fauna & Environ 29(1):11-22, 1994.
8. Marvulo MFV, Paula CD, Ferreira PM, et al: Detection of Leptospira
in two free living populations of capybaras (Hydrochoerus hydro-
chaeris) from São Paulo state, Brazil. Proc 3rd Sci Mtg Intl
Leptospirosis Soc, Barbados. 2002.
9. Mendes A, da Cunha Nogueira SS, Lavorenti A, et al: A note on
the cecotrophy behavior in capybara (Hydrochaeris hypdrochaeris).
Appl Anim Behav Sci 66:161-167, 2000.
10. Pachaly JR, Acco A, Lange RR, et al: Order Rodentia (Rodents). In
Fowler ME, Cubas ZS (eds.): Biology, Medicine and Surgery of

South American Wild Animals. Iowa State University Press, 2001,
pp 225-237.
11. Pacheco RC, Horta MC, Moraes-Filho J, et al: Rickettsial infection
in capybaras (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) from São Paulo, Brazil:
Serological evidence for infection by Rickettsia bellii and Rickettsia
parkeri. Biomédica (Bogotá) 27:364-371, 2007.
12. The Capybara Homepage, Davidson College Biology Department
<www.bio.davidson.edu/people/vecase/Behavior/Spring2002/
Willoughby/willoughby.html>
Bushbaby Bushbaby
(Galago sp.)
Pet Care Dawn Zimmerman, DVM, MS
SUBSPECIES
T axonomy is frequently disputed and revised (about 20-40
species recognized. All are classified as CITES Appendix II.
Order Primates, Suborder Strepsirrhini, Family Galagidae,
3 genera (previous 4th genus Galagoides, the dwarf
galagos, now placed under Galago):
• Otolemur (greater galagos or thick-tailed bushbabies)
• Euoticus (needle-clawed bushbabies)
• Galago (lesser galagos or lesser bushbabies)
One of the most common captive species is
G. senegalensis (lesser, Somali, or Senegal bushbaby/
galago), of which there are 4 subspecies.
Other species that may be seen as pets include thick-
tailed bushbabies (O. garnettii and O. crassicaudatus) and
Angela Price
Demidoff’s or dwarf bushbabies/galagos (G. demidoff).

A northern greater galago (Otolemur garnettii) has ushbabies inhabit most of sub-Saharan Africa; there are
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large eyes and ears and well-developed digits. significant differences in distribution by species.
They are found in a variety of habitats (dense forests,
vital statistics wooded savannahs, dry woodlands, scrub and thicketed
Life span 12-18 years in captivity G. senegalensis: grasslands), which vary widely in climate and ecology.
Adult size varies by species head/body length 5-8 in (13-20 cm)
Otolemur species: weight 2.5-11 oz (70-314 g)
head/body length 9-18 in (23-46 cm) Rectal temperature 37.2-40.2°C
weight 1.3-4.4 lb (0.6-2.0 kg) ushbabies are small, long-tailed primates with large eyes
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Heart rate 165-240 beats per min
Galago species:
Respiratory rate 20-50 breaths per min
and very large, mobile, membranous ears.
head/body length 3-9.5 in (7-24 cm) Their fur is dense and woolly with significant color
weight 1.5-16 oz (44-445 g)
Bushbabies Shown are the woolly haircoat and long tail of a northern greater galago.
variation, usually silver-gray to brown but may also be

white, yellow or black with orange or reddish tints.
Their hindlimbs are longer than their forelimbs and are
quite strong, making them agile leapers.
They have well-developed digits, although their thumbs
are not opposable, with nails on all digits except for P2 of
the hind feet, which has a curved grooming claw,
sometimes called a “toilet claw.”
Bushbabies use different types of locomotion depending on
the species—some moving almost exclusively by hopping
and leaping (up to 2 m vertically) while others (G. demidoff,
O. garnettii) primarily ambulate quadrupedally.
The anatomy and physiology of their respiratory, gastro
intestinal and urogenital systems are similar to those of
humans and domestic dogs.
Their dental formula is: I 2/2, C 1/1, PM 3/3, M 3/3 = 36
teeth, with a mandibular toothcomb comprised of
pectinate lower incisors and canines.

ales have a baculum, and females have 2 pairs of
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mammae.
Bushbabies are generally referred to as polygynous.
Their estrous cycle ranges from 20-44 (avg 32) days, and
estrus lasts 2-7 days. Gestation is 110-146 days,
Angela Price
depending on the species.
Placentation is non-invasive epitheliochorial.
Free-ranging bushbabies reproduce once to twice a year.
Bushbabies give birth to 1-2 babies per litter.
Birth weight is about 5-40 g (0.17-1.4 oz), depending on
the species. Young are born fully furred with their eyes
The well-developed digits on the hind foot of a northern greater galago. Note the Bushbabies
nails on all digits except for P2 which has a curved grooming “toilet claw.”
open, able to cling to branches at just 1 day of age.
The young will ambulate out of the nest on their own and
start catching insects at about 4-6 weeks of age. They are
weaned at around 6-14 (average 10-11) weeks.
Diseases reported in the infant include nutritional (iron
deficiency if hand-raised with improper milk substitute),
bacterial (Salmonella, Shigella, Klebsiella, Escherichia coli)
and fungal ( ) diarrheas. Rickets may be
observed in young bushbabies with vitamin D deficiency.
Behavior
lthough often considered gregarious, bushbabies are
A
Angela Price
actually better described as non-gregarious. Typically, they

are solitary for evening/nighttime activities with morning/
daytime social aggregations, especially at sleeping sites.
These social groups (numbered around 2-10 individuals,
A newborn northern greater galago is fully furred with
depending on the species) consist of closely related
eyes open.
females and their offspring.
Adult males maintain separate territories and may fight
another male for control of its territory. Generally, 1 male
will mate with all females in an area.
Bushbabies may become aggressive as they reach sexual
maturity; this is a significant danger due to their fierce bite
and potential transmission of zoonotic diseases.
Bushbabies are arboreal, found in thick vegetation and
nesting in trees or in hollow logs during the day.
They are nocturnal and have excellent night vision and an
acute sense of hearing.
Vocalizations include a clicking sound to call, a loud cry or
Angela Price
bark for distant communication and territorial encounters

(resembling the cry of a child and therefore the basis for
Bushbabies Branches may be used to encourage the arboreal nature of a captive bushbaby.
the name “bushbaby”) and a high-pitched alarm call.

Olfactory communication includes “urine washing,”
whereby males wash their hands and feet with urine so
that their scent is spread around their territory.
In captivity, the lack of an appropriate social environment
coupled with a lack of environmental stimulation can lead
to stereotypical and maladaptive behaviors (e.g.,
regurgitation/reingestion, self-mutilation, coprophagia).
Captive Housing
Adrienne Saunders
egulatory bodies dictate minimum space requirements
R
for captive primates as 2.5 times the height and 5 times
the width of the animal with arms extended. Other
sources recommend a minimum cage size of 5 x 5 x 7 ft
(1.5 x 1.5 x 2.1 m).
Drafts and dampness should be avoided. An absorbent
A variety of enrichment items may be used to stimulate
substrate (shavings) will absorb urine and feces. visual, auditory and tactile senses in a captive bushbaby.
Two perches per animal should be provided; each should
be long enough to allow the animal to recline.
Nests should also be provided for each animal (adults
rarely share nests).
“Furniture” (e.g., climbing ropes, chains, branches)
should be added to encourage play and exploration.
Bushbabies will adapt quickly to a reverse day-night cycle;
a red fluorescent or red flood light can be used during the
day, and a bright white light used as a total light source
during the night hours, without altering activity patterns.
The bushbaby’s digital dexterity should be a consideration
regarding cage design as should their curious nature
Angela Price
regarding materials used for and within the cage (wood
will be chewed on, and lead toxicity is possible if cage
Feathers may be used as a novel enrichment item for a captive bushbaby. Bushbabies
bars, furniture and toys are painted with lead paint).

Dietary variation may be used to encourage natural
foraging behavior, accomplished by increasing the number
of feedings and variety or by complex food presentation.
Sensory stimulation may be provided through a variety of
forms: music, adding “furniture” (ropes, tree branches) and
a rotation of play objects (jungle gyms), hanging up
hamster balls, paper bags, cups with live crickets, “feather
dowel” (drill holes into wooden dowel, add feathers),
browse, scents (e.g., vanilla, orange, coconut) sprayed on
Adrienne Saunders
cage “furniture” and bells, mirrors and bird toys.

Male bushbabies should not be housed together, as it will
usually result in aggression.
Environmental temperatures should be maintained
between 65-80°F (18-26°C), usually at 75°F (24°C).
Relative humidity should be maintained between 55-70%.
Brown greater galago in Chipata, Zambia
Outside cages require shelter and shade.
Diet
ushbabies are omnivorous, and diet varies according to
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species and season.
Some (smaller species) are highly insectivorous while
others predominantly consume leaves, fruit, tree gums and
nectar. Euoticus species feed primarily on tree gums.
Other diet items include small mammals and birds, frogs,
seeds, flowers, eggs and nuts.
In captivity, bushbabies may be maintained primarily on a
commercially prepared primate diet, such as Lab Diet
Hans Hillewaert
5045 HiProtein Primate biscuits or another monkey

pellet. Diet is supplemented with mealworms, crickets,
waxworms, pinkie mice, fruit and vegetables (green peas,
Bushbabies Manual restraint with leather gloves is demonstrated on a

bushbaby.
corn, green beans, celery, spinach leaves). Additional
waxworms and occasional bits of cooked egg may be
used to increase weight.
Finicky animals may be fed soaked biscuits or canned
primate diet, although less than ideal for dental health.
Although there is not a known predilection for diabetes in
these species, it is observed in captivity and therefore
sugary fruits and simple starches should be limited.
RESTRAINT
hysical restraint is possible using leather gloves or a
P
towel, keeping a firm grasp behind the head with one hand
and using the other to restrain the rear limbs.
Initial capture may be accomplished by simply grabbing
with gloves or netting.
ANESTHESIA
ask or chamber induction with isoflurane is ideal.
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Alternative anesthesia used is ketamine (8-10 mg/kg IM,
up to 20 mg/kg for more invasive procedures).

Infectious diseases of the gastrointestinal tract (usually
infectious enteritis caused by Salmonella, Shigella,
Klebsiella and Escherichia coli) and respiratory system.
Renal disease in aged individuals is not uncommon and is
often a result of chronic interstitial nephritis caused by
infection or chronic nutritional imbalances.
Deficient caloric intake frequently occurs when owners
allow the animal to eat what it prefers (e.g., fruits and
vegetables) and is the most common nutritional imbalance
observed, followed by deficiencies of vitamin C (scurvy),
Senegal bushbaby (Galago senegalensis) Bushbabies
vitamin D (rickets) and calcium (chronically resulting in

nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism).
Wegmann - Creative Commons Attribution-Share

The most common parasitic disease is nematodiasis
(Strongyloides, pinworms, whipworms, hookworms), but
also observed are cestodes, protozoa (Entamoeba,
Balantidium) and ectoparasites (lice, fleas and mites,
including ear mites caused by Notoedres galagoensis).
Dermatophytosis has been reported.
Periodontal disease and gingivitis are not unusual,
especially if fed soft diets (primarily fruits). Malar abscesses
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(maxillary tooth root abscesses) are frequently observed.
Gastrointestinal foreign body obstruction has also been a
problem in captive nonhuman primates.
VACCINES
outine tetanus toxoid administration is recommended.
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Brown greater galago Rabies vaccination should be a consideration.
Zoonotic Potential
acterial zoonoses include Mycobacterium (tuberculosis,
B
Buecherfresser - Creative Commons Attribution-
for which they should be screened yearly), Salmonella,

Shigella, Campylobacter, Klebsiella and Yersinia.
There are many potential viral zoonoses, but none
reportedly transmitted from these species.
Various parasites found in nonhuman primates are
considered zoonotic, particularly protozoa (Giardia,
Entamoeba histolytica), strongyloides, Hymenolepsis nana
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and ectoparasites (fleas, lice, mites).

Fungal zoonoses include dermatophytes (Microsporum,
Trichophyton mentagrophytes), Candida albicans and
Dermatophilus congolensis.
Bushbabies A juvenile (approx. 4 months of age) Grant’s bushbaby (Galago granti)

1. Fowler ME (ed): Zoo & Wild Animal Medicine 2nd ed. WB Saunders
Co, 1986.
2. Gron KJ: December 8. Primate Factsheets: Lesser bushbaby
(Galago) Taxonomy, Morphology, & Ecology, 2008. http://pin.pri-
mate.wisc.edu/factsheets/entry/lesser_bushbaby.
3. Gron KJ. December 8. Primate Factsheets: Lesser bushbaby
(Galago) Behavior, 2008. http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/factsheets/
entry/lesser_bushbaby/behav.
4. Myers P: “Galogidae” (On-line, 2000), Animal Diversity Web.
<http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/
Galagidae.html>
5. Nowak RM: Walker’s Mammals of the World, Vol I 6th ed. Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1999.
6. Renquist DM, Whitney RA: Zoonoses acquired from pet primates.
Vet Clin No Am Sm Anim Pract 17(1):219-240, 1987.
7. Wallach JD, Boever WJ: Diseases of Exotic Animals: Medical and
Surgical Management. WB Saunders Co, 1983.
8. “Galago”- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galago
9. “Senegal Bushbaby” - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senegal_Bushbaby
10. “Bush Baby” - www.awf.org/content/wildlife/detail/bushbaby
11. “Lesser Bushbaby” http://lemur.duke.edu/animals/lesserbushbaby/
12. “Galago” - www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Galago South African galago (Galago moholi)
13. Anderson MJ: Comparative morphology and speciation in galagos.
Folia Primatology 69 suppl.:325-331, 1998.
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.5 license

14. Bearder SK: Lorises, bushbabies, and tarsiers: Diverse societies in
solitary foragers. In Smuts BB, Cheney D, et al (eds): Primate
Societies. Chicago University Press, Chicago, pp 11-24, 1987.
15. Butler H: The reproductive biology of a strepsirhine (Galago senega-
lensis senegalensis). Intl Rev Gen & Exp Zool 1:241-296, 1964.
16. Harcourt CS: Galago zanzibaricus: Birth seasonality, litter size and
perinatal behaviour of females. J Zool 210:451-457, 1986.
17. Izard MK: Lactation length in three species of Galago. Am J Primat
13:73-76, 1987.
18. Masters JC: Speciation in the lesser galagos. Folia Primatology 69,
Suppl.:357-370, 1998.
19. Nash LT, Bearder SK, Olson TR: Synopsis of Galago species charac-
teristics. Intl J Primat 10:57-79, 1989.
20. Pullen SL, Bearder SK, Dixson AF: Preliminary observations on sex-
ual behavior and the mating system in free-ranging lesser galagos
(Galago moholi). Am J Primat 51:79-88, 2000.
Corn Snake Corn Snake

(Pantherophis guttata)*
Pet Care *formerly Elaphe guttata
Nathalie Wissink-Argilaga,
Lic Vet, GPCert (ExAP), MRCVS
Common Subspecies / simil ar species

Common corn snake or red rat snake (P. g. guttata)
Two snakes that were previously assigned to subspecies
categories were recently designated as full species: the
Great Plains rat snake or Southwestern rat snake (P.
emoryi, formerly P. g. emoryi) and the Slowinski corn snake
(P. slowinskii, formerly P. g. slowinskii). Their husbandry
requirements are similar to the common corn snake.
Origin / Free-ranging Habitat

Southeastern United States
Primarily ground-dwellers but some are semi-arboreal
Pine forests, rocky outcrops/hills and around farms

The common corn snake is distinguished by brownish
orange skin with orange/red saddles; the saddles have
black borders and usually a black and white underbelly.
Common corn snake (Pantherophis guttata guttata) After many generations of selective breeding,
domesticated corn snakes are found in a wide variety of
different colors and patterns: color morphs, such as Miami
vital statistics
Phase, Okeetee Corns and Candycane; pattern morphs
Life span 10 years (avg)
Body length 4-6 feet (120-190 cm)
like Aztec, Zigzag, Milksnake Phase and Motley; and
compound morphs like Snow, Blizzard, Ghost and Phantom.
There is also a wide variety of hybrids.
Corn Snakes reat Plains rat snake

