Exotic Aquatic Organisms - International Development Research ...

Exotic Aquatic Organisms 

in Asia 

/ 

ARCHIV 

283 

Proceedings of a Workshop on Introduction of 

Exotic Aquatic Organisms in Asia 

tRIfS 

Edited by 

SENA S.DE SILVA 

Asian Fisheries Society 

Special Publication No. 3 

AIDAB 

i.j'ii 

LI 

CANADA


Edited by 

S.S. De Silva 

1989 

Published by the Asian Fisheries Society 

in association with the 

International Development Research Centre 

of Canada 

and the 

Australian International Development 

Assistance Bureau 

r


Proceedings of a Workshop on Introduction of 


Edited by 

S.S Di SILVA 

1989 

Printèdin Manila, Philippines. 

Dc Silva, S.S., editor. 1989. Exotic aquatic organisms in Asia. 

Asian Fish. Soc. Spec. Pubi. 3, iS4 p. 

Asian Fisheries Society, Manila, Philippines. 

Copyright, 1989, Asian Fisheries Society, Philippines, 

and International Development Research Centre, Canada. 

Cover by: Ovidio Espiritu, Jr. 

ISBN 97 1-1022-53-2

Contents 

Foreword v 

Introduction vi 

Presidential Address vii 

Dr. Chua Thia Eng, President 


Address by the Chairman of the Workshop ix 

Dr. Sena S. De Silva 

Exotics - A Global Perspective with Special 

Reference to Finfish Introductions to Asia 

S.S.DeSilva 

Impacts of Introduced and Translocated 

Freshwater Fishes in Australia 7 

A.H. Art hington 

Exotic and Translocated Freshwater Fishes in Australia 21 

Ri. McKay 

The Status of the Exotic Aquatic Organisms in China 35 

Tan Yo-Jun and Tong He-Yi 

Impact of Exotic Aquatic Species in Indian Waters 45 

H.P.C. Shez'ty, M.C. Nandeesha andA.G. Jhingran 

Exotic Aquatic Species Introduction into Indonesia 57 

H. Muhammad Eidman 

Present Status of Aquatic Organisms 

Introduced into Japan 63 

K. Chiba, V. Taki, K. Sakai and Y. Qozeki 

The Status of Introduced Fish Species 

in Malaysia 

K.J. Ang, R. Gopinath and T.E. Chua 

II' 

71

The Introduction of Exotic Aquatic 

Species in the Philippines 83 

R.O. Juliano, R. Guerrero III and I. Ronquillo 

Introduction of Exotic Aquatic Species 

in Singapore 91 

L.M. Chou and T.J. Lam 

Status of Introduced Species in Sri Lanka 99 

S.S. De Silva 

Exotic Aquatic Species in Taiwan 101 

I-Chiu Liao and Hsi-Chiang Liu 

Exotic Aquatic Species in Thailand 119 

T. Piyakarnchana 

Australian Government Position: 

Introduction of Exotic Aquatic Species 125 

F.B. Michaelis 

Recommendations of the Workshop 133 

List of Participants 136 

Appendices 

Definition of Exotics 139 

Assessment of the Impact of Major 

Food Fish Species Introduced into 

Some of the Asian Countries 141 

Ill. Instances of Decline/Appearance 

of Indigenous Species as a Possible 

Consequence of Introduced Fish Species 150 

Ornamental Fishes 152 

Existing Legislation or Code of 

Practices Adopted by Individual 

Countries in Respect of Introducing 

Aquatic Species 153 

iv

Foreword 

Introductions of exotic aquatic organisms have been going on worldwide for centuries. Asia, 

for one, has long been engaged in importations from Africa and Europe. It has likewise been an 

active center which has exported endemic species to other parts of the globe. 

Because of the increasing problems brought about by indiscriminate transfers of 'potential' 

species from one country to another, various national governments made steps to regulate such 

activities. 

The Code of Practice to reduce risks of introductions initially framed by the International 

Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) was a vital step indicating worldwide concern on 

the effects of uncontrolled species introductions. The European Inland Fisheries Advisory 

Commission (EIFAC) in 1982 then organized a symposium on "Stock Enhancement in the 

Management of Freshwater Fisheries" and visualized an International Code of Practice for 

Europe. Rigid regulatory control measures were then patterned after these and employed by 

many developed countries. 

Unfortunately, the lack of strict regulatory measures in developing countries has resulted in 

indiscriminate introductions, some of which remain unrecorded to this day. 

The Workshop on the Introduction of Exotic Aquatic Organisms in Asia organized by the 

Asian Fisheries Society in June 19-21, 1988 in Darwin, Australia, was an initial effort of 

fisheries scientists in the region towards regulating exotic species introductions into Asia. 

We appreciate the active participation of these scientists during the workshop and the 

Society is grateful to the Australian International Development Assistance Bureau (AIDAB) and 

the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) of Canada for the funding support which 

contributed to the smooth and successful conduct of the workshop. 

It is hoped that the issues and recommendations raised in this workshop shall complement 

existing efforts of national governments and the Food and Agricultural Organization of the 

United Nations (FAQ) in developing an applicable code of ethics in the regulation of future 

introductions in Asia. 

CHUA THIA-ENG 

President 


V

Introduction 

This special publication of the Asian Fisheries Society, in conjunction with the International 

Development Research Centre (Canada) and the Australian International Development 

Assistance Bureau comprises the Proceedings of the Workshop on Exotic Aquatic Introductions 

into Asia, held in Darwin, Australia in June 1988. 

It is inevitable that all countries in the region cannot be covered in a small Workshop, 

primarily due to financial limitations. However, it is hoped that these Proceedings will create a 

revitalization of interest in the region on the role of exotic species and help to address the 

question more scientifically and objectively when future introductions are considered. 

These Proceedings should be considered as the first of a set of documentations on this 

complex issue, and therefore should not be considered as a complete review. 

I am thankful to Mr. Jay Maclean, Secretary, Asian Fisheries Society, and Ms. Elsie Tech, 

Executive Secretary of the Society for their help in the editing. The editing was clone mostly 

when I was on an attachment to the Department of Zoology, National University of Singapore, 

and I am grateful to Prof. T.J. Lam, and the NUS for giving me this opportunity. 

Sena S. De Silva 

vi

Address of Dr. Chua Thia-Eng 

President of the Asian Fisheries Society 

It is a pleasure and honour for me to address this important workshop on "Introduction of 

Exotic Species in Asia". The Asian Fisheries Society is indeed grateful to all those who have 

helped to make this workshop possible, especially to the Government of the Northern Territory, 

Australia, for hosting this workshop, the Australian International Development Assistance 

Bureau (AIDAB) for travel support, the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) for 

pre-workshop preparations and publication of workshop proceedings and other national agencies 

that helped to bring many of our scientists to this gathering. The contribution of these 

international and national agencies speaks for the importance of the subject matter that we will 

be discussing in the next couple of days. 

The issue on exotic species transfer is of international concern pertaining to the high risk of 

introduction of diseases, disruptive effects on aquatic communities and environment as well as 

the genetical degradation of host stocks. Not withstanding the above, introduction of exotic 

species between countries will continue to occur as it has already been doing so in the past 3 

decades, closely associated with aquaculture development, the increase of aquarium fish trade 

and inland water body management. 

Asia is one of the world's active centers involved in movement of fish from one nation to 

another for decades without any effective regulatory control. Thus, the African cichlid, 

Oreochromis mossambicus, abounds in most water bodies in Asia. Since its introduction the 

golden snail (Ampullaria cyprinas) into the Philippines has become a nuisance to rice 

cultivation. The water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) from South America has become a 

problematic aquatic macrophyte, blocking waterways in lakes, rivers and choking fish ponds. 

Introduced species have beneficial effects, too, especially in economic gain, to countries 

which badly require foreign exchange earnings and a cheap fish protein supply. In fact, many of 

the Chinese and Indian carps introduced into various nations in Asia have played a significant 

role in increasing national aquaculture production. 

Exotic species introduction is often initiated by fishery professionals who are either ignorant 

or unconcerned of the risks involved as well as by commercial enterprises in the aquarium trade. 

In most countries of Asia, there are sufficient legislative measures to control importation of 

undesirable species. However, the inability to effectively implement legislative requirements has 

given rise to easy entry of exotic species in the region. 

Public awareness and strict implementation of regulatory measures in North America have 

helped in curbing unregulated introductions. The establishment of mechanisms governing the 

introduction of exotic species through international agreements like the "Code of practice to 

reduce the risks of adverse effects arising from the introduction of non-indigenous species" 

adopted by the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) and the European 

Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission (ETFAC) represent the regional efforts in Europe. In 

Asia, the Indo-Pacific Fisheries Council (IPFC) has expressed concern over past and present 

introductions but places emphasis on the collection and exchange of information. Regulatory 

measures are left to individual country's legislation. 

The main purpose of this workshop is to objectively review the impacts of species transfer 

in Asia taking into consideration the meager socioeconomic conditions of Asian nations and to 

explore appropriate measures by which exotic species introduction can be best regulated. One 

immediate impact of this workshop is a greater concern of fishery professionals like us who can 

vii

help to promote national awareness of the issue and help develop appropriate strategies to 

minimize the adverse effects of exotic species transfer. 

In closing, I wish to thank the local secretariat, in particular Director Darryl Grey, for his 

excellent local arrangements and time and effort put into the preparation of this workshop. 

Thank you.

Address by the Chairman of the Workshop 

We of the Asian Fisheries Society are grateful to the Australian International Development 

Assistance Bureau for making this workshop possible. 

I consider it a deep honour to be invited to Chair this workshop and wish to express my 

gratitude to my fellow Councillors for bestowing this privilege and take this opportunity to 

welcome all the participants to this workshop. 

In keeping with one of the main objectives of the Asian Fisheries Society, to address key 

issues pertaining to fisheries in the region, the Council at its Second Meeting in 1984 

unanimously decided that the Introduction of Aquatic Organisms into the region needed careful 

consideration. We were aware that this issue was also being addressed by some international 

organizations amongst others, and the American Fisheries Society. In spite of these 

considerations the Society felt a need to consider this issue; complex as it is from an Asian 

context where the the socio-economic factors cannot be ignored and or separated from the 

fisheries issues in general. 

Initially, four Objectives for the Workshop were identified: 

address the issue of aquatic introductions in the region, 

evaluate the pros and cons of introductions hitherto made in the region, 

develop guidelines/a code of ethics for future introductions, and 

issue a policy statement on future introductions. 

It is unlikely that we would be able to fulfill our objectives within the next three days. I consider 

this workshop as the first step in the direction of achieving our objectives. In order to do so we 

will have to address our minds to a few key points: 

Do we have sufficient information/knowledge of the situation in each of the 

countries in the region - if so how do we proceed to collect this information, 

especially that in the 'grey literature' 

Do we need to develop protocols for consideration by Governments in the region, 

and if so what criteria should we use: should they take into account the socioeconomic 

factors, etc. 

Are there recent examples from the region or elsewhere on proposed 

introductions that impel us to think afresh? 

Undoubtedly all of us would agree that we should not adopt, clause to clause, what has been 

recommended as suitable for Northern America, Europe and or for that matter mainland 

Australia. This is not because we want to be different but such a course of action would be self 

defeating. If we were to do the former there would not have been a need to come to this lovely 

city, Darwin. Equally, we have a lot to gain from their experiences. 

ix

Conditions in Europe and North America are not comparable to that of ours ir the region. 

Here, I do not mean in a climatological sense but in the context of the numbe: of species 

involved, complexity of the habitats, heterogeneity of the flora and fauna, anl the gross 

beneficial effects of some introductions that have contributed to the animal protein supply. Some 

of the socio-economic benefits of introductions are not totally quantifiable but they certainly 

cannot and should not be ignored. 

Ladies and Gentlemen with these few remarks, which I hope would help us to focus at some 

of our deliberations, I wish to commence the proceedings. We should all bear in mind that the 

deliberations of the next three days will direct the Society's future course of actioa in dealing 

with this very complex issue. 

Finally, it is my duty to express our gratitude and appreciation to the local organizers Mr. 

Darryl Grey and his team, for their excellent arrangements. Thank you. 

Sena S. De Silva 

x

Exotics - A Global Perspective with 

Special Reference to Finfish 

Introductions to Asia 

SENA S. DE SILVA 

Departments of Fisheries Biology and Zoology 

University of Ruhuna 

Matara, Sri Lanka 

De Silva, S.S. 1989. Exotics - a global perspective with special reference to finfish introductions to Asia, p. 1-6. In S.S. Dc 

Silva (ed.) Exotic Aquatic Organisms in Asia. Proceedings of the Workshop on Introduction of Exotic Aquatic 

Organisms in Asia. Asian Fish. Soc. Spec. Pubi. 3, 154 p. Asian Fisheries Society, Manila, Philippines. 

The need for a fresh evaluation of the definition of 'exotics' is pointed out. The global transfer of finfish species is 

summarized. Those species which have been transferred across all five continents are considered as 'global' and number 

15, of which six have originated from Asia. Recent controversies on introductions are briefly pointed out and the need for 

detailed scientific evaluation prior to deciding on an introduction, based on recent recommendations from Asia, is focused 

on. Asia in general, has suffered comparatively limited damage as a result of introductions. In particular the number of 

native species lost or endangered in the region and directly attributable to an exotic is scanty. 

Exotic(s) and introduction(s) are terms used synonymously to define the transfer of live 

organisms from one country to another. With respect to aquatic organisms more refined 

definitions have been attempted: for example, that by Shafland and Lewis(1984). These authors 

defined an exotic as an organism whose entire range is outside the country to which it is 

introduced. In essence all definitions encompass into them, the concept of country boundaries. If 

one were to extend this further an introduction of a species between some of the Indonesian 

islands, even across the accepted zoogeographical boundaries such as Wallace's or Weber's 

lines, would not be tantamount to an introduction and the species transferred will not be 

classified as an exotic: this reference is not hypothetical. 

In essence the political boundaries, which have no real biological basis or validity should 

not be the criterion for defining an exotic and or an introduction but the zoogeographical 

boundaries of the organisms. In the context of an acceptance of the above definition a revision of 

the status of introductions in the world, and in Asia in particular is needed. 

Inland Fish Species Transfers - Global Status 

The global status of the international transfers upto 1981 was reviewed by Welcomme 

(1981). A summary of the transfers made globally, is given in Table 1. A total of 168 finfish 

species belonging to 33 families have been introduced either deliberately or accidentally out of 

their natural distribution range. In this analysis the traditional geographical boundaries were 

1

2 

taken as the basis for the introductions. This number is less than that reported later by 

Welconime (1984) when he observed that 163 species have moved to 120 countries of which 

42% have established successfully. 

The two major families which have been subjected to such transfers beyond their natural 

range are the Cichlidae and the Cyprinidae, of which 36 and 37 species have been transferred 

from their natural ranges respectively. Transfers across all continents which could be considered 

as global introductions number only 15 species. Of these six have originated from Asia and are 

all Cyprinids - primarily the Chinese and Indian major carps. A total of 35 species have been 

transferred from Asia and 22 into Asia, of which 6 have been introduced into Oceania. 

According to Jhingran and Gopalakrishnan (1974) however, 24 species have been introduced 

into Southeast Asia. 

The reasons for the introduction/transfer of fish as well as other aquatic organisms beyond 

their normal range of distribution are many. Welcomme (1981) recognized three clear phases 

and reasons for introduction with respect to freshwater fish; 

Phase I 

Phase II 

period equivalent to the Middle Ages in Europe - diffusion of a limited 

number of species throughout Europe and Asia. 

middle of the nineteenth century to about 1940 - for sport and for 

sentimental reasons e.g., the spread of Salmonids from Europe into Asia, 

and 

Phase III : 1940 to date - for aquaculture and ornamental trade e.g., the spread of 

Chinese and Indian major carps. 

In the recent years the question of introductions/transfers across countries has been 

receiving increasing attention, in particular piscine introductions. The status of introductions into 

America and Oceania were considered in detail by Courtenay and Stauffer (1984) and included a 

protocol for evaluating proposed exotic fish introductions into the United States. In Europe, the 

question was addressed by the European Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission (EIPAC) of the 

Food and Agriculture Organization, and five specific protocols were evolved for the inspection 

of molluscs, crustaceans, marine fish, salmonid fish and molluscan hatcheries (EIFAC/CECPI 

1984). An attempt was also made to develop an international policy for the reduction of risks and 

adverse effects arising from introductions. To meet this end it was felt that two levels of 

documentation were necessary. 

A code of Practice - a general guideline and statement of policy which can 

supplement local legislation, and 

Protocols - oriented check lists for implementation of the code of pracl;ice. 

In the development of an international policy and a code of practice for effecting 

introductions one has to take into consideration the sentiments expressed by neighbouring 

countries, even if they are widely separated. It is in this perspective that Coates (1987) dealt with 

the introductions into Papua New Guinea.

Table 1. Summary of introductions of fish species in the world (derived from Welcomme 1981). Columns ito 5 in order are, number 

of species introduced into region beyond its native distribution range; global introductions where the species has been introduced into 

at least 4 continents; introduced from Asia; introduced into Asia and inter-Asian introductions. As-refers to originating from Asia; 

'Oc' refers to Oceania. 

Family 1 2 3 4 5 

ACIPENSERIDAE 

ANABANTIDAE 

ANGUILUDAE 

ATHERIMDAE 

BAGRIDAE 

CENTRARCHIDAE 

CENTROPOMIDAE 

CHANNIDAE 

CHANTDAE 

CICHLIDAE 

CLARIIDAE 

CLUPEIDAE 

COBITIDAE 

COREGONTDAE 

CYPRJMDAE 

CYPRINODONTIDAE 

ELEOTRIDAE 

ERYTHRINIDAE 

ESOCIDAE 

GOBIIDAE 

ICTALURIDAE 

LORICARIIDAE 

ORYZIATIDAE 

OSMERIDAE 

OSPHRONEMIDAE 

OSTEOGLOSSIDAE 

PERCICHTHYIDAE 

PERCIDAE 

POECILIDAE 

SALMONTDAE 

SCIAENTDAE 

SILURTDAE 

UMBRIDAE 

2 

6 

3 

1 

1 

12 

1 

1 

I 

36 

2 

2 

1 

3 

37 

1 

2 

1 

2 

3 

3 

1 

1 

1 

4 

2 

1 

3 

12 

18 

1 

1 

2 

Controversies 

When compared to the information available on finfish that on other aquatic organisms is 

scanty. Hitherto there had been no attempts to document such introductions either globally or 

regionally, even though very detrimental effects have been recorded with respect to some. A case 

in point is the introduction of the water fern Salvinia into Asia, which has had the most negative 

impact brought about by an exotic animal or plant (Bhukaswan 1980). On the other hand, with 

respect to finfish species the status of individual introductions have been assessed and views on 

their beneficial or harmful effects remain controversial. 

In this controversy Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters), the aquatic chicken of the 1960's 

(Ling 1977) is now considered a nuisance species, globally (Welcomme 1984) except perhaps in 

Sri Lanka (De Silva 1985; 1987) and in Papua New Guinea (West and Glucksman 1967; Coates 

1985). Of course in hind sight one could suggest that the results could have been better if 

O.niloticus was introduced. During the 50's and early 60's O.niloticus was relatively unknown 

and O.mossambicus was the choice species. In these countries this species remains the backbone 

of an important artisanal fishery and therefore a source of protein for the poor, and there are no 

reports on environmental degradation caused by this species. Comparable controversies exist 

1 

4 

6As 

1 

3 

2 

5 

1 

1 

1 

1 

6 

1 

2 

3 

1 

1 

2 

1 

1 

6 

2 

1 

2 

3;20c 

i;20c 

1;lOc 

3:lOc 

1: lOc 

1 

12 

3

4 

with respect to other introductions. For example the introduction of Lates niloticus into Lake 

Victoria was hailed as a disaster by some (Barel et al. 1985; Payne 1987) but its introduction into 

Lake Kioga is considered as a success; as much as that of Limnothrissa miodon into Lakes Kivu 

and Kariba (Eccles 1985). A similar debate exists with respect to the introduction of 

Sarotherodon aureus into Lake Kinneret (Gophen et al. 1983). 

The above examples point out that the lack of specific criteria and/or adoption of different 

standards in the assessment of the role of an exotic, and focus on the need to establish criteria for 

evaluating the impact of an exotic. The evolution of such a scheme for the evaltation of the 

impact of exotics will not have a direct bearing on the introductions made hithcrto but will 

permit the adoption of a more rational and an objective approach for envisaged introductions. 

The system or scale that is to be devised should not only take into consideration the biological 

and ecological impact of the introductions but an equal weightage should also be given to the 

sociological impact. 

Sociological impact is not an easily quantifiable parameter. In the present context it would 

mean whether the introductions have resulted in a significant contribution to the protein supply 

to the poorer people in an area and/or whether a significant number of job opportunities have 

been created or lost as a result of the introduction and the like. 

Reported detrimental effects as a result of piscine introductions into Asia, apart from the 

numerous parasites associated with the introductions, are rare and far apart; it has never reached 

the controversial stage as for example that associated with the Lates niloticus introduction into 

Lake Victoria in Africa (Bare! et al. 1985; Payne 1987). However, in Asia aso the near 

extinction of the endemic small goby, sinarapan, Mistichthys luzonensis (Smith) from Lake Buhi 

is partly attributed to the introduction of 0. mossambicus (Baluyut 1983). Similarly the 

introduction of two gobiids into Lake Lanao is supposed to have influenced its native cyprinid 

flock consisting of about 20 species of Barbus (Frey 1969). Asia has a paucity of lakes. Hence, 

there is an equivalent paucity of species flocks comparable to those of the African Great Lakes. 

In this context all efforts must be made to preserve this minuscule number of spec es flocks in 

Asia. 

The global parasitic introductions associated with the piscine introductions have been 

reviewed by Hoffman and Schubert (1984). Asia contributed its share to the rest of the 

continents and likewise received its share from elsewhere. It remains a miracl that these 

accidental introductions have not reached epidemic levels, except in very rare and isolated 

instances. Even human pathogens are involved; for example, Schistosoma mansoni was 

transferred to Hong Kong in 1973-1974 in infected snails from South America (Biophalaria 

straminea) contaminated with imported water plants for aquaria (Meier-Brook 1975). 

All fish trematodes and cestodes require intermediate hosts; digenean trematodes a 

molluscan host, and cestodes one or more intermediate hosts. As a result of these requirements 

the chances of relocation of parasitic species and their spreading are limited. In spite of these 

requirements some parasites have been transferred. A case in point is the inter-continental and 

intra-Asian relocation of the cestode Bothriocephalus opsarichthydis (=B. go wkengensis) 

associated with the introduction of grass carp, initially from the Amur river stocks and later from 

elsewhere.

Decision for Effecting Introductions 

Very often decisions and or recommendations for introductions are made with a view to 

increasing the yield but on relatively meagre and often on less than adequate scientific 

knowledge. Turner (1982) advocated the introduction of zooplanktivorous clupeid Limnothrissa 

miodon into Lake Malai because he considered it to be a more efficient zooplankton predator 

than cyprinids and or other zooplanktivores found in Lake Malai. This view has been contested 

(Eccies 1985; McKaye et al. 1985). Eccles (1985) has attempted to show that Turner's 

conclusions were based on temperate examples and comparisons of lakes with wide differences 

in morphometry, climatic and chemical factors. Eccles (1985) pointed out that rehabilitation 

(social) of the existing fishery could be more cost effective and unlikely to have any deleterious 

effects on the lake and will result in an equally higher yield. 

In Asia, Soemarwoto and Costa-Pierce (1987) recommended the introduction of the clupeid 

Corica goniognathous from Thailand to fill the supposedly vacant pelagic, zooplankton feeding 

niche in the Jatilnuhur reservoir in the Indonesian island of Java. Later it transpired that the 

species referred to is Clupeichthys aesarnensis (Costa-Pierce 1988) and that this species is 

endemic to the Mekong system. This goes to show that enthusiasm and emotions seem to 

override scientific knowledge, which could be detrimental to the fishery as well as flora and 

fauna in the future. 

The two instances cited here also lead to the broad question of utilization of introductions to 

fill vacant niches in lacustrine waters. Admittedly, there are instances where such introductions 

as in the case of Lake Kariba, have been overtly successful. Asia has a paucity of natural lakes 

and consequently a poor lacustrine fish fauna (Fernando and Holcik 1982). There is increasing 

evidence that these artificial, lacustrine bodies get colonized by suitable indigenous riverine 

species such as by the freshwater clupeid in the case of Ubolratna in Thailand (Costa-Pierce 

1988) and by indigenous cyprinids in the case of reservoirs in Sri Lanka (De Silva and Sirisena 

1987), which could support profitable fisheries. 

It is apparent that at present most introductions are done with care and lot of scrutiny; but 

can we be satisfied? As pointed out by Pillay (1977) the era of haphazard and unplanned 

introductions is hopefully over. However, it is important to take into account that there has been 

a general degradation of the quality and quantity of the natural habitats of most aquatic 

organisms and more so of those species endemic to a particular region - an unavoidable 

consequence of development and human population growth. It is therefore, important to take 

such indirect factors also into account when planning aquatic introductions; should or should not 

the need for conservation of native species and fisheries be weighed against the development 

benefits of improved fish stocks? It is in this context that it would be desirable to develop a code 

of practice for aquatic introductions into Asia and not adopt those evolved elsewhere in their 

entireity. 

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Barel, C.D.N. et al. 1985. Destruction of Fisheries in Africa's lakes. Nature 315 (2): 19-20. 

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5

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Pillay, T.V.R. 1977. Planning of aquaculture development. Fishing News (Books) Ltd., Surrey, England, 71 p. 

Shafland, P.L. and W.M. Lewis. 1984. Terminology associated with introduced organisms. Fisheries 9: 17-18. 

Soemarwotto, 0. and B. Costa-Pierce (undated). Importation of a pelagic freshwater sardine, Corica goniognathus to IndoneSian reservoirs for 

fisheries enhancement (mimeoed document). 

Tumer, J.L. 1982. Lake flies, water fleas and sardines. FAO Technical Report 1: 165-173. 

Welcomme, R.L. 1981. Register of international transfers of inland fish species. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 213: 120 p. 

Welcomme, R.L. 1984. International transfers of inland fish species, p. 22-40. In W.R. Courtenay and J.R. Stauffer (eds.) Dütribution, Biology 

and management of Exotic Species. The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore. 

West, G.J. and J. Glucksman. 1976. Introduction and distribution of exotic fish in Papua New Guinea. Papua New Guinea Agricultural Journal 

27: 19-48.

Impacts of Introduced and Translocated 

Freshwater Fishes in Australia 

A.H. ARTHINGTON 

Center for Catchment and In-st ream Research 

Division of Australian Environmental Studies 

Griffith University 

Nathan, Queensland 4111 

Australia 

Arthington, A.H. 1989. Impacts of introduced and translocated freshwater fishes in Australia, p. 7-20. In S.S. Dc Silva (ed.) 

Exotic Aquatic Organisms in Asia. Proceedings of the Workshop on Introduction of Exotic Aquatic Organisms 

in Asia. Asian Fish. Soc. Spec. Pubi. 3, 154 p. Asian Fisheries Society, Manila, Philippines. 