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(Pantherophis emoryi)
Behavior
Corn snakes are a good beginner snake because they are
non-venomous, generally calm and docile, easy to handle
and care for and thrive in captivity.
They are most active at dawn, dusk and during the night.
They are solitary animals so they are best housed alone.
Captive Housing
corn snake should be housed in at least a 20-gallon tank
A
with a secure top, as they are known to be escape artists.
Aspen or cypress shavings are often used as substrate to
allow the snake to burrow. Other suitable substrates are
Erik McCormick
newspaper, reptile carpet or paper towels.
Hiding places are necessary, as corn snakes become
stressed if they cannot hide.
Branches should be available for climbing and resting.
A temperature gradient from 70-85°F (21-29°C) should Slowinski’s corn snake (Pantherophis slowinskii) was originally considered an inter-
be maintained. grade subspecies of the corn snake and Great Plains rat snake, but it has been
Heat may be provided by special reptile heating pads or elevated to species status.
incandescent light bulbs in reflector hoods and placed to
avoid direct contact with the snake. One end of the
enclosure maintained at a higher temperature for basking.
Normal household humidity (30-50%) is usually fine, but it
may need to be higher if your snake has trouble shedding.
water
Corn snakes need a bowl of fresh water that is large
enough for them to submerge their whole body in.
Ensure that the bowl is not too deep for juvenile
animals—approximately 1 inch (2.54 cm) of water.
Because corn snakes often defecate in their water bowls,
Corn snakes spend much of their Corn Snakes

time coiled up in containers.
regular changing, cleaning and disinfection are necessary.
Diet
In the wild, hatchlings feed largely on small lizards and
tree frogs, while adults feed on small rodents and birds,
killing their prey by constriction.
In captivity, hatchlings can easily be started on pinkie
Carole Saucier, www.reptilecare.com
mice (1-2 days old), quickly moving up the prey scale to

fuzzies, crews and small adult mice. A live rodent should
not be left unattended with any snake.
Juveniles are fed every 5-7 days; adults every 7-10 days.
Corn snakes need water every day but most people
probably will not see the snake drink.
Restraint
inimal restraint is recommended as corn snakes are
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Corn snakes may soak normally very docile. The body must be fully supported.
frequently in water. Corn snakes will not wrap snugly around the handler’s
arm, but they tend to pick a direction and go, so the
head can be gently guided in another direction.
Anesthesia

The use of premedication eases induction and may
provide some analgesia: butorphanol (1-2 mg/kg IM),
low dose ketamine (5-20 mg/kg IM), tiletamine/zolazepam
(3 mg/kg IM).
Intravenous induction (with/without premedication) using
propofol (5-10 mg/kg IV).
Gaseous induction with isoflurane (5%) via mask, induction
chamber or by intubating the sedated patient and
performing intermittent positive pressure ventilation (IPPV).
Corn Snakes A female snow color

morph corn snake
•M aintenance is achieved with isoflurane and oxygen
via an uncuffed endotracheal tube connected to a
non-rebreathing circuit, IPPV at 4-8 breaths/min and
pressure of 16-10 cm H2O.
• It is very important to maintain body temperature.
• For recovery, IPPV may be provided with room air rather
than 100% oxygen to encourage spontaneous respira
tion. Decreasing the IPPV frequency will hasten recovery.

Stomatitis
Cloacal prolapse
Constipation and loss of appetite
Dystocia/retained eggs
External (mites and ticks) and intestinal parasites
Cryptosporidiosis
Skin problems
Spinal fractures/trauma and burns
Zoonotic Potential

Salmonella, as with all reptiles
E. coli and other enteric pathogens
Pentastomiasis

1. ader DL (ed): Reptile Medicine and Surgery 2nd ed. Elsevier, 2006.
M
2. Longley LA: Anaesthesia of Exotic Pets. Elsevier, 2008.
3. www.anapsid.org
4. www.cornsnake.co.uk
Blood Python Blood Python

(Python curtus)
Pet Care Giuseppe Visigalli, DVM
Subspecies
Blood python or Sumatran blood python (P. c. curtis)
Malaysan blood python or red blood python
(P. c. brongersmai)
Borneo blood python or short-tailed blood python
(P. c. breitensteini)

alaysia, Sumatra, Borneo, coastal Thailand and
M
Cambodia
Palm plantations, tropical forests and marshes
lood pythons are squat, heavy-bodied serpents with
B
varied markings.
Coloration may vary from yellow, tan and brown to a bright
red, cherry red or oxblood with lighter tan, gold, orange
and black blotched markings.
The head is typically gray, although specimens may exhibit
black, light gray or even red heads.
Male Python curtus curtus Blood pythons are well known for their changing head
colors (e.g., black-headed snake in the evening and very
vital statistics pale head in the morning).
Life span 25+ years Some blood pythons exhibit broken dorsal striping.
Adult size Color mutations include striped, T+ albino, T- albino, ivory
Females: 4-6 feet (1.2-1.8 m) avg (white body with gray and black dorsal speckling ) and
Males: 3-5 feet (0.9-1.5 m) avg hypomelanistic
Blood Pythons Python curtus brongersmai
Sexing and Reproduction

Sexual determination by probe depth is 9 subcaudal
scales for males and 3-4 for females.
Sexual maturity is 18 months to 4 years.
Breeding size occurs at lengths of 3-5 feet (0.9-1.5 m).
Wild-caught females may not breed at all in captivity.
Breeding season in captivity typically ranges from
November to March. All feeding should be stopped at this
time. Animals should be well established and in excellent
condition before breeding is attempted.
Breeding may be induced by reducing daytime
photoperiod to 8-10 hours and dropping nighttime
temperatures to around 75°F (24°C). The female should
be introduced into the male’s cage. Misting the animals
with water may also induce breeding activity.
Females shed 14-20+ days after ovulation; eggs are
typically laid within 30 days of post-ovulation shed.
Clutch size varies from 8-20 eggs.
At an optimal incubation temperature of 88-90°F (31-32
Python curtus breitensteini
C°), these eggs take an average of 60 days to hatch.
Dawson, Creative Commons Attribution-Share

Behavior
Nocturnal
Timid; may be temperamental, especially young snakes
Wild-caught pythons tend to be nervous, irritable and
even aggressive
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Captive-bred specimens often mature into docile, placid
animals
Blood pythons are suitable for intermediate keepers.
They are non-venomous.
Blood Pythons
Captive Housing

Minimum cage size (enclosure perimeter) for one adult
python is the length of snake x 2.5.
Enclosure may be simple or elaborate plastic sweater
boxes (e.g., Rubbermaid®), melamine racks, Freedom
Breeder® cages, or any of the commercially available
plastic-type reptile cages. Glass aquariums and tanks are
adequate; however, screen tops on such enclosures can
make it difficult to maintain humidity levels.
Feces/urates/uneaten prey items must be removed from
the enclosure as soon as possible.
Depending on cage conditions, all substrate and cage
furniture should be removed and the enclosure completely
disinfected using a 5% bleach solution approximately
every 30 days. The enclosure must be rinsed thoroughly
and allowed to dry before cage furniture and snake are
replaced.
Newspaper is the easiest and least expensive substrate
material for cleaning and disinfecting. Cypress mulch
holds humidity but excess humidity should be avoided. Do
not use substrate containing cedar.
Blood pythons are sensitive snakes that appreciate and
utilize a hide spot, so at least two should be provided.
Clay flowerpots, plastic flowerpot trays and commercially
available hide boxes all work well.
Because blood pythons are nocturnal, supplemental
lighting is not necessary. However, if it is used it should
run on a 12/12 cycle. Continuous bright, overhead
lighting is stressful.
Blood Pythons
Environmental Temperature / Humidity

Basking spot should be 88-89°F (31°C); ambient
(background) temperature range is 78-82°F (25-27°C);
minimum ambient temperature is 75°F (24°C).
If the ambient temperature is strictly maintained around
80-84°F (26-28°C), a juvenile blood python can live in a
simple Rubbermaid®/melamine rack setup without a
basking spot or supplemental heat; it needs a basic hide
box, water bowl and substrate.
Under-cage heating pads, ceramic heat emitters, basking
bulbs (both regular daytime and red “night” bulbs) are
possible heating accessories.
Thermostats, rheostats and/or timers must be used to
control the heat source.
Hot rocks should not be used in order to avoid serious
burn.
Heat emitters and bulbs, especially if combined with a
screen top, will dry the air in the enclosure quickly, so
additional humidity is needed.
To provide a snake with a humidity level of 50-60%:
• Use cypress mulch or a similar mold-resistant substrate
that can be misted. It is advantageous if the substrate
changes color when it is wet, thereby providing visual
cue for the next dampening. Using cypress mulch
requires disciplined maintenance, as a dirty and humid
enclosure will quickly lead to unhealthy conditions.
• A “humidity box” may be constructed for the snake by
packing a plastic container with damp sphagnum moss
(think well-wrung-out wash cloth to gauge moisture)
with a hole cut in the top or side. Screen top on the
enclosure needs keeping moisture from escaping. It is
Blood Pythons
important to maintain a proper, reliable ambient

temperature, as warm air holds more moisture than
cool air.
water
Fresh, clean water must always be available, as blood
pythons have a tendency to drink copiously.
A water dish should be large enough for the python to
crawl into and soak. Ensure that the bowl is not too deep
for juvenile animals—approximately 1 inch (2.54 cm) of
water will suffice.
Because snakes often defecate in their water bowls,
Diet
rimary diet is live rodents (young gerbils, mice) and birds
P
(chickens). A live rodent should not be left unattended
with any snake.
Blood pythons are generally easy to convert to frozen/
thawed or pre-killed rodents.
Blood pythons should be fed with an appropriately-sized
rodent weekly (prey = 2.5 x snake head size or 10-15%
snake weight).
Very young prey or defrosted prey need vitamin-calcium
integration every 2-3 meals.
Blood pythons can eat rats starting off with rat “crawlers”
for younger snakes (every 5 days) and moving up in size
as the animal grows.
Sub-adult and adult pythons are prone to obesity due to a
strong feeding response coupled with a slow metabolism,
Blood Pythons
so a 10-14 day feeding schedule is strongly

recommended.
In order to avoid regurgitation, it is recommended for the

owner to not handle the snake for at least a day after
feeding.

Loss of appetite
Respiratory disease
Mouth rot
External parasites (mites and ticks)
Obstipation/constipation
Spinal fractures/trauma/thermal burns
Zoonotic Potential

Special Considerations
Clinical visits should be scheduled every 4-6 months and
include a fecal exam for parasites.
Microchip application for identification is advised.

1. M ader DL (ed): Reptile Medicine and Surgery 2nd ed. Elsevier,
2006.
2. Kramer M: Sexual determination by probe depth. Exotic DVM
7(6):7, 2006.
Boa Constrictor Boa Constrictor

(Boa constrictor)
Pet Care David Hannon, DVM, Dipl ABVP (Avian)
Subspecies
T here are 10 recognized subspecies; the first 6 are
recognized by all herpetologists, while the last 4 are not.
• Common or Mexican boa (B. c. imperator)
• Red-tailed boa (B. c. constrictor)
• Argentine boa (B. c. occidentalis)
• Short-tailed or Amaral’s boa (B. c. amarali)
• Clouded or Dominican boa (B. c. nebulosus)
• San Lucia boa (B. c. orophias)
• Northwest Peruvian or Orton’s boa (B. c. ortonii)
• Peruvian black-tailed boa (B. c. longicauda)
• Ecuadoran black-bellied boa (B. c. melanogaster)
• Saboga Island or Pearl Island boa (B. c. sabogae)

entral and South America, from northern Mexico to
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northern Argentina, and some islands in the Caribbean
Boa constrictors have been found from tropical rainforests
to semi-arid plains in their native environment.
They are excellent swimmers and are often found
Common boa (B. c. imperator) inhabiting foliage along waterways.
Boas are semi-arboreal, although as they get older and
vital statistics larger, they will spend more time on the ground.
Adult size Physical Characteristics
Females: 7-10 ft (2-3 m) avg
Males: 6-8 ft (1.8-2.4 m) avg oa constrictors have a base color of grey, cream or
B
Adult weight < 60 lb (27 kg) brown, with brown to red saddles along the dorsum. As
Boa Constrictors Red-tailed boa (B. c. constrictor)
they progress caudally, the saddles occur closer together
Embreus, Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0

and have a more intense color.
The number of saddles varies with subspecies, with B. c.
constrictor having less than 20 saddles between the head
and vent, while B. c. imperator has 21 or more and B. c.
occidentalis has 29-30 interconnected dorsal saddles.
Many color mutations and pattern variations have been
developed in captive-bred boas.
Boa constrictors have 2 functional lungs.
Unported license
ale boas are typically smaller than females and have
M
larger spurs and broader, thicker tails than females.
In juveniles, the hemipenes may be everted, but in older
animals cloacal probing is a much more reliable method
of sexing. Adult females will typically probe to a depth of
2-4 subcaudal scales, while adult males will probe to a
Juvenile boa constrictor
depth of 10-12 scales.
Boas reach sexual maturity at 3-5 years of age.
Boa constrictors mate in the wild between April and August.
Females will normally display a mid-body swelling approx
imately two-thirds down the body length 2-3 weeks prior to
ovulation. Following copulation, a postovulatory shed occurs
2-3 weeks after ovulation. Gestation generally lasts 100-
120 days after the postovulatory shed.
Boa constrictors are ovoviviparous and can give birth to a
litter of up to 65 neonates, although 25 is average.
Behavior

Boa constrictors are primarily nocturnal and crepuscular.
Being a tropical species, boas do not hibernate.
Northwest Peruvian boa (B. c. ortonii) Boa Constrictors

Although captive-bred individuals are generally docile if
handled regularly, boas may strike if startled or threatened.
Boa constrictors are best housed individually unless being
paired for breeding. Females of similar size may be able
to cohabitate, but males may fight.
Boa constrictors are not generally considered “beginner’s

snakes” due to their large adult size and potential for
aggression, but they can be rewarding pets.
Columbian boas are considered to have the most docile
temperaments, while Mexican, Central American, and
insular subspecies are more likely to become aggressive.

Captive-bred boas tend to be much more docile than
wild-caught ones.
Captive Housing

Enclosures must be very secure. Full grown boas can be
very powerful and an enclosure must prevent escape.
Shown is a juvenile female boa constrictor in a shed A baby boa constrictor requires an enclosure that is at
cycle; the blue opaque eyes indicate the shed cycle. least 24 in (61 cm) long and 15 in (38 cm) tall (but it
will quickly outgrow it).
Adults need an enclosure at least 6 ft (1.8 m) long and
24+ in (61+ cm) wide and tall. Smaller subspecies may
be adequately housed in a 4-ft (1.2 m) enclosure.
Suitable substrates include newspaper or butcher paper,
artificial turf, aspen shavings (avoid cedar and other
shavings with aromatic oils), mulches and potting soil.
Boas should not be offered food on a granular substrate
due to the potential for substrate ingestion.
One or more hiding areas should be provided.
Because boas are semi-arboreal, providing a stick or log to
climb on, particularly as a basking site, is recommended.
Boa Constrictors A boa constrictor in a vivarium with a large water bowl.
Environmental Temperature / Humidity

Enclosures should be maintained at 82-90°F (28-32°C)
during the day and 78-85°F (26-30°C) at night. Focal
© Raimond Spekking / Wikimedia Commons /

basking sites can reach 95°F (35°C).
Boas have no lighting requirements, but if lamps are used
as a heat source, they should be turned off at night.
A thermal emitter and/or a conductive heat source (e.g.,
heat tape, heating pad) may be used to maintain
enclosure temperature at night.
CC-BY-SA-3.0 & GFDL

An ambient humidity of 50% should be maintained and
can be increased to 70% during shed. Prolonged
exposure to higher humidity may result in dermatitis.
water

Fresh, clean water must always be available.
A water dish should be large enough for the snake to
crawl into and soak. Boa constrictor imperator eating
Because snakes often defecate in their water bowls,
Jens Raschendorf - Creative Commons Attribution-

Diet
In the wild, boas eat a wide variety of whole prey,
including rodents, birds, bats, lizards and amphibians.
In captivity, mice and rats appear to provide adequate
nutrition. Prey items should be no larger in diameter than
the snake’s maximum girth.
Share Alike 2.5 license

Larger boas may be fed larger prey items, such as guinea
pigs, rabbits and chickens.
Killed frozen/thawed prey items are preferred over live
prey to limit parasite transmission and prey trauma.
Clean water should be available at all times. The bowl
Boa Constrictors
should be large enough to hold the snake’s entire body.
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 RESTRAINT

hen handling a boa, the snake should be grasped with
W
one hand just behind the head and the other hand is
used to support the rest of the body.
Larger snakes may need to be restrained by more than
one person. Assistance should be sought when handling a
snake that is longer than the height of the handler.
ANESTHESIA
Unported license.
ropofol (3-5 mg/kg) IV may be used for anesthesia

P
induction and short procedures. It may be accompanied
by endotracheal intubation and isoflurane or sevoflurane.
Some boas may be induced with isoflurane or sevoflurane
via face mask or induction chamber.
Premedication with a sedative, such as butorphanol (0.4-
2.0 mg/kg IM), buprenorphine (0.02-0.2 mg/kg IM) or
ketamine (5-20 mg/kg IM), may reduce struggling and
breath-holding.
Docile individuals may be able to be intubated while awake
Chris Stubbs - GNU General Public License
and induced via endotracheal tube, which allows for

positive pressure ventilation if the snake holds its breath.
Larger or aggressive snakes or ones that have poor venous
access may be anesthetized with an IM injection of tile
tamine HCl and zolazepam HCl (Telazol,® 2-6 mg/kg) or
ketamine (10-60 mg/kg). The addition of a benzodiazepine
or alpha2-agonist may smooth ketamine induction. How
ever, IM anesthesia can result in prolonged recovery time.
Boa Constrictors A boa constrictor in a Belize jungle

Respiratory tract disease
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0

Stomatitis
Vomiting/regurgitation
Constipation
External parasitism (snake mites, Ophionyssus natricis)
Zoonotic Potential
oas fed poultry may harbor and shed Salmonella.
B
Unported license.
Cryptosporidium, pentastomes and other species of
internal and external parasites have been documented.
T here is significant potential for human injury. Although no
human deaths have been attributed to boa constrictors,
there have been reported fatal incidents involving children
caused by other species of constrictor that were of similar
size and body type as boas. Boas have also been
implicated in the deaths of other household pets.
Boa owners must provide adequately-sized housing.
Christian Mehlführer - Creative Commons

Responsible ownership of a boas involves providing very
secure housing to prevent escape and a commitment to
Attribution-Share Alike 2.5 license

avoid release of unwanted boas into the wild.

1. M ader DL (ed): Reptile Medicine and Surgery 2nd ed. Elsevier, 2006.
2. de Vosjoli P: The Boa Constrictor Manual. Advanced Vivarium
Systems, 2004.
3. Nathan R: Captive husbandry and breeding of boa constrictors
(Boa constrictor spp). J Herp Med Surg 11(2):30-33, 2001.
4. Fogel D: Captive Husbandry and Propagation of Boa Constrictors
and Related Boas. Krieger Publishing Co, 1997.
Horned Frog Horned Frog

(Ceratophrys sp.)*
Pet Care *Also known as pac man frog
Bruce Maclean, BSc (VetSci), BVM&S, MRCVS

Ornate horned frog
(C. ornata) Subspecies
everal Ceratophrys species within the family
S
Ceratophyrinae are kept as pets, and some hybrids have
been produced in the hobby.
Common pet species include:
• Ornate (Bell’s or Argentine) horned frog (C. ornata)
• Chaco (Cranwells) horned frog (C. cranwelli)
• Surinam horned frog (C. cornuta)
• Fantasy frog (cross between C. cranwelli C. cornuta)

Origin is South America
Horned frogs live in ground litter and debris, ranging from
rainforests to drier areas.
Their climate is generally sub-tropical to mild temperate,
with or without a distinct rainy season.
Bruce Maclean
orned frogs are very short and squat (sometimes the
H
body width is greater than the length).
They have extraordinarily large mouths.
vital statistics Their legs are relatively short and stubby.
Life span 4-8 years (avg) They are named for the fleshy “horn” over each eye,
Adult size Females: up to 6 in (15 cm) although its size is variable with the species and
Males: up to 4 in (10 cm) individual. This is not usually very marked in the most
Adult weight 200-300 g (7.0-10.5 oz) common pet species.
Horned Frogs Cranwells horned frog (C. cranwelli) in an enclosure with hiding area
T he natural color is a green and brown pattern; captive

animals have been bred for brighter colors, hypomelanism
or even albinism.
Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike 3.0

Sexing
exing may be difficult: males may show darker throats
S
and nuptial pads on digit I on the forelimbs.
Males are also the only ones to vocalize significantly.
Behavior
orned frogs are ambush predators; they sit and wait for
H
passing prey.
They may be diurnal or crepuscular, depending on local
conditions.
They brumate, up to months, depending on conditions in
the wild.
They can and will bite. Horned frogs use their colors and patterns to blend in with their
environment to aid in catching prey and hiding from predators.
Captive Housing
elatively small enclosures are acceptable (commensurate
R
with providing an adequate range of microhabitats);
recommended minimum size for adults is 30 in (75 cm)
long x 12 in (30 cm) wide.
Horned frogs are best housed singly; even quite similar-
sized individuals may be taken as prey.
Ease of cleaning the enclosure should always be a priority.
Horned frogs are natural burrowers, so several centimeters
of substrate (sphagnum moss/leaf litter/coconut husk fiber/
Adrian Pingstone
soil) are recommended, although more hygienic options of
unbleached paper towels or nontoxic foam rubber are
acceptable if sufficient hiding places are provided.
Ornate horned frog (C. ornata) Horned Frogs
L ighting should generally be subdued.

Full-spectrum lighting is not generally considered
necessary for these frogs, but it should be available, with
the proviso that it is relatively low intensity and they can
escape from it completely if they choose.
Normal amphibian water quality considerations apply;
Creative Commons Attribution 2.0
dechlorinated water/rain water/bottled spring water should

be used.
Adequate hiding places (distributed throughout the
thermal gradient/mosaic) are necessary.
Live plants help microhabitat formation, but the frogs may
dig in under the plant, so any plants should be hardy as
well as nontoxic.
A shallow water bath should be available; deep bowls
should be avoided as a drowning risk.
Ulcerative skin lesion from trauma
Environmental Temperature
gradient is necessary. The recommended temperature
A
range is 73-86°F (23-30°C) with a drop of a few degrees at
night; they are generally quite hardy at lower temperatures.
Diet

Free-ranging horned frogs eat almost anything that will fit
in their mouths.
In captivity, a variety of invertebrates and small rodents is
recommended.
Rodents should be limited in quantity due to concerns
over nutritional issues for amphibians (excesses of vitamin
Bruce Maclean
A, other vitamins, fat).

Note that in the wild these frogs do not feed for several
months a year; overfeeding is very common in captivity.
Horned Frogs Atypical mycobacteriosis resulting in a swollen thigh.

Feeding should be to effect (judged on body condition),
but adults should generally be fed no more than weekly to
every 2 weeks.
RESTRAINT
ashed, powder-free gloves should be used; evidence
W
suggests vinyl gloves are least likely to cause reactions,
especially in tadpoles.
ANESTHESIA
T ypical amphibian anesthesia with buffered MS-222
(tricaine methanesulfonate) is recommended: 0.5-1.0 g/L
Bruce Maclean
(5-10 ppm) may be used for induction.
Care should be exercised to avoid drowning during
induction.
Another anesthetic to consider is propofol (10-30 mg/kg
intracoelomic). Eye lesion of unknown etiology

etabolic bone disease/nutritional hyperparathyroidism
M
complex
Impactions with substrate, due to their indiscriminate
feeding lunges
Nutritional issues associated with excessive feeding,
especially of rodents
Ulcers associated with trauma or pressure sores
Atypical mycobacterial infections
Zoonotic Potential
Bruce Maclean
L ike most amphibians, horned frogs can harbor or suffer
from various pathogens (notably atypical mycobacteria
and bacterial species, also some fungi), which are
Radiograph shows a large bony deformity in the right Horned Frogs

thigh, which appeared to be a healing fracture/callus.
recorded as zoonotic, although specific reports associated
with these frogs are rare.
T here is significant potential for human injury. Although no
human deaths have been attributed to boa constrictors,
there have been reported fatal incidents involving children
caused by other species of constrictor that were of similar
size and body type as boas. Boas have also been
implicated in the deaths of other household pets.
Boa owners must provide adequately-sized housing.
Responsible ownership of a boas involves providing very
secure housing to prevent escape and a commitment to
avoid release of unwanted boas into the wild.

1. M ader DL (ed): Reptile Medicine and Surgery 2nd ed. Elsevier, 2006.
2. Wright KM: Overview of amphibian medicine. In Mader DR (ed):
Reptile Medicine and Surgery 2nd ed. Saunders Elsevier, 2006.
3. Williams DL: Amphibians. In Meredith A, Redrobe S (eds): BSAVA
Manual of Exotic Pets 4th ed. BSAVA Publications, Gloucester, UK,
2002.
4. Bertelsen M, Crawshaw G: 5-minute guide to amphibian disease.
Exotic DVM 5(2):23-26, 2003.
5. Davies R, Davies V: The Question and Answer Manual of Reptiles
and Amphibians. Salamander Books, London, UK, 1997.
6. DeVosjoli P: The General Care and Maintenance of Horned Frogs.
Bruce Maclean
Advanced Vivarium Systems, Lakeside, CA, 1990.

7. www.amphibiancare.com/frogs/caresheets/hornedfrog.html
8. www.frogforum.net
Alligator Snapping Alligator Snapping Turtle

(Macroclemys temminckii)
Turtle Pet Care David Hannon, DVM, Dipl ABVP (Avian)

Southeastern United States, primarily in the Mississippi
River Valley, extending west to eastern Texas, Oklahoma
and southeastern Kansas, north to Illinois, and east to
western Georgia and the Florida panhandle.
Alligator snapping turtles are found only in river systems
that empty into the Gulf of Mexico.
Introduced populations have been found in California,
Arizona, Michigan, Indiana, Virginia, Maryland and
Puerto Rico.
Macroclemys are predominantly aquatic chelonians that
inhabit deep water. They are most commonly found in
deep slow-moving rivers with steep banks but can also be
found in lakes, canals, swamps and bayous.
Hatchling and juvenile turtles tend to inhabit small streams.
Alligator snapping turtle (Macroclemys temminckii) has a jagged appearance, with
3 pronounced ridges. Physical Characteristics
lligator snapping turtles are the largest freshwater turtles
A
in North America.
Macroclemys range in color from gray to brown to black to
olive green and are often covered in algae.
Compared to the common snapping turtle (Chelydra spp.),
vital statistics which has a rounded and smooth carapace, the alligator
Life span 20-70 years in captivity snapper’s shell has a more jagged appearance, with 3
Adult size pronounced ridges running in a cranial to caudal direction
Carapace length 16-26 in (40-66 cm)
across the dorsal carapace.
Weight 150-175 lb (68-79 kg)
The plastron is also comparatively small.
Alligator Snapping Turtles The common snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina) has a relatively
smooth carapace as compared to the alligator snapping turtle.
acroclemys has a broader and more pointed head then
M
Chelydra spp., usually with sharp points projecting from
the rostral aspect of the maxillary and mandibular beak.
Snapping turtles are unable to retract fully into their shells.
The rostral aspect of the tongue is pink and vermiform
and acts like a lure to attract prey to the turtle’s mouth.
The eye is surrounded by a ring of fleshy eyelash-like
protuberances.
The tail is long and prehensile and is used to anchor the
turtle to underwater rocks or logs while waiting for prey.

lligator snappers are not sexually mature until they reach
A
11-13 years of age and a body weight of 30 lb (14 kg).
Males tend to have longer and thicker tails than females.
Breeding occurs in early spring in Florida and late spring
in the Mississippi Valley. Alligator snapping turtles have a red fleshy
worm-like lure in their mouth to attract prey.
The female will lay a clutch of 8-52 spherical eggs 1.25-2.0
in (3-5 cm) in diameter in sandy soil approximately 160 ft
(50 m) from the shore. Incubation takes 100-140 days.
Hatchlings emerge in the early fall.
Behavior
lligator snapping turtles only leave the water to lay eggs.
A
They tend to be very sedentary, preferring to wait for prey
opportunistically.
In the wild they will remain solitary unless breeding.
When threatened, they will face the threat with the neck
retracted and the mouth open and will bite if approached.
Alligator snapping turtles do not hibernate.
Alligator snapping turtles require large tanks for housing. Alligator Snapping Turtles
Captive Housing
lligator snapping turtles need an aquatic environment.
A
They do not need basking sites.
Hatchlings can be housed together, but adult turtles
should be maintained in separate enclosures.
Turtles housed in mixed multispecies exhibits will often
prey upon their cagemates.
Hatchlings may be housed in a 20- to 50-gallon tank,
depending on number.
Juveniles (6-12 in [15-30 cm] carapace length) may be
housed in 100-gallon aquariums or smaller stock tanks.
Adults need an 800-gallon or larger tank or pond.
A powerful filtration system is needed to keep the water
clean.
Submerged rocks or logs should be provided for the turtle
Mark Pellegrini - Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike license
to hold on to with its tail while under water. It is ideal to

place them at a depth that allows the turtle to reach the
surface with its nose to breathe without having to let go.
A floating piece of wood or other material for hiding under
will provide the turtle with an added sense of security.
ater temperature should be maintained at 70-80°F
W
(23-25°C).
Alligator snappers need a photoperiod of 8-12 hours.
Because the turtle spends most of its time submerged,
basking and UV lights are unnecessary.
Diet

Alligator snappers typically passively hunt during the day
and actively forage at night.
Alligator Snapping Turtles A hatchling alligator snapping turtle

unting involves remaining still and using the vermiform
H
appendage on its tongue to attract prey.
In the wild, these turtles eat fish, frogs, snails, crayfish,
insects, snakes, worms, clams, ducklings, aquatic plants,
carrion, small alligators, nutria and other turtles.
They have also been documented eating floating fruit,
grass, nuts and flowers that have fallen into the water.
In captivity, these turtles can be fed fish (guppies,
minnows, goldfish, or larger—alive or dead), crayfish,
cooked chicken or beef, beef liver or heart, mice, rats,
chicks and commercial turtle food.
They should also be offered vegetable matter, such as
water hyacinth, water lettuce, carrots, apples, grapes,
cherries and bananas.
RESTRAINT
maller specimens may be grasped on either side of the
S Alligator snapping turtle will face a threat with
shell. The alligator snapper’s neck is too short to get the neck retracted and the mouth open.
around to the hand in that position, although they may be
able to scratch the hands with their rear claws.
Larger specimens should be grasped by the carapace,
with one hand on the cranial aspect right behind the head,
and the other on the caudal aspect just above the tail.
ANESTHESIA
If a peripheral vein is accessible, propofol (3-5 mg/kg)
may be administered IV for anesthesia induction or short
anesthetic procedures.
IM administration of ketamine (20-40 mg/kg) and mida
Chris Howey
zolam (2 mg/kg); or ketamine (4-10 mg/kg), butorphanol
(1-2 mg/kg) and medetomidine (40-150 µg/kg) should
Leucistic alligator snapping turtle Alligator Snapping Turtles
provide ample sedation to facilitate handling and endo

tracheal intubation.
Following induction and intubation, anesthesia may be
maintained with isoflurane or sevoflurane with intermittent
positive pressure ventilation.
Aquatic turtles have a propensity to hold their breath, and
they are very resistant to the effects of hypoxia. For this
reason, anesthesia mask or chamber induction is not
recommended.

T rauma
Dehydration and cachexia in individuals confiscated from
poachers
Leeches
Intestinal parasites (nematodes, acanthocephalans, flukes)
Haemogregarina parasitemia
Herpesvirus
Toxin exposure (mercury, organochlorine pesticides)
There are unconfirmed suspicions that Macroclemys may
be susceptible to Mycoplasma and iridovirus
Zoonotic Potential
lthough there have been no published reports of
A
Salmonella spp. isolated from alligator snapping turtles,
all aquatic turtles should be considered potential vectors
for this pathogen.
special considerations
T his species is listed as a CITES Appendix III species by the
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). It is
not currently listed as endangered or threatened by the US
Alligator Snapping Turtles
Fish and Wildlife Service (USFW).

Because of their aggressive nature and large adult size,
this species should only be kept by experienced herpeto
culturists or in zoological collections.
Alligator snapping turtles have very powerful jaws and sharp
beaks, and they can be quick to inflict a nasty bite or even
sever a finger.

1. L evine D: The alligator snapping turtle, Macroclemys temminckii:
Giant of the southeastern states. Tortuga Gazette 30(9):1-3,
1994.
2. Nichols M, Pruitt J, et al: 1999 “Macrochelys temminckii”
(online). Animal Diversity Web. Accessed October 17, 2009 at
Thomas R Machnitzk - Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 license

http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/
Macrochelys_temminckii.html.
3. West M, Scott TP, et al: New records of endohelminths of the
alligator snapping turtle (Macroclemys temminckii) from Arkansas
and Louisiana, U.S.A. Comp Parasitol 67(1): 122-124, 2000.
4. Tkach VV, Snyder SD: Acanthostomum macroclemidis n. sp.
(Digenea: Cryptogonimidae: Acanthostominae) from the alligator
snapping turtle, Macrochelys temminckii. J Parasitol 89(1):159-
67, 2003.
5. Pritcher PC: The Alligator Snapping Turtle: Biology and
Conservation. Krieger Publishing Company, 2006.
6. Mader DR (ed): Reptile Medicine and Surgery 2nd ed. Saunders
Elsevier, 2006.
7. Chaffin K, Norton TM, et al: Health assessment of free-ranging
alligator snapping turtles (Macrochelys temminckii) in Georgia
and Florida. J Wildl Dis 44(3):670-86, 2008.
8. Telford SR, Norton TM, et al: A new Haemogregarina species of
the alligator snapping turtle, Macrochelys temminckii (Testudines:
Chelydridae), in Georgia and Florida that produces macromeronts
in circulating erythrocytes. J Parasitol 95(1):208-214, 2009.
9. Fuller P, Somma LA: 2009. Macrochelys temminckii. USGS
Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database, Gainesville, FL.
http://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/FactSheet.asp?speciesID=1227
10. www.chelydra.org
Mud Turtle Mud Turtle

(Kinosternon sp.)
Pet Care Jennifer Mosier, DVM
Common Subspecies
Eastern mud turtle or common mud turtle (K. subrubrum)
Striped mud turtle (K. baurii)
Yellow mud turtle (K. flavescens)
Sonoran mud turtle (K. sonoriense)
Pelusios sp. (side-necked African mud turtles), found in
sub-Saharan regions of Africa, have similar husbandry
requirements.
Chris Leone, www.gardenstatetortoise.com
Free-ranging Habitat

Mud turtles are found from southern Canada to central
South America in areas of slow-moving or still, shallow
bodies of warm water with moderate to heavy vegetation
and soft bottoms.