Australian inland waters have been successfully colonised by 19 freshwater species introduced to the continent, 

including 5 salmonids, a percid, 5 cyprinids, 6 poediiids and 3 cichlids. Some of these introductions have been beneficial 

but the aim of this chapter is to review the ecological consequences of fish introductions, both planned and unintentional, in 

temis of possible adverse impacts on freshwater biota and ecosystems. Such impacts may include hybridisation between 

species, sub-species and genetic strains, habitat and Water quality alterations, competition, predation and the introduction of 

parasites and diseases. An account of the translocation of four endemic Australian fishes into Lake Eacham, Queensland is 

also included because these translocations appear to have caused the extinction of the endemic rainbowfish unique to the 

lake, chiefly as a result of predation. Conspicuous gaps in knowledge of introduced species in Australia and research 

priorities are highlighted. The final section outlines areas of ecological theory that may assist in predicting the impacts of 

species introductions, i.e., the theosy of island biogeography, the concept of limiting similarity and the analysis of food 

webs. 

Australian inland waters have been successfully colonized by 19 freshwater fish species 

introduced to the continent, including 5 salmonids, a percid, 4 cyprinids, 6 poeciliids and 3 

cichlids (Table 1). There is also some slender evidence that reproducing populations of two other 

species occur in Australian waters. The Jack Dempsey cichlid, Cichiasoma octofasciatum 

(Regan), is quite abundant in the cooling pondage of Hazeiwood power station near Morwell, 

Victoria (Cadwallader et al. 1980) but it is not certain that this species breeds there. The weather 

bach, Mis gurnus anguillicaudatus, has also been reported to breed in Australian waters (McKay, 

pers. comm.). 

Several recent reviews have summarized the origins and distribution of introduced species 

in Australia, their effects on aquatic ecosystems, especially impacts on endemic fish species, and 

management problems (see Pollard et al. 1980; Tilzey 1980; McKay 1978; Arthington et al. 

1983; McKay 1984; Arthington 1986; Arthington and Mitchell 1986; Fletcher 1986; Lloyd et al. 

1986; Arthington and Lloyd, in press). 

Full details of introductions and translocations of species in Australia are summarized by 

McKay (this volume) and the distributions of four species are shown in Figs. 1 and 2. The 

objectives of this review are to draw attention to the ecological consequences of species 

introductions, both planned and unintentional. Most of the paper deals with introduced species 

but an account of the translocation of four endemic Australian fishes into Lake Eacham, 

Queensland is also included (Fig. 1), because these translocations appear to have caused the 

7

8 

extinction of the endemic rainbow fish unique to this lake, chiefly as a result of predation (see 

Barlow et al. 1987). This striking example of the ecological consequences of ndemic fish 

translocations was first described by McKay (1987). 

Throughout the review, conspicuous gaps in knowledge of introduced species. in Australia 

and research priorities are highlighted, concluding with an overview of current ecological 

theories that may assist in predicting the consequences of species introductions, and thus provide 

the basis for developing protocols on fish introductions and translocations in Australia and 

elsewhere. 

Impacts of Introduced Fishes 

The impact of introduced fishes may involve hybridization with endemic fish species, 

habitat and water quality alterations, competition for space and food, predation and the 

introduction of exotic parasites and diseases (Courtenay and Stauffer 1984; Moyle et al. 1986). 

Evidence of these impacts is considered in relation to representatives of the five families 

introduced into Australia, i.e., Salmonidae, Percidae, Cyprinidae, Poeciliidae and Cichlidae 

(Table 1). 

Hybridization 

Hybridization cannot occur in Australia because there are no indigenous representatives of 

the introduced species. However, hybridization has occurred between introduced European carp, 

Cyprinus carpio and goldfish, Carassius auratus (Hume et al. 1983) and between salmon, Salmo 

salar and brown trout, S. trutta in hatchery conditions (Johnson in Fletcher 1986). Of greater 

significance in Australia has been hybridization between two varieties of Euroçean carp to 

produce the vigorous Boolara strain, which spread explosively in the mid-1960's and 1970's and 

became far more widespread and problematic than any of the original stocks (Shearer and 

Mulley 1978; Pollard et al. 1980; Fig. 2). The Boolara strain is thought to be a hybrid between 

introduced mirror and fully scaled carp varieties of unknown origin. This parallels several cases 

of intraspecific hybridization among introduced plants, giving rise to locally adapted as well as 

aggressive variants (Barrett 1982). 

Electrophoretic analysis shows that populations of Mozambique tilapia, Oreochromis 

mossambicus, in Brisbane and Townsville, Queensland (Fig. 1) are very similar genetically but 

both differ significantly from populations of this species occurring in Cairns. The Cairns fish 

appear to be hybrids between 0. mossambicus and 0. hornorum, and possibly other species of 

tilapia as well (Mather 1988). Nothing is yet known about the physiological and ecological 

characteristics and consequent potential for spread of this mixed strain. 

G. affinis in Australia are all of the subspecies G. a. hoibrooki (Girard) (Lloyd a:id Tomasov 

1985). Thus, there is no threat of hybridization between this and the nominate subspecies, G. a. 

affinis, with the attendant implications for future spread and ecological impact of hijbrid strains 

(see Reznik 1981). However, Australian populations of G. a. hoibrooki shDw marked 

morphological and genetic differences (Tomasov 1981): Trendall (1982) recorded substantial 

variations in life-history traits in four populations of G. affinis from Western Australia. 

Hybridization among phenotypically and genetically distinct strains of this subspecies is possible 

and could have unexpected outcomes.

Table 1. Introduced freshwater fish that have established 

self-maintaining populations in Australian inland 

waters. S. sport fish; A, aquarium fish; B, biological control agent. Compiled from various sources (see 

Arthington 1986). 

Family/Species Common Name Purpose of 

Introduction 

Salmonidae 

Salmo trutta L. 

Salmo gairdneri 

Richardson 

Sal velinus 

fonrinalis (Mitchell) 

Oncorhynchus tshawytscha 

Walbaum 

Salmo salar L. 

Percidae 

Percafluviatilis L. 

Cyprinidae 

Cyprinus carpio L, 

Carassitss aural us L. 

Tinca tinca (L.) 

Rutilus rutilus L. 

Poeciliidae 

Gambusia affinis 

hoibrooki (Girard) 

Xiphophorus helleri 

(Gunther) 

Xiphophorus maculatus 

(Heckel) 

Poecilia reticulata 

Peters 

Poecilia lalipinna 

Le Sueur 

Phalloceros caudimaculatus 

Hensel 

Cichlidae 

Ore ochromis mossambicus 

(Peters) 

Tilapia mariae 

Bouienger 

Cichiasoma 

nigrofasciatum GUnther 

Brown trout 

Rainbow trout 

Brook trout 

Chinook salmon 

Atlantic salmon 

European perch or 

redfin 

European carp 

Goldfish 

tench 

roach 

Mosquitofish 

Swordtail 

Platy 

Guppy 

Sailfin molly 

One-spot live- 

bearer 

Mozambique mouth- 

brooder 

Black mangrove or 

niger cichlid 

Convict cichlid 

These examples highlight the need for more research on the genetic attributes of founding 

populations of successful (and unsuccessful) introduced fishes and on the genetic changes which 

may accompany colonization. The explosive spread of European carp in Australia is an 

outstanding example of the differential success of one genetic variant, and it is unfortunate that 

we have few data on relationships between genome, physiology and life histoiy traits in the 

highly successful Boolara strain of carp and the two varieties which have remained confined to 

the Prospect Reservoir, Sydney and the Murrumbidgee frrigation Area of Victoria (Fig. 2). 

Habitat Alterations 

There is very little evidence that introduced fishes have seriously altered aquatic habitats in 

Australia, either by degradation of water quality or by removal of aquatic vegetation or other 

forms of disturbance. McCrimmon (1968) attributed increased turbidity to the disturbance of 

S 

S 

S 

S 

S 

S 

S 

A 

S 

S 

AIB 

A 

A 

A/B 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

9

10 

bottom substrates by European carp during feeding. However, Fletcher et al. (198,5) concluded 

that populations of carp have not caused increased turbidity levels in the Lower Goulburn River 

Basin, Victoria. 

Moyle et al. (1986) highlighted the direct and indirect influences of carp on shallow lakes in 

North America. When carp are removed, turbidity decreases and native invertebrate-feeding 

fishes that locate their prey by sight increase (Taylor et al. 1984). The impact of carp on turbidity 

in Australian aquatic ecosystems seems to be obscured by the naturally high md variable 

turbidity of many inland waters (Kirk 1977) and the interaction of hydrological factors with soil 

type and land degradation. 

Fletcher et al. (1985) also concluded that Potamogeton pectinatus, a shallow rooted, soft 

leaved species, may be the only aquatic plant reduced by carp in Australia. Most of the aquatic 

plants affected by carp in the United States and France are species of Potamogeto'z and Chara 

(Crivelli 1983). 

Xiphophorus helleri, the swordtail, is predominantly herbivorous, taking only a few aquatic 

invertebrates, but there is no clear evidence that its feeding has contributed to changes in aquatic 

macrophyte or algal communities in areas of introduction. Rather, the loss of endemic aquatic 

macrophytes from Brisbane's urban creeks has resulted from dredging, channel modifications, 

siltation, dumping of domestic and garden rubbish, bank erosion and the invasion of introduced 

plants (Arthington et al. 1983). The control of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) and other 

introduced plants with herbicides may also have contributed to the decline of so:ne endemic 

macrophytes. 

Numerous studies elsewhere have attempted to separate the effects of introduced species per 

se from the influence of other disturbances and natural environmental phenomena, with only 

limited success (Moyle et al. 1986). Australian researchers have experienced the same 

difficulties, as Arthington et al. (1983) and Fletcher et al. (1985) show in work on poeciliids and 

carp. Nevertheless, this is an area requiring much more study than it has so far received. 

Impacts of Competition on Endemic Fishes 

Resource competition for food, perhaps mediated by interference and aggressiDn, seems a 

likely form of impact of many introduced species, particularly the mosquitofish, G. affinis. 

Taylor et al. (1984) and Arthington and Mitchell (1986) point out that successfu] introduced 

fishes typically exhibit generalist feeding habits and trophic opportunism. There is consequently 

considerable overlap in the diets of introduced and endemic fishes in many systems. 

G. affinis and Australian melanotaeniids, atherinids, galaxiids and a retropinnil have very 

similar diets (Arthington unpublished; Lloyd 1987). Moreover, the diet of the rainbowfish, 

Melanotaenja duboulayi (Castelnau) changes where large numbers of mosquitofish and small 

numbers of rainbowfish coexist. Also M. duboulayi tends to select larger prey items in the 

presence of G. affinis, which actively selects very small prey from the invertebrates in the stream 

environment. These shifts reduce dietary overlap between the two species, and may contribute to 

an effective partitioning of limited food resources. 

Environmental disturbances causing loss of aquatic macrophytes required for rainbowfish 

spawning habitat may also have been involved in the decline of this species (Arthington et al. 

1983; Milton and Arthington 1984). 

There is other evidence that Australian fishes display niche shifts in coexistence with S. 

affinis but Lloyd (1987) recorded an expansion of niche width rather than a riduction as

predicted by competition theory (O'Connor et al. 1975). Some native fishes show shifts in 

distribution and abundance as a corollary of dietary niche shifts in the presence of G. affinis 

(Lloyd 1987). A mutually exclusive distribution pattern exists between mosquitofish and the 

pigmy perch, Nannoperca australis GUnther, in the Lower River Murray (Lloyd 1984; Lloyd and 

Walker 1986). Other species show much lower abundances in the presence of G. affinis and X. 

helleri than do populations of the same species in habitats without introduced fishes (Arthington 

et al. 1983; Lloyd 1987). 

The one-spot live-bearer, Phalloceros caudimaculatus and the guppy, Poecilia reticulata, 

have diets similar to that of the mosquitofish but are less aggressive species (Griffiths 1972). 

Their impacts on Australian endemic fishes have not been studied, although where guppies and 

G. affinis are abundant in Brisbane creeks, endemic fishes are rare (McKay 1978; Arthington et 

al. 1983). 

The ecological impact of interference competition as a result of aggression and fin-nipping 

by G. affinis has not been quantified, although it is thought to be important. Lloyd (1987) 

showed that mosquitofish would attack native fish twice their size and could inflict caudal fin 

damage. Schoenherr (1981) interpreted aggressive behavior of G. affinis leading to the 

suppression of reproduction in the Gila (Sonoran) topminnow, Poeciliopsis occidentalis, as 

interspecific competition for space. However, Meffe (1985) maintained that while some 

interference does occur, predation by G. affinis has been more important in the decline of the 

Gila topminnow. McKay (1978, 1984) suggested that large numbers of mosquitofish and 

swordtails in creek habitats could adversely affect endemic fishes. 

The decline of endemic fishes has most often occurred in disturbed and polluted habitats 

which introduced species such as poeciliids, cyprinids and cichlids are able to exploit 

(Arthington et al. 1983; Courtenay and Stauffer, 1984; Moyle et al. 1986). Nevertheless, G. 

affinis has colonized undisturbed waterbodies in Australia (Lloyd 1987) and appears to have 

caused the decline of an endemic rainbowfish, Rhadinocentris ornatus (Regan), in the near 

pristine environment of Eighteen-Mile Swamp on North Stradbroke Island, Queensland (Fig. 1.). 

Like G. affinis, the rainbowfish feeds predominantly on terrestial insects at the water's surface 

and small aquatic invertebrates (Bayly et al. 1975), and this may be a case of competitive 

displacement (Arthington 1984). However, predation on eggs and fry of the endemic species 

may also have been responsible. 

Exploitation competition with brown trout may be involved in the decline and fragmentation 

of range of the galaxiid, Galaias olidus Gunther, and the decline of river blackfish, Gadopsis 

marmoratus Richardson, since their diets are similar (Fletcher 1979; Jackson 1978). The diet of 

introduced carp overlaps at various body sizes with that of several endemic fishes, such as bony 

bream Nematolosa erebi Gunther, catfish Tandanus tandanus Mitchell, silver perch, Bidyanus 

bidyanus Mitchell, Australian smelt, Retropinna semoni Steindachner, carp gudgeon, 

Hypseleotris klunzingeri Ogilby and flat headed galaxias, Galaxias rostratus Klunzinger (see 

Fletcher 1986). Whether any of these species has been affected by exploitation competition is 

not known. 

Impacts of Predation on Endemic Fishes 

G. affinis attacks the eggs and fry of important sports fishes, earning the name of "fish 

destroyer" (Myers 1965) and it is well known that mosquitofish may be piscivorous. However, 

Australian dietary studies have not produced any evidence of piscivory (Cadwallader 1979; 

11

12 

Arthington 1988; Lloyd 1987); G. affinis attacks and eats fish fry in aquaria (JoFnson 1976; 

Meffe 1985; Lloyd 1987). It is noteworthy that several small-bodied native fishe; seemingly 

affected by the mosquitofish in Australia have low fecundity (Milton and Arthington 1983b, 

1984, 1985) but others do not. 

Brown trout, S. trutta, Chinook salmon, Onchorynchus tshawytscha and redfin Perca 

fluviatilis, feed selectively on small endemic fishes and fish fry and may have affected the 

numbers of galaxiids, pigmy perch, N. australis, and golden perch, Mac quara ambigua 

Richardson, in southern rivers (Fletcher 1986). 

Impacts of Predation in Invertebrates 

G. affinis has had destructive effects on invertebrate populations in field situations 

(Stephanides 1964; Legner and Medved 1974) and in controlled experiments. Taxa such as 

beetles (Walters and Legner 1980), back swimmers (Huribert and Mulla 1981), rotifers, 

Crustacea (Huribert et al. 1972) and molluscs (Rees 1979) have been affected. 

In Brisbane streams, G. affinis feeds on small terrestrial insects and immatu:e stages of 

aquatic insects in the drift and amongst aquatic plants, actively selecting very small prey 

(Arthington 1988). Such size selective feeding might affect the structure of invertebrate 

communities by altering recruitment of various taxa. However, the impacts of G. affinis and 

other invertebrate-feeding fishes on assemblages of invertebrates have not beer. studied in 

Australia and require attention. 

Brown trout feeding may have caused the decline of the Tasmanian mouni am shrimp, 

Anaspides tasmaniae, and has eliminated or reduced several Plecoptera and Trichoptera in 

Victorian streams (Fletcher 1979). In experimental ponds, carp have caused the decline of a 

species of Daphnia (Fletcher 1986). 

Introduction of Parasites and Diseases 

Many biologists have opposed the traffic of introduced aquarium species into Australia due 

to concern that diseases and parasites may also be introduced (Hoffman 1970; Me Kay 1984). 

There is already evidence that disease organisms have entered Australia via the aqu irium trade. 

Goldfish ulcer disease entered Australia this way (Trust et al. 1980) and has reccntly spread 

rapidly to wild stocks (Whittington et al., in press). Langdon (1986) and Langdon and Humphrey 

(1987) described a new viral disease of redfin, P. fluvitailis. Concern over imported lish diseases 

has led to the establishment of quarantine facilities at major ports handling aquarium stocks 

(McKay 1984). 

Fish introductions were responsible for importing fish parasites such as fish louse, Argulus 

(Williams 1980) and anchorworm, Lernaea cyprinacea (Roberts 1978; Hoffman a:id Schubert 

1984). However, although G. affinis is host to 22 species of parasites in North America, there is 

only one Australian record of parasitism, a species of Lernaea found on mosquitofish from the 

River Murray (Lloyd 1984, 1987). The incidence of imported parasites in Australian endemic 

fishes is unknown. Moyle (1985) noted that endemic Californian fishes seem at time; to be more 

heavily parasitized by exotic parasites such as L. cyprinacea than do introduced fishes.

Overview of Impacts of Introduced Fishes 

The introduced species of most immediate concern in Australia are probably the aquarium 

species established in sub-tropical and tropical areas of Queensland, particularly G. affinis, X. 

helleri, P. reticulata and 0. mossambicus. Cold-water species such as salmonids have been in 

Australia for approximately 100 years and their impact has been of somewhat lesser concern, 

mainly because they are prized for sport fishing; yet there is growing evidence of their adverse 

affects. 

G. affinis has become a very common species in a wide variety of inland waters in 10 major 

Australian drainage systems (Fig. 1). Large populations occur in environments ranging from 

almost completely undisturbed, dystrophic swamps and streams to fetid urban drains with a wide 

variety of water quality problems. This fish may form part of the diet of water birds and endemic 

piscivores, although in the latter case it is avoided when there is a choice (Lloyd 1987). G. affinis 

is also considered to be less useful than various insectivorous endemic fishes as an agent in 

mosquito control (Lloyd 1986). Finally, several lines of evidence suggest that this species is 

partly responsible for the decline of several endemic fishes, including species which play an 

important part in keeping mosquito populations under control (Arthington et al. 1983; Lloyd 

1984, 1986, Lloyd et al. 1986; McKay 1978, 1984). Thus the collective opinion is that G. affinis 

is a pest species, or ecological uweed (Lloyd 1984; Lloyd et al. 1986; Arthington and Lloyd, in 

press). 

X. helleri is also quite common in Brisbane, Queensland and in coastal streams further 

north, but its impact appears to be one of occupation of space rather than of herbivory. 

Nevertheless, its persistence and proliferation since introduction are of concern, particularly 

since it often occurs with G. affinis and the two species together in large numbers seem to 

depress endemic fish populations (McKay 1978; Arthington et al. 1983). 

P. reticulata occurs in many Queensland coastal streams (Fig. 1) and has a diet similar to G. 

affinis. Where guppies and G. affinis are abundant in Brisbane creeks, endemic fishes are rare 

(McKay 1978; Arthington et al. 1983). 

P. latipinna, X. maculatus and P. caudimaculatus are much more patchily distributed in 

Australia, but in sub-tropical and tropical areas of Australia, these species could spread and have 

an adverse effect on endemic fishes (McKay 1978; Balla et al. 1985). 

0. mossambicus occurs in Brisbane, Townsville, Cairns and Western Australia, and new 

populations have been found in several other parts of Queensland. Some populations have been 

eradicated, but the species appears to be spreading, at least locally. For instance, numbers of 

mature fish were carried over the spillway of North Pine Dam, Brisbane, during a recent period 

of high rainfall, and have colonized (or recolonized) the lower North Pine River. This species 

also occurs in a tidal waterway in Cairns. It could possibly spread to new river systems via 

estuaries and coastal waters, in which it is able to breed (Hora and Pillay 1962). Although this 

species has been declared a noxious species in Queensland, with heavy penalties for 

translocation and cultivation (Arthington 1986), 0. mossambicus has turned up in isolated farm 

dams and ponds where its presence can only be attributed to human intervention. 

Ecological impacts of cyprinids, salmonids and the European perch in Australia are 

beginning to become evident but are far from fully understood (Pollard et al. 1980; Tilzey 1980; 

Fletcher 1986). 

13

14 

Apparent Extinction of the Lake Eacham Rainbowfish 

by Translocated Endemic Fishes 

The Lake Eacham rainbowfish, Melanotaenia eachamensis Allen and Cross, ocurs only in 

Lake Eacham, a large crater lake situated in a tropical rainforest catchment on the Atherton 

Tableland, northern Queensland (Fig. 1). Before 1984 the rainbowfish was an abundant species 

in the lake (Allen and Cross 1982; McKay 1987; Midgley, pers. comm.), which was also 

inhabited by two endemic species widespread in northern Queensland. Over the pa;t decade or 

so, several people noted the decline of the rainbowfish and the appearance in the SLake of four 

Australian species not previously recorded there. These species included the mout]i almightly, 

Glossamia aprion (Richardson), the archer fish, Toxotes chatareus (Hamilton), the bony bream, 

Nematolosa erebi (Gunther) and the banded grunter, Amniataba percoides (Gunther). The Lake 

Eacham rainbowfish has not been located during recent surveys (Barlow et al. 1987). 

Circumstantial evidence has been presented (Barlow et al. 1987) that its extinction may have 

been due largely to predation by the carnivorous G. aprion and possibly also the arher fish, T. 

chatareus; another endemic fish species and a crayfish also appeared to have become extinct in 

the lake as a result of predation. 

This first instance of an Australian native fish being exterminated by translocaled endemic 

fishes was initially noted and recorded by McKay (1987). McKay (pers. comm.) has suggested 

that this situation is unique in Australia, and could become a case history for rehabilitation of an 

aquatic ecosystem by the complete elimination of the translocated species in Lake Eacham, and 

then re-establishment of the rainbowfish by releasing hatchery bred stocks. He further suggests 

that the introduction of voracious predatory fish into Lake Eacham could achieve the desired 

eradication of resident, translocated fish species. By far the best candidate for this is the 

indigenous silver barramundi, Lines calcarifer Bloch. The barramundi is unable to breed in 

closed lakes and could therefore, in theory, be completely eliminated after extirpation of all 

translocated fishes either by allowing the introduced stocks to die out, or by a conccrted fishing 

effort. 

The Future 

Successful introduced fishes may experience local genetic differentiation follow:ng invasion 

of new environments (Arthington and Mitcheal 1986). Whether this occurs will depend on the 

kinds of environments encountered, the range and distribution of genetic variation available to 

populations, and the inheritance patterns of traits conferring increased fitness (Barret and 

Richardson 1986). 

There are several examples of adaptive changes in fish following colonization events. The 

mosquitofish exists as "warm-adapted' and "cold-adapted" strains in the USA (Otto, 1973) and a 

western Australian population of S. gairdneri exists with higher temperature tolera nce than its 

eastern counterparts (Morrissy 1973). The rainbow trout in New Zealand has superior swimming 

speed compared to ancestral stocks (Tsuyuki and Williscroft 1977). Tomasov (1981) showed 

that there are both morphological and electrophoretic differences between many Australian 

populations of G. affinis, but it is not known whether they have resulted from founder effects, 

genetic drift or local selection. 

Shifts in thermal tolerance might be expected in G. affinis from southern and ncrthern areas 

of Australia, where temperature regimes are very different. Likewise, X. helderi and 0.

mossambicus may be undergoing selection for cold tolerance in Brisbane since low winter 

temperatures have intermittently reduced some populations in streams and dams (McKay 1978, 

1984). 

Shifts in critical physiological tolerances such as in temperature mean that the future range 

of an introduced species cannot be predicted with certainty. Appreciation of this and other 

problems has led Australian fisheries authorities to restrict the introduction of aquarium species 

and to reject the idea of introducing the nile perch, Lates niloticus to stock northern waterbodies 

for recreational fishing (Barlow and Lisle 1987). In part, the case made against the introduction 

of Nile perch was that it could colonize the upper reaches of the Murray-Darling River system 

and affect endemic fishes which are recruited from these waters. Adult 0. mossambicus die at 

temperatures ranging from 5-140C (Mar et al. 1966; Kirk 1972) so this species too could survive 

the minimum winter temperatures recorded in the upper Murray-Darling River (see Barlow and 

Lisle 1987). 

An Ecological Approach to Predicting 

the Effects of Introductions 

There is worldwide evidence that successful fish introductions alter the structure and species 

composition of the invaded community. Australian examples are accumulating with increased 

research on introduced and translocated species. Herbold and Moyle (1986) and Moyle et al. 

(1986) have argued that introduced species do not fill "vacant niches" as Simberloff (1981) 

concluded from his review of species introductions. Rather, they fit into the new environment by 

further compressing the "realized niche" of one or more of the species already present, often to 

the point where the environment can no longer support the endemic species (Moyle et al. 1986). 

Li and Moyle (1981) applied the systems analysis technique of "loop analysis" to predict 

aquatic ecosystem behavior after a species introduction. They suggest that nutrient-poor or 

oligotrophic systems are most sensitive and become unstable after introduced species are 

established. Drawing upon the experience of entomologists in the biological control of pest 

species, Li and Moyle (1981) suggest four criteria for fish species that are candidates for 

introduction: trophic co-adaptation with members of the assemblage receiving the introduced 

species; narrow niche breadth including stenophagy; low vagility; and freedom from contagious 

disease and parasites exotic to the new environment. 

These criteria are the antithesis of the typical characteristics of successful and troublesome 

introduced species around the world, i.e., zero or little trophic co-adaptation, broad niches, 

especially habitat and trophic niche, high vagility and infection with parasites and diseases 

(Arthington and Mitchell 1986). 

Moyle et al. (1986) suggest that three areas of ecological theory are particularly relevant to 

predicting the effects of introduced species. The theory of island biogeography may answer the 

question "how many species can an aquatic ecosystem support?"; the concept of "limiting 

similarity" may aid in predicting how morphologically similar species can coexist in a 

community; and the analysis of food webs may be useful for understanding the trophic 

interactions of introduced and endemic species. Although each theoretical approach has 

weaknesses, Moyle et al. (1986) conclude that they all point to the creation of inherently 

unstable fish communities through poorly considered introductions and translocations. 

Fisheries scientists and managers now have access to a substantial body of theoretical and 

empirical evidence that "tinkering with fish faunas" (Welcomme 1984) is seldom entirely 

15

16 

successful and more often than not has unanticipated and undesirable consequences. If it is to 

continue, it must be preceded in every instance by full consideration of the probable 

consequences for the receiving ecosystem and its endemic fish fauna. This applies equally to the 

translocation of fishes between drainage systems, and is particularly important in Australia of the 

present time because of the renewed interest in stocking northern inland waters with endemic 

fish species to create recreational fisheries. 