Mud turtles are generally dark in color and have a
relatively flattened carapace. Different subspecies have
subtle differences in shading as well as various shades of
Eastern mud turtle (Kinosternon subrubrum) yellow or orange on the sides of the neck.
All subspecies have two plastral hinges.
Turtles in the Kinosterninae family have 10-11 scutes on
vital statistics their plastron compared to the 7-8 in Staurotypinae.
Life span 10-15 years (avg) Males tend to be larger than females of the same age
Adult size 8-12 cm (3-5 inches) (avg) and have thicker tails and larger heads.
in length; maximum size is
22 cm (9 inches)
Mud Turtles Striped mud turtle

(Kinosternon baurii)
Behavior

Mud turtles are nocturnal and generally shy.
They prefer to walk on the bottom of ponds and streams.
Mud turtles can be very aggressive toward other
individuals and need to be housed only with similar-sized
members of the same species.
They can release foul-smelling secretions when threatened.
Captive Housing

Outdoor housing with shade and haul-out areas is
preferred.
Aquariums may be used for indoor housing; a 20 gallon is
fine for a hatchling, but adults need a larger enclosure.
The aquarium should have shallow water with a depth as
deep as the widest part of the turtle (2-4 inches [5-10
cm] for hatchlings and 8-12 inches [20-30 cm] for adults).
The aquarium should have shallow water
A dry area, such as a pile of rocks, at one end of the
to allow mud turtles to breathe while they
enclosure should be provided for a basking spot. walk on the bottom of the enclosure.
A heat lamp may be beneficial; it can be positioned over
the dry area to provide a basking spot of 90°F (32°C).
Water temperature should be 75-78°F (24-25°C). Abrupt

changes in temperature may be harmful.
Optimal water quality is essential for health. Both
mechanical and biologic filtration are needed, with
canister filters preferred.
Frequent water changes are required.
UVB full-spectrum lighting is believed to be important if
there is no access to sunlight.
A hiding place (e.g., half of clay flowerpot) under the
surface of the water is essential.
Aquatic plants will help mud turtles feel more secure.
Free-ranging mud turtles spend much of their time Mud Turtles

walking on the bottom of ponds and streams.
Diet

Mud turtles are opportunistic carnivores or omnivores.
The young are generally carnivores, with larger amounts of
vegetation added to the diet with age.
Adults should be fed 2-3 times per week; hatchlings are
fed daily.
Variety of diet is essential to maintaining good nutrition,
and a mixture of insects, worms, snails, fish and
vegetation should be offered.
Commercial turtle diets are also widely available.
Calcium supplementation is essential. Powdered calcium
can be sprinkled on all foods. If the turtle is kept indoors
the calcium supplement should include vitamin D3.
Restraint
Individuals should be held by their shell in the middle of
Shells can provide a hiding their body.
place for hatchlings. The head and front limbs can often be exteriorized by
pressing the hind limbs into the shell; the hind limbs can
be exteriorized by pressing the front legs inside.
If the mud turtle is uncooperative, chemical restraint may
be necessary for a thorough examination and diagnostics.
Anesthesia

Premedication with butorphanol IM is suggested.
Analgesia may be achieved with butorphanol, buprenor
phine and/or ketoprofen, but more information is needed.
Induction with propofol is preferred when IV access is
available.
A combination of ketamine, medetomIdine and
butorphanol IM may also be used.
Mud Turtles Aquatic plants will help mud

turtles feel more secure.
Chamber or mask induction with inhalants is not
recommended due to their prolonged breath holding.
Maintenance via inhalants may be provided after
endotracheal intubation with an uncuffed tube. Note the
short trachea and take care to intubate the bronchus.

Diarrhea (secondary to improper diet)
Aural abscess
Internal parasites
Chronic eye infections (hypovitaminosis A)
Shell rot
Trauma
Zoonotic Potential
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS Coconut shells may also be

used for hiding places.
fecal analysis is recommended for all new acquisitions
A
and every 6-12 months thereafter.
Many subspecies are endangered or threatened in the
wild.

1. M ader DR (ed): Reptile Medicine and Surgery 2nd ed. WB
Saunders Co, 2006.
2. McArthur S, Wilkinson R, Meyer J: Medicine and Surgery of
3. Wappel SM, Schulte MS: Turtle care and husbandry. Vet Clin No
Am Exot Anim Pract 7(2):447-472, 2004.
4. World Chelonian Trust -
www.chelonia.org/articles/kinosternidaecare.htm
5. www.dec.ny.gov/animals/7152.html
Koi Koi
(Cyprinus carpio)*
Pet Care *Also known as brocaded carp, Nishikigoi, koi carp
Helen E. Roberts, DVM

Originally from central Europe and Asia.
Wild common carp are distributed worldwide in freshwaters.
Koi have a fusiform body shape and a paired set of oral
barbels (distinguishing them from goldfish and goldfish-koi
hybrids).
Scales
• Scale patterns vary from scales over the entire body,
“matsuba” and “asagi” (scales arranged in a net
pattern) or “doitsu” (scaleless, large scales only along
Walt Oldenburg
the lateral line and dorsum, or large scales in a line

along the base of the dorsal fin).
• “Ginrin” koi exist in any color variety and have scales
that sparkle like diamonds.
vital statistics Colors
Life span 10-20 years in captivity • Koi varieties are named by their color pattern. The most
Size depends on genetics, with most common varieties are Kohaku (white fish with red),
Japanese imports being larger. Size is also Sanke (white with red and black), and Showa (black
dependent on water volume and water quality.
with white and red). A poster showing 47 of the most
Adult length up to 28 in (71 cm)
Japanese imports 36+ in (0.9 m) common varieties can be found at www.akca.org.
Chagoi 48+ in (1.2 m) Finnage
Adult weight 6.6-17.6 lb (3-8 kg) • Fins include a dorsal fin, paired pectoral fins and pelvic
Japanese imports 11-22+ lb (5-10+ kg) fins, and a single ventrally located anal fin. Most koi
Chagoi 44+ lb (20 kg)
Koi A Kohaku variety tosai (tosai = koi less than 1 year of age)
have short fins and a tail proportional to their body size.

Long finned and butterfly koi varieties are gaining in
popularity. However, in a pond without adequate room or
in crowded conditions, the long flowing fins are prone to
traumatic injuries and tend to develop ragged margins.

dult females have a rounder body shape and are less
A
streamlined in appearance when compared to adult males.
Spawning occurs most often in the spring when water
temperatures approach 68°F (20°C).
Helen E. Roberts
Spawning is less likely to occur in indoor ponds (where
environmental cues for spawning do not typically occur) or
when fish are under stress (e.g., overcrowded conditions,
poor water quality and during disease outbreaks).
During spawning, several males will pursue females,
“bumping” them onto existing vegetation or artificial A valuable Sanke variety koi
spawning media (mats or pads) to stimulate egg release.
The males will then fertilize the released eggs.
Koi will eat the eggs, so many farmers and hobbyists
remove the pads or mats if they desire a hatch.
Behavior
oi are very food-oriented and will quickly recognize their
K
owners as a source of food and follow them around the
pond with their mouth open!
Koi may be trained to come to a bell or a feeding station
or may be trained to hand feed and perform a few tricks.
Helen E. Roberts
Chagoi tend to be the most “friendly” of all the varieties.
Novel skittish behavior or “hiding” behavior by the fish is a
sign a predator may have visited the pond.
Koi can be captured using a net and carefully manipulated into a bowl. It is best not Koi
to lift the koi out of water using only a net as this can cause injury to the spine.
Captive Housing
ue to their large size as adults, koi are best kept in
D
ponds instead of aquaria.
A recommended volume for 1 full-grown, adult koi is
500-1000 US gallons (2.27-4.5 kL). Small koi may be
raised in smaller volume ponds or aquaria initially.
Most owners keep koi in overcrowded situations, which
predisposes them to stress, poor water quality and
disease outbreaks.
Life support equipment needs to be of sufficient size and
durability to provide adequate water flow, biological
Helen E. Roberts
filtration, waste solids removal and ease of maintenance.

In addition, most experts recommend bottom drains for
koi ponds for increased waste removal and water flow.
Supplemental aeration is also beneficial.
A koi receiving an IM injection near the base of the caudal aspect of the dorsal fin. Some koi are very curious and like to explore novel
Alternatively, the IM injection can be done in the epaxial musculature of a koi. items placed in the pond, such as humans, floating
balls, the bubble stream from air stones, water stream
(if dechlorinated) from a garden hose, underwater
cameras and aquatic plants.
T he optimum temperature for koi is 68-75°F (18-24°C
They can survive in temperatures 32-95°F (0-32°C).
Koi housed in outdoor ponds are very susceptible to
disease out-breaks in the spring as water temperatures
gradually increase. For this reason, owners in cool
climates often winter their koi indoors.
Helen E. Roberts
Rapid temperature changes may be stressful; however,

raising water temperatures may be beneficial in some
disease outbreak situations.
Koi Hand feeding a butterfly koi
Diet
Koi may be fed a commercial pelleted feed. It is
recommended to purchase only what can be fed within
3 months and to rotate brands.
Although wild carp are traditionally bottom feeders, most
koi will accept, and prefer, a floating feed.
A pelleted diet may be supplemented with fresh greens,
orange sections, watermelon slices and romaine lettuce.
Koi may be trained to hand feed with freeze-dried krill,
“Manda fu,” or other palatable food.
Helen E. Roberts
SEDATION / ANESTHESIA
T ricaine methanesulfonate (MS-222): 50-100 ppm (mg/L)
(Finquel® - Argent Chemical Laboratories or Tricaine-S® -
Western Chemical Inc)
Metomidate 0.25-1.0 ppm (mg/L) (Aquacalm,® Western
Chemical Inc) A traumatic injury that was sutured
“Clove oil,” a mixture of isoeugenol, methyleugenol and
eugenol, has been used. Isoeugenol and methyleugenol
have been determined to be carcinogens by the National
Toxicology Program, so the use of “clove oil” is not advised.
Debilitated or stressed fish often require a lower dosage
of anesthetic.

oor water quality is the cause of most stress/disease in
P
koi eventually leading to poor health. Health problems are
compounded by overfeeding, overstocking and a failure to
Helen E. Roberts
appropriately provide an adequate life support system.
Secondary bacterial diseases (external include “fin rot”
and “tail rot” and cutaneous ulcers)
Gonadal neoplasia in a koi Koi
epticemia, characterized by hemorrhages and fraying of

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the fins and tail, cutaneous hemorrhage and ulcers,
coelomic distension/ascites, scale protrusion, anorexia
and lethargy
Cutaneous ulcers (usually secondary to poor water quality,
external parasites and/or koi herpesvirus [KHV])
Koi herpesvirus causes massive mortalities.
External parasitic diseases
Traumatic injuries and cutaneous masses
Coelomic (gonadal) neoplasia
Failure to quarantine is the most common cause of
Helen E. Roberts
infectious disease outbreaks.
VACCINES
Vaccines are not typically used in private practice for koi.
Zoonotic Potential
A severe ulcer in a koi
T here are no zoonotic pathogens specific to koi. All fish
are potential carriers of Mycobacterium sp.
Koi with clinical disease caused by Aeromonas sp.
(common) and Streptococcus iniae (uncommon) may be
considered a potential source for zoonotic disease.
Bacterial pathogens may gain entry through existing open
wounds on the skin or punctures obtained during handling.

1. B alon EK: About the oldest domesticates among fishes. Journal of
Fish Biology 65 (Supplement A):1-27, 2004.
2. Roberts HE: Fundamentals of Ornamental Fish Health. Wiley-
Blackwell, 2009.
Helen E. Roberts
3. Watson CA, Hill JE, Pouder DB: Species Profile: Koi and Goldfish.
SRAC Publication No. 7201, 2004. http://srac.tamu.edu
4. http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu - University of Florida Extension
5. http://srac.tamu.edu - Southern Regional Aquaculture Center
Seahorse Seahorse
(Macroclemys temminckii)
Pet Care Bruce Maclean, BSc (VetSci), BVM&S, MRCVS
COMMON SPECIES / origin

Dwarf seahorse (H. zosterae) - Gulf coast of Florida
Big belly seahorse (H. abdominalis) - Australasian waters
Zebra snout seahorse (H. barbouri) - Southeast Asia waters
Short-snouted seahorse (H. breviceps) - Australasian
waters; (H. hippocampus [European/North African] may
also be referred to as the short-snouted seahorse)
Brazilian or long snout seahorse (H. reidi) - North and
South American waters (Atlantic coast)
Yellow or spotted seahorse (H. kuda) - Southeast Pacific
region (often used as a “default” identification)
Narrow-bellied seahorse (H. angustus) - Australasian waters
Tiger tail seahorse (H. comes) - Southeast Asia
Lined seahorse (H. erectus) - North and South American
coastal waters
Species identification may be difficult (based on various
Bruce Maclean
subtle morphological features, such as number of tail

rings, fin rays, pattern of coronet); mislabelling by
suppliers certainly occurs.
There is also some overlap of usage of common names,
Dwarf seahorse or different usage in different countries.
vital statistics FREE-RANGING HABITAT

Life span 20-70 years in captivity eahorses are generally found hitched onto coral reefs or
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Adult size Varies with the species beds of sea grass or other vegetation.
Length 0.8-12.0 in (2-30 cm)
They are considered a relatively shallow water fish (most
Weight 16-26 in (40-66 cm)
approximately 6.5-164 ft [2-50 m] in depth).
Seahorses Big belly seahorses
eahorses have several unique anatomical features,
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although the body plan is essentially similar to other fish.
These features can make common diagnostic or
therapeutic procedures more difficult or impractical.
They lack scales, instead having dermal bony plates
(which can make injections difficult).
They swim upright.
The mouth is small, located at the end of a long snout.
Gills appear rounded and are inaccessible due to the
small opening; this makes gill biopsies impractical,
Bruce Maclean
although branchial washing may be performed.
The eyes can move independently.
The tail is long and muscular (used for gripping or
“hitching”).
Seahorses have some color change ability (variable with
Zebra snout seahorse
species).
Their swim bladder is single chambered with no
connection to the gut (physoclistous).
SEXING
eahorses are sexually dimorphic; the brood pouch is
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usually visible in males.
Behavior
eahorses are fairly sedentary most of time (except for
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the daily greeting of its mate and the courtship dance).
They are ambush or local hunting predators.
Bruce Maclean
Along with other syngnathids, seahorses are unique in the
animal kingdom in that the male undergoes pregnancy.
The female deposits eggs in the male’s brood pouch with
Brazilian or long snout seahorse Seahorses
the ovipositor, which the male then fertilizes and incubates.

Incubation is typically 2-4 weeks.
The young are independent when born.
Captive Housing
T anks should generally be deep rather than long; a
minimum of 3 times the uncurled length of the seahorse
is recommended.
Recommended water parameters are:
• pH 8.0-8.3
• Specific gravity 1.018-1.024
• Ammonia 0
Bruce Maclean
• Nitrite 0
Generally, live rocks are best avoided, due to the potential
for harboring pests and predators.
Aeration should be reasonable, but significant water
currents should be avoided as much as possible.
Artificial lighting is not generally considered necessary for
the seahorses but will enhance viewing pleasure.
Tank companions are generally best avoided, with the
possible exception of very inoffensive fish, such as
blennies or gobies as “clean up” fish. Seahorses do not
generally compete well with other fish.
Gastropods may also be used for clean-up purposes.
Adequate hitching sites are essential.
Seahorses naturally hunt in nooks and crannies—a
reasonable variety should be provided.
Bruce Maclean
Depends on species; may be broadly:
• Warm tropical = 73-77°F (23-25°C): H. barbouri,
Seahorses Radiographs; male (left), female (right)
H. kuda, H. reidi, H. zosterae, H. erectus, H. breviceps,

H. comes
• Temperate = 64-68°F (18-20°C): H. abdominalis,
H. breviceps
Diet

Any small invertebrates may be offered.
Seahorses will learn a regular feeding regime.
Typically frozen or live mysids and/or brine shrimp are fed
in captivity; a variety should be provided where possible
and enrichment strategies used.
s with all fish, handling with rinsed powder-free gloves
A
(possibly vinyl preferred) is recommended.
Standard fish anesthesia with buffered MS-222 (tricaine
methanesulphonate) is appropriate; 0.05-0.1 g/L (50-
100 ppm) may be used for induction.

as problems: may be gas in brood pouch, gas bubbles
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on tail or gas bladder overinflation. Acetazolamide may
help, particularly with brood pouch or gas bladder issues.
Mycobacteriosis; presentation may often be relatively
acute, although chronic wasting is also possible (typically
sporadic cases).
Vibriosis is common in stress situations.
Most parasites of marine fish can also affect seahorses.
Systemic bacterial, fungal (phaeophyomycosis) and viral
diseases
Two seahorses hitching to one another Seahorses
VACCINES
No vaccines are available or routinely used in pet
seahorses, although some public aquaria have reportedly
used vibrio bacterins.
Zoonotic Potential
eahorses commonly suffer from mycobacteriosis and
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other bacteria, which may be possible zoonotic risks.
special considerations
ecause they are relatively delicate, they are not
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considered a beginner’s pet; they are often very difficult
to rear successfully.