Acknowledgements 

I wish to acknowledge research grants from the Australian National Parks md Wildlife 

Service, Griffith University and the Australian Water Research Advisory Council For the study 

of introduced fishes in Queensland. Mr. R.J. McKay, Mr. D.A. Milton, Ms. M. English, Mr. D. 

Bluhdorn and other colleagues are thanked for their part in these studies. I am also indebted to 

Mr. L.N. Lloyd for his substantial contribution to sections of this paper on poecihid :ishes. 

References 

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17

18 

Reznick, D. 1981. 'Grandfather Effects': The genetics of mterpopulation differences in offspring size in the mosquitofish. Evolution 35: 941-953. 

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Hydrobiologie Institute 9: 3-5. 

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Baltimore. 

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National University Press. Canberra. 

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Variation, La Trobe University, Victoria, Australia. 

Trendall, J.T. 1982. Covariation in life history traits in the mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis. American Naturalist 119: 774-783. 

Trendall, J.T. andM,S. Johnson. 1981. Identification by anatomy and gel electrophoresis of Phalloceros caudirnaculatus (Poe ciiidae) previously 

mistaken for Gambusia affinis ho! brooki (Poeciliidae). Australian Journal of Marine and FreshwaterResearch 32: 993-996. 

Trust, T.J., A.G. Khouri, R.A. Austin and L.D. Ashbumer. 1980. First isolation in Australia of atypical Aeromonas s,zlmonicida. FEMS 

Microbiology Letters 9: 39-42. 

Tsuyuki, H. and S.N. Williscroft. 1977. Swimming stamina differences between genotypically distinct forms of rainbow (Salmo gairdneri) and 

steelhead trout. Journal of Fisheries Research Board, Canada 34: 996-1003. 

Walters, L.L. and E.F. Legner. 1980. Impact of the desert pupfish, Cyprinodon macularius and Gambusia affinis on fauna in pond ecosystems. 

Hilgardia48: 1-18: 

Welcomme, R.L. 1984. International transfers of inland fish species, p. 22-40. In W.R. Courtenay and J. R. Stauffer (eds.) Distribution, Biology 

and Management of Exotic Fishes. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore. 

Whiuington, RJ., N. Gudkovs, Mi. Carrigan, L.D. Ashburner and SJ. Thurstan (in press). Clinical, microbiological atid epidemiological 

findings in recent outbreaks of gold fish ulcer disease due to atypical Aerorrzonas salmonicida in south-eastern A ustralia. Journal of 

Fish Diseases. 

Williams, W.D. 1980. Australian Freshwater Life. Macmillan, Sydney.

1520 

460 

40° 

1220 128° 34° 

116° 

I 2°- 

GOVE 

PENINSULA 

DARWIN 

J940 8B 

/ 

- I 2° 

CAIRNS 

Lake Eacham 

i 1929 

1940 

TOWNSVILLE 

8° 

ROCKHAMPTON 

GLADSTONE 

24- 

'p 

24° 

CARNARVO 

ISBANE 

11925 

GERALDTON 

30Q. 

SYDNEY 

11926 

PERTH 

1934 

ADELAIDE 

36g, 

MELBOURNE 

0 

- 16°S 

(I Kilontre 1881 

42L 

I 16°E 22° 128° 34° 140° 146'W 52° 

I I I I I 

Fig. 1. Australia showing major drainage divisions (1-12, see below), the 

localities and dates of major introductions of Gambusia affirns in Australia (e.g., 

Cairns 1929). the present distribution of G. affinis in each division (speckled areas), the location of Lake Eacham on the Atheston Tableland, south of Cairns, 

the distribution of Poecilia relic ulala in coastal Queensland (cross-hatched area), localities supporting Oreochromss mossamb,cus (Brisbane, Townsville and 

Cairns, Queensland; Gascoyne River and Lyons River east of Carnarvon, Western Australia). Numbers 1-12 refer to the drainage divisions recognized by the 

Australia Water Resources Council. Shaded areas indicate the presence of moaqustofish within at least parts of the drainage division (Aiihington and Uoyd, m 

press). 1. North-east Coast Division; 2. South-east Coast Diviaion; 3. Tasmanian Division; 4. Murray-Darling Division; 5. South Austrahan Gulf Division; 6. 

South-west Coastal Division; 7. Indian Ocean Division; 8. Timor 

Sea Division A - Cape Levesque Coast, B - Finnis River, 9. Gulf of Carpentaria Division; 10. 

Lake Eyre Division; 11. Bulloo-Bancannia Division; 12. Western Plateau Division.

20 

-24° 

4' 

4 - 

I- 

.300 Cl) 

'1 S 

36° 

1400 

I 

of 

0i, 

,ir1 

I 

I 

I 

VICTORIA 

!4'o° 

QUEENSLAND 

'I 

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I I 

I 

I' 

NEW 

SOUTH 

WALES / 

/ 

R / A 

140E° 146° l52 

I I I 

¼ 

IL 

0 Kilometres 

- 

152° 

/ 

500 LI 

Fig. 2. South-eastern Australia showing state boundaries and the distribution of three strams of European carp, Cyprintts caIpio. A - Prospect 

Reservoir strain, B - Mumimbidgee Irrigation Area (Riverina) strain and C - initial distribution of the Boolara strain, first introduced in 1960. 

Dashed lines indicate the distribution of the Boolara strain in 1977 (redrawn from Pollard etal. 1980). 

24°.. 

30 

36L

Exotic and Translocated Freshwater 

Fishes in Australia 

RJ. McKAY 

Queensland Museum 

P0 Box 300, South Brisbane 4101 

Australia 

McKay, Ri. 1989. Exotic and translocated freshwater fishes in Australia, p. 2 1-34. In S.S. De Silva (ed.) Exotic Aquatic 

Organisms in Asia. Proceedings of the Workshop on Introduction of Exotic Aquatic Organisms in Asia. Asian 

Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ. 3, 154 p. Asian Fisheries Society, Manila, Philippines. 

Approximately 21 species of exotic freshwater fishes have become established in Australian waters, and some 21 

indigenous species have been translocated. Two additional exotic species are maintained by regular stocking from 

Government hatcheries, and a number of unsuccessful introductions and unconfirmed reports of ornamental fish releases 

are documented in this paper. 

The freshwater fish fauna of Australia has been described as depauperate, of recent origin 

(with a few exceptions), and although similar, has had a dramatic impact on the natural 

environment to the extent that Weatherley and Lake (1967) and Lake (1971) contended that 

man-made changes to the environment have been the principal factors in causing a decline in the 

Australian fish fauna. The construction of large reservoirs, dams and weirs has impounded 

extensive bodies of permanent, or semipermanent freshwater, and these newly created habitats, 

albeit of short term evolutionary significance, have attracted the attention of "stocking 

associations". With mounting political pressure to provide recreational fishing in large 

reservoirs, without the provision of adequate research funds, and mindful of the reaction of a 

small but vocal conservation lobby, fishery managers frequently opt for the iranslocation of 

hatchery-bred native sport or food fish rather than to introduce an exotic species. 

The first recorded extinction of an indigenous freshwater fish in Australian waters, the Lake 

Eacham rainbowfish Melanotaenia eachamensis, was almost certainly due to the establishment 

of the translocated freshwater mouthbrooding apogonid Glossamia aprion (McKay 1987; 

Caughey 1987; Barlow et al. 1987). The advent of hormone-induced spawning of golden perch 

Macquaria ambiqua (Rowland 1983a), Murray cod Maccullochella peeli (Rowland 1983b), 

silver perch Bidyanus bidyanus (Rowland et aL, 1983), barramundi Lates calcarifer (= L. 

cavzfrons), saratoga Scieropages leichardti (Merrick and Green, 1982), and a number of northern 

grunters (family Teraponidae), has stimulated the development of hatchery-bred indigenous 

freshwater fishes. A register of introduced exotics (Table 1) and translocated indigenous 

freshwater fishes (Table 2) was compiled by the author from the literature, fisheries reports, and 

personal communication, and this register, although necessarily incomplete, provides the basis 

for this account. All introductions and translocations in the register include locality, state to, 

origin, date, purpose, remarks and drainage system number (Surface Water Resources, 1967, 

Department National Development, Canberra) and are stored on an IBM compatible computer. 

21

22 

The terminology associated with introduced fishes is frequently imprecise (see Courtenay 

and Stauffer 1984); I have largely adopted the definitions given by Bruton and Mcrron (1985), 

with additional terms defined: 

Exotic 

Indigenous 

Endemic 

Introduction 

Stocked 

Translocation 

Established 

Invasive Species 

Definitions 

any species from another zoogeographic region. This term is 

usually applied to species from another country or continent 

(synonymous terms are alien and foreign). 

species native to a zoogeographic region, but no: necessarily 

restricted to a particular lake or drainage systems (synonymous 

terms are native or local). 

a species that is restricted in its distribution to a particular lake or 

drainage systems. 

the act of releasing or liberating one or more individuals of an 

exotic or indigenous species. The term includes both accidental 

and deliberate releases. 

an official or approved release for a specific purpose. Frequently 

employed by fisheries agencies when introducing hatchery-bred 

exotic or indigenous food or game fishes. 

the movement by man of a species within a zoogeographic 

region. A term generally used to describe the transplantation of 

indigenous populations either intentionally or unintentionally by 

man into a catchment or part of a catchment (above waterfalls) in 

which it was not naturally distributed, but may also refer to the 

movement by man of an exotic species within a zcogeographic 

region to which it was previously introduced. 

an introduced exotic or indigenous species that is reproductively 

successful (synonymous terms are acclimatized or feral species). 

a species which has the ability to become established in natural or 

semi-natural environments or communities, and to cause an 

ecological imbalance there (synonymous terms are colonizing or 

weed species). 

The introduction and establishment of exotic freshwater fishes in Australia has been 

regularly documented (Whitley 1951a, 1951b; Roughley 1955; Weatherley and Lake 1967; Lake 

1971, 1978; McKay 1977, 1978, 1984, 1986a, 1986b; Pollard et al. 1980; Tilzey 1980; 

Welcomme 1981; Merrick and Schmida 1984; Arthington and Mitchell 1986). More recent 

introductions are given below in the species accounts.

Table 1. Exotic fishes established in Australian freshwaters. The states which such 

species is established is also indicated. 

Rainbow trout Salmo gairdneri, WA., S.A., Vic., N.S.W. 

Brown trout Salmo lrulla, W.A., S.A., Vic., Tas., NS.W. 

Brook trout 

Carp 

Salvelinusfontinalis, Tas., N.S.W. 

Cyprinus carpio, S.A., Vic., N.S.W., Qd. 

Goldfish Carassi,ss aural us all states except N.T. 

Tench Tinca linca, S.A., Vic. N.S.W., Tas. 

Roach Rutilus rutilus, Vic. 

Mosquitofish Gambusia affinis ho! brooki, all states except Tas. 

One-spot livebearer Phalloceros caudimaculatus, W.A. 

Guppy Poecilia reticulata, N.S.W.,Qd., N.T. 

Sailfin molly Poecilia lalipinna, Qd. 

Platy 

Xiphophorus maculalus, Qd., N.T. 

Swordtail Xiphophorus helleri, W.A., Qd., N.T. 

European perch Percafluvialills, W.A., S.A. Vic., N.S.W., Tas. 

Mosambique tilapia Oreochromis mossa,nbicus, W.A., Qd. 

Tilapia Oreochromis sp. Qd. 

Niger cichlid Tilapia ,nariae, Vic., Qd. 

Convict cichlid Cichiasoma (Archocentrus) niqrofascialum, Vic. 

Jack Dempsey Cichiasorna (Herichthys) octofasciatwn, Vic. 

Weather bach Masqurnus angillicaudatus, A.C.T., Vic. 

The translocation of indigenous freshwater fishes has been recently documented (Anon 

1980, 1982; Cadwallader 1981, 1983; Cadwallader and Backhouse 1983; Rowland et al. 1983; 

Cadwallader and Gooley 1984; Merrick and Schmids 1984; Brumley 1987). More recent 

translocations are discussed in the species accounts. 

23

24 

Table 2. Translocations of indigenous freshwater fishes. 

Queensland lungfish Neoceralodusforsteri, Qd. 

Bony bream Nematalosa erebi, Qd. 

Saratoga Scieropages leichardti, Qd. 

Gulf saratoga Sc!eropagesjardini, Qd. 

Dewfish Tandantis tandanus, Qd. 

Long torn Strongylura kreffli, Qd. 

Western rainbowfish Melanotaenia splendida, Qd. 

Barramundi Lates ca1carfer (= L cavifrons), Qd. 

Murray cod Maccullochella peeli, A.C.T., Vic., N.S.W., Qd. 

Trout cod Maccullochella ,nacquariensis, N.S.W., Vic. 

Australian bass Mac quaria novemaculeata, Vic., Qd. 

Golden perch Macquaria ainbigua, A.C.T., Vic., N.S.W., 

Qd., N.T. 

Macquarie perch Macquaria australasica, Vic., N.S.W. 

Spangled perch Leiopotherapon unicolor, Qd. 

Sooty grunter Hephaestus bidyanus, Vic., N.S.W., Qd., N.T. 

Mouth almighty Glossamia aprion, Qd. 

Archerfish Toxotes chatareus, Qd. 

River blackfish Gadopsis marmoralus, Tas. 

Firetail gudgeon Hypseleotris gallii, Qd. 

Western carp gudgeon Hypseleotris kluzingeri, Vic. 

Sleepy cod Oxyeleotrts lineolatus, Qd. 

Table 3. Non-established, or introduced fishes of doubtful status. 

Quinnat salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, Vic. 

Atlantic salmon Salmo salar, Vic., N.S.W., Tag. 

Tiger barb Capoeta let razona, Qd. 

Pearl cichlid Geophagus brasiliensis, Qd. 

Jewel cichlid Hemichromis bimaculatus, Qd. 

Oscar Astronotus ocellatus, Qd. 

Cichlid Cichlasoma sp. (hybrid), Qd.

CERATODIDAE - LUNGFISH 

Neoceratodusforsteri 

Indigenous Species 

Translocated to Brisbane, North Pine, Albert, Logan, Coomera, and Caboolture Rivers, but 

established only in the Brisbane and Pine River systems with any success (O'Connor 1897b; 

Merrick and Schmida 1984). 

CLUPEIDAE - HERRINGS 

Nematalosa erebi 

Established translocations in Lake Morris, Tinaroo Dam, and Lake Eacham, northern 

Queensland (Anon 1982). 

STEOGLOSSIDAE - BONYTONGUES 

Scieropages leichardti 

Translocated during the 1960's to Callide Dam, Borumba Dam, Moogerah Dam, Hinze 

Dam, Mary River, from (Borumba Dam) and North Pine Dam (pond escape) southern 

Queensland. Hatchery-bred fish sold in Queensland (Merrick and Green 1982). 

Scieropages jardini 

Tinaroo Dam northern Queensland (Anon 1982). 

PLOTOSIDAE - EEL-TAIL CATFISH 

Tandanus tandanus 

Translocated to Beatrice River, Lake Morris and Tinaroo Dam from Enoggera Dam, 

southern Queensland; to the Wimmera River, Victoria from the Murray River. Now produced by 

hatcheries and sold for stocking purposes (Anon 1982). 

BELONIDAE - NEEDLEFISH 

Strongylura kreffti 

Stocked into Callide dam (S.H. Midgley, pers. comm). 

25

26 

MELANOTAENIIDAE 

Melanotaenia splendida 

Translocated to Bolgu Island, Tones Straits, for mosquito control. 

CENTROPOMIDAE - BARRAMUNDI 

Lates calcarfer 

Translocated to Tinaroo Dam where they cannot establish. Hatchery-bred fish are sold in 

Queensland (Shacklee and Salini 1983). 

PERCICHTHYIDAE - BASSES AND CODS 

Maccullochella peeli 

Translocated to many localities within natural range and to Lake Charlegrark, Wimmera 

River lakes, Victoria. An early unsuccessful introduction to the Yarra River, Viccoria (Wilson 

1857). Translocated from Condamine River to Obi Obi Creek, Mary River, Queensland in the 

1880's (Cadwallader 1978, 1983; Cadwallader and Backhouse 1983; Rowland 1983b; 

Cadwallader and Gooley 1984). Hatchery-bred fish sold in Victoria, New South Wales and 

Queensland. 

Maccullochella macquariensis 

Stocked in Lake Sambell, Victoria, Seven Creeks and Glenbawn Dam, New South Wales 

(Cadwallader 1983; Cadwallader and Gooley 1984). 

Mac quaria novemaculeata 

Introduced to Lake Manchester and Poona Dam Queensland. 

Mac quaria ambigua 

Stocked in many reservoirs in New South Wales and Victoria (Cadwallader 1978, 1983; 

Anon 1980; Rowland et al. 1983; Rowland 1983a; Brumley 1987). Limited stocking in 

Queensland to date (Stephenson and Grant 1957). Stocked in Lake Burley Griffn, Canberra, 

(Pratt 1979; Robinson 1982). Hatchery-bred fish now available.

Mac quaria australasica 

Stocked in reservoirs in New South Wales and Victoria (Cadwallader and Rogan 1977, 

Cadwallader 1981b, 1983). A possible introduction to Lake Manchester, Southern Queensland 

with M. novemaculeata from the Nepean River (S.H. Midgley, pers. comm) 

Bidyanus bidyanus 

Stocked in reservoirs in New South Wales (Anon 1980; Rowland et al. 1983), and Wimmera 

River, Victoria (Cadwallader 1983), also stocked in Queensland dams (Yolk Creek, Enoggera, 

Kinchant, Tinaroo, Borumba, Boondooma and Awoonga) and Mary River. 

Hephaestus fuliginosus 

Stocked in 23 sites in Queensland from Tinaroo Dam southwards to Gin Gin (Anon 1980, 

1982a). Early reports suggest that this species has become estabished in some coastal rivers. 

Liopotherapon unicolor 

Stocked in Maroochy River in the 1960s (S.H. Midgley pers. comm.) and into the North 

Pine Dam after 1973 where it has become established. Introduced to the Brisbane River system. 

APOGONIDAE - CARDINAL FISHES 

Glossamia aprion 

Stocked in some northern dams by private stocking agencies (Grant, 1982). Introduced to 

Lake Eacharn (see Arthingtonton - this volume). 

Toxotes chatareus 

Stocked in Tinaroo Dam, Copperload Darn and Lake Eacham, Queensland (Anon 1982a; 

Barlow et al. 1987). 

GADOPSIDAE - BLACKFISH 

Gadopsidae marmoratus 

Translocated to Huon and Derwent Rivers, Tasmania (Merrick and Schmida 1984). 

27

28 

ELEOTRIDAE - GUDGEONS 

Hypseleotris galii 

Introduced to Boigu Island, Torres Straits for mosquito control. 

Hypseleotris klunzingeri 

Introduced to Wimmera River lakes, Victoria with stocked species (Cadwallader and 

Backhouse 1983). 

SALMONIDAE -SALMON AND TROUT 

Oncorhynchus tshawytscha 

Exotic Species 

Maintained by stocking in south-western Victorian lakes (Cadwallader and Eden 1981; 

Cadwallader and Backhouse 1983). 


The most important salmonid stocked in Australia. Widespread in Victoria, New South 

Wales and Tasmania (Roughley 1955; Lake, 1957; Weatherley and Lake 1967; Nicholls 1957, 

1958a, 1958b, 1958c, 1958d; Wharton 1969; Lynch 1970; Tilzey 1971, 1972, 1976, 1977, 1980; 

McDowall and Tilzey 1980; Cadwallader and Tilzey 1980; Welcomme, 1981; Jackson 1981; 

Jackson and Davies 1983; Barnham 1983; Cadwallader 1983; Cadwallader and Backhouse 1983; 

Brown, 1984; Baxter 1985; Baxter et al. 1985). 

Salmo trutta (see also S. gairdneri) 

Widespread in Victoria, New South Wales, Tasmania and south-western Western Australia 

(Roughley 1955; Tilzey 1971; Jackson and Williams 1980; Merrick and Schmida 194). 

Salmo salar 

Maintained by stocking in impoundments in New South Wales and Tasmania (Francois 

1965; Hortle 1986).

Salvelinusfontinalis 

Stocked in impoundments in New South Wales and Tasmania (Lake 1971; McDowall and 

Tilzey 1980; Cadwallader 1983; Merrick and Schmida 1984). 

CYPRINIDAE - CARP AND GOLDFISH 

Cyprinus carpio 

First introduced to Australia in 1872 and now widespread through the Murray-Darling 

system (Stead 1929; Lake 1959, 1967a, 1967b; Butcher 1962; Wharton 1971, 1979; Shearer and 

Mulley 1979; Smith and Pribble 1979; Geddes 1979; Mulley and Shearer 1980; Hume et al. 

1983a, 1983b; Cadwallader and Backhouse 1983; McKay 1986c, 1987a; Arthington and 

Mitchell 1986). 

Carassius auratus 

Widespread in New South Wales, Victoria and western Queensland (Mitchell 1976; 

McDowall and Shearer 1980). 

Capoeta tetrazona 

Introduced to Enoggera Creek, Brisbane, 1987. 

Rutilus rutilus 

Common in some southern Victorian streams (Lake 1979; McDowall and Shearer 1980; 

Cadwallader and Backhouse 1983; Merrick and Schmida 1984). 

Tinca tinca 

Introduced to Tasmania and Victoria (Weatherley 1962; Weatherley and Lake 1967; 

Cadwallader and Backhouse 1983; Merrick and Schmida 1984). 

COBITIDAE - LOACH 

Misgurnus anguillicaudatus 

Released by aquarists to Lake Burley Griffin, Yarra River and Ovens River (Allen 1984, 

1986c, 1987a). 

29

30 

POECILIIDAE - LIVEBEARERS 

Gambusia affinis hoibrooki 

Widespread throughout mainland Australia (Whitley 1951a, 1961b; Mees 1977; Pollard et 

al. 1981; Milton and Arthington 1983; Merrick and Schmida 1984; Lloyd 1984; Lloyd and 

Tomasov 1985; Arthington, this volume and references therein). 


Common in urban streams throughout coastal Queensland (McKay 1977, 1978, 1984, 

1986c; Arthington et al. 1983). 

Poecilia latipinna 

Established in Hervey Bay and Sandgate Lagoon, Brisbane (Mckay 1978, 1986c). 

Phalloceros caudimaculatus 

Established near Perth, Western Australia (Trendall and Johnson 1981). 


Common in urban creeks Brisbane, Ipswich and Gladstone Queensland (McKay 1977 1978, 

1984; Arthington et al. 1981, 1983; Arthington and Mitchell 1986). 


A rapidly spreading invasive species established in the Brisbane region, Babind a, Tully and 

Gordonvale, Queensland (McKay 1978, 1984, 1986c; Milton and Arthington 1983). 

PERCIDAE - PERCH 

Perca fluviatilis 

Established in western Victoria, New South Wales, Tasmania, Western Australia, and South 

Australian Gulf divisions (Weatherley 1963, 1977; Weatherley and Lake 1967; Cad'wallader and 

Backhouse 1983; Merrick and Schmida 1984; Baxter et al. 1985).

CICHLIDAE - CICHLIDS 

Oreochromis mossambicus 

A rapidly spreading invasive species established in Queensland and Western Australia 

(McKay 1984, 1986c; Allen 1982; Arthington et al. 1984; Arthington and Mitchel 1986; 

Arthington this volume). 

Tilapia mariae 

Established in thermal waters of a power station in Victoria (Cadwallader et al. 1980) and 

Cairns area Queensland. 

Cichiasoma nigrofasciatum 

Established in thermal waters of a power station in Victoria (Cadwallader et al. 1980). 

Cichiasoma octofasciatum 

Reported to be established (now declining population?) in thermal waters of a power station 

in Victoria (Cadwallader et al. 1980; N. Halliwell, pers. comm.). 

Geophagus brasiliensis 

Introduced to the Bajool area, Queensland, and in an ornamental pond, Rockhampton 

(McKay 1986c). 

Hemichromis bimaculatus 

Escaped from ornamental ponds cairns, Queensland and established in urban drains (McKay 

1986c). 

Astronotus ocellatus 

Introduced to several urban creeks in Queensland but not yet established. 

Cichiasoma species 

Introduced to Brisbane River but unlikely to establish. 

31

32 

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Proceeding of the Royal Society of Victoria 2: 23-24.

The Status of the Exotic Aquatic 

Organisms in China 

TAN YO-JUN 

TONG HE-Yl 

Shanghai Fisheries Universiiy 

334 Jun GongRoad 

Shanghai, China 

Tan Yo-Jun and Tong He-Yi. 1989. The status of the exotic aquatic organisms in China, p. 35-43. In S.S. De Silva (ed.) 

Exotic Aquatic Organisms in Asia. Proceedings of the Workshop on Introduction of Exotic Aquatic Organisms 

in Asia. Asian Fish. Soc. Spec. Pubi. 3, lS4p. Asian Fisheries Society, Manila, Philippines. 

A total of 109 species of fish which includes 21 species of food fishes, 88 species of tropical aquarium fishes, 1 

amphibian, 2 crustaceans, 6 molluscs and 7 seaweeds have been introduced into mainland China. Most of the food fish 

species are used for aquaculture. A strict quarantine procedure is adopted when species are introduced, and are released for 

commercial culture only after a number of years of experimentation and observation. As most introductions are tropical 

species, which are generally unable to overwinter under natural conditions, none of the introductions are known to have 

had deleterious effects on the indigenous flora and fauna. 

In order to develop China's inland and marine culture fisheries and other purposes, a great 

number of exotic aquatic species were introduced from different countries and regions of the 

world. There are about 125 species known to have been introduced into China. Among them are 

109 species of fish which includes 21 species of food fishes and 88 species of tropical aquarium 

fishes, 1 amphibian, 2 crustaceans, 6 molluscs and 7 seaweeds. Some of them have been 

successfully cultured in different parts of the country and have made a considerable contribution 

to the production. Some are still in the stage of experimental culture. 

Pisces 

Exotic Aquatic Organisms in China 

Five species or subspecies of Cyprinidae were introduced into China (Table 1). Carassius 

auratus cuvieri which was called silver crucian carp in China, indigenous to Lake Biwa of Japan, 

was introduced into the country in 1976 and quickly popularized after 2-3 years trial. The 

principles of breeding and seed production are similar to that of local crucian carp Carassius 

auratus auratus. In the commercial production, silver crucian carp is commonly polycultured 

with the Chinese carps. It is now extensively cultured in China, particularly in Changjiang River 

Basin. Funtius gonionotus was introduced from Thailand in 1986. It has been experimentally 

monocultured or polycultured in ponds and rice fields in Guangdong Province. Labeo rohita is 

indigenous to the Ganges and was introduced from Thailand in 1978. It is being cultured 

experimentally in the southern parts of China. Catla catla was introduced from Bangladesh in 

35

36 

1973. It has been cultured in southern parts of China, such as in Guangdong Provincc, but is still 

in an experimental stage. Scattered mirror carp is a strain of Cyprinus carpio which was selected 

by German fish culturists many years ago. Thirty thousand fertilized eggs were intrcduced from 

Japan in 1982 and ten thousand fingerlings were introduced from the Federal Republic of 

Germany in 1984. The exotic mirror carp has a fast growth rate, higher resistance to cold, is 

easier to culture and catch, and therefore it is now extensively cultured in the northrn parts of 

China. 

Colossoma bidens of Serrasalmidae, indigenous to South America, was introduced in 1985 

via Hong Kong. It is being experimentally cultured in southern China. 

Three species of Clariidae have been introduced into China. Clarias macrocephalus and 

Clarias batrachus were introduced from Thailand in 1982 and 1978, respectively. The latter is 

also distributed in southern Yunnan Province of China. Clarias lazera was introduced from 

Africa in 1981. In comparison with the local catfish Clariasfuscus, the exotic cat fishes have 

more favourable characteristics for intensive culture, and are extensively cultured n southern 

China. 

Pangasius sutchi (Pangasidae) was introduced from Thailand in 1978, and at present is 

experimentally cultured in Guangdong Province. 

Ictalurus punctatus and Ictalurus nebulosus were introduced from the United States in 1984 

and are experimentally cultured in Hubei Province and Beijing. 

Three coldwater salmonids have been introduced into China. Salmo gairdneri was first 

introduced from the Democratic People's Republic of Korea in 1959, but culture developed 

slowly and remained at experimental stage during 1959-1976. Since then, rainbow trDut culture 

has developed and it is now extensively cultured throughout 16 provinces and autonomous 

regions. In 1983, The Donaldson super rainbow trout was introduced from the University of 

Washington, USA. This species has a faster growth and stronger resistance to cold. China has 

succeeded in rainbow trout culture and seed production. 

Food fish are mainly cultured in concrete tanks or raceways with running cok water; in 

addition cage culture in lakes, reservoirs and coastal waters is also carried out. Coregonus peled 

and Coregonus sp. which are species from USSR and North America originally, were introduced 

from Japan in 1985. They were cultured in a reservoir of Heilongjiang Province for experiments. 

Five species of Cichlidae have been introduced into China. Oreochromis mossambicus was 

introduced into China from Vietnam in 1957, and was polycultured with Chinese carp; in ponds 

for a long period. It is not considered a suitable species for culture and is being replaced by 

Oreochromjs nilorjcus, introduced in 1978. It has been monocultured in running warm water or 

polycultured in ponds. The hybrid of 0. mossambicus X 0. niloticus is important in polyculture 

with Chinese carps. Oreochromis aureus was introduced in 1981 in order to get over O% male 

offspring through hybridization. Tilapias are commonly cultured in ponds, running warm water, 

cages, etc. But Sarotherodon galilaeus and Tilapia zulu which were introduced in 19 1 are still 

kept in experimental hatcheries. Tilapias are unable to overwinter in natural waters in most parts 

of China. 

Largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides, indigenous to the freshwater lakes and rivers in 

North America, was introduced into China in 1983 via Hong Kong. Largemouti bass is 

considered as one of the best food fish species cultured in China. 

Gambusia affinis of Poeciliidae, indigenous to North America, was introduced into China 

several decades ago for controling malaria. It is widespread in Shanghai and Jiangsu iirovinces 

and is also cultured in aquaria.

It is well-known that the traditional aquarium fish of China are goldfish and brocaded carp. 

They were selected or bred from crucian carp and common carp, respectively. Many aquarium 

fishes were introduced from different countries and regions. The preliminary list of aquarium 

fish introduced into China is given in Table 2. 

Crustacea 

Red crayfish Procambarus clarkii (Astacidae), indigenous to America, was introduced into 

China via Japan many years ago. It is self-reproducing in natural waters near Shanghai. 

The giant freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii (Palaemonidae), indigenous to the 

Indo-Pacific region, was introduced into China from Japan. It is much bigger than the native 

freshwater shrimp Macrobrachium nipponense. At present, it is being mass cultured in 

Guangdong, Guangxi, Zhejiang, Fujian, Shanghai and Beijing. 

Mollusca 

The Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas (Ostreidae), was introduced into China from Japan in 

1979-1980. At present, it is being experimentally cultured in bays of Zhejiang Province. It is a 

good species with big size, fast growth and strong adaptability. 

The bay scallop Argopecten irradians (Pectinidae), indigenous to the Atlantic coast of the 

United States, was introduced into China in 1982. It is now cultured economically in some 

coastal areas of Shandong Province. 

Red abalone Haliotis rufescens and green abalone Haliotis fulgens (Haliotidae) were 

introduced into China from California, USA, and is been cultured experimentally. The red 

abalone is much bigger than the local abalone. 

A species of freshwater mussel Hyriopsis schiegeril (Unionidae) was introduced into 

Shanghai from Japan in 1982. The quality of freshwater pearls cultured from this species was 

probably better than those of local ones. 

Ampullarius gigas (Ampullaridae), indigenous to Brazil, was introduced into southern China 

via Hong Kong in 1982. It has been cultured in ponds, concrete tanks and ditches. 

Amphibia 

American bullfrog Rana catesbiana, indigenous to America, was introduced into China 

from Cuba in 1962. It has been cultured in parts of China. The natural distribution of the bullfrog 

is in swamp regions in Hunan Province and Xinjiang Autonomous Region. These frogs have 

now become established. 

Seaweeds (Algae) 

The kelp Laminaria japonica (Laminariaceae), indigenous to Japan, was accidentally 

introduced into China. In 1927, it was found growing off the coast of Dalian in northern China. It 

is theorized that zoospores attached to lumber rafts and to the bottom of cargo boats from 

37

38 

northern Japan, settled off Dalian. The first success in experimental culture was achieved in 

1949. The species is cultured throughout China, especially in Zhejiang and Fujian Provinces, as 

a food and a source of iodine. Yields of 250,000 i/year dry weight have been obtained. 

A species of giant kelp, Macrocystis pyrifera, was introduced into China from Mexico in 

1978 and United States in 1984, respectively. It has been experimentally cultured in some coastal 

areas of Liaoning and Shandong Provinces. 

Eucheuma sp. (Solieriaceae), indigenous to the Philippines, was introduced into China in 

1985. It has been experimentally cultured in some coastal regions of Shandong Province. 

Besides these species of seaweeds, Porphyra nereocystis, Porphyra toru, Porphyra 

meniniata and Porphyra perforata were introduced into Shanghai from the United States in 

1985, but none has established. 

Discussion 

Most of the exotic aquatic food species were introduced by research in:;titutes and 

universities in China, especially after 1950s. The ecological information and culture techniques 

of species were collected and studied; the advantages and unfavourable characteristics of exotic 

species were evaluated in detail prior to introduction. 

The species were quarantined and disinfected prior to introduction. After introductions, the 

exotic species were confined and cultured in experimental fishfarms in which intensive research 

on introduced species is undertaken before distributing them throughout the different provinces. 

Moreover, many species are indigenous to the tropics and are unable to tolerate the low 

temperature in winter in most parts of China, and the coidwater species cannot tolerate the water 

temperature in summer. As a result most exotic species have not caused seriou; ecological 

problems in natural waters. 

Some species such as Carassius auratus cuvieri are self-reproducing in natural waters and 

species such as Oreochromis spp. are easily bred under hatchery conditions. They have resulted 

in an increase in production and contributed to China's fisheries significantly. 

Fish feed supply is an outstanding problem in China's culture fisheries. The further 

development of fish culture has been limited by shortage of fish feed, especially those based on 

animal food sources. Therefore, among the exotic fishes which have been introduced into China, 

the omnivores and plankton feeders have been popularized quickly and widely. But carnivorous 

fish such as Micropterus salmoides are not easily spread although some can consume dead 

animal matter. It is more difficult to culture the native carnivorous fish Siniperca chuatsi, which 

feeds on live fish. 

Research on introductions will be continued; more attention should be paid to quarantine 

aspects so as to avoid the introduction of new diseases. 

Acknowledgements 

We are greatly indebted to Prof. Q.W. Meng for her encouragement, help and eonstructive 

suggestions. We should like to thank Prof. S. Q. Wang, Prof. J.X. Su, Mr. W.T. Wang and Mr. 

G.J. Ling for their valuable information.

Relevant Literature 

Cheng, T.H. 1969. Production of kelp - a major aspects of China's exploitation of the sea. Economic Botany, 23(3): 215-236. 

Fisheries Bureau of the Ministry of Agriculture of China. 1986. Some technical information on the exotic species of aquaculture. 

Kuang, Y.T. and S.H. Liang. 1988. Ornamental fishes and culture. Guangdong Scientific and Technological Publishing House. 

Tong, H.Y. 1988. Recent development of China's inland fisheries. Manuscript submitted to the Fourth Session of IPFC working pasty of experts 

on inland fisheries, Sept. 1988, Kathmandu, Nepal. 

Zhang, Z.H. 1985. Tropical fishes. Beijing Publishing House. 

Zheng, W.B. and J.H. Pan. 1988. A newly introduced fish, Punlius gonionotus, for freshwater cultivation. Journal of Freshwater Fisheries 143: 3- 

7. 

39

40 

Table 1. The exotic aquatic food species introduced into China. 

Scientific name Common name Origin Year 

Pisces 

CYPRJMDAE 

Carassius auralus cuvieri Silver crucian catp Japan 1976 

Punlius gonionolus Thai silver carp Thailand 1986 

Catla calla Catla Bangladesh 1973 

Labeo rohita Rohu Thailand 1978 

Cypriniss carpio Scattered mirror carp F. Germany 1982 

Aischgruhaer via Japan 1984 

SERRASALM]DAE 

Colossoma bidens Freshwater pompano S. America 

via Hong Kong 

CLARIIDAE 

Clarias batrachus Walking catfish Thailand 1978 

C. macrocephalus Catfish Thailand 1982 

C. lazera Leather catfish Africa 1981 

PANGASIDAE 

Pangasius sutchi Stripped/catfish Thailand 1978 

ICTALURIDAE 

Ictalurus punctatus Channel catfish USA 1984 

1. nebulosus Brown bullhead USA 1984 

SALMONIDAE 

Sairno gairdneri Rainbow trout N. America 

via D.P.R.Korea 

1959 

Donaidsons super 

rainbow trout 

USA 1983 

Coregonus peled White fish USSR 

1985 

via Japan 

Coregonus sp. USSR 

1985 

via Japan 

CICHUDAE 

Oreochromis mossambicus Mozambique tilapia Indonesia 

via Vietnam 

0. niloticus Nile tilapia Africa 

0. aureus Blue tilapia 

via Hong Kong 

Africa 

via Hong Kong 

Sarotherodon galilaeus Africa 1981 

Tilapia zulu Red belly tilapia Africa 1981 

CENTRARCHIDAE 

Micropterus salnwides Largeinouth bass N. America 

via Hong Kong 

CRUSTACEA 

ASTACIDAE 

Procambarus clarkii Red crayfish N. America 

via Japan 

PALAEMONIDAE 

Macrobrachiu,n rosenbergui Giant freshwater prawn Thailand 

via Japan 

MOLLUSCS 

HAUOTIDAE 

Haliotis rufescens Red abalone USA 1985 

H.fulgens Green abalone USA 1985 

1985 

1957 

1978 

1981 

1983 

1940? 

1976 

Continued

Table 1. Continued 

Scientific name Common name Origin Year 

OSTREIDAE 

Cra.raoslrea gigas Pacific oyster Japan 1979 

PECTINIDAE 

Argopecten irradians Bay scallop USA 1982 

IJNIONIDAE 

Hyriopsis sch!egerii Freswater mussle Japan 1982 

AMPULLARIDAE 

Ainpullarius gigas Giant snail Brazil 

via Hong Kong 

1982 

AMPHIBIA 

Rana catesbiana American bullfrog Cuba 1962 

ALGAE (seaweeds) 

LAMINARIACEAE 

Laminariajaponica Kelp, konbu Japan 1927 

LESSONIACEAE 

Macrocystispyrfera Giant kelp Mexico 1978 

USA 1980 

SOLIERIACEAE 

Euchewna sp. Philippines 1985 

BANGIACEAE 

Porphyra nereocyst is Layer USA 1985 

P. torta Layer USA 1985 

P. miniata Layer USA 1985 

P.perforata Layer USA 1985 

41

42 

Table 2. The preliminary list of aquarium fish introduced into China. 

Scientific name Common name Origin 

OSTEOGLOSSIDAE 

Osteoglossum bicirrhoswn Arawana S. America 

CYPRIMDAE 

Barbus tetrazona Tiger barb Indonesia 

B. conchontus India 

B. nigrofasciatus Red ruby Sri Lanka 

Brachydanio rario Zebra danio India, Bangladesh 

Brachydanio albolineatus Pearl danio Bumia, India 

Danio ,nalabaricus Giant danio Sri Lanka, India 

Punt ias oligolepis Checkered barb Indonesia 

P. titteya Cheny barb Sri Lanka 

Labeofrenalus Redtailed Thailand 

bicolor Red-tail shark Thailand 

Rasbora heteromorpha Hariguin rasbora, red Thailand 

R. ,naculata Rasbora Indonesia 

R. pauciperforata Indonesia 

Epalzcorhynchuy kallopteru.s SE. Asia 

CHARACIL)AE 

Hyplsessobrycon inriesi Neon tetra Amazon 

H. caldinalis Cardinal tetra Amazon 

H. herbertaxeirodi Black neon tetra Brazil 

H. pulchripinnis Lemon tetra Amazon 

H. heterorhabdus Flag tetra Amazon 

H. callistus serpae Serpae tetra Amazon 

H. callistw.s rosaceus Amazon 

H. flammeus Brazil 

H. scholzie Black-band tetra Amazon 

Hemigrammus costello Amazon 

H. ocelljfer Head-tail light Amazon 

H. pulcher Pretty tetra Amazon 

H. rhodostomiss Red-nosed tetra Amazon 

H. caudoviutalus Argentina 

Anoptichthysjordani Blind caxe fish Mexico 

Gymnocoryi'n bus ternetzi Black tetra Bolivia 

Poedilobrycon unfasciauus One-line pencil fish Amazon 

Tyayeria sancuaemariae Penguin fish Amazon 

Alestes longipinnis Africa 

Aphyocharax rubripinnis Blood fin fish S. America 

Arnoldichihys spilopterus Nigeria 

Cheirodon axeirodi S. America 

Copeina arnoldi Amazon 

Anostomus anostomus Guyana 

Pristella riddlei X-ray fish Amazon 

Phenacogrammus interrupt us Congo 

Prionobramafiligera Translucent bloodfin Amazon 

SYNODONTIDAE 

Synodonuis nigrivenuris Updide-down catfish West Africa 

POECILIIDAE 

Poeciloa reticulatus Guppy S. America 

Molleiensia letipinna Black molly Mexico 

velifera Sailfin molly Mexico 

Xiphophoru.s helleri Red tuxedo swardtail Mexico 

X. macu!at us Moon fish, red platy Mexico 

X. variauus Vanatus platy Mexico 

Heterandria formosa USA 

Gambusia affinis Topminnow, mosquitofish N. America 

Continu xi


Scientific name Common name Origin 

CYPR1NODONTIDAE 

Aphyosemion bivitlaiwn Red lyretail W. Africa 

A. australe W. Africa 

A. gulare Nigeria 

A. sjoestedti Cameroon 

Aplocheilus lineal us India, Sri Lanka 

Jordanellafloridae N. America 

Epiplatys chaperi Liberia 

HEMIRHAMPHIDAE 

Derrnogenys pusillus Halfbeak Singapore 

Sumatra 

TOXOTIDAE 

Toxotesjaculator Archer fish India, Malaysia 

CICHLIDAE 

Plerophyliwn eimeki Angel fish Amazon 

P. scalare Angel fish Amazon 

Symphysoson dircus Discus Amazon 

Etroplus macuiat us Orange chromid S.E. Asia 

A.stronotus ocellatus Tiger oscar Amazon 

Cichlaso,na meeki Fire-mouth cichlid Mexico, Guatemala 

C. severum Banded cichlid Venezuela 

Apislogramma ramirezi Dwarf cichlid S. America 

A. agassizi S. America 

Aequidens maroni S. America 

Haplochromis multicolor Nile 

Pseudotropheus auratus C. America 

Pelmatochro,nis kribensis W. Africa 

CENTEROPOMIDAE 

Chanda ranga Glass fish Thailand, Bunna 

Gynochandanfilamentosa India, Buima 

Elassoma evergladei USA 

Mesogonistius chaetodon USA 

ANABANTIDAE 

Betta splendens Siamese fighting fish Thailand, Singapore 

Helostoma rudoiphi Kiss gouramy SE. Asia 

Trichogasler trichopterus Blue gouramy Thailand, India 

T. trichopterus sumatranus Mable gouramy Indonesia 

T. leeri Pearl gouramy Thailand 

Colisa la/ia Dwarf gouramy India 

C. labiosus Thich-lipped gouramy India, Bunna 

Trichoopsis pumilus Thailand 

Spacrichihys osphromenol Indonesia 

Colisa chuna India 

TETRAODONTIDAE 

Tel raodon schoutedeni Green puffer, spotted India, Thailand 

puffer 

43

Impact of Exotic Aquatic Species in 

Indian Waters 

H.P.C. SHETTY 

M.C. NANDEESHA 

College of Fisheries 

University of Agricultural Sciences 

Mangalore - 575002 

A.G. JHINGRAN 

Central Inland Capture Fisheries 

Research Institute 

Barrackpore - 743101 

West Bengal 

Shetty, H.P.C., M.C. Nandeesha and A.G. Thingran. 1989. Impact of exotic aquatic species in Indian waters, p. 45-55. In 

S.S. Dc Silva (ed.) Exotic Aquatic Organisms in Asia. Proceedings of the Workshop on Introduction of Exotic 

Aquatic Organisms in Asia. Asian Fish. Soc. Spec. Pubi. 3, 154 p. Asian Fisheries Society, Manila, Philippines. 

A number of food, game, larvicidal and ornamental fishes have been introduced into India since over a centusy. Of 

more than 300 exotic species introduced into the country, the majority are aquarium fishes. Among the food fishes the 

majority belong to the cyprinid group, the prominent among which are the common, silver and grass carps. Grass carp has 

proved useful both as a culture fish and as an effective biological agent for weed control. Accidental entry of silver carp 

into Gobindasagar reservoir has resulted in decline in the production of Indian major carps, as well as in total catch. The 

bighead, introduced recently through private trade is also causing serious concern. The Java tilapia, Oreochromis 

mossambicus, is considered a pest, though it continues to form a commercial fishery in some reservoirs and is also cultured 

in some parts of the country. Some of the salmonids introduced into the country have peiformed well and are gaining 

increasing popularity. 

Among the molluscs, the giant African snail holds promise for export, while posing a pest problem in certain 

regions. The accidentally introduced fouling bivalve Mytilopsis sallei is causing grave concern. Water hyacinth and 

Salvinia are the two exotic plants which have become a major menace in the fishery waters of the country. 

India, with its very extensive freshwater resources, has a wide spectrum of native aquatic 

fauna and flora. All the same, there have been introductions of several exotic aquatic species into 

the country since over a century. Early introductions mainly consisted of game fish, food fish of 

minor importance and larvicidal fish. In the post-independence era, a number of cultivable fishes 

have been introduced with the objective of increasing production from aquaculture. Apart from 

these, innumerable ornamental fishes have also been introduced into the country at different 

times. Though these introductions have helped to widen the species spectrum, their impact on 

indigenous icthyofauna in capture and culture fisheries has not been properly evaluated until 

now, eventhough it has been realized that some of the introduced fishes have adversely affected 

the indigenous species. Apart from fishes, a large number of aquatic plants have also been 

introduced into the country and a few of them also have severely damaged the fishery waters. 

Therefore, an assessment of the present status of such introductions is urgently needed. 

45

46 

Present Status of Exotics in India 

The major exotic introductions and their impact on the indigenous fauna in ,eneral and 

aquaculture in particular, are dealt with in the following section and are listed in Tabls 1 and 2. 

Food Fishes 

Trout 

The areas around the Himalayas in the north and the peninsular hilly regions in the south are 

temperate in climate, and suitable for the culture of cold water fish. The first attempt to introduce 

trout as a sport fish was made in 1863 by Francis Day in Nilgiris of peninsular India. However, 

rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) from Sri Lanka, Germany and New Zealand were the first 

salmonids to be established in many streams of Nilgiris. The submergence of a number of trout 

streams in the newly formed reservoirs and increasing pollution of the remaining s'ieams have 

led to a sharp decline in the trout fishery in the post-independence era. 

In an attempt to improve the trout fishery efforts have been made to introduce some new 

species such as brown trout and tiger trout (hybrid between brown trout and eastern brook trout 

(Salvelinusfontinalis) and sockeye salmon (Onchorhyncus nerka). Among the various species of 

trout introduced in Nilgiris so far, only the rainbow trout has survived under the existing climatic 

conditions. It appears that trout culture is no longer an economical proposition in NiIgiris region 

due to pollution of streams and serious disease problems (Sreenivasan et al. 1988). Similarly, in 

the Himalayan region, introduction of trouts commenced after nearly three decades of their 

introduction in the Nilgiris region. Of all the introductions into the Himalayan region only brown 

trout provides a fishery on a commercial scale in streams (Sehgal 1988). Though attempts are 

being continued to establish trout populations in the cold regions of northern and eastern India, 

the success is not always commensurate with the efforts, largely due to stocking of undersized 

fish and the increasing pollution of streams. However, in some high altitude lakes, like Deodital 

of Central Himalayas, the brown trout has established itself and is breeding naturally (John and 

Prasad 1988). 

According to Jhingran and Sehgal (1978), altogether 719 km of trout streams are available 

in the country, in addition to over 4000 ha of natural and man-made lakes with trout ?opulations. 

The analysis of creel census data provided by the anglers has revealed that the brown trout 

catches were around 608-640 g/rod/hr/km fishable length in the Himalayan region in 1971, while 

in the Nilgiris in the south, the catch was about 457 g/rod/hr/km during 1966-68 (Jhingran and 

Sehgal 1978). 

As compared to some other introduced fish species, the trout have remained noncontroversial 

because of their restricted distribution and lack of indigenous cold water sport 

fishes. The populations of Schizothorax spp. do not appear to have been adversely affected by 

the presence of trout. 

Golden carp 

The crucian carp or golden carp (Carassius carassius) was introduced into India in 1874 in 

the Ooty lake at Nilgiris. The fish thrived well in Nilgiri waters and formed an important fishery

Table 1. Salinonids introduced into India. 

Common Name Scientific Name Year of Country of 

Introduction Origin 

Brown trout Salmo fru!tafario 1863-1900 U.K. 

Loch Leven trout Salmo 1evensac 1863 U.K. 

Rainbow trout Salmo gairdneri 1909 Sri'Lanka, 

Germany, 

New Zealand 

Rainbow trout 

(Golden variety) 

Salnw gairdneri 1968 Japan 

Tiger trout Salmo truttafario 

SalvelinusfontinalLs 

1969 Japan 

Sockeye salmon Onchorhyncus nerka 1970 Canada 

Albino trout Sairno gairdneri 1974 Japan 

Steelhead trout Salmo gairdneri- 

U.K. & Sri 

irideus 

Lanka 

Rainbow trout 

(Shasta strain) 


shasta 

1941 U.K. 

Eastern brook 

trout 

Salvelinusfontinalis Canada 

Splake trout Salvelinus namaycisshx 

SalvelinusfontinalLr 

Canada 

Atlantic salmon Salmo solar North America 

Table 2. Introduced food and larvicidal fishes into Indian waters. 

Common Name Scientific Name Year of Country of 

Introduction Origin 

Golden carp Carassiiss carassius 1870 U.K. 

Tench Tinca tinca 1870 U.K. 

Gourami Osphronemus goramy 1865 Mauritius 

1916 Java 

Scale carp Cyprinus carpio var 

comniunis 

1939 Sri Lanka 

Mirror carp Cyprinus carpio var 

specularis 


Leather carp Cyprinus carpio var 

nudus 


Bangjcok strain Cyprinus carpio var 

communis 

1957 Thailand 

Silver carp Hypophtha!michthys 1959 Japan 

Grass carp 

,nolitrix 

Ctenopharyngodon 

idella 

1959 Hong Kong 

Tawes Puntisssjavanicus 1972 Indonesia 

Java tilapia Oreochronric 

1952 Thailand & 

mossambicus 

Sri Lanka 

Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus 

Bighead carp Aristichthys nobilis 

Barbados millions Lebistes reticulatiss 1908 South America 

Top minnow Gambusia affins 1928 Italy 

47

48 

for a few years. The species attains over one kg in weight and breeds in ponds, like common 

carp. However, with the introduction of common carp, with which it shares a common habitat, 

the fishery of golden carp has dwindled drastically. 

Common carp 

The Prussian strain of common carp introduced in Nilgiris in 1939 from Sri Lanka consisted 

of three varieties (Table 2). Since the Prussian strain was mainly suited for cul:ure in cold 

climates, the Bangkok strain of common carp was introduced from Bangkok in 1957 for culture 

in plains. However, both strains are now widely cultured throughout the country. 

The common carp is one of the species usually included in composite carp culture in India. 

Its proportion varies from 10-30%, depending on the type of culture. The food habits of common 

carp are similar to those of mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala), a species commonly included in 

composite culture. The common carp has been found to be more suitable for sesona1 water 

bodies. Under Indian conditions, the fish attains an average weight of 0.6-1.0 kg in the first year 

and matures when it is just 6-8 months old. It breeds naturally even in impoundments. 

Even though common carp has been introduced into most of the reservoirs and lakes in the 

country, it is well established only in a few of these water bodies. On the other hand, it is 

believed that the common carp is responsible for the sharp decline in the abundance of 

Schizothorax spp. in Dal Lake in Kashmir and Osteobrama belangeri in Loktak Lake in Manipur 

(Das 1988). 

Silver carp 

The silver carp, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, was introduced with the objective of filling 

up a vacant ecological niche in the pond culture system (Tripathi 1958). This fish occupies the 

surface - column zones of a pond and feeds voraciously on phytoplankton. In its native habitat in 

China, it matures in 4-6 years (Kuronuma 1968), but does not breed naturally even after 

hormone injection in India and needs to be stripped about 6-8 hr after the second injection. 

The silver carp has become one of the major controversial species in Indian aquaculture. 

Though the species was considered to be ecologically non-competitive with Indian major carps, 

long experience in culture has shown that it competes with catla to some extent. The species is 

usually stocked at 20-30% in composite culture, and its contribution to total production is 

usually higher than its stocking percentage. Its poor keeping quality and market value, coupled 

with its competition with other species, have raised some doubts about its suitability in 

composite culture. 

Apart from its declining popularity in culture practices, the species has caused concern to 

ecologists by its presence in Gobindasagar (10,500 ha) reservoir in Himachal Pradesh. From 

1974 the silver carp started appearing in increasing numbers and in 1986-87 it contributed 46.5% 

to the total catch (Table 3). This clearly indicates that the species has established itself in the 

reservoir. Significantly, with the increasing contribution of silver carp, catla and rohu catches 

have declined sharply. In addition, the total catch of the reservoir has also declined, possibly 

indicating the negative effect of silver carp on other fish. The introduction of silver carp into 

Kulgarhi reservoir has led to similar resulis (Natarajan 1988).