1. K oldeway H: Syngnathid Husbandry in Public Aquariums. Project
Seahorse, Zoological Society of London, 2005.
2. Bennett D (ed): Working Notes - A Guide to Seahorse Diseases.
Tail rot Seahorse.org/Creative License Publishers, 2006.
3. Giwojna P: A Step-by-step Book About Seahorses. TFH
Publications, 1990.
4. Garrick-Maidment N: Seahorses - Conservation and Care.
Kingdom Books, England, 2003.
5. Stoskopf MK (ed): Fish Medicine. WB Saunders Company, 1993.
6. Lourie SA, Vincent ACJ, Hall HJ: Seahorses - A Guide to World
Species, Their Identification and Conservation. Project Seahorse
Publication, 1999.
7. www.seahorse.org
8. www.syngnathid.org
9. http://seahorses.netfirms.com
10. www.seahorse.com
Axolotl Axolotl
(Ambystoma mexicanum)
Pet Care Stephen A. Smith, DVM, PhD
species
mbystoma mexicanum is an amphibian, one of the
A
Mexican neotenic mole salamanders that belongs to the
tiger salamander group.
They are often confused with larval forms of the closely-
related tiger salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum).

xolotls are native to freshwater subterranean lakes and
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canals (Lake Xochimilco and Lake Chalco) near Mexico
City in central Mexico.
Wild axolotls are near extinction due to habitat
destruction, water pollution, extirpation by non-native
species and urbanization.
Free-ranging individuals are extremely rare and are listed
as an endangered species under Appendix 2 of CITES.
L arval axolotls fail to undergo complete metamorphosis
Stan Shebs
and, as a result, retain gills and an aquatic life style as

sexually mature adults.
Axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum) Axolotls have broad heads with lidless eyes and
underdeveloped limbs with long, thin toes.
vital statistics Three large, feathery gills (rami) are located externally on
Life span 10-15 years (avg)
both sides of the head.
Adult size 9-12 in (23-30 cm)
The tail is laterally compressed and has a dorsal
Adult weight 4.2-7.0 oz (120-200 g)
swimming fin along the entire length of the tail.
Axolotls Axolotls are often confused with larval forms of the tiger
salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum), shown.
Captive-bred animals come in a variety of color phases,
including the natural olive green to brown, black, leucistic
and albino.
Sexing
xolotls reach sexual maturity at 18-24 months of age.
A
Adults are sexually dimorphic, with females having a
heavier build and shorter and broader heads than males.
Males also have several enlarged glands around the
cloaca.
After breeding, females may lay up to 300 eggs over
several days. Eggs, which hatch in 2 to 3 weeks, should
be removed as the adults will eat newly hatched larvae.
Behavior
T hough generally not overly aggressive toward tank mates,
feeding activity may result in the lost of toes or gill tips.
An adult albino axolotl displaying red eyes and feathery red gills.
They are responsive to humans and readily adapt to being
fed by hand.
Axolotls are generally more active at night.
Captive Housing
xolotls may be maintained in large aquaria (10 gallon
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[38 L] or larger) or plastic tubs with shallow water.
The water needs to be changed on a regular basis if a
continuous filtration is not incorporated into the system.
Although axolotls will sometimes use a dry area to crawl
out of the water, they spend the majority of their time on
the bottom of a tank.
Lighting must be indirect so as not to increase the water
temperature.
A female axolotl is shown. Axolotls are extensively used in research laboratories, in Axolotls
no small part due to the fact that they have astonishing regenerative potential.
mall pebbles should be avoided as substrate to avoid
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being ingested.
Only individuals of the same size should be housed
together to avoid cannibalism.
Clay pots or sections of PVC pipe may be used as hiding
places.
xolotls prefer temperatures around 62.6-64.4°F
A
(17-18°C) but can usually tolerate temperatures ranging
from 57-68°F (14-20°C).
The water should be on the soft side with a pH of 6.9-7.6.
Chlorine and chloramines should be removed from the
water as these may cause skin and gill problems.
Diet
s carnivores, they may consume small prey items in the
A
wild, such as fish, aquatic insects and worms.
In captivity, they can be fed a variety of commercial fish
pellets, crickets, shrimp, bloodworms, earthworms,
mealworms and waxworms.
Stan Shebs
RESTRAINT
If necessary, axolotls may be handled gently but firmly
with powder-free gloves, as they may easily slip out of the
holder’s grasp.
If using a net, a fine mesh is recommended to avoid
abrasion to the gills and skin.

oor water quality due to poor filtration or inadequate
P
water changes is the major problem of captive axolotls.
Axolotls
Elevated levels of ammonia from the buildup of nitrogenous

wastes in the water may cause gill and skin damage.
Secondary fungal infections, such as Saprolegnia spp.,
and bacterial infections, such as Aeromonas sp. and
Pseudomonas sp., may be problems when water
temperatures are suboptimal or the animals are stressed.
A few recommended antibacterial treatments may be
found in Armstrong and Malacinski.1
Zoonotic Potential
almonellosis has been reported in axolotls, but other
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bacteria, such as Mycobacterium sp., should also be
Stan Shebs
considered zoonotic.
T hough suitable as aquarium animals, excessive handling
by hand or net may cause damage to the gills and limbs Note the 3 separate feathery gills (rami)
of axolotls. on each side of the adult axolotl’s head.

1. A
rmstrong JB, Malacinski GM: Developmental Biology of the
Axolotl. Oxford University Press, New York, 1989, pp 336.
2. Duhon ST: The I.U. axolotl colony’s short guide to the care and
feeding of axolotls: An overview of the methods used at the
Indiana University axolotl colony. ILAR News 30:18-20, 1988.
3. Gresens J: An introduction to the Mexican axolotl (Ambystoma
mexicanum). Lab Animal 33(9):41-47, 2004.
4. Scott PW: Axolotls: Care and Breeding in Captivity. T.F.H.
Publications. Publisher Place, Neptune City, NJ, 1995.
5. www.axolotl.org
6. www.caudata.org (Click “Forum Index” and then “Axolotls”)
http://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog
(Search “captive care Mexican axolotl”)
Mudpuppy Mudpuppy
(Proteidae)
Pet Care Stephen A. Smith, DVM, PhD
COMMON SUBSPECIES

Mudpuppies, or “waterdogs,” belong to the amphibian
family Proteidae, which consists of 2 genera: Necturus
spp. (5 distinct species) and Proteus sp. (1 species).
• Common mudpuppy (Necturus maculosus)
• Alabama waterdog (Necturus alabamensis)
• Gulf Coast waterdog (Necturus beyeri)
• Neuse River waterdog (Necturus lewisi)
• Dwarf waterdog (Necturus punctatus)
• Olm (Proteus anguinus)

Necturus spp. are indigenous to central North America,
while the Proteus sp. is native to southern Europe.
Necturus spp. are found in freshwater habitats (shallow,
slow-moving streams, rivers, ponds and lakes).
The common mudpuppy is found in rivers in the
northeastern United States and parts of Canada.
Proteus anguinus, a blind aquatic salamander, is found in
caves of the northern Adriatic Sea region.
Common mudpuppy (Necturus maculosus)
udpuppies are neotenous, retaining many of the larval
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characteristics, such as external gills, in the adult stage.
vital statistics They have a salamander shape with a broad, flattened
Life span 11-15 years (avg) head, short legs each with four digits, and a wide flat tail.
Adult size 11-16 in (28-40 cm) They are brown to bluish-grey in color with a grey underside.
Mudpuppies Olm (Proteus anguinus)

T he vent of the male has a transverse groove with 2 promi
nent papillae directed backwards at the rear of the vent.
Mudpuppies mate in the fall and early winter, and females
deposit eggs in the late spring or early summer.
Clutches of 30-100 eggs are attached to substrate
(rocks, logs, aquaria glass).
Larvae hatch in 1-2 months and mature in 5 years.
Captive Housing
udpuppies are bottom-dwelling animals and can be
M
maintained in aquaria or shallow tanks.
The water needs to be changed on a regular basis, or a
continuous filtration system needs to be integrated into The dorsal view of a mudpuppy shows large caudal fin and relatively large limbs.
the aquaria or tank.
Minimal lighting is required as mudpuppies are nocturnal.
Dr. Karen E. Petersen, Dept. of Biology, University of Washington

Caves and hiding places are recommended.
Mudpuppies prefer room temperature or cooler
temperatures, so heaters are not needed for this species.
As with other aquatic organisms, chlorine, chloramines and
other environmental contaminants should be removed from
the water, as these may cause skin and gill problems. A close up of the mudpuppy’s head shows its flattened
head, small eyes and very large plume-like gills.
Diet

Mudpuppies are carnivores and feed on small fishes,
crayfish, aquatic insects, insect larvae and mollusks.
In captivity, they readily consume earthworms,
bloodworms, mealworms, crickets and frozen shrimp.
RESTRAINT
udpuppies should be handled gently but firmly with
M
powder-free gloves, as they are slippery to hold.
Mudpuppy hatchlings Mudpuppies
If a net is used for restraint, a fine mesh net is

recommended to avoid abrasion to the gills and skin.
Excessive handling by hand or net may cause damage to
the gills and skin.

ater quality disorders resulting from poor filtration or
W
inadequate water changes are the major problems.
Elevated levels of nitrogenous wastes in the water, such
as ammonia or nitrites, may cause gill and skin damage.
Fungal and bacterial infections may be secondary problems
when water qualities or temperatures are suboptimal.
Zoonotic Potential
lthough there is nothing reported in the literature, zoonotic
A
bacteria, such as Mycobacterium sp., should be considered.

1. H arris JP: The natural history of Necturus: I. Habitats and habits.
Field and Lab 27:11-20, 1959.
2. Harris JP: The natural history of Necturus: II. Respiration and phona-
tion. Field and Lab 27:71-77, 1959.
3. Harris JP: The natural history of Necturus: III. Food and feeding.
Field and Lab 27:105-111, 1959.
4. Harris JP: The natural history of Necturus: IV. Reproduction. Field
and Lab 29:69-81, 1961.
5. Petranka JW: Salamanders of United States and Canada.
Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC, 1998, p 587.
6. Sket B: Distribution of Proteus (Amphibia: Urodela: Proteidae) and
its possible explanation. J Biogeography 24 (3):263-280, 1997.
Proteidae.html
Necturus_maculosus.html
9. www.caudata.org
Pet Chickens Pet Chickens
Care * Cathy A. Johnson-Delaney, DVM, Dipl ABVP-Avian and

Steven Benscheidt, DVM
breeds / physical attributes

arious chicken breeds have developed from domestication
V
Christoph Neumüller - Creative Commons-Share Alike License
of the red junglefowl (Gallus gallus, forma domesticus) for

different purposes: egg laying (leghorns), meat (Cornish) or
meat and eggs (Plymouth rocks, Rhode Island reds and
New Hampshire), as well as for exhibition.
Laws and Permits

aintaining, breeding, treating or commercially dealing with
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chickens may be regulated by laws that govern the
protection of animals, property rights, exchange of goods,
liability, epornitics, food for human consumption, hunting
and transport of animals.
Voluntary federal and state programs, such as the National
Poultry Improvement Plan (NPIP), provide testing for specific
diseases to facilitate transport of fowl.
Local laws and city codes must be consulted for specific
management guidelines (e.g., possibly limiting the number
of roosters on a given amount of land).
vital statistics The recommendations in this section apply to individual
Life span 10-11 years Heart rate 220-360 beats per min chickens or small flocks that are maintained as pets or for
Average weight 283-510 g (10-18 oz) Rectal temperature 41.2°C (106.1°F) egg laying.
Range of weights 50-2000 g, Sexual maturity 4.5-5 months Numerous online resources are available for management
depending on breed (begin laying; sexually
mature by 1 year) of small flocks (e.g., www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/
Respiratory rate 12-37 breaths per min
poulsci/tech_manuals/small_flock_resources.html).
*Adapted in part from Johnson-Delaney C: Exotic Companion Medicine Handbook. Zoological

Education Network, 2000.
Pet Chickens Leghorn
Behavior
hickens seem to be the fowl to which owners most easily
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bond and for which they are willing to seek veterinary
attention when needed.
They are usually gentle but during the breeding season can
be aggressive, especially males.
Chickens are easier to carry than other fowl, have less
messy stool and produce fresh eggs for consumption.
Captive Housing for Adults

hickens are usually housed in groups outdoors where they
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can eat grass and peck for bugs.
Studies of chickens kept in cages clearly show that without
appropriate foraging material, feather pecking and other
behavioral problems are common.
Chicken coops provide shelter and safety for sleeping and
Rhode Island red
laying eggs.
Coops should be made of strong materials, be easy to
clean and be dry and well ventilated.
A shaded portion is essential, especially in summer, and
supplemental heat may be necessary in winter climates.
To prevent access by predators, wire sides or sheet metal
should be extended underground, and the top should be
covered with wire mesh.
Indoor/outdoor aviaries should be as large as possible (with
extra height for roosting).
Roosts should be placed so that the tail or wing of a
roosting bird does not touch the sides of the aviary.
Natural turf surfaces are best, with an area designated for
dust/sand baths.
Appropriate indoor substrates include shavings, sawdust,
Chickens are usually housed in groups outdoors where Pet Chickens

they can forage.
straw or recycled paper pellets to a depth of 6-8 inches
(15-20 cm).
The substrate should be changed routinely to prevent
ammonia buildup.
Clean nesting material, such as wood shavings, should be
provided in the nests at all times.
Many pet chickens reside in the home, with an area in a
kitchen or laundry room sectioned off by gates.
The substrate often consists of layers of newspaper with
straw or hay, although towels, blankets or other types of
Karin Kanton, DVM

cloth bedding may be provided in a small box for a roost.
Pet chickens with access to carpet and upholstery fabric
may entangle their nails, leading to injury, or may ingest
these materials, leading to impactions or other gastro
intestinal disorders.
Pet chickens may peck and ingest other household items,
such as rubber bands, small trinkets, jewelry, grouting,
Coops provide shelter and safety for chickens.
window/door insulation materials and even foam shoe
insoles, which can also lead to gastrointestinal problems.
Although many pet chickens appear to get along well with
other household pets, such as dogs, cats or ferrets, they
should not be left unattended.
Sleeping boxes or pen areas should be well-secured at
night or when owners are not home so that these other
pets do not have access to the chickens.
Pet chickens should be offered some daily access to the
Karin Kanton, DVM
outdoors and dust/sand areas for grooming.
captive Housing for Chicks

ntil baby chickens are 10 weeks old they may need
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supplemental heat in a draft-free area.
Pet Chickens Baby chicks may need supplemental heat until they are
10 weeks old.
or 1-week-old chicks, the room temperature should be
F
90°F (32°C) with a gradual dropping of 5°F (3°C) per week
until the temperature is 70°F (21°C).
At 4 weeks of age the floor space should be one-half
square foot per chick, gradually enlarging to 5 ft2 (0.5 m²)
per chick at 21 weeks of age.
One waterer should be provided for every 25-50 chicks.
The water and food containers should be placed outside
the edge of the hover brooders.
Karin Kanton, DVM

Diet for Adults
any disorders of captive poultry are directly or indirectly
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related to malnutrition.
As with other birds, a seed diet is not a complete diet, nor
is chicken scratch or cracked corn.
Commercial formulated diets are available for domestic
As chicks mature the room temperature can be
fowl and include chick starter, layer, broiler and adult
gradually reduced.
maintenance, with considerable variation in the levels of
calcium, protein and energy among the rations.
It is best to feed commercial diets without coccidiostats,
antiflagellates or antimicrobials.
Extra-label use of medicated feed for production purposes
is not allowed.
The availability of fresh green plants to the diet provides
the birds with nutritional diversity.
Owners should refrain from offering their chickens table
Karin Kanton, DVM

scraps, bakery goods and human foods in general.
As an occasional treat, commercial mealworms or
earthworms are relished.
Because obesity is a major problem in pet chickens,
portions of commercial poultry food should be measured.
Juvenile chickens are able to forage on their own. Pet Chickens
irds that are not allowed to freely roam should have

B
access to grit. The grit container should be emptied and
refilled regularly with various sizes of grit because birds
select only stones that are suitable for their body mass.
Pellets or complete rations have an adequate supply of
calcium and should not be supplemented with lime or
crushed shell.
Fresh, clean water must be available at all times.
Diet for Chicks

or the first 6 weeks of age, a 20% protein starter mash
F
should be offered, which can be gradually changed to a
16% protein formula after 8 weeks of age.
Feed should be provided to newly hatched chicks on a
large, flat plate on which they can move around and
Mother hen with her chicks practice picking.
By 5-7 days of age, food can be offered in larger
containers.
Shallow bowls should be used for water, as small chicks
may drown in large water containers.
Reducing drinker depth by placing stones or glass marbles
in the container will reduce losses.
Sexing and reproduction

ost chicken breeds show a marked sexual dimorphism.
M
The size (height and width), body mass (weight), color of
the plumage, shape of certain feathers, presence of spurs
and the length and color of the tail feathers assist in
gender determination between adults.
Highly skilled individuals can determine gender by
examining the cloaca in 1-day-old chicks or in adults.
Pet Chickens Sexual dimorphism is evident in most breeds of chickens.
ehavioral clues, like dominance and certain mating

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rituals, may suggest a gender but are not always indicative.
Endoscopic examination of the gonads provides definitive
determination of gender in species with similar morphologic
characteristics.
The laying pattern is nondeterminant (the hen continues to
lay if eggs are removed).
The clutch size is 5-8 chicks, and the incubation period is
19-22 days
Restraint
T he face and eyes of handlers should be protected from
possible injury from spurs (cocks) or beaks.
A hooked long stick can be used to gently catch chickens
in an aviary.
The legs of chickens should be restrained first and then the
A chicken was presented with an overgrown beak, presumably due to malnutrition (it
abdomen supported from below.
had been fed cat food). The beak was successfully trimmed with a Dremel tool, the
A large bird can be restrained by placing it under one arm diet was changed to commercial poultry feed and the overgrowth did not recur.
and pressing it gently against one’s body.