Grass carp 

The grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella, was introduced mainly for purposes of biological 

control of submerged aquatic vegetation in fishery waters, in particular Hydrilla, Vallisneria and 

smaller floating weeds like Lemna sp. However, because of its fast growth rate, it was very soon 

included as a component in composite fish culture. It does not usually breed naturally even after 

hormone injection and therefore has to be stripped. It feeds on aquatic weeds and more 

voraciously on soft aquatic vegetation like Hydrilla, but does not feed on Eichhornia, Pistia and 

Salvinia (Singh et al. 1967) and grasses and leaves of leguniinious plants. The grass carp has 

been widely used in the country for weed control in canals (Kulshreshthra and Sharma 1976; 

Singit, pers. comm.), water cooling tanks (Chaudhuri et al. 1976) and ponds (Keshavanath and 

Basavaraju 1980). In composite culture systems, the grass carp lends an added advantage in that 

it consumes vegetation more than its own body weight and voids most of it in semi-digested 

form, which serves as food for omnivorous fishes and also as pond fertilizer. The introduction of 

grass carp, therefore, has proved beneficial. 

Tawes 

The Tawes, Puntius javanicus, is known to be macrophagous, and is cultured in only some 

parts of the country. It breeds naturally and attains a weight of over one kg in a year. However, 

the species is not popular in culture practices in India. 

Tench 

The Tench (Tinca tinca) introduced into Nilgiris in 1874 is established well in the Nilgiris 

region and individuals weighing over 1 kg can be caught from Ooty Lake. It matures in the 2nd 

or 3rd year and breeds under pond conditions. However, recent reports indicate the 

disappearance of the tench from Nilgiris waters (Sreenivasan et al. 1988). 

Bighead carp 

Bighead carp (Aristichthys nobilis) were accidentally introduced into India (Das 1988), 

where they remained confined to the fish farm of Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute at 

Cuttack and later disappeared altogether. They have reportedly reappeared in the country in 

1987, presumably through private trade from Bangladesh. Jhingran (1985) has discussed in detail 

the likely consequence of the introduction of bighead to Indian waters. Its feeding habits are 

similar to that of catla and is likely to pose a threat to catla. The suitability of bighead is yet to be 

assessed in terms of consumer preference, growth rates under Indian conditions and disease 

resistance. 

49

50 

Gourami 

The gourami Osphronemus goramy, an anabantid, has been cultured in several states for 

nearly four decades, but with little success. Because of its slow growth, it is no longer actively 

cultured anywhere in the country. However, it has established itself in waters in some parts of 

peninsular India. Because of its nest building habit, the rate of survival of its progeny is high. 

Being phytophagous, it also serves to control aquatic weeds to some extent. 

Tilapia 

The Java tilapia Oreochromis mossambicus, a cichlid, is the most controversia among the 

exotics in India. Apart from the official introductions, this fish has also found its way into the 

country through unofficial transplantation from Bangladesh by private entrepreneurs. Even 

though the Government of India has never advocated the commercial culture of tilapia and its 

introduction into natural water bodies, it has spread to several parts of the country and has even 

established itself in some reservoirs (Sukumaran and Tripathi 1988; Chandrasekeran and 

Sreenivasan 1988). A number of factors has led to overpopulation and stunted growth. Though 

the fish has been found to feed predominantly on phytoplankton, in the absence of :Lts preferred 

food it tends to be an omnivore and sometimes even a carnivore (Jhingran 1974). Tilapia was 

cultured with encouraging results during the initial stages, production ranging from 2000-10,000 

kg/ha/yr (Chandrasekaran and Sreenivasan 1988). The catches from a few reservo:Lrs in Tamil 

Nadu are given in Table 4 and it is apparent that there is a general decline in tilapia catches over 

the years. It is quite difficult to eradicate this fish from where it has already gained a permanent 

foothold (Natarajan 1988; Jhingran 1988). It is reported that another species of tilapia, 0. 

niloticus, has already been introduced through private trade in West Bengal and is being cultured 

in sewage-fed farms. 

Table 3. Catch composition in Gobindsagar Reservoir (in tonnes; percentages are given in 

parentheses). 

Year Total 

(t) 

Common 

carp 

(Source: Kuldeep Kumar, personal communication) 

Catla Silver 

carp 

1976-77 546.6 81.10 142.12 8.00 

(14.80) (26.00) (1.46) 

1977-78 706.8 135.03 169.01 10.00 

(19.23) (29.91) (1.41) 

1978-79 754.6 176.53 101.92 13.17 

(23.39) (13.50) (1.74) 

1979-80 715.8 222.76 40.68 43.66 

(29,72) (5.68) (6.09) 

1980-81 707.9 176.03 69.34 88.53 

(17.59) (8.28) (14.68) 

1981-82 653.4 114.99 54.11 95.89 

(17.59) (8.28) (14.68) 

1982-83 561.8 130.53 26.96 102.58 

(23.30) (4.79) (18.25) 

1983-84 425.6 119.46 25.41 107.08 

(28.06) (5.97) (25.15) 

1984-85 505.5 91.41 41.97 223.34 

(18.08) (8.30) (44.18) 

1985-86 546.5 122.81 29.81 244.34 

(22.47) (5.45) (44.70) 

1986-87 377.1 71.06 19.94 176.32 

(18.84) (5.29) (46.76)

Table 4. Total catch and tilapia yield (in tonnes) in some reservoirs of Tamilnadu. 

Krishnagiri 

Vaigai 

Tihipia 

Upper Dam 

Total Tilapia Total 

Tirumoorthy 

Total Tilapia 

Bhavanisagar 

Total Tilapia 

Tilapia 

Year Amaravathy 

Total Tilapia Total 

77-78 97.79 85.99 -ND- -ND- 14.34 11.54 -ND- -ND- 

(87.93) (80.47) 

78-79 145.71 139.97 -ND- -ND- 5.15 4.53 29.30 12.37 -ND- 

(95.86) (87.96) (42.22) 

79-80 49.61 41.04 -ND- -ND- 5.77 3.91 120.35 87.24 -ND- 

(82.73) (68.76) (7 2.49) 

80-81 73.88 62.35 26.78 Nil 321.20 Nil 5.56 3.80 50.20 32.50 -ND- 

(88.45) (68.34) (64.74) 

81-82 160.39 147.18 4.83 Nil 267.60 Nil 5.56 3.92 56.5 15.50 -ND- 

(91.76) (70.50) (27.3 9) 

82-83 124.79 105.78 41.04 Nil 300.35 2.16 15.08 5.10 50.05 20.21 30.35 1.15 

(84.77) (0.72) (33.82) (40.38) (3.79) 

83-84 80.60 64.00 15.93 Nil 57.80 Nil 10.80 3.50 6.38 0.39 45.79 1.26 

(79.40) (32.40) (6.11) (2.75) 

84-85 427.00 341.60 -ND-- 175.67 24.27 5.80 1.25 10.90 4.31 34.42 1.21 

(80.00) (13.82) (21.55) (39.54) (3.52) 

85-86 20.88 10.35 -ND- 134.00 18.46 12.27 1.50 5.22 2.29 48.06 1.63 

(49.57) (13.78) (12.22) (43.87) (3.39) 

86-87 -ND- -ND- 133.49 20.16 -ND- 15.24 8.19 50.05 10.47 

(15.10) (53.74) (20.92) 

87-88 36.57 8.41 26.48 1.16 67.76 12.92 23.41 1.26 12.56 3.01 41.59 5.41 

(22.99) (4.38) (19.07) (0.05) (23.96) (13.01) 

(Source: Sreenivasan, pers. comm.); ND - No data; Figures within parentheses indicate percentage contribution to total catch.

52 

Larvicidal Fish 

The poeciliid Lebistes reticulatus was introduced for mosquito control. It is reported that 

one more species of larvicidal fish, Notobranchus sp. has also been introduced (Sreenivasan et 

al. 1988). However, these fish have not been widely employed for the purpose they were 

introduced. On the other hand, Gambusia affinis is known to adversely affect the fishery of other 

fishes by preying on their spawn. In Ooty Lake, this fish severely affected the mirror carp fishery 

and only after its eradication, the mirror carp fishery could be reestablished. 

Ornamental Fish 

A large number of ornamental fish, consisting of both egg layers and live bearer;, have been 

introduced into the country over the years. Baskar et al. (1988) have reported the presence of 261 

species of exotic egg layers in India. However, they contribute about 25% to the country's export 

trade, which is dominated by the domestic egg layers. Subramanian et al. (1988) listd a total of 

27 exotic live bearers in India. A number of different strains are reported to exist within these. 

Exotic aquarium fishes are considered important from the view point of developing export and 

domestic trades. 

Molluscs 

Mytilopsis sallei 

This exotic bivalve, which is native to Central American region, appears to have been 

brought into Indian waters through ship fouling in the late 1960s. It has become a major fouling 

pest, gaining almost monospecific dominance in fouling communities, with a biornass build up 

of to 100-120 kg/m-2/yr. This bivalve is also seen in large numbers in Kakinada harbour, but 

only to a small extent in Bombay Harbour. It appears highly probable that this fouling organism 

will pose a serious problem in the country (Rao et al. 1988). 

Aquatic Plants 

Over the last century, several aquatic plants have been introduced into the couniry, but a full 

list of these is not readily available. However, only a few of them are of importance from a 

fisheries point of view in that they have proved harmful. Foremost among them is the water 

hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), which was reportedly brought from Australia for its flowers. 

This fast growing weed has become the single biggest menace in fishery waters and navigation 

channels. Even though effective mechanical and chemical methods for eradication of this weed 

are known and also practised off and on, failure to take suitable follow-up measures has 

invariably led to reinfestation. Its growth is particularly pronounced in waters receivLng domestic 

sewage. Recent experiments have shown the possibility of biological control of this weed using 

the insect Neochitina eichhorniae (Jayanth 1987). Some recent studies have indicated the 

possibility of useful utilization of this obnoxious weed, such as in bio-gas production (Joglekar 

and Sonar 1986), and fish feed (Anil et al. 1986).

Salvinia molesta, a floating fern of South American origin, is another obnoxious weed 

infesting the Indian fishery waters. It was earlier noticed only in the backwaters of Kerala, but is 

now slowly spreading to other areas. Though it has been demonstrated that this fern could be 

controlled easily by spraying aqueous (1-2%) ammonia, the technique is not used widely because 

of certain inherent limitations. However, recent investigations have indicated the possibility of 

complete elimination of this weed using the insect Cyrtobagous salviniae (Jayanth 1987; Joy et 

al. 1985). Pistia stratiodes and Ipomea carnia, both of south American origin, are the two other 

obnoxious exotic weeds. Even though the present extent of infestation is much less compared to 

water hyacinth and Saivinia, there is need to contain it before they too pose a serious threat to 

fishery waters. As it is, 2-4 D has been found to be effective in controlling these weeds 

(Ramachandran and Prabhu 1988). 

Conclusions and Recommendations 

The deliberations of the Indian Branch of the Asian Fisheries Society at its Workshop on 

Exotics, April 1988, form the main basis for the conclusions and recommendations listed below. 

The Chinese carps have helped in increasing fish production to 10 t/halyear from 

composite fish culture, involving three Indian major carps and three exotic carps. However, as 

compared to the Indian carps, the consumer preference is rather low for the exotic carps, 

particularly the silver carp, because of its poor keeping quality. It is now known that silver carp 

competes with catla for food to some extent. 

The Chinese grass carp has proved most useful and efficient in the biological control of 

submerged weeds. It has also proved to be a good table fish. Under Indian conditions, it grows 

fast and can easily be maintained on any of the submerged aquatic weeds, terrestrial grasses and 

leaves of leguminous plants. 

The accidental introduction of silver carp into a few reservoirs has led to a sharp decline 

in the catla population, as well as total fish production. 

As the Prussian strain of common carp is the only species of exotic carp that can do well 

in upland waters, more emphasis is required to be given for its propagation in upland waters. 

In water bodies where tilapia has already gained a firm foothold, it should be possible to 

reduce its numerical dominance by continuous stocking of these water bodies with major carps. 

Some other species of tilapia are known to have better cultivable qualities than Oreochromis 

mossambicus. It may be desirable to consider introduction of some species into India purely for 

experimental purposes, to assess their suitability for culture under Indian conditions either by 

themselves or through the production of hybrids. 

There does not appear to be a need to introduce any new salmonids. Instead, good 

hatchery facilities should be developed for the existing species and more attention given to their 

genetic improvement, and prevent degradation of the ecology of trout streams because of 

pollution. 

Instead of introducing a number of species for different purposes, improvement of the 

genetic quality of the indigenous major carps should be given more attention. 

It is also necessary to regulate the introduction of exotic species into neighbouring 

countries, such as Nepal, Bhutan, Pakistan and Bangladesh through existing regional 

organizations, since such introduced species could easily cross over into Indian territory. 

53

54 

Some of the exotic aquarium fishes have established themselves very well in the country 

and have a good export demand. Therefore, it is imperative to initiate research on their breeding 

and mass culture to boost the export trade. 

A number of exotic aquatic weeds have already become a nuisance in the country's 

fishery waters. Concerted effort should, therefore, be made to develop suitable methods for their 

control and utilization. 

The reported illegal entry of fishes, such as the bighead carp and Oreochrornis niloticus 

into the country is required to be viewed seriously. Until such time that their utility i.s proven in 

controlled experiments, their trade and culture should be banned. No exotic fish, however 

successful elsewhere, should be introduced into Indian waters without first ascertaining their 

utility under controlled conditions. Even if an exotic fish competes with a commercially 

important indigenous fish, if in all respects the former is proven to be better such introductions 

could be possibly permitted, but steps must be taken to ensure that the indigenous species is not 

endangered. 

All introductions of exotic species must be controlled by a central agency like the Ministry 

of Agriculture, Government of India or the Indian Council of Agricultural Research and no 

private agency should be permitted to import exotic species. 

At present, there is no proper quarantine procedure in respect of fish impor:ations. The 

common diseases now encountered in trout farms, viz. 'whirling' disease caused by Myxosoma 

cerebra/is and 'ich' disease caused by Ichthyophthirius multifihis are of exotic origin 

(Sreenivasan et al. 1988; Sehgal 1988). Similarly, the origin of a few parasites like Tripartiella 

spp. and Neoergasilus japonicus are traced to Chinese carps (Das and Halder 1988) Therefore, 

there is an urgent need to develop suitable quarantine facilities and to lay down a proper 

quarantine procedure. 

References 

Anil, K., I.P. Keshavanath and M.C. Nandeesha. 1986. Water hyacinth as a substitute for fish meal in carp diet. Paper prsented at the 7th 

International Symposium on Aquatic weeds, 15-19 September, Loughborough, England. 

Baskar, S.L, P.S.R. Reddy, B. Subramanian and RJ. Lazanis 1988. Exotic freshwater aquarium fishes and their role in the aqusrium fish trade of 

India I. Egg layers. Paper presented at the workshop on Exotic Aquatic Species in India, 25-26 April, Mangalore. 

Chandrasekaran, A. and A. Sreenivasan. 1988. Introduction of tilapia in Tami]nadu. Ibid. 

Chaudhuri, H., D.S. Murthy, R.K. Dey and P.V.G.K. Reddy. 1976. Role of grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella (Val.) in biclogical control of 

obnoxious aquatic weeds in India: a review, p. 3 15-322. In C.K. Varshney and J. Rzoska (eds.) Aquatic weeds in South-east Asia. Dr. 

W. Junk Publishers, The Hague. 

Das, P. 1988. Exotic fish germplasm resources in India and their conservation. Paper presented at the Workshop on Exotic Aquatic Species in 

India, 25-26 April, Mangalore. 

Dat, M.k. and D.P. Halder. 1988. Parasitc fauna of cultured exotic carps in India: its biological significance. Paper presented at the Workshop on 

Exotic Aquatic Species in India, 25-26 April, Mangalore. 

Ghosh, A., L.H. Rao and S.K. Saha. 1980. Culture prospects of Saroiherodon mossambicus in small ponds fertilized with lomestic sewage. 

Journal Inland Fisheries Society, India 12: 74-80. 

Ghosh, A., A. Ghesh, P.K. Chakraborthi and G.N. Chattopadhyay. 1988. Later calcarifer as a biocontrolling agent for Oreochi-mis mossambicus 

in sewage-fed impoundments. Paper presented at the Work shop on Exotic Aquatic Species in India, 25-26 April, Mangalore. 

Jayanth, K.P. 1987. Suppression of water hyacinth by the exotic insect Neochitina eichhorniae in Bangalore, India. Current Science 56: 494-495. 

Jayanth, K.P. 1987. Biological control of the water fern Sal vinia ,nolesta infesting a likely pond in Bangalore (India) by Cyrtcbagous salviniae. 

Entomophaga 32: 163-165. 

Thingran, A.G. 1984. Some considerations on introduction of tilapia into Indian Waters. Bulletin Bureau Fish Genetics Research, 34 p. 

Jhingran, A.G. 1985. The scope and limitations of introducing the bighead carp Aristichthys nobilis (Richardson) in inland waters of India. 

Bulletin Bureau Fish Genetics Research, 18 p. 

Thingran, A.G. 1988. Status of exotic fishes in Indian capture fishery. Paper presented at the Workshop on Exotic Aquatic Species in India, 25-26 

April, Mangalore. 

Jhingran, V.K. and R. Prasad. 1988. Impact of introduction of trout (Salrno truttafario and Salmo gairdneri) in Garhwal ]imalayas in India. 

Paper presented at the workshop on Exotic Aquatic Species in India, 25-26 April, Mangalore.

Joy, PJ., K.R. Sathesan and D. Joseph. 1985. Successful biological control of the floating weed Salviniae nwlesta Mitchell using the weevil 

Cyrtobagous salviniae Sands in Kerala (India). Asian-Pacific Weed Science Society 10th Conference, November 24-30, Chiangmai, 

Thailand. 

Keshavanath, P. and Y. Basavaraju. 1980. A note on utility of grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella (Valenciennes) in controlling the aquatic 

weed, Hydrilla. Current Research 9: 154-156. 

Kulshresthra, S.D. and K.P. Shamia. 1976. Biological control of aquatic weeds in the Chambal Comm and Area of Kota using grass caip, 

Ctenop/zaryngodon idella (Val.). Joumal Inland Fisheries Society, India 8: 113-114. 

Kuronuma, K. 1968. New system and new fishes for culture in the Far East. FAO Fisheries Report 5: 123-142. 

Mishra, B.K., A.K. Sahu and C. Pani. 1988. Recycling of the aquatic weed, water hyacinth and antmal wastes in the rearing of Indian major 

carps. Aquaculture 68: 59-64. 

Mitra, A., T.K. Nayak and S.K. Sarakar. 1988. Culture of Oreochromis nwssambicus under different culture system in West Bengal, its social 

acceptance and economic retum. Paper presented at the Workshop on Exotic Aquatic Species in India, 25-26 April, Mangalore. 

Natarajan, A.V. 1988. Ecological and aquacultural roles of exotic fishes in aquatic productivity in India. Paper presented at the Workshop on 

Exotic Aquatic Species in India, 25-26 April, Mangalore. 

Pandian, T.J. and K. Varadaraj. 1987. Techniques to regulate sex ratio and breeding in tilapia. Current Science 56: 337-343. 

Ramachandran, V. and T. Ramaprabhu. 1988. Major exotic aquatic weeds in India - present status of knowledge. Paper presented at the 

Workshop on Exotic Aquatic Species in India, 25-26 April, Mangalore. 

Rao, K.S., V.V. Srinivasan and M. Balaji. 1988. Spread of the exotic fouling bivalve, Mytilopsis sallei (Recluz) in Indian harbours. Paper 

presented at the Workshop on Exotic Aquatic Species in India, 25-26 April, Mangalore. 

Sehgal, K,L. 1988. State-of-art of exotic coldwater fishes in India. Paper presented at the Workshop on Exotic Aquatic Species in India, 25-26 

April, Mangalore 

Singh, S.B., K.K. Sukumaran, K.K. Pillai and P.C. Chakrabarti. 1967. Observations on efficacy of grass carp, Clenopharyngodon idella (Val.) in 

controlling and utilizing aquatic weeds in ponds in India. Proceedings Indo-Pacific Fisheries Council 12:220-235. 

Shetty, H.P.C. and M.C. Nandeesha. 1988. Status of exotic aquatic species in Indian waters. Paper presented at the workshop on Exotic Aquatic 

Species in India, 25-26 April, Mangalore. 

Sreenivasan, R., P.S.R. Reddy, B. Elambarithy, IS. Baskar and R.J. Lazarus. 1988. Exotic freshwater aquarium fishes and role in the aquarium 

fish trnle of India. II. Live bearers. Paper presented at the Workshop on Exotic Aquatic Species in India, 25-26 April, Mangalore. 

Sukumaran, K.K. and S.D. Tripathi. 1988. Oreochromis mossambicus - a controversial exotic Species in Indian waters. Paper presented at the 

Workshop on Exotic Aquatic Species in India, 25-26 April, Mangalore. 

Tripathi, S.D. 1988. Silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) and grass carp (Clenopharyngodon idella) -- exotic elements in freshwater carp 

polyculture in India. Paper presented at the Workshop on Exotic Aquatic Species in India, 25-26 April, Mangalore. 

55

Exotic Aquatic Species Introduction 

into Indonesia 

H. MUHAMMAD EIDMAN 

Faculty of Fisheries 

Bogor Agricultural University 

Darmaga Campus, Bogor 

Eidman, H.M. 1989, Exotic aquatic species introduction into Indonesia, p. 57-62. In S.S. De Silva (ed.) Exotic Aquatic 

Organisms in Asia. Proecedings of the Workshop on Introduction of Exotic Aquatic Organisms in Asia. Asian 

Fish. Soc. Spec. Pubi. 3, 154 p. Asian Fisheries Society, Manila, Philippines. 

The knowledge on the biology of the large freshwater fish fauna of Indonesia is limited. Domestication of endemic 

species has not been done intensively. Introduction of exotic species started long time ago by the fish traders especially as 

ornamental fish. Intended introduction of aquatic species in later years was for aquaculture, ornamental purposes and 

mosquito eradication. Some introductions have been beneficial while others directly or indirectly disturb the ecosystems. 

Indonesia as an Indo - Australian archipelago consists of many islands, and spreads between 

Pacific and Indian oceans. It has a rich flora and fauna. This paper will deal mainly with 

freshwater organisms since introduction of marine organisms is limited, and sparsely 

documented. 

The freshwaters of the western part of Indonesia (Sunda region) which includes Sumatra, 

Kalimantan and Java are inhabited by more than 500 indigenous species of fish, 70 % of which 

belong to Ostariophysi and Labyrinthici, the dominant freshwater groups. Eastern Indonesia 

(Sahul region) which includes Irian Java has more than 100 fish species and is dominated by 

euryhaline species. Central Indonesia (Wallace region) which includes Sulawesi and the Nusa 

Tenggara is inhabited by some 50 fish species (Ondara 1982). 

Even the endemic fish fauna is numerous, but little is known of their life histories, which 

hampers their domestication. Instead of domesticating the local species, which of course needs 

more time and effort, people tended to take short cuts by introducing the already domesticated 

species available in the market. Some species improved the fisheries and aquaculture production 

while others were a failure. 

Present Status of Exotic Aquatic Species in Indonesia 

Information on the introduction of fish into Indonesia was reviewed by Schuster (1950). The 

major introductions are summarized in Table 1. The introductions into Indonesia are divisible 

into a number of eras. 

57

58 

Table 1. Introduced aquatic species into Indonesia. 

Date Species Source Remarks 

pre 1900 Cyprinus carpio 

Carassius' auratu.s 

China The exact yeal is not 

known, continuously 

introduced 

1915 Ctenopharyngodon Malaysia and Accidental 

idella, Labeo molitorella 

Singapore 

1920 Lebistes ret kul at us Unknown Malaria eradic ation; 

unsuccessful 

1927 Tinca vulgaris 

(tench), Cyprinus 

Netherlands Inland Fisheris 

Department 

carpio (Galician race) 

1929 Salmo trutta iridea 

(rainbow trout) 

Salmo Irutla fario 

Netherlands Inland Fisheries Department; 

unsuccessful 

(river trout) 

Salmo salar (salmon) 

Netherlands 



Unknown 

Netherlands 

Accidental, mixed with 

local varieties 

(Frankish race) 

1934 Trichoga.ster 

pectoralis (Regan) 

(Snake Skin Gouramy) 

Malaysia Inland Fisheries 

Department; Successful 

1937 Salmo truttafario New Zealand Mr. Missegas 

(river trout) 

(EnglishmarL) 

unsuccessful 

1939 Salmo trullafario Denmark Collaboration with 

Inland Fisheries 

Department Australia 

Oreochromis Unknown Found in the South 

mossambicus Peters 

coast of East Java by 

Mr. Mudjair 

1949 Clenopharyngodon idella Thailand Inland Fisheries Department, 

Unsuccessful 

1964 Clenopharyngodon idella Japan Introduced by Mr 

Rustami Djajsdiredja 

1967 Hypophthalmkhlhys molitrix Japan ditto 

1967 Hypophthalmichthys molitrix Taiwan ditto 

1969 Oreochromis nilolicus Taiwan ditto 

1969 Arislichlhys nobilis Taiwan ditto 

1969 Cirrhina ,nolitorella Taiwan ditto 

1972 

1986 

1987 

Pangasius sutchi 

Ictalurus punctalus 

(channel catfish) 

Carassius aural us (Koi) 

Thailand 

USA 

Taiwan 

ditto 

experimental purposes 

(RIFF)* 

experimental purposes 

Other Organisms 

Clarias gariepinu.s Unknown Fish dealer, 

(catfish) 

experimental 

Rana catesbiana Unknown Commercial, not 

(bullfrog) 

successful yet 

Eichhornia crassipes Unknown Wide spread 

(water hyacinth) 

Eucheuma cotton ii Philippines As aquaculture 

species, good results 

Serrasalmus sp. (pirranha) Unknown Fish trader, exterminated 

* REFF Research Institute for Freshwater Fisheries (formerly: Inland Fisheries Department)

Early Years 

Cyprinus carpio L. and Carassius auratus L. were believed to be the first exotic species 

introduced into Indonesia. These fishes have been imported from China by ornamental fish 

dealers. In Malang (East Java) and Bogor (West Java) a number of fish-breeding places were 

established and some fish probably escaped into open waters. Cyprinus carpio importations were 

continuously done until recently and they have mixed with the older ones. This species became 

the most common fish cultured in fresh water ponds, cages and running water systems. 

The 1920s 

Lebistes reticulatus (Peters), guppy is an aquarium fish species which escaped into ponds 

and open waters in Bandung, West Java. In warm waters, Lebistes appeared to degenerate in 

size. They do not feed on mosquito larvae; they are not valuable in mosquito control in Java. 

Instead, they compete with plankton feeders. 

Another aquarium fish that escaped to the open waters is Gambusia affinis. However, it has 

disappeared now. 

In 1929, the Inland Fisheries Department imported live rainbow trout Salmo trutta iridea 

Gibb. from the Netherlands to Indonesia and they were reared in the mountain area of Malang. 