Birds can be calmed by placing a loose-fitting lightweight
cotton sock over the head to reduce vision.
Some chickens may go into a “hypnotic” state for
noninvasive procedures by having their head placed under
a wing and rocking them side to side.
Chickens that are housed exclusively outdoors may
become overheated during the trip to the veterinary clinic
and subsequent examination.
The examination room should be as cool as possible. If the
chicken appears agitated and begins panting, the
examination should be suspended until the panting stops.
Midazolam (0.5 mg/kg IM) may alleviate anxiety and
Hematologic Reference Ranges Biochemistry Reference Ranges Pet Chickens

for Domestic Fowl for Domestic Fowl
struggling, thereby decreasing the potential for overheating.
Basophils 0-8% Albumin 1.3-2.8 g% The calming effect may greatly facilitate a thorough
Eosinophils 0-16% Calcium 13.2-23.7 mg% examination.
Erythrocytes 1.25-4.50 x106/mm3 Cholesterol 86-211 mg%
(RBC) Glucose 227-300 mg% Anesthetic Protocols
Hematocrit 23-55 ml% s with other birds, anesthetic protocols should include a
A
Creatine 0.9-1.8 mg%
(PCV) balanced approach: anti-anxiety/sedation, analgesia and
Globulin 1.5-4.1 g%
Hemoglobin 7.0-18.6 g/dl then anesthesia or loss of consciousness.
Phosphorus 6.2-7.9 mg% The use of midazolam (0.25-0.5 mg/kg IM) coupled with
Lymphocytes 29-84%
Potassium 3.0-7.3 mEq/L the analgesic butorphanol (0.2-0.5 mg/kg IM) may be
MCH 25-48 µµg
Sodium 131-171 mEq/L adequate for diagnostic procedures, such as radiography
MCHC 20-34%
Total protein 3.3-5.5 g% and ultrasonography.
MCV 100-139 µ3 Anesthesia may then be induced with isoflurane via face
Uric acid 2.5-8.1 mg%
Monocytes 0.05-7.00% mask and maintained via intubation.
Neutrophils 15.1-50.0% Chickens should have a pre-anesthetic blood pressure
Platelets 13-70 x103/mm3 (systolic) value obtained using the wing and should be
Sedimentation 0.5-6.5 mm/hour monitored during anesthesia with ECG and blood pressure
rate measurements.
WBC 9-32 x103/mm3 Respiratory apnea to inhalant anesthetics is less likely if
sufficient pre-anesthetic sedation and analgesia have been
provided.
Local anesthetic injection or infiltration using lidocaine 2%
will not only provide local analgesia, but in combination
with the pre-anesthetic medications, allow for lower
concentrations of inhalant anesthetic gases to be used.
Vaccination Program
T he goal in small chicken collections should be disease
prevention by avoiding entry of disease organisms onto the
premises.
Vaccines for fowl are readily available for commercial use
Pet Chickens Anatomy
but not for smaller collections.
Used with permission of the Department of Poultry Science of Mississippi State University.
Diseases commonly considered for vaccination, if endemic
or if virulent strains are of concern in the area, include
Marek’s disease, infectious laryngotracheitis, pox,
Newcastle’s disease and infectious bursal disease.
Chickens sold by feed stores or large suppliers may have
already been vaccinated.
Health Certificates
T he Veterinary Services Area Office for the specific state
must be contacted for instructions on testing animals being
transported to another country.
Health certificates usually require testing for mycoplasma,
salmonella (specifically the poultry-specific Salmonella
pullorum) and influenza species.
Grooming
ost chickens take baths in dust or sand rather than
M
water.
The use of these abrasive materials on the plumage may
function to lightly abrade and polish the edges of the
feathers and may help reduce the number of external
parasites as long as the sand itself is not contaminated.
Insect powders should be used only if they are nontoxic
and only if the birds in fact have parasites.
Beak trimming is not recommended in chickens raised for
hobby or for pets.
When performed improperly, this procedure may interfere
with the bird’s ability to eat, may result in infection and
even affect the bird’s social ranking in the flock.
Owners of pet roosters may have the veterinarian blunt the
Radiograph of a 9-year-old rooster with severe gout/arthritis. Pet Chickens
tips of the spurs, which can be performed with a Dremel

sanding tool.
The veterinarian should wear appropriate mask and face

protection to prevent inhalation of dust. The procedure
should be monitored for potential bleeding, as with all
birds.
Trimming of the flight feathers can be performed, as with
psittacines, to prevent birds from escaping from open
aviaries or to reduce the mobility of an aggressive cock
during the breeding period.
A sufficient amount of wing feathers should remain to
prevent damage to the keel if the bird should try to fly and
instead crash.
Blood Collection Sites

J ugular vein
Ultrasound from an eggbound hen with oviductal Wing (brachial) vein
adrenocarcinoma. Tarsal/metatarsal vein

et chickens are susceptible to a wide variety of viral,

P
bacterial, mycoplasmal, parasitic, chlamydial, rickettsial
and fungal agents.
Cannibalism may be expressed as vent picking, feather
pulling, toe picking, head picking and egg eating. Over
crowding, incorrect feeding, an inappropriate daylight cycle,
high light intensity, poor housing conditions (e.g., high
proportion of toxic gases in the air), genetic predisposition
and other factors may all promote cannibalism.
Common internal parasites may include coccidia,
roundworms and capillaria.
Pet Chickens An ECG was performed on this rooster with congestive heart failure.
xternal parasites commonly found on chickens are lice,
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fleas, flies, mosquitoes, midges and ticks.

Aging chickens develop atherosclerosis, cardiomyopathy,
arthritis, gout, obesity and renal disease.
Reproductive system diseases include chronic infections
and neoplasia.
Primary Zoonotic Potentials

olibacillosis (Escherichia coli) - ingestion
C
Erysipelas (Erysipelothrix insidiosa) - contact
Tuberculosis (Mycobacterium avium) - ingestion, inhalation
Salmonellosis (Salmonella pullorum) - ingestion
Chlamydiosis (Chlamydophila psittaci) - inhalation, aerosol
Common Diagnostic Tests

BC, serum chemistries
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Culture, sensitivity (state diagnostic lab)
Fecal parasite examination (flotation, direct smear,
centrifugation)
Fecal Gram’s stain
Necropsy (state diagnostic lab)
Therapeutic Considerations
T herapeutics appropriate for chickens are listed in the
literature and must be approved for use in “food” animals
whether the animals are actually consumed or not.
Off-label usage for food animals is more strict than for
traditional companion animals: 1) there must be a proper
veterinarian/client relationship; 2) the veterinarian must
Angela Lennox
supply a scientifically based withdrawal time; 3) there must
be a medical rationale for the drug noted in the record;
Pet Chickens
Selected Online Resources
and 4) if scientific information on the human food safety
• Cooperative Extension Service (check local telephone directory) aspect of the drug is not available, the veterinarian must
• The Game Bird Gazette (hobbyist magazine) www.gamebird.com take appropriate measures to ensure the animal and its
• Journal of the American Association of Avian Pathologists (Avian Diseases) food products do not enter the human food supply.
www.aaap.info If eggs from a bird being treated are consumed, the owner
• Journal of the Wildlife Diseases Association www.wildlife.org should be advised in writing of the withdrawal times for any
• Journal of the Poultry Science Association www.poultryscience.org and all medications used during the veterinary examination
• Avian Pathology www.tandf.co.uk/journals/titles/03079457.asp and therapy.
• National Poultry Improvement Plan www.aphis.usda.gov/vis/npip Fluoroquinolone products may no longer be sold,
• www.farad.org distributed or administered to chickens whether they are
• FDA Center for Veterinary Medicine Extra-Label Use of Medicated Feeds pets or livestock.
www.fda.gov/cvm/CVM_Updates/CPGExtraLabelUse.htm Other extra-label prohibitions include: diethylstilbestrol
• http://madcitychickens.com (DES), chloramphenicol, nitroimidazoles (including
• www.chickendiapers.com dimetridazole, metronidazole and ipronidazole), clenbuterol,
• www.backyardchickens.com dipyrone, glycopeptides (e.g., vancomycin), nitrofurans
• www.mypetchicken.com (including nitrofurazone, furazolidone, topical use prohibited
• www.henspa.com as well), and gentian violet.
• www.wikihow.com/Keep-Chickens-in-a-City One may access the Food and Animal Residue Avoidance
• www.the-scientist.com/news/display/53190 Databank for prohibited drugs at www.FARAD.org.
• www.msstate.edu/dept/poultry/pub1276.htm
• http://extension.missouri.edu/explore/agguides/poultry REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
• http://poultryextension.psu.edu/Management.html 1. B
utcher GD: Clinical management of captive Galliformes. In
Harrison GJ, Lightfoot TL (eds): Clinical Avian Medicine. Spix
• www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/poultry/factsheets/designs.html Publishing, 2006.
• www.mcmurrayhatchery.com 2. Carpenter JW: Exotic Animal Formulary 3rd ed. Elsevier, 2005.
3. Echols S: Captive Foraging DVD. Zoological Education Network,
2006.
4. Johnson-Delaney CA: Exotic Companion Medicine Handbook.
Zoological Education Network, 2000.
5. Schales C, Schales K: Galliformes. In Ritchie BW, Harrison GJ,
Harrison LR (eds): Avian Medicine: Principles and Application.
Brentwood, TN, HBD Intl, 1999.
6. Spenser EL: Compounding, extralabel drug use, and other phar-
maceutical quagmires in avian and exotics practice. Sem Avian &
Exotic Pet Med 13(1):16-24, 2004.
Ornamental Goose Ornamental Goose

(Anser sp., Chen sp., Branta sp.)
COMMON SPECIES
ost common types kept can be divided broadly into
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three groups:
• Grey geese (Anser sp.) include greylag (A. anser),
bean (A. fabalis), pink-footed (A. brachyrhynchus),
greater white-fronted (A. albifrons) and bar-headed
(A. indicus)
• White geese (Chen sp.) include snow (C. caerule
scens), Ross (C. rossii) and emperor (C. canagicus)
• Black geese (Branta sp.) include Canada
(B. canadensis), Brent (B. bernicla), barnacle
(B. leucopsis), red-breasted (B. ruficollis) and nene
or Hawaiian (B. sandvicensis)
Behavior
Piotr Kuczynski

Some species/individuals may be aggressive.
Generally monomorphic, except for size and vocalization
Monogamous
Greylag goose (Anser anser) Most species are sexually mature at 2 years of age.
vital statistics Captive Housing

Large predator-proof enclosure with a pond (min. 300 m2
Adult size Variable depending on [360 yards2] for 1 pair; up to 10 pairs per hectare)
species/subspecies: Geese should be housed in pairs or groups.
1.1-6.5 kg (2.4-14.0 lb
Access to fresh water, preferably flowing, is necessary.
Canada geese: 3.2-6.5 kg
(7-14 lb) Pond size: min. 20% water to land
Ornamental Geese Bar-headed goose (Anser indicus)

Pond should have slope or ramp (<30°) for entry and exit.
Plants are necessary for shelter, protection and shade.
An artificial shelter should be erected if plant cover is
minimal and/or the climate is harsh.
Materials for nest-building (e.g., leaf litter, peat, fresh
straw, piles of rocks/logs, old car tires) should be provided.
Access to a large area of short grass for grazing, ideally
on free-draining soil, is recommended.
Clean, dry bedding should be provided.
Geese may be kept with ornamental ducks.
Overhead netting to limit wild bird access is desirable.
Geese are tolerant of a range of temperature and humidity,
provided that enclosure permits shelter from extremes.
Diet
razers; strictly herbivorous
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Short herbs, grasses and clovers; may dig for roots/tubers
Generally large areas of short grass sward are needed.
If the grass area is not sufficient (e.g., high stocking
densities and/or in winter) supplementation may be Canada goose (Branta canadensis)

provided with dark leafy greens, pellets (waterfowl or
poultry layer) and wheat.
One feeder per pair is necessary to ensure all in group
can feed freely, and a number of feeding stations and/or
scattered food will promote normal foraging behavior.
Grit should be available.

Feeding excess food should be avoided; uneaten food
promotes wild rodents, food spoilage (e.g., fungal growth)
and eutrophication of water sources.
Fresh sward should be used (not from the previous year)
for goslings to avoid gizzard worms and gapeworms.
Red-breasted goose (Branta ruficollis) Ornamental Geese
Restraint
Geese can be aggressive and will bite.
Limit access to water; drive into a corner.
Geese may be restrained by placing one hand loosely
around the neck while using the other hand to hold the
wings in over the back and then sliding one hand under
the body to restrain the feet.
Alternatively, the goose may be lifted onto a forearm,
tucking the neck under the arm so the head is pointing
behind the handler (as demonstrated on a swan to the
right).
To aid restraint and to permanently limit flying
ability where open enclosures are used,
pinioning (amputation of the terminal phalanx of
one wing) may be carried out on conscious
goslings at 1-7 days of age. In older birds,
Canada geese mating ritual anesthesia is required.
Anesthesia
re-anesthetic fasting is not required.
P
Options for pre-medication (not always required): butor
phanol 0.5-1.0 mg/kg IM/IV or midazolam 0.1-1 mg/kg
IM/IV
Inhalational (via mask and/or endotracheal tube):
isoflurane (5% induction; 2-3% maintenance) or
sevoflurane (8% induction; 4-5% maintenance)
Injectable option 1: medetomidine 0.15 mg/kg IV + keta
mine 3 mg/kg (reversed with atipamezole 0.75 mg/kg IM)
Injectable option 2: alfaxalone 5-10 mg/kg IV or IM
Injectable option 3: alfaxalone/alfadalone 7 mg/kg IV
Injectable option 4: propofol 10-15 mg/kg IV followed by
Ornamental Geese Emperor goose (Chen canagicus) on its nest
intubation and maintenance on isoflurane or sevoflurane

Assisted ventilation may be required (manual/mechanical)

Pododermatitis (bumblefoot)
Alimentary tract impactions (if feeding on lush, long grass)
Amyloidosis
Botulism
Algal and mycotoxicosis
Tim Bowman, USFWS

Yolk coelomitis
Dystocia (egg binding)
Cloacal organ prolapse
Viral diseases, e.g., goose viral hepatitis, hemorrhagic
nephritis and enteritis of geese
Bacterial diseases, e.g., Mycobacterium avium, pseudo
tuberculosis, mycoplasmosis, salmonellosis, colibacillosis,
chlamydiosis, (avian cholera) Canada goose and goslings
Fungal diseases, e.g., aspergillosis, candidiasis
Parasitic diseases, e.g., gizzard worm, schistosomiasis,
coccidiosis, gapeworms, air sac mites
Neonatal disorders, e.g., yolk sac infection/retention,
enteritis, leg/wing deformities
vaccines
None essential, but vaccination for the following may be
considered if significant risk factors are relevant:
• Goose viral hepatitis 1
• Hemorrhagic nephritis and enteritis of geese
Donna Dewhurst
• Newcastle disease
• Avian influenza
• West Nile virus
Anser canagicus in a park Ornamental Geese
Zoonotic Potential

Avian influenza
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0
Avian tuberculosis
Campylobacteriosis
Chlamydiosis
Erysipelas
Escherichia coli infection
Newcastle disease
Salmonellosis
Unported license.

Regular annual endoparasite prophylaxis is recommended
(e.g., with ivermectin, levamisole or a benzimidazole).
New stock should be isolated for up to 1 month before
introduction to existing group.
Lesser white-fronted ean goose

B References and Further Reading
Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license
goose (Anser erythropus) (Anser fabalis) 1. Kear J, Hulme M: Ducks, Geese and Swans. Oxford University
Press, 2005.
2. Morishita T: Waterfowl husbandry for the avian health professional.
BS Thurner Hof; Creative Commons
Sem Avian Exot Pet 13(4):184-190, 2004.

3. Roberts V: Waterfowl: Health and husbandry. In Roberts V, Scott-
Park F (eds): BSAVA Manual of Farm Pets. BSAVA, 2008, pp 237-
249.
4. Smith S, Rodriguez Barbon A: Waterfowl: Medicine and surgery. In
Roberts V, Scott-Park F (eds): BSAVA Manual of Farm Pets. British
Adrian Pingstone
Small Animal Veterinary Association, 2008, pp 250-273.
5. Wildlife Information Network. Wildpro Multimedia CD: Waterfowl.
The Royal Veterinary College, 2000.
6. www.waterfowl.org.uk
7. Flinchum GB: Management of waterfowl. In Harrison GJ, Lightfoot
T (eds): Clinical Avian Medicine. Palm Beach, Spix Publishing,
2006, pp 830-848.
8. Olsen JH: Anseriformes. 1999, In Ritchie BW, Harrison GJ,
Harrison LR (eds): Avian Medicine: Principles & Application.
Brentwood, TN, HBD Intl, 2001, pp 1236-1275.
Peafowl Peafowl
(Phasianidae)
Pet Care David Hannon, DVM, Dipl ABVP (Avian)
SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES

Peafowl are in the pheasant family; 3 recognized species:
• Blue, Indian or common peafowl (Pavo cristatus)
• Green or scaled peafowl (Pavo muticus)
There are 3 subspecies of green peafowl:
° Javanese green peafowl (P. m. muticus)
° Indo-Chinese green peafowl (P. m. imperator)
° Western Burmese green peafowl (P. m. spicifer)
• Congo peafowl (Afropavo congensis)
GNU Free Documentation License
Many color mutations have derived from captive breeding.

Blue peafowl are native to India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and
Nepal. Green peafowl are native to the Asian subcontinent,
ranging from Bangladesh to Vietnam and south to Malaysia.
Javanese green peafowl are found in southern Thailand
and Malaysia and also on the Indonesian island Java.
Congo peafowl are native to central Africa, ranging
Blue peacock (Pavo cristatus) primarily within the Democratic Republic of Congo.
vital statistics
Peafowl may be found primarily in scrub areas and dense
forests, but occasionally in more open country.
Adult length
Peacocks 5.9-7.3 ft (180-220 cm) They prefer to be near fresh water, often along riverbanks.
full breeding plumage
3.5 ft (107 cm) not breeding Physical Characteristics
Peahens 2.8-3.1 ft (86-95 cm)
Blue peacocks/peahens
Adult weight
Peacocks 8.8-13.2 lb (4-6 kg) Blue peacocks have a glossy blue head, neck and breast.
Peahens 6-8.8 lb (2.8-4 kg) Their backs are golden-green, and their wings are buff
Peafowl Green peacock (Pavo muticus)

white irregularly barred or mottled with black and a fan-
shaped crest on the top of the head with blue-green tips.
Blue peahens are more drab than males, with brown to
bronze-green coloration of the head and back. Their neck is
bronze-green cranially, fading to a buff and black mottled
pattern. Their crown has green to brown tips.
The peacock’s most distinctive feature is its tail or train,
which can be 4.6-5.3 ft (1.4-1.4 m) long. The display
feathers are actually elongated covert feathers, which are
made up of metallic barbs that are coppery bronze/gold/
dark green and are supported by the shorter retrices.
Most feathers have an “eye” or ocellus, with a blue center
surrounded by rings of brilliant blue or green and copper.
Males will molt and regrow their tail coverts in the fall.
Chicks are brown with a buff breast. First year males show
a blue neck and breast and full plumage at 3 years of age.
Green peacocks/peahens
Green peacocks differ from blue peacocks in that their
neck and cranial breast are green; their crown is more of
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike license

a tuft than a fan. Green peahens have brighter plumage
than blue peahens.
Congo peacocks/peahens
Congo peacocks are primarily dark brown to black with a
blue to violet breast. The throat area and cranial neck are
devoid of feathers and are bright red in color. The crest is
made up of many white and black hair-like feathers.
Congos lack the long train their Asian counterparts have.

dult peafowl are sexually dimorphic, although outside of
A
the breeding season when the males are not in full
Green peahen (Pavo muticus) Peafowl
plumage, male and female green peafowl may look similar.
Mark Pellegrini - Creative Commons Attribution-Share

Dimorphism occurs a few weeks after hatching.
Peafowl are sexually mature at 3 years of age, although a
yearling peahen may lay a fertile clutch if housed with a
mature male.
One male may breed with multiple females.
Although they roost in trees, blue and green peafowl make
their nests on the ground. Congo peafowl nest in trees.
Peahens typically start laying eggs in April and will lay eggs
every other day until a full clutch of 4-10 eggs is laid and
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will continue to lay if the eggs are removed from the nest.
Incubation times vary from 27-30 days.
Like other Galliformes, hatchling peachicks are precocial.
They may be housed in brooders until 2-3 months of age.
Baby peafowl (Pavo cristatus)
Behavior
eafowl are diurnal and spend most of their time foraging
P
Ltshears - Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike license
for food on the ground and in shallow water. At night they

will roost in trees, sometimes as high as 49 ft (15 m).
They rarely fly but will if startled.
The most impressive aspect of the blue and green
peacocks is their ability to lift their tail feathers into a
large arc 5.9-6.9 ft (1.8-2.1 m) wide to attract females.
Males with the longest trains and largest ocelli are chosen
for mates more often and sire larger clutches.
Peafowl have a very loud high-pitched cry that is often
voiced during mating season or as an alarm call.
Captive Housing
dult peacocks require large enclosures to accommodate
A
their tails.
Peafowl Blue peacock (Pavo cristatus)

light pens for breeder birds should be constructed at
F
least 6 ft (1.9 m) tall and 10 ft (3 m) wide, with the
length determined by the number of birds in the cage
(80-100 ft2 [7.4-9.2 m2] per bird).
It should be topped with wire or netting to prevent escape.
A covered shelter may be placed at one end and should be
at least 8 ft wide x 8 ft long x 6 ft tall (2.4 x 2.4 x 1.8 m).
Multiple perches should be available for roosting and
should be placed 4-5 feet (1.2-1.5 m) off the floor to
prevent damage to the peacock’s tail.
Peafowl thrive in a free-range environment but are more
susceptible to predation, escape or injury.
Ltshears
Newly acquired peafowl should be penned for 4-5 months
to acclimate them before they are allowed to roam freely.
Peafowl should not be housed with other fowl. They are Blue peahen (Pavo cristatus)
often aggressive toward other species.
Supplemental heat may be necessary in colder weather.
Ltshears - Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike license

Nests may be built on the ground or in low structures,
such as tires or buckets.
Diet

Peafowl are omnivorous. Their natural diet includes plant
parts (flowers, buds, seeds, leaves and berries), insects
and other arthropods, reptiles, amphibians and crustaceans.
In captivity, peafowl may be fed a game bird crumble or
pellet suitable for pheasants. The diet may be supplemented
with dry dog /cat food to increase dietary protein. Cracked
corn may be offered in the winter to increase body fat.
Breeders may be fed a game bird layer diet during
breeding season.
In captivity, peafowl may be offered supplemental fruits,
Congo peacock (Afropavo congensis) Peafowl
vegetables, seeds, arthropods and grit, but free-range birds
Arjan Haverkamp - Creative Commons Attribution-Share

will supplement their diet with food in their environment.
Chicks should be fed 30% game bird starter diet for the
first month.
Peafowl drink a large quantity of water and should have
access to fresh clean water at all times.
RESTRAINT
irds should be grasped by the shoulders over the wings,
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not by the head, neck or legs.
Peafowl may have formidable spurs and inflict injuries.
Individuals may be transported in boxes or animal crates.
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Sufficient room and care should be given to prevent

damage to the male’s train.
ANESTHESIA
Congo peahen (Afropavo congensis) Isoflurane/sevoflurane provide rapid induction via face mask
and are generally safe, even in compromised individuals.
Birds may be maintained at 2-3% isoflurane or 4-5%
Ton Schlösser - Creative Commons Attribution-Share
sevoflurane. Recovery is relatively rapid.

If the bird is anxious, distressed or in pain, it may be
given midazolam (0.25-0.5 mg/kg IM) and butorphanol
(2-4 mg/kg IM) prior to handling or anesthesia induction.
Alternately, injectable anesthesia with ketamine (20-25
mg/kg IM) and xylazine (1-2 mg/kg IM) may be used for
short procedures.
Close monitoring of core body temperature, heart rate and
blood pressure should be provided for all anesthetized birds
as well as intermittent positive pressure ventilation.
Alike license

External parasites (mites, lice, ticks, chiggers)
Peafowl Blue peacock lifting and fanning its tail feathers

Helminths (Oxyspirura, Syngamus, Ascaridia, Capillaria and
Cheilospirua spp. and cestodes). Free-range peafowl or
birds housed on dirt floors should be dewormed biannually.
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike license

Protozoal infections (coccidiosis, histomoniasis, tricho
moniasis, leucocytozoonosis and Haemoproteus infection)
Viruses that have been documented in peafowl include
Newcastle disease, fowl pox and hemorrhagic enteritis.
Bacterial pathogens (Salmonella pullorum, S. gallinarum,
S. arizonae, paratyphoid, Mycobacterium avium, Bordetella
avium, Haemophilus paragallinarum, Pasteurella multocida)
Other pathogens (Mycoplasma gallisepticum, M. synoviae,
M. meleagridis, Chlamydophila psittaci, Candida albicans)
Nutritional diseases (perosis, rickets, curled toe paralysis,
crazy chick disease, white muscle disease, nutritional roup)
Noninfectious conditions (trauma, impaction, foreign body
ingestion and reproductive disorders)
Blue peacock lifting and fanning its tail feathers
Zoonotic Potential
eafowl may harbor Chlamydophila, Salmonella and
P
Mycobacterium spp.
VACCINES
oultry vaccines may be used off-label to prevent Newcastle
P
disease, fowl pox, hemorrhagic enteritis and pasteurellosis.

1. B ergmann J: The Peafowl of the World. Saiga Publishing Co. Ltd, 1980.
2. Saif YM (ed): Diseases of Poultry 11th ed. Iowa State Press, 2003.
3. Hollamby S, et al: Survey of peafowl (Pavo cristatus) for potential
pathogens at 3 Michigan zoos. J Zoo Wildl Med 34(4):375-379, 2003.
4. Jackson CE: Peacock. Reaktion Books Ltd, 2006.
5. Butcher GD: Management of Galliformes. In Harrison GJ, Lightfoot TL
(eds): Clinical Avian Medicine. Spix Publishing, 2006, pp 861-877.
6. www.peafowl.org
Eclectus Parrot Eclectus Parrot

(Eclectus roratus)
Pet Care Rose Ann Fiskett, VMD, Dipl ABVP-Avian Practice
common subSPECIES
rand (E. r. roratus)
G
Red-sided (E. r. polychloros)
Vos (E. r. vosmaeri)
Solomon Island (E. r. solomonensis)
There are 10 eclectus subspecies.
Eclectus subspecies look very similar and are often
crossbred.
The Eclectus Group organization has identification tables
and photos on their web site (www.eclectusgroup.org) to
help identify the subspecies.
ORIGIN
clectus parrots originate from Australia, New Guinea and
E
other South Pacific islands.
The
feather barbs are not as tight in eclectus as in other
species, giving the feathers a more “hair-like” appearance.
They do not produce dust as some other species of parrots
and may be a better choice for people with allergies.
Female and male red-sided eclectus BEHAVIOR

Eclectus parrots are affectionate, sociable and easily
vital statistics
tamed.
Life span 20-30 years (max)
They need lots of attention from their human caretakers.
Adult length 12-14 inches (30-36 cm)
Adult weight 380-450 g
Eclectus are generally calm in captivity, especially in the
Eclectus Parrots
presence of strangers. “Drumming” by Free-ranging Eclectus

Unless socialized early, they may become alarmed by new Cathy Johnson-Delaney, DVM, Dipl ABVP-Avian Practice
situations or locations.
To a greater degree than other companion birds, they may The Public Broadcasting System
be frightened by anything new or unusual. (PBS) has presented a Nature series
While not a very vocal species, they do have a loud call program called “Parrots in the Land
that may make them objectionable in apartment dwellings. of Oz,”* which devotes a good
Both genders have mimicking ability, although the male portion to free-ranging Australian
may be a better talker. eclectus parrots. The producers were
In captivity, females tend to be much more aggressive than interested because the breeding/
males. In fact, females may traumatize or even kill their social patterns were so different from
mates in breeding facilities. those observed in other parrots in
Hand-raised females may even become aggressive toward Australia. The female eclectus
humans shortly after weaning. essentially sets up a nest site(s)
Male eclectus parrots are extremely docile, especially when (tree with hole) and stays close to
hand-raised, and make desirable companions. the favored sites. Males, usually in
Feather destructive behavior is common. small groups of 2 or more, fly
“Toe tapping” has been described in eclectus as a regular around, covering a lot of territory and visiting a lot of different females.
and rhythmic extension and flexion of particularly P2 and They “tap/drum” to signal males and females. The females do not do
P3 when the bird is perched at a complete rest. Some this. The program showed a male “drumming,” which is what we have
birds may, in addition, show a similar rhythmic “wing always considered an irregular behavior. In captivity, keeping males
flipping/twitching.” This “syndrome” is not seen to progress solitary or even paired with one female is completely contrary to their
to more severe clinical signs and may actually be part of normal adult behavior, and just preventing the males from free flight is
their normal behavior patterns. likely very stressful.
I found the program very enlightening. Since that time, I have shared
CAPTIVE HOUSING this with my eclectus clients. We’ve made some major changes in

Because eclectus are social, most birds appreciate habitat, flight, even pairing. It has made a difference!
interaction with their human companions on a daily basis.
*The “Parrots in the Land of Oz” DVD is available from PBS,
In the home, their enclosure should be placed near calm www.shopthirteen.org or 888-625-5360 for $19.99.
family activity. The minimum cage size for a pet bird should
be 3 x 4 x 2.5 ft (1 x 1.2 x 0.8 m).
A nest box situated in the upper part of the cage is necessary for breeding eclectus. Eclectus Parrots
spacing should be 0.75 in (2 cm) or less.