The eggs of the rainbow trout (Salmo trutta iridea Gibb.), the river trout (Salmo truttafario L.), 

as well as salmon (Salmo salar L.) were hatched and fry were released into the streams of Kawi 

mountain in East Java. These fish could not live in warm waters during the dry season and they 

have since disappeared altogether. Eggs of Salmo trutta fario L. were imported again from New 

Zealand (1937), Denmark and Australia (1939), hatched and fry of 15 cm were released into 

mountain streams. However, the attempt was not successful. 

The 1930s 

The Inland Fisheries Department imported Trichogaster pectoralis (Regan) from Malaysia. 

At the beginning it was difficult to breed this species. However, in 1935 breeding was successful 

and in 1937 this species began to spread and become economically important. Presently this 

species is widely cultured in ponds and are also successfully established in open waters. 

The occurrence of Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters), the Java tilapia, in Indonesia is still 

not clear. This species was caught first in Java by Mr. Mudj air, whose name was later given to it 

on a suggestion of the Inland Fisheries Department. Due to its adaptability and because it breeds 

easily, it became one of the most important freshwater fishes in Indonesia. 

For the small-scale fish farmer and the low income groups this species is very useful. 

However, in more capital intensive aquaculture the Java tilapia is considered to be a competitor 

or trash fish. 

Aside from being a food fish the Java tilapia is also useful for malaria eradication. 

59

60 

The 1940s 

The Inland Fisheries Department imported the grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella (C. et 

V.) from Thailand to Java. The purpose of importation was to study its aquaculture potential. 

The prospects for grass carp in Indonesia are bright. There are many lakes and other water 

bodies with abundant aquatic plants that can be utilized by this species. It is used for 

experimental purposes. 

The 1960s 

The silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) was first introduced into Indonesia in 1964 

and again in 1969 from Taiwan. Experiments done at the Research Institute for Freshwater 

Fisheries, Bogor, and the breeding experiments using hypophysation techniques were successful 

in 1971. Silver carp is a plankton feeder; it grows faster than other plankton feeders 

(Trichogaster pectoralis and Helostoma temmincki). This species is still used for experimental 

purposes (Hardjamulia 1978). 

The purpose of importing this species is to utilize plankton more efficiently. ]However, this 

species is not yet popular in aquaculture. 

Oreochromis niloticus was introduced into Indonesia in 1969. Its performance is considered 

to be better than 0. mossambicus. This species is already spread widely and is very popular 

among fish farmers; it is an example of a successful introduction of an exotic species in 

Indonesia. To utilize the natural food available in ponds, it is suggested that this species be 

cultured in combination with carp and Puntius javanicus or with carp and giant gouramy. 

In 1969, four species of fish were imported to Indonesia from Taiwan: Hypophthalmichthys 

molitrix, Oreochromis niloticus, Aristichthys nobilis and Cirrhina molitorella Hardj amulia 

1978). 

The 1970s 

Pangasius sutchi Fowler was imported to Bogor in 1972 from Bangkok. Ereeding was 

successful using hypophysation technique. The prospect of this species for aquacuLture is good. 

Growth rate is high and it can be cultured intensively (Effendi 1975; Hardjamulia 1.978; Ondara 

1982). 

The 1980s 

With the improvement of the economy, fish consumption in the larger cities increased. 

Besides other fishes, demand on Cyprinus carpio has increased. There is a shift in the method of 

carp culture from stagnant water ponds and cages to more intensive culture in running water 

systems. 

This rush for carp running-water-system culture was suddenly disrupted by the outbreak of 

haemorrhagic septicemia which started in Cibening near Bogor. The disease is thought to have 

been caused by Aeromonas salmonicida and Aeromonas hydrophilia in combination with a virus. 

Other species that became victims of this disease included Osphronemus goramy and Clarias

atrachus. It remains uncertain whether the pathogens were brought through fish importations or 

not. 

Whatever the cause, this disease outbreak awakened the Government that the introduction of 

exotic species may have disastrous effects. Outbreaks of this magnitude have not occurred 

earlier. The measures which have been taken seem to be effective. 

Channel catfish (Ictalarus punctatus) was imported from the United States for experimental 

purposes. There is no available information on its suitability for aquaculture in Indonesia as 

experiments are still in progress (Balitkanwar 1987). 

Koi (Carassius auratus) was imported from Taiwan for experimental purposes. This 

ornamental fish is becoming very popular especially in big cities. Breeding so far has been 

successful (Balitkanwar 1987). 

Other Aquatic Organisms Introduced into Indonesia 

Clarias gariepinus - imported by fish dealers; became very popular and is called 'lele 

dumbo". 

Rana catesbiana - bull frog (Amphibia), still in experimental stage; commercial scale 

not profitable due to difficulties in providing proper food (Achatinafulica as feed). 

Anodonta woodiana - fresh water mollusc; introduced from Taiwan together with the 

importation of Oreochromis niloticus and Hypophthalmichthys molitrix. The larvae 

(Glochidium) use fish as their host (Suseno 1978; Djajasasmita 1979). 

Eichhornia crassipes - water hyacinth. It has become a nuisance in reservoirs. 

Mechanical, chemical and biological eradication methods have not been successful. 

Among others Rawa Pening (Central Java), Saguling Reservoir, Curug Reservoir are 

infested. 

Eucheuma cottonii - seaweed. Cultured together with Eucheuma spinosum which is 

endemic. Good results were reported in Bali. 

Conclusion and Suggestions 

Introductions of exotic species are likely to be continued either intentionally or 

unintentionally for emotional, commercial or ecological reasons. 

Studies on the aquatic ecosystems should be encouraged in order to obtain basic 

information. The impact of introductions can be predicted with additional 

knowledge of the candidate exotic species. 

3. Local aquatic species should be investigated for their suitability for aquaculture 

and as ornamental fish. 

61

62 

Indonesia includes three different areas of fish distribution: the Western area 

(Sunda region); the Eastern area (Sahul region) and the Central area (Wallace 

region), with different fish populations and aquatic organisms. Suitability in one 

place does not necessarily hold for the other parts of the country. 

Law enforcement, facilities for quarantine, education and extension on the 

usefulness and danger of careless introductions are necessary. 

Cooperation and mechanisms between exporting and importing countries to 

safeguard the success of interchange of aquatic species should be developed. 

References 

Balitkanwar, A, 1987. Keadaan Kan lele annorika (Hetalurus punctatus) selama Nopember 1986-Manet 1987. Laporain: 2. Balitkanwar 

Pusitbankan Bahtbangtan Departmen Pertanian. lOp. (In Indonesian). 

Balitkanwar, A. 1987. Keadaan kam leoi (Carassius auratus) asal Taiwan selama 16 Nopunka-28 Manet 1987. Balitkanwar, Pusitbankan, 

Balitbangtan, Departmen Pertanian. 7 p. (In Indonesian). 

Djajasasmita, M. 1974. Bagaimana cara Kijma Taiwan Anodonta woodiana, Lea 1837 dapat menyelundup ke Indonesia. (Flow the Taiwanese 

clam Anodonta woodiana, Lea 1837 could infiltrate into Indonesia) Buletin Kebun Raya, Vol 1, No. 4, KeburL Raya-LBN- L1P1, 

Bogor. (In Indonesian). 

Effendi Momahed Ichsan. 1975. Masalah introduksi jenisikan baru (Problems of the new fish species introduction) WART A PERIKANAN - 

Communications on Agriculture. No. 33, 5th Year, Department Pertanian, Jakarta, Indonesia, p. 19-21. (In Indonesian) 

Hardjamulia, Atmadja. 1978. Budidya Ikan Mola (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix), ikan grass carp (Clenopharyngodon idellus), ikan jambal Siam 

(Pangasiu.s sutchi Fowler) dan ilcan nila (Tilapia nilotica). Untuk sekolah usaha perikanan menengah Budidya Bogor Departmen 

pertanian BPLPP - SUPM Budidya, Bogor. 33 p. Lecture mimeograph (In Indonesian). 

Hardjamulia, Atmadja and Rustami Djajadiredja. 1978. Notes on the contributions of introduced species, Tilapia nilotica, and Hypophthalmicthys 

molitrix, to the development of fishculture in Indonesia. ASEAN meeting of experts on Aquaculture, Semarang, Indonesia, 31 

Januaiy-6th Febmaty 1977. 14 p. 

Ondara, M. 1982. Beberapa cetatan tentang perairan tawa dan fauna iknannya di Indonesia (several notes on freshwater and its fauna in 

Indonesia) Prosiding simposium perikannan petairan Umum No. 1 - Prosd. No. l/SPPU/82, Departmen pertanian, Jakarta, Indonesia, 

p. 13-32. (In Indonesian with English abstract) 

Schuster, W.H. 1950. Comments on the importation and the transplantation of different species of fish mto Indonesia. Contributions Gen. 

Agriculture Research Station, Bogor, Indonesia, No. 111: 1-31. 

Suseno, DJOKO. 1978. Kijing Taiwan Anodonta woodiana Lea 1857, (Taiwanese clam Anodonta woodiana Lea 1857). WARTA PERIKANAN 

- Communications on Agriculture, No. 46, 8th Year, Deparimen Pertanian, Jakarta, Indonesia, p. 9-11. (In Indonesian)

Present Status of Aquatic Organisms 

Introduced into Japan 

KENJI CHIBA 

Fisheries Laboratory 

Faculty of Agriculture 

University of Tokyo 

2971, Maisaka, Hamana 

Shizuoka 431-02 

YASUHIKO TAKI 

KIYOSHI SAKA! 

Tokyo University of Fisheries 

4-5-7 Konan, Minato 

Tokyo 108 

YOSHIOKI OOZEKI 

Dept. of Fisheries 

Faculty of Agriculture 

University of Tokyo 

1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113 

Chiba, K., Y. Taki, K. Sakai and Y. Oozeki. 1989. Present status of aquatic organisms introduced into Japan,p. 63-70. In 

S.S. De Silva (ed.) Exotic Aquatic Organisms in Asia. Proceedings of the Workshop on Introduction of Exotic 

Aquatic Organisms in Asia. Asian Fish. Soc. Spec. Pub!. 3, 154 p. Asian Fisheries Society, Manila, Philippines. 

Introductions of aquatic organisms into Japan are controlled odly on the basis of the Convention on Intemational 

Trade in Endangered Species (CiTES) of Wild Fauna and Flora and the quarantine acts. Up to 1986 more than 120 exotic 

species have been introduced, of which only 36 were made prior to 1945. 

Introductions are classified into four basic categories. In this paper of those in two categories, (i) species which have 

spread widely over Japan and are self reproducing, and (ii) those which have been maintained for generations through 

artificial propagation or in confined natural waters are dealt with. 

Since the late 19th century, a great number of exotic species of aquatic organisms have been 

introduced into Japan primarily with a view to enrich the fish resources of the country. While the 

introduction of some of these species have caused serious ecological problems in natural waters, 

some others have been confined and cultured in aquaculture farms as market fish or well 

established in natural waters yielding new commodities of food or sports fishing without serious 

impact on the ecosystem. The evaluation of the transplantation of non-indigenous species can 

vary among people; an exotic fish species in a river or lake may be a acceptable game fish for 

anglers while it may be an enemy for fishermen who catch other species that are outrivalled by 

the newcomer. Moreover, we have to admit that the 'ecological sense' of the people vary in 

accordance with the cultural and socio-economic backgrounds of the country, even though 

conservation is the unanimous consensus of all nations. In any event, accumulation of accurate 

63

64 

information on the status of fauna and flora is essential to lay down effective ;chemes for 

controlling introduction of the species. 

The purpose of this paper is to give a brief historical review of the introduction of exotic 

species of aquatic animals in Japan and a brief description of the present status of these species. 

Species introduced as ornamental aquarium fish are excluded from this report. 

Review of Aquatic Species Introduced into Japan 

It is virtually impossible to trace all of the numerous aquatic organisms introduced into 

Japan over the last 100 years. However, efforts have been expended to collect distributional and 

ecological data on introduced exotic species by various institutions including the Fisheries 

Agency, prefectural fisheries stations and universities. The Environment Agency's on-going 

nation-wide survey of the distribution of freshwater fishes, which is carried out every 5 years, 

has also provided disributional information on the exotic species which have been naturalized in 

inland waters (Environmental Agency 1976, 1980, 1988). 

There has been no regulation to control the introduction of aquatic aninuls from an 

ecological standpoint. Animals brought in from abroad are checked only on the basis of the 

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), the 

municipal laws established in relation to the CITES, and the Quarantine Acts. Recently, FAO's 

program of the prevention of international epidemics was put into operation at the Fish Disease 

Center in Tokyo. 

According to Maruyama et al. (1987), more than 120 exotic species of aquatic animals have 

been brought to Japan up to 1986. Of these, only 36 species were introduced to Japan before 

1945. Entering the postwar period, the number increased drastically, due largely to tile increasing 

demand for new commodities among commercial fishermen, aquaculturists and Sports fishermen 

and the development of transportation. 

Many of these species were introduced intentionally for stocking in the natural environment, 

commercial culture and/or sport fishing. Some species, such as the silver carp, 

Hypophthalmichthys molitrix and the bitterling, Rhodeous ocellatus ocellatus came to Japan 

accidentally; these two species arrived in Japan mixed with fry of the grass carp, 

Ctenopharyngodon idella (Nakamura 1955). 

Of the 120 species brought into Japan, about 9 species accounting for 7.5Vc of the total 

number have acclimatized themselves to the natural environment as self-reproducing 

populations; about 32 or 26.7% have been successfully bred; about 26 or 24.6% have 

disappeared; the status of about 53 or 4 1.2% remains obscure. In Table 1 they are classified into 

four categories; (1) species which have spread widely over Japan and are self-reproducing, (2) 

species which have been maintained for generations in captivity through spontaneou.s or artificial 

reproduction and/or established as self-reproducing populations in limited areas of natural 

waters, (3) species which are already extinct in Japan, and (4) species of which the present status 

cannot be elucidated. The following description by taxonomic group deals with only species 

which belong to categories 1 and 2 above and which are considered to have an economic or 

ecological importance.

Sa!monidae 

Examples of successful introduction of species for aquaculture are evident amongst 

salmonids, particularly the rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri. Since its first introduction in 1877, 

many strains of rainbow trout have been imported from various localities of North America. This 

species is now the commonest species in cold-water aquaculture ponds in Japan and its annual 

production is maintained at 15,000-20,000 t. Programs of stocking of rainbow trout fingerlings in 

rivers have also been in operation in many areas since 1955. However, reproduction of the fish in 

natural waters has been confirmed only in Hokkaido (Kawanabe 1980). 

Other exotic salmonid species that are known to reproduce in natural waters are the brown 

trout, Salmo trutta and the brook trout, Salvelinusfontinalis. 

A number of species of the salmonid genus Core gonus have been introduced from East 

European countries for pond culture; still in experimental stages at research institutions and 

private farms. Core gonus species C. lavaretus maraena and C. peled among others are regarded 

as promising candidates for cold-water pond culture in Japan. 

Cyprinidae 

Four species of Chinese carps Ctenopharyngodon idella, Hypophthalmicht/jys molitrix, 

Aristichthys nobilis and Mylopharyngodon piceus are reported to reproduce in the Tone, one of 

the largest rivers in Japan (Inaba 1955), Though they are of no high commercial value, the 

former two species are of some importance in the commercial fisheries in the area. Because of 

their low trophic levels, there have been no reports indicating disturbances of river fauna because 

of these species. 

The bitterling Rhodeous ocellatus ocellatus is a small cyprinid occurring in continental East 

Asia accidentally introduced into Japan mixed with grass carp fry from China, and was first 

found in Japanese freshwaters in the mid-1940s (Nakamura 1955). Since then it has been 

expanding its distribution, most remarkably in the last decade, expelling the Japanese subspecies 

R. ocellatus smithi by ecological pressures and hybridization. R. ocellatus smithi is now on the 

brink of extinction as a distinct subspecies (Nagata and Nishiyama 1976). 

Atherinjdae 

The atherinid Odonthestes bonariensis, known as pejerrey in South America, was 

introduced into Japan from Argentina in 1966 as a species suitable for pond culture and stocking 

in lakes. It has turned out that the species can readily reproduce in captivity and the fish is now 

cultured at several fisheries stations and private farms. Seed has been stocked repeatedly in Lake 

Ashinoko and Lake Tsukui to create a new commodity of sport fishing, but it is not evident that 

the fish has adjusted itself in these lakes (Watase 1986). 

Centrarchjdae 

The North American bluegill, Lepomis macrochirus and largemouth bass Microprerus 

salmoides have readily established themselves in rivers and lakes and are spreading rapidly over 

65

66 

Table 1. List of exotic aquatic species (Status 1 - Established as self reproducing populations; Status 2 - being reproduced in certair. experunental or natural 

ponds; Status 3 - extinct at present; Status 4 - accurate information not available; UI, unintentional). 

Taxonomic 

Status 

Status 

Introduced 

Pisces 

Acipenseridae 

Acipenser guldenstadti 3 USSR 1963- 

A.baeri 3 USSR 1964 

Huso huso x USSR 1974- 

Acipenser ruihenus 

Clupeidae 

Alosa .capidissima 3 USA 1928/29 

Anguillidae 

Anguillajaponica 

7 

7 

Korea 

China 

Taiwan 

1964- 

1964- 

1964 

A. anguilla 7 France 1969 

From 

7 England 

A. rostrata 7 Canada 1971(72 

A. dieffenbachi and or 3 New 

A. australis Zealand 1970173 

A. bicolor pacfica 3 Philippines 1972 

Salmonidae 

Salmo gairdneri 2 USA 1877 

5. trutta 2 USA 7 - 1926 

S. salar 7 USSR 1980/83 

Oncorynchus tshawytscha 7 USA 1881- 

O.nerka 7 Canada 1957 

? USA 1968 

0. kisutch 2 USA 1965 

Sal velinus naniaycush 2 Canada 1966/69 

S.fontinalis 2 USA 1901126 

Core gonus lavaretu.r maraena 2 Czecho 1977/78 

C. 1. ludoga 7 USSR 1981 

C. autu,nnalis migralorius ? USSR 1969- 

C. mukcun USSR 1981/83 

C.peled 2 Czecho 1972- 

USSR 1978- 

C. clupeaformis 3 USA 1926129 

C. olbus 3 USA 1926/29 

C. lavaretus baeri 3 USSR 1929/30 

C. lavaretus maraena 3 USSR 1929/30 

Cyprinidae 

Aristichthys nobilis 2 China 1878- 

1940 

Cienopharyngodon idellus 2 China 1878- 

1955 

Hypophthalmichthys molitrix 2 China 1878- 

1940 

Mylopharyngodon pi ce us 2 China 1878- 

1940 

Rhode us ocellaties ocellatus I China 1942- 

7 

Italy 

Year 

Remarks 

Elver foi commercial culture 

Elver for commercial culture 

Tone River S. UI 

(mixed in grass carp fry) 

Tone River. S 

Tone River. S. 

Tone River. S. UI (mixed in 

grass carp fry) 

UT; Its Tapanese counterpartR. 

o. smithiis 

endangered by ecological 

pressure of and hybridization 

with this subspecies. 

Continued


Taxonomic 

Status 

Status Introduced 

From Year 

Cyprintss carpio ruscis 2 China 1971 

Cyprinus carpio 2 Germany 1905- Cross bred 

2 Austria 1970 

2 Indonesia 1980 

Cirrhina rnolitorella 7 China 1965/66 

Megalobrama amblycephala 2 China 1978 

Tinca tinca 2 Netherlands 1961 

Carassius auratus gibellio 3 USSR 1930/64 

Catla catla 3 India 1960 

Pakistan 1970 

Barbus for 3 India 1960 

Labeo rohita 3 India 1960 

Cirrhina rnrigala 3 India 1960 

Ictaluridae 

Ictalurus punctaf us 2 USA 1971 

Poeciliidae 

Gambussiaaffinis 1 Taiwan 1916 

Atherinidae 

Odontesthes bonariensis 2 Argentine 1966 

Percidae 

Percaflavescens 3 USA 1960 

Centrachidae 

Lepomis macrochirus 1 USA 1960 

Micropterus salnwides 1 USA 1925 Predation on 

native species 

Morone interrupla 3 USA 1960 

Pomoxs nigromaculatus 3 USA 1927136 

Roccus saxatilis 3 USA 1927128 

1972173 

Remarks 

Chichlidae 

Oreochromisaureus 2 Taiwan 1980 

USA 1983 

Syria 1984 

0. macrochir 3 USA 1964 

0. mossarnbicus 2 Thailand 1954- Colonized polluted brackish 

waters around Okinawa Island. 

0. urolepis hornorwn (reported as 2 Israel 1981 

Tilapia macrocephala) 

0. niloticus 2 Egypt 1962 

Sarotherodon 

melanof heron 3 USA 1960 

S.galilaeus 3 USA 1964 

Tilapia sparrmanii 2 USA 1959 

T. zulu 2 Egypt 1962 

Belontiidae 

Macropodus chinenth 1 Korea 1914 

Osphronemidae 

Osphronemus goramy 7 Thailand 1956 

Scienidae 

Aplodinof us grunniens 3 USA 1960 

67 

Continue

68 


Taxonomic 

Status 

Status Introduced 

From Year 

Remarks 

Channidae 

Channa argus 2 Korea 1923/24 Predatior on native species 

parasites 

C. maculata 1 Taiwan 1906/19 Parasites 

Crustacea 

Astacidae 

Pacfastacus leniusculus 2 USA 1909/29 Pond Tar kai in Shiga Pref. 

P. trowbridgii 2 USA 1928/30 Lake Mashu in Hokkaido 

Proca,mbarus clarkii 1 USA 1930 

Parastacidae 

Cherax tenuimanus 3 Australia 1981- 

Nephropsidae 

HomarusAmericanus 7 USA 1914 

1975178 

Penaeidae 

Penaeus chinensis 7 Yellow 1965- 

Sea 

Palaemonidae 

Macrobrachiu.m 

rosenbergii 2 Malaysia 1967- 

Thailand 

USA (Hawaii) 

Mollusca 

Unionidae 

Lamprotula (Quadrula) bazini 3 China 1917 

Lampsilis luteola 3 USA 1926 

Anodonta woodiana 3 Taiwan 1962 

Mytiidae 

Mytilus edulis galloprovincialis 1 7 ca.1926 UI 

Ostreidae 

Ostrea lurida 2 USA 1948 

O.eduh.c 2 France 1952 

Crassostrea angulata 7 France 1952 

C.virginica 7 USA 1968 

Haliotidae 

Haliotis rufescens 2 USA 1966 

Ampullaridae 

Pila leoporavillensis 

x Ampullarium insciarum 

1 Taiwan 1981 Hybrid; it is unknown 

whether pure strains have 

have been introduced or not

the Japanese main islands. After its first introduction into Lake Ashinoko in 1925 for lure fishing 

(Akaboshi 1959) and an initial unsuccessful attempt of its transplantation into several other 

lakes, transplantation of M. salmoides from Lake Ashinoko to other waters was prohibited to 

prevent possible destruction of local fish fauna by this predaceous species. However, the 

attraction of this fish as a game for lure fishing has led some indiscreet anglers to secretly 

transplant it into many lakes. This resulted in its subsequent rapid dispersal over Japan and its 

predation on many native fish species. The impact of the largemouth bass on indigenous fish 

fauna appears to vary particularly in relation to the depth of water (Nomura and Furuta 1977). 

The predation on indigenous fish by largemouth bass has caused serious problems in shallow 

waters and efforts to eradicate this predator have not been successful (Kikukawa 1980). In deep 

waters such as Lake Ashinoko, largemouth bass coexist with native fish by habitat segregation. 

Cichlidae 

Nine species of tilapia have been introduced into Japan for the purpose of pond culture 

utilizing heat from hot springs or cooling-water discharge from power plants or factories. Of 

these species, Oreochromis niloticus is enjoying a comparatively high reputation as a food fish, 

with its annual production reaching more than 5,000 t in 1985 (Maruyama 1986). 0. niloticus, 0. 

mossambicus, Tilapia sparmanii and T. zulu have colonized estuarine waters in the Okinawa 

Islands (Imai 1980). 

Changes in the Japanese Freshwater Fish Fauna 

The freshwater fish fauna of Japan has been changing rather conspicuously in recent years. 

The freshwater fauna is originally rich in southwestern Japan and comparatively poor in 

northeastern Japan. The recent changes in freshwater fish fauna are characterized primarily by 

the dispersal of many species endemic or indigenous to southwestern and northeastern Japan. 

This northeastward dispersal is considered to be attributable largely to the transplantation of a 

species called "ayu from Lake Biwa in central Honshu. Though this has little to do with the 

introduction of exotic species, we believe it worthwhile to briefly mention of what is going on in 

the Japanese freshwater fish fauna. 

Ayu, Plecoglossus altivelis, a small, annual fish closely related to salmonids is one of the 

favourite game fish and an inland water delicacy among the Japanese. Young and sub-adult ayu 

inhabit the middle to upper reaches of clear water rivers and reach maturity as they descend to 

the lower reaches where they spawn. Larvae migrate to the sea and juvenile ayu ascend rivers 

after spending the whole winter in the sea. Due to obstructions on the migration route by dams 

and other structures, fry of ayu are being released into upstream areas all over Japan in large 

numbers every year. The majority of the fry released are collected from Lake Biwa where a landlocked 

population of ayu abounds. 

This stocking activity is certainly a boon to more than 10 million amateur anglers who enjoy 

ayu fishing. However, it has created a side-effect; colonization of the inland waters of 

northeastern Japan by species that had been found only in southeastern Japan. It is widely 

accepted that the dispersal of southwestern elements has caused by incidental transportation of 

fry of many species mixed in ayu seed collected from Lake Biwa. These immigrants include a 

few carnivorous cyprinids and the predaceous largemouth bass. 

69

70 

From this historical review, it can be seen that the introduction of aquatic species into Japan 

is closely related to the development of transportation. Before the World War II, shipping was 

the only mode of transportation live species from foreign countries to Japan. It was difficult for 

private enterprises to introduce live aquatic species from foreign countries because of shipping 

costs. Therefore, only the national and/or local governments were able to introduce the aquatic 

species from other countries for productive increase of animal protein. As the target species were 

selected by the government authority itself, rules governing introduction of aquatic species were 

not thought to be necessary. 

Entering the postwar period, the development of transportation drastically increased the 

number of species introduced from other countries; they are not only used in pond culture, but 

also as ornamental pet fish in aquariums. Critical changes in fauna and flora caused by exotic 

species have never been observed as a result of unrestricted introduction of aquatic species. 

However, some changes, as mentioned above, have already been reported. Those re Rhodeus 

ocellatus smithi being replaced by R. o. ocellatus, colonization of northeastern Japan by nativeborn 

species found in southwestern Japan, and the predation of largemouth bass Micropterus 

salmoides on many native fish species in certain places. These situations should be considered as 

a warning alarm for unrestricted introduction of aquatic species and the need for deliberation and 

care for further introduction of aquatic species in Japan. 

References 

Akaboshi, T. 1959. Blackbass. Miyazaki-ken Tansui-gyogyos hidojyo, p. 1-71. 

Environmental Agency. 1976. Dai 1 kai shizen kankyo hozen kisochosa houkokusho (Report of the first national surveys on the natural 

environment). Shakai-chosa- kenkyusho. Tokyo, Japan. 