Bar
Perches can be wood, rope or PVC pipe (which needs to
be roughened and scored for grip).
For aviary housing, a 9 x 3 x 6 ft (3 x 1 x 2 m) area may
support an inside aviary with adjoining outside flight.
A communal aviary requires 27 ft2 (2.5 m2) per pair.
Full spectrum lighting is highly recommended for all birds
housed indoors; avoid the use of fluorescent bulbs.
It is valuable to offer variable-sized perches made of
clean, nontoxic pesticide-free tree branches in the
enclosure
Juan Caparrós
Toys must be free of toxic metals, hooks, sharp objects or
small, easily consumed components.
Eclectus are believed to be sensitive to colors so any new
toy or cage furniture should be first introduced to the bird
from a distance.
Foraging toys are especially important to potentially
reduce the tendency toward feather destructive behaviors.
Eclectus do well at average household temperatures. They
should be offered occasional opportunities for protected
outdoor exposure to fresh air and sunlight. They can
adapt to gradual changes in environmental temperature.
DIET
T he free-ranging diet consists of fruit, nuts, seeds, flowers
and nectar obtained from high in the tree canopy.
In captivity, eclectus parrots should be fed a fresh, high
quality, toxin-free formulated diet.
It is especially important to avoid food with artificial colors
or food additives because they seem to have skin hyper
sensitivity disorders related to their diet.
Eclectus Parrots Male red-sided eclectus (front)
upplementation should be limited to small amounts of

S
chopped vegetables or fruit, although eclectus are believed
to have a high requirement for vitamin A, so they should be
supplemented with sources of vitamin A precursors (e.g.,
red palm fruit oil).
Clean, fresh, uncontaminated water must be available at
all times.

clectus have the most pronounced sexual dimorphism of
E
any psittacine: the males are predominantly green with a
candy corn-colored beak, and the females are
predominately red with a black beak.
An appropriate nest box is 12 x 12 x 32 inches (30 x 30 x
81 cm) with a 4-inch (10 cm) diameter hole for access.
In captivity the hen can be aggressive to fledged young.
Several breeding cycles are possible per year, as many Female red-sided eclectus
birds are continuously breeding.
Sexual maturity is at 3-5 years.
These birds will lay infertile eggs or not feed the chicks, so
breeding should be limited to 2 clutches per year.
It may be necessary to remove either the male or the nest
box.
The clutch size is usually 2 eggs, incubation lasts 28-30
days and fledgling 70-80 days.
The offspring are easy to hand-feed.
RESTRAINT

Gentle restraint using standard techniques with towels can
be used.
Eclectus are intelligent and can be trained to accept most
A male juvenile eclectus parrot has brown coloration in its beak. Eclectus Parrots
simple medical and grooming procedures using current

behavior modification and positive reinforcement
techniques.
Blood Collection Sites

Jugular vein (preferred)
Medial metatarsal vein located along the medial aspect of
the leg just distal to the hock and on the dorso medial
aspect of the foot
Cutaneous ulnar vein located on the ventral aspect of the
wing at the elbow
INJECTION SITES
Intramuscular: pectorals
Intravenous: cutaneous ulnar vein, jugular, medial
metatarsal
A large aviary provides free-flight space with covered protection for feeding. Intraosseous: distal ulna preferred. Can use tibia in an
emergency. Provide analgesia.
Subcutaneous fluids: intrascapular region, inguinal web
area of legs
ANESTHESIA
pre-anesthetic physical examination with baseline blood
A
work is recommended.
It is advised to minimize stress and provide a supplemental
external heat source and pre-anesthetics such as
midazolam (1-2 mg/kg IM) or butorphenol (1-3 mg/kg IM).
Gas anesthesia with isoflurane or sevoflurane is safest;
endotracheal intubation and careful monitoring using a
Doppler or indirect blood pressure are strongly
recommended.
Eclectus Parrots Feather picking is a common disorder in eclectus parrots.

Feather destructive behavior
Polyomavirus infections (in both juveniles and adults)
Hypovitaminosis A
Circovirus (psittacine beak and feather disease [PBFD]
virus) infections
Sarcocystis
Aspergillosis
Annular toe deformities (neonates)
Scissors beak
Papillomas
Gout
Heavy metal toxicosis
Lipomas (in older birds)
ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL
Chlamydiosis
Encephalitozoon hellem (potential issue for
immunocompromised humans)
Viral infections (avian influenza and Newcastle disease
virus)
VACCINEs
clectus parrots are susceptible to polyomavirus infections
E
and death, even as adult birds. They are also susceptible
to herpesvirus (Pacheco’s disease). Vaccines to protect
against both viral diseases are produced by Biomune, but
only the polyomavirus vaccine (PSITTIMUNE® APV) is
USDA-registered and recommended for routine use.
Serological studies have demonstrated that neonatal,
Feather loss is especially pronounced around the face and Eclectus Parrots
tail, and the plumage takes on a moth-eaten appearance as
shown in these 2 PBFD cases. juvenile and adult eclectus are susceptible to eastern
equine encephalitis (EEE) and should be vaccinated yearly
if there is risk of infection.

1. A lderton D: The Atlas of Parrots. TFH Pub, 1991, pp 42-44.
2. Arthur KW, Bauer F, Desborough L: A Complete Guide to Eclectus
Parrots. Parrot Publishing Co, San Francisco, 1989.
3. Forshaw J: Parrots of the World. TFH Pub, 1977.
4. Harrison GJ, Lightfoot TL (eds): Clinical Avian Medicine. Spix
Publishing, 2006.
5. Pulparampil N, Graham D, Phalen D, et al: Encephalitozoon
hellem infection in an eclectus parrot: Zoonotic potential? Intl
Conf Emerg Infect Dis, 1998, p 64.
Principles and Application. HBD Intl, 1999.
7. Romagnano A: Parrot preventive medicine. Proc Intl Avicult Soc,
2003. www.eclectusgroup.org/pages/hentable.htm
8. Speer BL: The Eclectus Parrot: Medicine and Aviculture.
www.netpets.org/birds/healthspa/vet/eclectus.html
9. http://animal-world.com/encyclo/birds/eclectus/
eclectus.php
10. www.epa.qld.gov.au/nature conservation/wildlife/
threatened plants and animals/v...Eclectus parrot
12. Plumb DC: Plumb’s Veterinary Drug Handbook 5th ed. Blackwell,
2005, pp 175-177.
Marc H. Kramer
Toco Toucan Toco Toucan

(Ramphastos toco)
Pet Care André Becker Saidenberg, DVM, MS, PhD candidate
SUBSPECIES
toco toco - Northeast of Brazil and Guyanas, coastally
R.
South to Pará, from western Amazon to Manaus and
Southeast of Peru
R. toco albogularis - Bolivia and Central Brazil, South to
Argentina and Southeast Brazil
Mairee Vincent, Leeds Castle Zoo, United Kingdom

Toco toucans are native to South America.
Dry semi-open areas (woodland, savannah and other open
habitats with scattered trees and forest edges)
It is still commonly found throughout most of its range
and classified as of “least concern” by the IUCN
(International Union for Conservation of Nature) Red List
T oco toucans have a black body with white on the throat
and upper breast; orange periorbital area and bill; black
oval blotch near the tip of bill and a narrow black line at
the base.
Adult female and male toco toucans Juveniles are easily recognizable with the incomplete black
color on the bill.
vital statistics The bill is extremely sensitive and fragile.
Life span 10-20 years in captivity The bill is used to regulate heat distribution by modifying
Adult size
blood flow, working as a transient thermal radiator.
Length 22-26 in (55-65 cm)
including the 8 in (20 cm) bill Toco toucans also have a long keratinous tongue with
Weight 27.6-30 oz (500-860 g) lateral horn fringes; they lack an ingluvies.
Toco Toucans Toco toucan chicks

ales tend to be larger and heavier than females and have
M

a slightly longer beak (males = longer than 6.3 in [16 cm]
and females = shorter than 6.1 in [15.5 cm]).
Toucans need choices for mate selection.
Sexual maturity is achieved at 3-4 years of age.
Breeding season is April to September.
Captive breeding is usually difficult.
Palm logs or plywood boxes should be provided for nesting.
Incubation lasts 16-18 days, 2-4 eggs are laid, and chicks
fledge at 42-47 days.
In captivity, killing or mutilation of chicks by the parents is
common if not fed with appropriate sources of protein.
Behavior
T ocos are territorial; they should not be housed with any
other birds. They may be aggressive and prey upon others.
Juvenile toco toucan
Flight cages should be screened visually from other toucans
as they aggressively protect their territory, engaging in beak

jousting even through a wire mesh.
Tocos are very active throughout the day, needing
considerable space and daily activities to keep them busy.
During sleep they rest the bill on the back and cover it
with the tail.
Toco toucans bite hard if upset.
Tame birds that do not receive sufficient attention may
become aggressive towards the owner.
Captive Housing
T oucans are best housed alone or in compatible pairs to
avoid aggression.
Toco Toucans
L arge, macaw-sized, horizontally-oriented enclosures are

needed in addition to outside playground space with
several perches.
Outdoor flights should be at least 8 ft x 12 ft x 6 ft (2.5
m x 3.6 m x 1.8 m).

Perches may be made of natural bark-covered wood.
Feeders and water pans should be elevated above ground
to prevent contact with feces and organic material.
The floor of the enclosure should be well drained and
easy to clean in order to avoid potential pathogenic
microorganism buildup and contact with parasite eggs.
The water dish for drinking/bathing should be at least 8 in
x 10 in (20 cm x 25 cm).
Nontoxic tree limbs, ornamental grasses or bamboo to
defoliate and destroy may be provided for activity.
A PVC pipe may be filled with substrate materials (e.g.,
mulch, wood chips) or chopsticks with fruits in the tube
(when the chopsticks come out the fruit is dropped down).
Hanging toys approved for psittacines made of safe
material (plastic chains, balls) may be used.

Plastic bottles with large holes filled with pellets may be
suspended.
Care should be taken to prevent the birds from swallowing
small domestic objects.
ENVIRONMENTAL TEMPERATURE
Daytime temperatures should mimic their natural
environment, ~68°F (20°C), although they can endure
colder temperatures overnight as long as they have
access to an indoor shelter with a heat source.
Birds must have access to shelter protected from wind, rain
Toco Toucans Tocos aggressively protect their territory with beak jousting.
and excessive heat (above 90°F [32°C]) as well as easy

access to the water bowl or misting during the summer.

Diet

Toucans require a pelleted diet low in iron content specific
for Ramphastidae. In addition, fruits may be offered, with
the exception of high-acid fruits, such as oranges, grape
fruits, pineapples and tomatoes, which increase iron intake.
Dietary items may be provided in a variety of ways, such
as offering large chunks instead of chopped.
Commercially available crickets are important during the
breeding season.
Drinking water may be available alone or as prepared
green tea, which provides antioxidants and helps chelate
iron excess (1 month with green tea followed by 1 month
with pure water).
RESTRAINT
T oucans may be restrained by holding the bill closed with
one hand (taking care to avoid obstructing the nostrils at
the base of the beak) and using a towel loosely wrapped
around the body to control the wings and feet.
ANESTHESIA
Inhalant anesthesia with isoflurane is recommended
(induction should not exceed 3% and maintenance 1.5-2%).
For short procedures, injectable anesthetics (ketamine 20
mg/kg + diazepam 1 mg/kg IV) may be given at a slow rate.

elf-inflicted beak fractures are common due to intra
S
specific aggression through wire mesh or with birds recently
Toco Toucans
introduced to an aviary. Acrylic repair is needed to prevent

contamination and help keratin layer formation.
Avian pseudotuberculosis (Yersinia pseudotuberculosis)
Bacterial infectious diseases due to low immunity (e.g.,
overgrowth of microflora, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella spp.)
Other reported bacterial pathogens include Aeromonas sp.,
Mycobacterium spp., Bacteroides spp. and Clostridium
colinum.
Mycotic diseases (Candida sp., Aspergillus sp.,
Penicillium sp.)
Viral diseases (Newcastle, herpesvirus serologically distinct
from psittacine isolates). Lesions resembling proventricular
dilatation disease and polyomavirus have been reported.
Iron storage disease (hemochromatosis)
Parasites (Capillaria, Plasmodium, Giardia, Eimeria,
Sarcocystis spp.)
Idiopathic diabetes mellitus
Zoonotic Potential
ycobaterium spp.
M
Salmonella spp.
Chlamydophila psittaci
Jimmy Hisashi - Creative Commons
Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 license
ing clipping only if absolutely necessary. Abundant

W
perches need to be provided to allow mobility if clipped.
In warmer climates, Capillaria sp. infections might cause
high mortality rates combined with concurrent diseases or
poor husbandry that undermine the immune system.
Resistance to anthelmintics is common, and repeated
administration or drug combinations might be necessary to
Frank - Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 license

Toco Toucans
eliminate the parasite. Preventive husbandry measures to

break the life cycle and recontamination are essential.
Treatment for Capillaria sp.4
1. Albendazole + ivermectin (15-20 mg/kg + 0.4 mg/kg
PO) once, repeat if necessary
2. Oxfendazole + ivermectin (15-25 mg/kg + 0.4 mg/kg
PO) once, repeat after 15 days if necessary
3. Fenbendazole (50 mg/kg PO q24h) over 5 days
4. Mebendazole (25 mg/kg PO q12h) over 5 days
5. Pyrantel pamoate (70 mg/kg PO) once, repeat if
necessary
6. Moxidectin (0.2 mg/kg IM) once, repeat if necessary
7. Ivermectin (0.2-0.4 mg/kg SC or PO) once, repeat if
necessary
Frank - Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 license

1. A n Overview of Ramphastid Enrichment at the Nashville Zoo at
Grassmere. <www.nashvillezoo.org/piciformes/pdf/Ramphastid_
Enrichment.pdf>
2. BirdLife International: Ramphastos toco. IUCN 2009. IUCN Red List
of Threatened Species. Version 2009.1. <www.iucnredlist.org>
3. Cornelissen H, Ritchie BW: Ramphastidae. In Ritchie BW, Harrison
GJ, Harrison LR (eds.): Avian Medicine Principles and Application.
Wingers Publishing, 1994, pp 1276-1283.
4. Cubas ZS: Order Piciformes (Toucans, Woodpeckers). In Fowler ME,
Cubas ZS (eds): Biology, Medicine and Surgery of South American
Wild Animals. Iowa State University Press, 2001, pp 180-199.
5. Emerald Forest Bird Gardens. Care Sheets. <www.emeraldforest
birds.com/CareSheet.htm>
6. Seibels BMV: Toucan Husbandry Manual for the AZA Piciformes TAG.
Association of Zoo and Aquariums. <www.nashvillezoo.org/
piciformes/toucan_husbandry.htm>
7. Tattersall GJ, Andrade DV, Abe AS: Heat exchange from the toucan
bill reveals a controllable vascular thermal radiator. Science 24
(325), n. 5939: 468-470. 2009.
8. Worell AB: Ramphastids. In Tully TN, Lawton MPC, Dorrestein GM
(eds): Avian Medicine. Elsevier, 2003, p 296-311.
Quick Reference Guide to Unique Pet Species
publisher nor the reviewers shall be liable for any loss, damage or liability directly or indirectly caused or alleged
to be caused by this book. The material contained herein is not intended to provide specific advice or
recommendation for any specific situation.
Neither this CD nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval
system, without written permission from the publisher.

www.exoticdvm.com

800-946-4782 or 561-641-6745 Fax: 561-641-0234
www.exoticdvm.com

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Unusual

Rabbits, Ferrets, Hamsters, Rats, Gerbils, Chinchillas, Degus

Teresa A. Bradley, DVM

Restraint, Blood collection

elevated liver enzymes.

day. Juveniles can be fed unlimited pellets and hay with a

Adapted from photographs in Beynon PG,

Pets. Cheltenham, BSAVA, 1991.

When using a facemask, the

Teresa Lightfoot, DVM, Dipl ABVP-Avian Practice

MOST COMMON DISORDERS

Vittorio Capello, DVM

Torticollis WHAT TO LOOK FOR IN A HEALTHY RABBIT

Rabbit with GI stasis Rabbit with labored breathing

Sexing, Housing, Diet, Restraint Edited by

Anal saculectomy (“descenting”)

SCENT OF THE FERRET

MALE FEMALE SEXING AND REPRODUCTION

Ferrets Scruffing provides adequate restraint for minor procedures. HEMATOLOGY

IV catheters are usually placed in the cephalic vein.

Teresa Lightfoot, DVM, Dipl ABVP-Avian Practice

MOST COMMON DISORDERS

Adrenal disease WHAT TO LOOK FOR IN A HEALTHY FERRET

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Susan Leck, DVM,

Injection sites, Zoonotic potential

MALE FEMALE Hamsters

Illustrations from Exotic Companion Medicine

Handbook for Veterinarians

Hamsters Scruff-of-the-neck grip for picking Two-handed technique for picking

BIOCHEMICAL HEMATOLOGY Hamsters

Vittorio Capello, DVM

Hamsters FORMUL ARY FOR HAMSTERS

Nose and eyes

Nails and teeth

Males have normal scent glands

Susan Leck, DVM,

Common disorders, Zoonotic potential

MALE FEMALE Rats

Tip of penis SEXING AND REPRODUCTION

Illustration from Exotic Companion Medicine

*Adapted from photograph in Beynon PG,

Pets. Cheltenham, BSAVA, 1991.

Handbook for Veterinarians

The rat is restrained so that an assistant Rats

REFERENCES Nostrils free

Albino rat shown

Susan Leck, DVM,

MALE FEMALE Gerbils

Illustrations from Exotic Companion Medicine

Handbook for Veterinarians

Gerbils A bowl with a small amount of sand (not

Gerbils need to have safe materials for gnawing that will

Peter Fisher, DVM

Susan Leck, DVM,

Zoonotic potential, Formulary

From Exotic Companion Medicine Handbook

HEMATOLOGIC BIOCHEMICAL Chinchillas

Fluffy, dense ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL

Nails and teeth

FORMUL ARY FOR CHINCHILL AS AND DEGUS

Dan Johnson, DVM

Common disorders, Blood collection

Degus are hind-gut fermenters and have a functioning