Environmental Agency. 1980. Dai 2 kai shizen kankyo hozen kisochosa houkokusho (Report of the second national surveys on the natural 

environment). Shakai-chosa- kenkyusho. Tokyo, Japan. 

Environmental Agency, 1988. Dai 3 kai shizen kankyo hozen kisochosa houkokusho (Report of the third national surveys on the natural 

environment). Shakai-chosa-kenkyusho. Tokyo, Japan. 

Imai, S. 1980. Tilapia in°Nihon no Tansuiseibutsu (Freshwater aquatic species in Japan)". Edited by T. Kawai et al., Tokaidaigaku-shuppankai. 

Tokyo, Japan, p. 124-132. 

Inaba, D. 1955. Tonegawa niokem sogyo no hanshyoku (Re producti on of the Chinese Carp in the Tone River). Zenkoku-kosh.D--kasen yoshoku 

kenku-kai-yohou. 

Kawanabe, H. 1980. Nijimasu (Rainbow Trout) in" Nihon no Tansuiseibutsu (Freshwater aquatic species in Japan)". Edited by T. Kawai et al., 

Tokaidaigaku-shuppankai. Tokyo, Japan, p. 44-48. 

Kikukawa, Y. 1980. Blackbass in"Nihon no Tansuiseibutsu (Freshwater aquatic species in Japan)". Edited by T. Kawai et Si., Tokaidaigakushuppankai. 

Tokyo, Japan. p. 20-29. 

Maruyama. T.K., T. Fuji, Kijima and H. Macda. 1987. Gaikokusan shingyoshu no donyu keika. (Introducing process of extic species from 

foreign countries). Fisheries Agency, Tokyo. 

Nagata, Y. and K. Nishiyama. 1976. Remarks on the characteristics of the fins of bitterling. Rhodeus ocellatus ocellatus (Knen and R. ocellatus 

smithi (Regan). Memoirs of the Osaka Kyoikyu University Series ifi 25(1): 17-2 1. 

Nakamura, M. 1955. Kanto-heiyani shutsugenshita ishyokugo (Some exotic fishes appeared at the Kanto Plains). Nihon-seibuisu-chiri-gakkaiho 

16/19: 333-337. 

Nomura, M. and Y. Furuta. 1977. Gunma-ken niokem koshyo kasen no koudo gyogyou-riyou ni-kansuru chyosha-hokokushyo. Gunma 

Prefecture, p. 40-43. 

Watase, S. 1986. Pejerrey in" Shingao no sakan (New aquatic species in Japan)". Seizando. Tokyo, Japan.

The Status of Introduced Fish Species 

in Malaysia 

K.J. ANG 

Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Sciences 

Universiti Pertanian Malaysia 

Serdang, Selangor 

R. GOPINATH 

Department of Fisheries 

TKT 8 Wisma Tani, Jin. Mahameru 

Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 

T.E. CHUA 

International Center for Living Aquatic 

Resources Management 

MC P.O. Box 1501 

Makati, Metro Manila 

Philippines 

Ang, KJ., R. Gopinath and T.E. Chua. 1989. The Status of introduced fish species in Malaysia, p. 71-82. In S.S. De Silva 

(ed.) Exotic Aquatic Organisms in Asia. Proceedings of the Workshop on Introduction of Exotic Aquatic 

Organisms in Asia. Asian Fish. Soc. Spec. Pubi. 3, 154 p. Asian Fisheries Society, Manila, Philippines. 

The fate of introduced fish in Malaysia was traced with special reference to their abilities to establish in local 

conditions. Of the dozen food fish introduced into Malaysia, only Trichogasser pectoral is, Punt ius gonionotus, tilapias and 

Clarias macrocephalus were able to establish successfully. Other species were able to grow well in local environment but 

were not able to propagate naturally. Introduced fishes contribute 88% to total freshwater aquaculture production and 72% 

to total freshwater fish production. Some diseases found with introduced fish are recorded. Existing laws governing 

importation of exotic species are examined. 

The term "exotic" species has been defined as the introduction of an organism by man from 

a foreign country outside the native range of that species (Kohier and Stanley 1984; Kohler 

1986). The same authors defined "introduced" aquatic species as a plant or animal moved from 

one place to another by humans (i.e., an individual, group or population of organisms that occurs 

in a particular locale as a result of human intervention). These two terms have been used loosely. 

For the purpose of this paper, the term "introduced" is used to include species introduced from 

foreign countries also. 

Malaysia is endowed with a tropical climate, productive marine and terrestial ecosystems, 

and great species diversity. A large number of fish species has been recorded (Scott 1959; 

Johnson 1961; Chua 1978; Mohsin and Ambak 1983). Many are commercially important and 

most have been heavily exploited. 

Many species were introduced to Malaysia in the early 19th century either by Chinese 

immigrants for sentimental reasons or by fisheries officials trying to provide development of 

71

72 

what they perceived as economically useful species. Species introductions have never been a 

major government thrust because of the availability and abundance of indigenous species. 

The main concerns about the fish introductions are the risks associated with any one or all of 

the following problems as listed by Welcomme (1986): 

- contamination of existing natural communities with foreign species, 

- the introduction of disease, 

- the direct disruption of the fish community through competition or predation, 

the genetic degradation of the host stock, 

the degradation of the environment by the introduced species, and 

- the disruption of human lifestyles, customs or economic systems. 

It is difficult to find a country in Asia whose natural fish communities are not contaminated 

by introduced species. The risks of disease transfer, genetic and environmental degradation as 

well as disruption to the natural fish communities can, however, be reduced if not prevented if 

appropriate precautionary measures are observed. The objectives of this paper are to trace the 

fate of introduced fish in Malaysia and to assess their possible ecological or biological impact. 

Fate of Introduced Species 

Available records show that fish introductions in Malaysia were initiated in the early 19th 

century along with the immigration of the southern Chinese who brought along the techniques of 

fish farming. Fingerlings of grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon ide/la), bighead carp (Aristichthys 

nobilis), silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) and common carp (Cyprinus carpio) 

(Welcomme 1981; Mohsin and Ambak 1983) were raised in mud ponds and unused mining 

poois. The snakeskin gouramy (Trichogaster pectoralis) was introduced either in the late 

nineteenth or early twentieth century and established itself in paddy fields, irrigation canals and 

freshwater swamps, forming an important fishery. 

After World War II, a few more species were introduced by the Department of Fisheries, 

private organizations and individuals. Tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) was introduced in 

1944 from Java. This species rapidly established itself in freshwater as well as in brackish water. 

In 1979, 0. niloticus was introduced from Thailand and in 1980, red tilapia hybrids were brought 

in from Taiwan. These two species/varieties are of better quality for aquaculture purposes and 

they are now popularly cultured in freshwater ponds and mining pools. In the 1L950's catfish 

(Clarias macrocephalus) was introduced and soon became a strong competitor with indigenous 

species (Clarias batrachus). The Javanese carp, Puntius gonionotus, was successfully introduced 

into Malaysia in 1958 (Table 1). 

The Department of Fisheries also introduced the Indian major carps in the 1960's, 

particularly catla (Catla catla), mrigal (Cirrhina mrigala) and rohu (Labeo rohita). Like most 

Chinese carps, these species do not breed in captivity under local conditions. Their culture is 

dependent on imported fingerling supply. Etroplus suratensis was introduced in 1975 from Sri

Lanka into Sarawak and Sabah. The slow growth rate makes it noncompetitive with other fastgrowing 

species for aquaculture. 

Besides food fishes, recreational fish species were also introduced. The rainbow trout 

(Salmo gairdneri) was introduced into the mountain streams of Brinchang, Cameron Highlands 

in 1935 from Scotland; in 1968, Boh Tea Plantation introduced the same species in Tanah Rata, 

Cameron Highlands, from New Zealand. In both cases, there was no evidence of breeding 

although the trout grow to about 750 g. 

Growth of the domestic and international ornamental fish trade in recent years has greatly 

promoted extensive importation of freshwater and marine species from all parts of the world. A 

variety of such species can be seen in most retail aquarium shops (Table 2). 

Some of the small species such as Poecilia reticulatus and Gambusia affinis introduced for 

controlling the spread of mosquitoes have now established themselves extensively in many 

organically rich water bodies. Other species introduced as ornamental fish include the Siamese 

fighting fish (Betta splendens), the sucker catfish (Plecostomus punctatus) and the molly 

(Molliniesa sp.) have also established themselves in freshwater ponds and pools (Table 2). The 

angelfish (Pterophylum scalare), and the Oscar (Atronotus occelatus), have been found to breed 

naturally in ponds (Ang, unpublished data). Despite the large number of exotic species 

introduced as ornamental fish in Malaysia, only a few have become successfully established in 

natural water bodies (Johnson 1963). 

Snakeskin gouramy 

Performance of Introduced Species 

The snakeskin gouramy was reported by Soong (1948) to have been first introduced into 

Malaysia in 1921. According to Green (1926) it was introduced in the late nineteenth century. 

Both authorities agree that the transfer was first made in the Krian rice-bowl area, northwestern 

Peninsula Malaysia. Today it is found widely distributed in swamps, rice fields and irrigation 

canals throughout the country (Mohsin and Ambak 1983). 

The Krian rice-bowl area at one time supported a very substantial rice-field fishery. based 

almost exclusively on the snakeskin gouramy (Merican and Soong 1966). Due to the double 

cropping of rice and the wide use of pesticides, the snakeskin gourami fishery has been 

drastically reduced (Tan et al. 1973). The total production from ponds was only 107.5t in 1986 

(Table 3). 

It is difficult to gauge the impact this species has had on the environment. Soong (1948) 

maintained that this species has had no deleterious effect on other rice-field fishes, especially the 

climbing perch (Anabas testudineus), the snakehead (Channa striata) and catfish (Clarias spp.). 

However, it is certain that the indigenous Trichogaster trichopterus has been displaced, at least 

to some extent, since both have similar feeding habits and occupy the same niche in the paddy 

field ecosystem. 

Chinese Major Carps and Common Carp 

Chinese major carps (grass carp, bighead carp, silver carp and mud carp) and common carp, 

were introduced into Malaysia in the early part of the nineteenth century by Chinese migrants. 

73

74 

Table 1. Fate of the introduced foodfish in Malaysia. 

Species Introduced Established Current Status Remarks 

From Year 

(reference) 

OSPHRONEMIDAE 

Trichogaster 

peer oralis 

CICHLIDAE 

Oreochromis 

mossambicus 

0. niloticus 

Red tilapia 

hybrids 

Etroplus 

suratensis 

CLARI[DAE 

Clarias 

,nacrocephalus 

CYPRNTDAE 

Puntius 

gonionot 555 

Ctenopharyngodon 

idella 

Aristichihys 

nobilis 

Hypophthalmichthys 

molitrix 


Indian major carps 

(Catla catla 

Labeo rohita, 

Cirrhina mrigala) 

SALMOMDAE 


Micropterus 

salmoides 

Thailand, 1921 

(Soong 1948) 

Java, Indonesia, 

1944 (Mohsin & 

Ambak 1983) 


Taiwan 1980, 

Thailand 1981, 

Sri Lanka 1975 

(Welcomme 1981) 


(Tweedie 1952) 

Indonesia, 1958 

(Welcomme 1981) 

China, Early 19th 

century (Welcomme 

198 1) 

China, early 19th 


1981) 


century (Welcomme 1981) 



1981) 

Introduced from 

India in 1960 

Scotland, 1935 

New Zealand, 1968 

Florida, 1984 by 

Boh Tea Plantation, 

Cameron Highlands 

Paddy fields, swamps, 

canals 

Ponds, canals, tin 

mining pools, streams 

ponds, reservoir 

mining pools 

Ponds 

Ponds 

Ponds, swamps 

Rivers, ponds, mining 

pools 

Important pond cultured 

species. Attained 2-3 kg 

in6months Doesnot 

breed in pond or captivity. 

Fry imported from Taiwan or 

Hongkong. Parasites are 

Chloromyxurn lageri, 

Sanguznicola armata, 

Argsdus (Faizxh 1986) 

Cultured in ponds and 

mining pools. Does not 

breed in captivity. Common 

parasites are Dictylogyrue, 

Trichodina, Chilodonella 

(Shariff and Sommerville 

1986; Faizah 1986) 

Cultured in ponds 

Ponds and tin mining 

pools 

Ponds 

Introduced in stream 

and lakes in Cameron 

Highlands as sport fish. 

Grow to 750 g. No breeding 

reported. Stocking 

terminated in 1973 for 

economic reasons 

Stocked in ponds 

used for trout earlier 

cultured in paddy 

fields; yield of 

94-202 kg/ha (Tan 

et al. 1973); sell 

reproducing 

population 

Self reproducing 

population in fresh 

and brackish water, 

prolific breeder and 

stunted growth 

mono or polycultured 

in ponds and cages; 

reach 400-600 gin 

4 months 


introduced in ponds 

in Sarawak 


and paddy fields 

Polycultured in 

pond 

Polycultured in ponds; 

minor species for aquaculture 

Do not breed in 

natural habitats 

Reported the 

presence of fry in 

ponds but none 

were found downstream. 

Badly hit by double cropping 

of rice and use of pesticides; 

infected with hemorrhagic 

septicaemis; displaced 

so some extent, the 

native species, T. 

trichopieru.s 

This species is rarely 

cultures. now 

Self reproducing in 

pools 

Breeds also in brackishwater 

p)nds 

Breed üi natural 

habitats 

Breed in local waters 

Not popular in 

Malaysia 

CHARACIDAE 

Colossoma sp. Taiwan, 1984 Ponds Cultured in ponds, Subsequently the Dept. 

attained fast growth Fisheries banned it 

because its fry resemble 

those of piranhas

Table 2. Ornamental fishes recorded in Malaysia. 

Scientific Name Common Name Origin/Source 

Abramites macrocephaliss Headstander Amazon/Singapore 

Aequiden pukher Blue acara Colombia/Singapore 

Apistogra.mina ramizeri Butterfly cichlid Venezuela/Local 

Astronottes ocellatus Oscar Amazon/Local 

Betta splendens Siamese fighter Thailand/Local 

Botia nacracanthus Clown bach Indonesia/Thailand 

Carassius auratiss Goldfish China/Local 

Cichiasoma meeki Fire mouth Guatamala/Singapore 

Colisa latia Dwarf gouramy India/Local 

Danio malabaricus Giant danio Sri Lanka/Singapore 

Gnat honemus petersi Elephant nose CameroonlSingapore 

Gy,nnocorymbus ternetzi Black tetra Paraguay/Singapore 

Hyphessobrycon 

callistus serpae Serpae tetra Amazon 

H. innesi Neon tetra Amazonlllongkong 

H. pulchripinnis Lemon terra South America/Local 

Singapore/Hongkong 

Kryptoteriss bicirrhis Glass catfish Local and Thailand 

Labeo bicolor Red-tail black shark Thailand 

L. erythrura Red-finned shark Thailand 

Leptobarbus hovenii River carp Local/Indonesia 

Thailand 

Metynnis sp. Silver dollar Amazon/Singapore 

Puntius oligolepis Checker barb Singapore 

P. scubert Golden barb China 

Plecostomus punctatus Sucker catfish Singapore 

Poecelia reticulata Guppy Venezuela/Brazil 

Singapore 

Moiliniesa latipina Sailfin molly Local and Singapore 

Puntius conchonuis Rosy barb Singapore 

Pterophylwn eimekei Angelfish Local 

P. scalare Angelfish Local 

Scieropagesformosus Dragonfish Local/Indonesia/ 

Thailand 

Osleoglossum 

Syenphysodon spp. Discus Local 

Trichogaster leeri Pearl gouramy Local, Thailand 

T. trichoplerus 

sumatranus Opaline gouramy 

Xiphophorus helleri Swordtail Local/Singapore 

X. ,waculatsss Platy Singapore 

Note: The term source is used here where fish were obtained. It does not denote local occurrences. 

Table 3. Production of introduced fish species in ponds at Peninsular Malaysia in 1986. (Soutce: 

Annual Fisheries Statistics, 1986). 

Common Name Species Production 

(t) 

Javanese carp Puntius gonionotus 968.6 

Common carp Cyprinus carpio 259.3 

Grass carp Ctenopharyngodon idella 1,516.4 

Bighead carp Aristichthys nobilis 734.5 

Tilapia Oreochromis spp. 571.7 

Snakeskin gourami Trichogasterpectoralts 107.5 

TOTAL 

Total freshwater production (ponds & wild) 

Total freshwater fish production by aquaculture 

4,158.0 

5,753 

4,709 

75

76 

While it is likely that at the onset, all these species were cultured (Birtwhistle 1931), local 

market preferences gravitated towards grass carp, bighead carp and common carp. Silver carp 

and mud carp have little commercial value and are not popularly cultured. 

None of the Chinese major carps breed naturally in captivity and have neve] established 

themselves in local waters. Public stocking programs involving grass carp were first carried out 

in the Bukit Merah and Cenderoh impoundments in the early 1960's. Though sporadic reports of 

adults of 11 kg being caught were reported, results on the whole were not encouraging (FAO 

1965). Bighead carp fingerlings were stocked in the Durian Tunggal, Paya Nakoh and Ampang 

reservoirs. The absence of catch data prevents meaningful assessments of the introduction. On 

the whole, the release of common carp fry into public waters has been avoided because of their 

scouring habits which weaken bunds and increase water turbidity. Common c arp has not 

established itself to any major extent. The Chinese carps constitute the mainstay of Malaysia's 

freshwater aquaculture industry. In 1986, grass carp, bighead carp and common carp contributed 

53.3% by weight and 48.7% by value of Peninsular Malaysia's freshwater aquaculture harvest 

(Table 3; Annual Fisheries Statistics 1986). 

Rainbow Trout 

Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) was first introduced in Brinchang, Cameron Highlands in 

1935. Eyed ova, imported from Scotland, were hatched in a now-abandoned facility and the 

fingerlings released in the Tenom River. 

No details are available on the numbers released, nor how they fared in the new ecosystem. 

However, there were unconfirmed reports from villagers living in the area that berried females 

weighing about 750 g could be caught from the same river (Somasekheran, pers. comm.). The 

program ceased during World War II. 

In 1968, Boh Plantations Limited, a tea company in Tanah Rata (also in Cameron 

Highlands), began a trGut project for recreational purposes. Fingerlings were released in three 

lakes, each of about 3 ha. However, no reliable records on numbers released and. catch were 

made. Mature females were frequently caught, but there was no evidence that the fish bred in 

local waters. Indeed, maintenance of fish stocks necessitated regular releases of trout fingerlings. 

The project was terminated in 1973 mainly for economic reasons. Significantly, disease 

problems (whirling disease) in the hatchery were a major impediment to the continuation of the 

project. 

Tilapia 

Tilapia, Oreochromis mossambicus, was first introduced into Malaysian waters from Java 

by the Japanese during World War II. O.mossambicus rapidly established itself, particularly in 

mining pools, impoundments, and even some coastal areas such as the Johore Straits, bordering 

Singapore and Malaysia. 

0. mossambicus was initially well received by farmers. In the 1950's it was actively 

cultured in ponds and mining pools throughout the country. However, its frequency of 

reproduction meant that adults did not grow beyond 200 g. While fish production per unit area 

was high they consisted of stunted individuals with little marketability. The fish was also 

difficult to eradicate from ponds, particularly undrained ponds and competed with preferred

species for food and space, again leading to poor growth, this time among other species of fish. 

By the early 1960's, tilapia began to be regarded as a nuisance. 

In a bid to overcome problems inherent in 0. mossambicus culture, attempts were made to 

develop all-male hybrids. Hickling (1960) experimented on hybridization and as a result of his 

experiments Oreochromis niloticus, 0. hornorum, Tilapia zulu and T. rendalli were introduced 

into Malaysia. He was successful in obtaining an all-male hybrid (0. mossambicus x 0. 

hornorum), but it did not find lasting commercial success in Malaysia. This is because hybrids 

were contaminated by stray 0. mossambicus. 

In 1972, the Department of Fisheries officially ceased all production of 0. mossambicus in 

its hatcheries. A policy of discouraging its culture was also instituted. 

The policy was revised only in 1975, with the recognition of 0. niloticus as an acceptable 

alternative. While 0. niloticus was originally brought into Malaysia in the 1960's, pure lines 

were not maintained. Therefore, in 1979 a stock of pure 0. niloticus consisting of 400 

individuals was imported from Chengmai, Thailand, and raised in the Department of Fisheries 

hatchery of Jitra, Kedah. This stock constituted the broodstock for all the Department hatcheries 

to the present. 

The Department of Fisheries first imported six red tilapia from Thailand in 1981. A second 

importation consisting of 500 individuals was made from Thailand in the same year. In 1982, a 

stock of red hybrids was imported from Taiwan and maintained in the Freshwater Fisheries 

Center, Bukit Tinggi, to prevent interbreeding with wild stock or with each other. 

Red tilapia found a lucrative urban market, and before long commercial culture of red tilapia 

started. However, soon demand outstripped production by 12.7% in 1983, 22.5% in 1984, 24.7% 

in 1985 and 19.6% in 1986. 

The industry was also very substantially different from the one that raised 0. mossambicus 

thirty years earlier. Tilapia was then raised by small farmers in ponds and mining pools using 

semi-intensive and extensive methods. The red tilapia, while still relying substantially on such 

methods, saw the proliferation of commercial, intensively operated farms using formulated feeds 

and high rates of water exchange. 

Markets have also changed. Where 0. mossambicus was sold fresh at the wet markets, red 

tilapia is consigned mainly to the restaurant trade which demands live fish. Live red tilapia is 

also sold in specific supermarkets under the name red snapper or cherry snapper. 

There is little documented evidence of impact of the tilapia in Malaysian waters. The 

proliferation of 0. mossambicus particularly in mining pools and lakes, is generally recognized 

as having affected local icthyofaunal populations but the species affected and extent to which 

they have been affected is not documented. The massive importation of red tilapia fry may have 

brought in non-indigenous epizootics. A lack of suitable baseline information on the fish disease 

status of the country however, prevents any meaningful comparisons. 

Red tilapia (particularly those not treated for monosexuality) are no less prolific than 0. 

mossambicus. It is no longer uncommon to see mining pools filled with red tilapia fry and 

stunted red fish. These fry have undoubtedly escaped into rivers and streams, where they 

proliferate, breeding either with themselves or with wild 0. mossambicus stock. At this point in 

time, red tilapia have yet to match the widespread distribution of 0. mossambicus. Whether they 

will or not is an open question and will depend on their hardiness and their capability to compete 

with resident animals. 

77

78 

Pearl Spot 

The pearl spot, Etroplus suratensis, which is a brackishwater cichlid found in India and Sri 

Lanka (Ong 1983) was introduced to Sarawak, Malaysia from Sri Lanka in 1975 (Welcomme 

1981). The species breeds readily in freshwater or brackishwater, in ponds. They, however, are 

not found in large quantities in natural bodies of water. 

Catfishes 

The catfish Clarias macrocephalus was introduced in 1950 from Thailand (Tweedie, 1952) 

and has been able to propagate in swampy ditches and is also found in paddy fields and pools. It 

can be cultured in ponds. Although they can breed naturally in swampy areas, they have not been 

able to compete with the indigenous catfish, Clarias batrachus. 

Javanese Carp 

The Javanese carp, Puntius gonionotus, locally called Lampam Java, was first Fitroduced in 

1953 (Welcomme 1981). Stock obtained from Indonesia was raised in the Tahpah Fish Breeding 

Center in Perak (Somasekheran, pers. comm.). In the late 1960's further introductions of P. 

gonionotus stock, this time from Thailand, were made. The fish was bred with existing 

broodstock and the progeny were distributed among the Department's five breeding stations. The 

last importation of P. gonionotus stock was from Indonesia (Soong 1963). 

Javanese carp is one of the most popular cultured fish in Malaysia. In 1986, some 969 t of 

fish were raised by fish farmers amounting to a total wholesale value of M$ :2.76 Million, 

ranking second after the Chinese major carps in the freshwater aquaculture industry (Table 3). 

However, while Chinese major carps are raised by commercial fish farmers, the Javanese 

carp is highly preferred by subsistence farmers. It is also the primary species involved in the 

Department of Fisheries open-water stocking program since the 1960's. 

The importance of the Javanese carp is underscored by the production figures of 

Government freshwater breeding centers. The release of Javanese carp in public waters over the 

last 20 years has established this species as part of the Malaysian icthyofauna. The fish is caught 

by subsistence fishermen mainly to supplement domestic requirements. There is however, no 

commercial fishery. As with other fish, it is very difficult to evaluate the environmental impact 

of the Javanese carp. There is no evidence that the Javanese carp has displaced any indigenous 

puntid species. 

Indian Major Carps 

The Indian major carps, i.e., catla, rohu and mrigal were imported from Calcutta in 1960 and 

raised in the Tapah Fish Breeding Station (Welcomme, 1981). Part of this stock was removed to 

the Freshwater Fisheries.Research Station at Malacca. The culture of the Indian major carps has 

not proved popular. However, rohu is still cultured in the states of Negeri Sembilan and Malacca 

to a limited extent. Rohu fry are also produced on an ad hoc basis by the Freshwa:er Fisheries 

Research Station in Malacca and are consigned entirely to the open water stocking program.

The Indian major carps, in common with Chinese major carps, do not breed naturally under 

local conditions. That, coupled with the fact that distribution of fry has been limited, has meant 

that these carps have not had any significant biological or ecological impacts on the local fish 

fauna. 

Pacu 

The Pacu (Colossoma sp.) was introduced to Malaysia about 1984. It was the first South 

American fish to be cultured locally. The main focus of this culture activity was the Ulu Kelang 

area. However, the Department of Fisheries subsequently banned the fish because its fry could 

not be distinguished from the piranha, Serrasalmus and Rooseveltiella. 

Black Bass 

Micropterus salmoides represents the latest introduction in Malaysian waters. The fish was 

imported by Boh Plantations Ltd. in 1984 as an attempt to revive their recreational program. 

About 1,000 fry were imported from Florida and raised in the Boh hatchery to fingerling size 

before being released in two lakes each about 3 ha in size. The lakes were the same water bodies 

that accommodated trout 10 years previously. Angling was permitted after one year. Mature 

adults weighing about 300-350 g were caught. 

However, there has been no reports of the same fish downstream of the lakes, and one can 

assume that bass is so far restricted to the lakes. 

Problems of Disease and Parasites 

from Introduced Species 

The problem of introducing diseases into the local fish fauna can be a serious one. Such 

introductions may come through the importation of food fishes and ornamental fishes into the 

country. At the moment there are no procedures to examine and ensure that all imported live fish 

are free from disease. 

Shariff and Vijiarungam (1986) and Shariff and Sommerville (1986) have reported the 

occurrence of parasites in the freshwater fishes of Malaysia. Their findings are summarized in 

Table 4. Shariff and Sommerville (1986) remarked that the free flow of infected fish from the 

breeding stations and the importing agency resulted in the spread of Lernaea in Peninsular 

Malaysia. Shariff (1980) also indicated that Lernaea was brought into the country probably 

through exotic ornamental fish. 

Existing Policies and Regulations on 

Introduction of Exotic Species into Malaysia 

While State enactment has existed from colonial times (F.M.S. Enactment No. 20 of 1937; 

Kedah Enactment No. 40; Kelantan Enactment No. 32 of 1939; Perlis Enactment of 1334; 

79

80 

Trengganu Enactment No. 8 of 1963; Sarawak Ordinance Cap. 73), the firsi: Federally 

constituted statute covering the fisheries sector came only with the Fisheries Act 1963. 

Under Section 21(K), the Act empowers the Minister of Agriculture to "prohibit or control 

the importation into, or the sale, cultivation or keeping in West Malaysia of live fish or any 

particular species of fish which are not natives of West Malaysia and in Sabah andL Sarawak of 

live fish or any particular species of fish which are not natives of Sabah and Sarawak'. 

In 1973, the Minister announced the prohibition of import of Piranhas (Serrasa!mus sp.) in 

the states of West Malaysia and East Malaysia except with the written permission of the 

Minister. This regulation was extended to cover piranhas of all genera including pacu whose 

adult or fry resemble the dangerous Serrasalmus or Rooseveltiella. 

In 1984, a new Act, the Fisheries Act 1984, was passed to replace the aging earlier act. The 

new act is more embracing than the earlier act. Under Section 40(1), "anybody who imports into 

or exports out of Malaysia or transports live fish from West Malaysia to Labuan or Sabah and 

Sarawak, or transports from Labraun or Sabah and Sarawak to West Malaysia without a permit 

or violates any condition on a permit issued by the Director-General of Fisheries under this Act 

is guilty of an offence." 

Section 40(2) in the same Act reads as follows:- 

"The Director-General may lay down any condition that is considered necessary on the 

permit, including conditions pertaining to the sanitation of the fish that is to b exported, 

imported or transported and measures to avoid the spread of communicable disease or to avoid 

or to control release of non-indigenous fish in the environment." 

In 1987, Malaysia ratified its inclusion in the Convention of International Trade in 

Endangered Species (CITES), a move that automatically stopped all imports of species listed in 

IUCN's Red Book. Most affected by this was the aquarium fish trade, in particular the 

importation of Scieropages formoses, a popular aquarium species which is imported from 

Thailand and Indonesia to meet the local demand. Trade in other fish, particular:[y the South 

American equivalent of Scieropages, the arawana (Osteoglossum bicirrhosum), was also 

affected. 

The Government is also committed to setting up a comprehensive quarantine network to 

control the entry of exotic epizootics. Section 40(2) of the Fisheries Act 1984 was, in fact, 

framed with such a view in mind. Quarantine centers will be set up over the next five years in 

five major entry points. These centers will mitigate to some extent any negative impact of 

introductions, besides serving to enforce import regulations of these species. 

Conclusions 

The dearth of literature makes it very difficult to accurately assess the biological impact of 

food fish species introduced into Malaysia in the past seven decades and the large number of 

exotic ornamental species imported very recently. However, information available indicates that 

the introduction of Chinese carps, Indian major carps, rainbow trout and black bass have very 

little visible ecological impact on the freshwater ecosystem. This is partly because of their 

inability to reproduce in natural water bodies. However, a few species such as Trichogaster 

pectoralis, tilapias, Puntius gonionotus and C/arias macrocep ha/us have successfully established 

in Malaysian freshwater habitats. 

There is no negative impact of introduced species on human life-styles, customs or 

economic systems. In fact, some introduced food fishes such as Chinese carps and the snakeskin

gouramy have positive economic impacts as well as nutritional contribution to rural 

communities. Similarly, the ornamental fish trade has grown considerably from US$ 100,000 in 

1973 to the current value of US$ 4 million (New Straits Times, 21st January 1988). There is still 

potential to increase the ornamental fish trade to US$ 32 million of the US$ 4 billion world wide 

trade (Ang, unpublished data). 

Present economic benefits derived from ornamental fish trade and introduced food fish 

should not be used to justify indiscriminate introduction without considering the risks associated 

with introductions. Every effort should be made to reduce the risks by appropriate quarantine 

procedures. Malaysia's inclusion in the convention of International Trade on Endangered 

Species (CITES) is a useful step in this direction. The revised Fisheries Act and Government 

efforts to establish quarantine stations to monitor imported species are welcome moves. 

Table 4. List of parasites and their hosts at the freshwater breeding stations in peninsular Malaysia. 

Station Host Parasites 

Enggor 

Tanah Rata 

Machang 

Bukit Tinggi 

Tapah 

Jitra 

Kong Kong 

Cyprinus carpio Monogenetic trematode, Lernaea 

cyprinacea Piscinoodiniu,n sp., 

Trichodina sp. 

Trichogaster pectoralis Trichodina sp. 

Tilapia sp. Monogenetic trematode 

Puntius gonionotus Trichodina sp., 

Piscinoodiniwn sp. 

Cyprinus carpio Monogenetic trematode, 

Trichodina sp., Myxobolus sp., 

Lernaea cyprinacea, Argulus 

japonicus 

Cyprinu.s carpio Monogenetic trematode 

Trichodina, Lernaea cyprinacea 

Ctenopharyngodon idella Trichodina sp., Monogenetic 

trematode 

Puntius gonionotus Lernaea cyprinacea 

Aristichihys nobilis Lernaea cyprinacea, Lernaea 

piscinae, Monogenetic 

trematode 

Puntius gonionotsLs Lernaea cyprinacea, Trichodina 

sp., id hyopht hirius 

mu11fihiis., Piscinoodium sp. 

Cypriniu.s carpio Monogenetic trematodes 

Puntius gonionotlis Trichodina sp., 

icthyophthiriu.s mutt iJiliis, 

Lernaea cyprinacea, 

Monogenetic trematode, 

Piscinoodium sp. 

Cyprinus carpio icthyophlhiriu.s mutt fihiis, 

Argu!usjaponicus, 

Piscinoodiu,n sp. 

Hetostoma temmincki Monogenetic trematode, Lernaea 

cyprinacea 

Cyprinus carpio Lernaea cyprinacea, 

Trichodi,za sp. 

Tilapia sp. Monogenetic trematode, 

Piscinbodiu,n sp. 

Tilapia sp. Trichonida sp., 

icthyophthirius nzuttiflhiis 

Puntius goni000tus Lernaea cyprinacea, 

Monogenetic trematode 

Cyprinus carpio Lernaea cyprinacea, 

Monogenetic trematode 

81

82 

References 

Annual Fisheries Statistics. 1984-1986. Department of Fisheries, Malaysia. 

Birtwhistle, W. 1931. Rearing of carps in ponds. Malayan Agricultural Journal 19(8): 372-383. 

Chua, C.W. 1978. Commercial prawns of Peninsular Malaysia. Ministry of Agriculture, Kuala Lumpur, 48 p. 

Faizah Mohd, Shaharom. 1986. The parasites of bighead carp (Aristichthys nobilis) and grass carp (CIe,wpharyngodon idella) from Peninsular 

Malaysia, p. 226. In MJ. Howell (ed.) Handbook of Sixth International Congress of Parasitology. Australian Academy of Science. 

FAMA. 1987. Harga barangan pertanian Tahunan. Federal Agricultural Marketing Authority, Kuala Lumpur. (unpublished data). 

FAQ. 1965. Report to Government of Malaysia. Development of inland fisheries with special emphasis on fish culture. FAO Prcject MALITEIF1. 

Report No. 2095. 

Green, CF. 1926. Fish Culture. Annual Report of the Fisheries Department. SS & F.M.S. 

Hickling, C.F. 1960. The Malacca tilapia hybrids. Journal of Genetics 37(1). 

Johnson, D.S. 1961. Freshwater life in Malaya and its conservation. Malayan National Journal, Special Issue, 232-239. 

Johnson, D.S. 1963. The fate of introduced fish in Malaya. Proc. XVI International Conference of Zoology, Washington, I).C. August 20-27, 

1963. p. 246. 

Kohler, L.C. 1986. Strategies for reducing risks from introduction of aquatic organisms. Fisheries 11(2): 2-3. 

Kohler, L.C. and J.G. Stanley. 1984. A suggested protocol for evaluating proposed exotic fish introductions in the United States, p. 387-406. In 

W.R. Courtenay and JR. Stauffer (eds.). Distribution, Biology and Management of Exotic Fishes. The John Hopkins University Press, 

Baltimore, MD. 

Merican, A.B.O. and M.K. Soong. 1966. The present status of freshwater fish culture in Malaysia. Paper presented at FAQ World Symposium on 

Warm-water Pond Fish Culture, Rome, Italy, 18-25 May 1966. 12 p. 

Mohsin, A.K.M. and M.A. Ambak. 1983. Freshwater fishes of Peninsular Malaysia. Universiti Pertanian Malaysia Press, Kuala .umpur. 284 p. 

New Straits Times. 1988. Fishing for business. N.S.T. Times Two. 21st Jan. 1988. 

Ong, KS. 1983. Aquaculture development in Malaysia in the 80's. Risalah Perilcanan No. 18. Dept. of Fisheries, Malaysia. 

Scott, J.S. 1959. An introduction to sea fishes of Malaya. Government Printer (Fudge), Kuala Lumpur: xii + 1-180. 

Shariff, M. 1980. Occurrence and treatment of ectoparasitic disease of aquarium fishes in Malaysia. Malayan Veterinary Journal 7: 48-59. 

Shariff, M. 1984. Occurrence of Chilodonella hexasticha (Klemik 1909) (Protozoa, Ciliata) on bighead carp Aristichihys nobi1s (Richardson) in 

Malaysia. Tropical Biomedicine I: 69-75. 

Shariff, M. and C. Somerville. 1986. Identification and distribution of Lernaea spp. in Peninsular Malaysia, p. 269-272. In J.L. Maclean, L.B. 

Dizon and L.V. Hosillos (eds.) The First Asian Fisheries Forum. Asian Fisheries Society, Manila, Phillipines. 

Soong, M.K. 1948. Fishes of the Malayan paddy fields: 1. Sepat Siam. Malayan National Journal 3(2): 87-89. 

Soong, M.K., 1963. A note on the pond culture of Puntiiesjavanicus (Bikr) in the Federation of Malaya. Proceedings IPFC 10(2;: 170-173. 

Tan, C.E., B.J. Chong, H.K. Sier and T. Moulton. 1973. A report on paddy and paddy field fish production in Krian District, Perak. Ministry of 

Agriculture & Fisheries Bulletin No. 128: 58 p. 

Tweedie, M.W.F. 1952. Notes on Malayan freshwater fishes. Bulletin Raffles Museum 24: 63-95. 

Welcornme, R.L. 1981. Register of international transfers of inland fish species. FAQ Fisheries Technical Paper. (213): 120. 

Welcornme, R.L. 1986. International measures for the control of introductions of aquatic organisms. Fisheries 11(2): 4-9.

The Introduction of Exotic Aquatic 

Species in the Philippines 

ROGELIO 0. JULIANO 

Univesizy of the Philippines 

in the Visayas 

Iloilo City, Philippines 

RAFAEL GUERRERO Ill 

Philippine Councilfor Aquatic and 

Marine Research and Development 

College, Laguna, Philippines 

INOCENCIO RONQUILLO 

Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources 

Quezon Blvd., Quezon City, Philippines 

Juliano, R.O., R. Guerrero ifi and I. Ronquillo. 1989. The introduction of exotic aquatic species in the Philippines, p. 83- 

90. In S.S. Dc Silva (ed.) Exotic Aquatic Organisms in Asia. Proceedings of the Workshop on Introduction of 

Exotic Aquatic Organisms in Asia. Asian Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ. 3, 154 p. Asian Fisheries Society, Manila, 

Philippines. 

Philippines is an archipelago with a number of islands, each with its characteristic flora and fauna. Aquatic 

organisms have been introduced into the Philippines mainly for increasing production, as a protein source for the poor. Not 

all the introductions, however, have been successful. Some of the introductions have had detrimental effects on the 

endemic fish fauna, particularly the cyprinid flock of Lake Lanao. Recommendations for possible future introductions are 

suggested. 

Aquatic species found in inland waters particulary in outlying lakes and rivers may remain 

isolated for a long period of time without interference from man. In an archipelago like the 

Philippines with numerous islands, the isolation of such aquatic species and even land species 

still occurs. Over the years, through man's interference, such isolation has been broken through 

introduction of new species, which may completely dominate and wipe out the endemic and/or 

indigenous aquatic species. 

Lake Lanao in the island of Mindanao has many endemic cyprinids and their taxonomy and 

genetics had aroused much interests. The stocking program of the Government with the view to 

increasing production from lakes accidentally introduced a freshwater, carnivorous goby 

(Glossogobius giuris) into Lake Lanao. The goby is now a predominant species in the lake and 

has been responsible for depleting the cyprinid populations in the lake. 

Herre (1924) states, "In the Philippines, Cyprinidae are apparently confined to Mindanao, 

Basilan and Tawi-Tawi, and to the Palawan biological province, where they occur on Balabac, 

Palawan, Busuanga and Mindoro". Herre continues to say that the Cyprinidae of Mindanao 

entered from Borneo over a Sulu Land bridge. The cyprinids of lake Lanao have been isolated a 

83

84 

long time ago as shown by the fact that three genera and all of the species of cyprinids living 

there are endemic to the Lake. 

Introduction of exotic species into the different islands from other islands of the country or 

from other countries, requires serious study and careful consideration, particulary on adverse 

effects such introductions may produce on endemic and indigenous species. Government should 

adopt strict policies and guidelines to regulate introduction of exotic species. Almost all aquatic 

introductions into the country were meant to benefit the country, through aquaculture, capture 

fisheries, or for biological control purposes. However, the benefits that were derived did not 

really outweigh the adverse effects that came about as a result of some of the introductions. 

There were introductions of exotic aquatic species that were done by individua:ls without the 

knowledge of the Government. Even in pet shops in Manila, exotic species of fishes can be 

found which were brought into the country without government clearence. Certain species that 

are or were available for purchase from pet shops or dubious sources are species of Serrasalmus 

(pirranha), Pangasius and other catfishes. Such exotic species fortunately are not yet found in the 

wild and are evidently confined as pets for the time being. No action on the part of the 

Government has been observed to regulate such introduction. 

Recorded Exotic Fish Species in the Philippines 

The first recorded introduction of an exotic fish species to the Philippines was in 1907 when 

Mr. Alvin Seale was authorized by the Philippine Insular Government to import from California, 

fingerlings of largemouth bass, Micropterus salmoides. Introductions as a food fish and for sport, 

were made in ponds and lakes specially in higher altitudes in the Mountain Province (Baguio 

City) and Caliraya Lake in Laguna Province. This species does very well in higher altitudes 

where temperatures are the same as subtropical zones. Luckily, this fish did not thrive in 

lowlands where many lakes abound. It is only in Lake Caliraya that M. salmoides is known to be 

doing well, at 700 meters above sea level, and in 1985 another related species, Micropterus 

salmoides floridanus was received as a gift from California and stocked in Caliraya Lake (a 

reservoir). Bass fishing tournaments are held in this reservoir regularly. 

Subsequently, other introductions of aquatic species, mostly fish, were made with reasons 

that varied from providing more food fish for the country in lakes and rivers, for aquaculture 

purposes, for biological control of undesirable species such as mosquitoes and weeds, for sport 

fishing and others. Some of the introductions became nightmares for aquatic-based industries 

like the brackishwater farming industry; for e.g., introduction of Mollienesia latipinna (molly) 

for the purpose of controlling malarial mosquitoes. The mosquito fish, however, became a pest 

in brackishwater ponds. Other fish species introduced for control of mosquitoes were Gambusia 

affinis, Poecilia reticulata and Fundulus heteroclitus. The introduction of Tilapia mossambica 

(Mossambique tilapia) was a real nightmare for brackishwater farming, competing for food in 

the farm with Chanos chanos (milkfish). The Mossambique tilapia is now an established species 

in brackishwater farms in the entire country. 

The Philippine freshwater catfish, Clarias macrocep ha/us, became completely dominated by 

an exotic species, C/arias batrachus, imported from Thailand during the craze for catfish 

farming patterned after the success in Thailand. Clarias batrachus now dominates natural 

populations in lakes and rivers and the indigenous C. macrocephalus can hardly be found in the 

markets nowadays. C. macrocephius has better qualities as a food fish compared to C. batrachus.

Other introductions did not make much impact and these were not regarded by Filipinos as 

significant in terms of benefits and adverse effects. The introduction of Ictalurus catus, Ictalurus 

punctatus, Lepomis macrochirus, Misgurnus auguillicaudatus (bach), Puntius javanicus, 

Osphronemus gorami and others for a time created some interest but did not affect the 

environment as much as other introductions. The Ictalurus species did not survive in natural 

conditions in the Philippines and no natural population is known. Lepomis (bluegill) is believed 

to have survived in some reservoirs at high elevations and serves as forage fish for the M. 

salmoides. The Japanese bach (Mis gurnus anguillicaudatus) established itself in some waters in 

Trinidad Valley and rice terraces in Bontoc Province but has not had any negative effect. Puntius 

(tawes) and Osphronemus (giant gouramy) for a while became known as good aquaculture 

species but eventually lost out to other more favorable and acceptable species for freshwater 

famiing. 

The introductions of other cyprinid species in the Philippines and tilapia species have made 

more impact economically for the Philippines than the other exotics. All available commercial 

species of cyprinids in the country except in Lake Lanao are considered exotic species. Even the 

presence of the varieties of goldfishes and carps for aquaria are exotic species but records of 

their introduction do not exist. The aquarium fish industry benefits from these species. 

Cyprinus carpio (common carp), and Chinese and Indian carps (such as grass carp, silver 

carp, bighead carp, rohu, catla, mud carp, and mrigal) have been introduced into the Philippines. 

Several Chinese carps and rohu have become a part of natural populations of lakes and reservoirs 

and contribute to natural fish production. Many have become important cultured species such as 

the common carp, bighead, silver carp and grass carp particularly for pen culture in Laguna de 

Bay and freshwater ponds. Since they can be artificially bred, their domestication has helped the 

freshwater aquaculture industry. Oreochromis niloticus is now an important freshwater fish 

cultured in pens, cages and ponds. 

Among the exotic anabantids in the Philippines, Trichogater pectoralis and T. trichopterus 

have thrived well in lakes. They have been accepted by consumers inland where marine species 

hardly influence their preference for fish. 

Other Exotic Aquatic Species in the Philippines 

Nonpiscine aquatic introductions are not weil recorded but mention will be made of them. In 

the recent past Ampularia gigas (golden miracle snail) generated interest as a cultured species 

that can thrive in tanks and even small containers when fed with vegetable materials. They breed 

in the culture containers and grow at a fast rate. Its success was temporary and many now 

consider it as a pest in rice paddies because they feed on young rice plants. 

Cristaria plicata, a big freshwater clam, all of a sudden appeared as a natural population in 

the 1970s in Laguna de Bay. It is claimed that the clam may have been accidentally introduced 

into the lake as glochidia in the gills of imported Chinese carps stocked in the lake. 

Crassostrea gigas is believed to have been introduced in Pangasinan by Mr. Ablan from 

Japan. Its culture was studied but without much success. 

Penaeid shrimps were also introduced into the Philippines (Iloilo) for aquaculture. It is 

claimed that two species, Penaeus stylirostris and P. vanamei from Latin America when 

introduced to the Philippines, may also have introduced diseases to local penaeid species. 

Table 1 summarizes the exotic aquatic species in the Philippines. The data may not be 

complete as some of the old records are hard to trace. 

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86 

Discussion and Recommendations 

Experiences in the past have revealed that many aquatic species have been introduced into 

the Philippines from other countries either through government efforts or through efforts of 

private individuals, with or without the concurrence of the Government. Such introductions of 

exotic aquatic species, mostly fishes and invertebrates, proved beneficial to food production 

efforts of the Government but in some instances resulted in adverse environmental impacts; the 

introduced species becoming pests to other crops, new diseases being introduced, with exotic 

species, and indigenous species being completely dominated or displaced. It also seems apparent 

from the past that the Government has failed to control and study the negative effects that such 

introductions would entail, with accidental releases in natural waters taking place. Fortunately, 

epidemics caused by parasites and diseases accompanying introductions have not yet taken 

place. 

Despite many undesirable turns of events from exotic aquatic introductions, adoption of 

strict government policies on importation of exotic species has been paid only lip service during 

meetings and workshops. 

In view of the above, it is recommended that the Government adopts and implements 

policies, or even enact laws, that will strictly prevent the ill effects of introduction of exotic 

species into the country. Priority consideration should be given to indigenous and endemic 

species for utilization to increase fish production in natural waters and in aquaculture before 

considering exotic species for such purposes. 

It is proposed that the following be considered as guidelines in the importation of exotic 

aquatic species into the country: 

A thorough study of utilizing indigenous/endemic species be made Ibr whatever 

purposes/objectives have been planned before any decision to introduce an exotic 

species is made. 

If and when a decision to import an exotic species is made, a thorough study of its 

biology, results of introduction in other countries, and the effects of such introduction 

on local species and the environment should be undertaken before actual importation is 

made. 

ImportatiOn of the exotic species from a very reliable source, preferably from a research 

organization where diseases have been controlled and the genetic constitution of the 

species is guaranteed, should be ensured. 

On arrival of the imported species, strict quarantine measures should be undertaken. 

It is desirable that no organisms are released into natural waters or to private individuals 

until the F1 generation or F2 generation has been produced, and which has been given a 

clean bill of health by pathologists. 

Introduction of exotic species in natural waters should be properly monitored and done 

gradually in one or two areas before any introductions into major natural waters are 

made.


Gracia, D.M. 1976. Some notes on the stocking of Cyprinu.s carpia and genguno buna in Pampanga river system. BFAR, Quezon City, 4 p. 

(handout). 

Herre, A.W.C.T. 1924. Distribution of the tme freshwater fishes in the Philippines. I. The Philippine Cyprinidae. Philippine Journal of Science 

24(3): 249-307. 

Herre, A.W.C.T. 1929. An American cyprinidont in Philippine salt ponds. Philippine Journal of Science 38(1): 121-127. 

Herre, A.W.C.T. 1931. Checklist of Philippine Fishes, p. 126. Fishes 1931 Philippine Expedition,p. 22, 1934. 

Rabana, H.R. and L.V. flosillos. 1958. Control of less describe exotic species of fish competing with or harmful to desirable indigenous species in 

inland waters in the Philippines. Philippine Journal of Fisheries 6(1): 49-70. 

Ronquillo, l.A. 1965. The tilapia and its introduction of new species into freshwater areas. Proc. MAB Inter-Agency Meeting. 

Seale, A. 1915. The successful transference of blackbass to the Philippine Islands, with notes on the transporting of live fish long distances. 

Philippine Journal of Science 5(3): 153-160. 

Seale, A. 1917. The mosquito fish, Gambusia affinis (Baird and Girard), in the Philippine Islands. Philippine Journal of Science 7 (3): 177-187. 

Velasquez, C. 1975. Digenetic trematodes of Phiippme fishes. Nat. Res. Council Phil., University of the Philippines Press, 140 p. 

Villaluz, D.K. 1953. Fish farming in the Philippines. Bookman, Inc., Manila, 336 p. 

87

Table 1. Exotic aquatic species introduced into the Philippines. 

Present Status Diseases/Parasites 

Habitat 

Introduced 

From Year 

Taxonomic status 

Pisces 

Family CYPRNTDAE 

Commercial fishesy Aeramonas salmonicida, 

naturally breeding A. hydrophila 

population, mass seed Pseudomonasfluorescens 

production, cultured Edwardsiella larda 

Dacty1ogyrus 

Cyprinus carpio Hongkong 1915 Lakes, reservoirs 

(common carp) China, canton 

1925 

rivers,ricefields 

Formosa 

ponds 

Formosa 1926 

(Sinjonja variety) Bogor,Indonesia 1956 

(Punten variety) -do- 1957 

(Red variety) -do- 1957 

Artificially spawned 

-do- 

-do- 

-do- 

(Majalaya Strain) Indonesia 1988 

C:enopharyngcidon 

India 1967 Rivers 

idella (grass carp) 

Arislichthys nobilis 

Taiwan 1968 Lakes, ponds 

(bighead carp) 

Hypophthalinichzhys 

Taiwan 1968 Lakes, ponds 

moltrix (silver carp) 

Labeo rohila (rohu) India 1967 Lakes, reservoirs 

Coda coda (catla) India 1967 

Carassius carassius 

Japan 1964 Ponds 

(cnlcian carp) 

Naturally breeding Monogenetic trematodes 

population, cultured Dactylogyrus 

Gyrodactylus 

Parasitic, protozoan 

Trichodina 

Naturally breeding 

population 

Ichihyophihirius 

Oodonium 

Transversotrema larvei 

skin (under scales) 

-do- 

Commercial fishery 

Cirrhinus ,nolitorella 

(mud carp) or 

Cirrhinus rnrigala India 1967 

Puntiusjavanicus Bogor, Indonesia 1956 Lakes, rivers 

Bleeker (Tawes) 

Osteochilus hasselti -do- 1957 

Cuvier & Valenciennes 

(nilem) 

Family CICHLIDAE 


Thailand 1950 Lakes reservoirs 

(Peters (tilapia) 

rivers, ricefield 

Mozambique tilapia 

ponds, swamps 

highlands 

0. niloticu.s Thailand 1970,1972 -do- 

nts,I,,os'," 

Lpistyies, 

Trichodina 

(Nile tilapia) Israel 1973 

0. aureus Alabama, USA 1977 

(Blue mouthbrooder) 

Continued


Diseases/Parasites 

Taxoornic status Introduced Habitat Present Status 

From Year 

Tilapia zulu Israel 1977(?) Reservoirs, lakes 

(Zill's tilapia) 

Family OSPHRONEMIDAE 

Trichogasser pectoral is 

Bangkok, 

1938 Lakes, ricefields Naturally breeding 

Hene (snake-skin 

Thailand 

ponds 

population, cultured 

plasalid) 

T. trichopserus -do- 1938 Lakes, rivers Naturally breding 

Herre (Three spot 

ricefields, ponds population 

plasalid) 

swamps 

T. !eerj Bleeker 

-do- 1938 -do- 

(pearl plasalid) 

Osphronemus gouramy Java 1927 Lakes, ricefields -do- 

Lacepede (giant gouramy) Indonesia ponds 

Helostoma temmincki 

Bangkok, 

1948,1950 Ponds and other 

Cuvier & Valenciennes 

Thailand 

1950 

Natural waters 

(Kissing gourami) Bogor, Indonesia 7'52 

Bogor, Indonesia 2'56 

Catfishes 

Ictalurus calus California, USA 10'35 

(Linnaeus) catfish 

Clarias batrachus Thailand 1972 Ponds 

(Thai catfish) 

Opegaster ,nininia 

(intestine) 

Clinostomoides 

opehicephal 

Clinosiomoides brieni 

encysted in gills and 

opercular cavity 

Ictalurus punctatus California, USA 1974 Reservoirs Localized distribution 

(Channel catfish) 

Pangasiu.s sutchi Thailand 1978 Ponds, reservoirs 

(Pla swai) 

Clarias lazera Thajwan 1985 Ponds Experimented 

(African catfish) 

Family CENTRARCHIDAE 

Micropterus sal,noides California, USA 1970 Reservoirs, lakes Localized distribution 

Le Suer (Black bass) 1915 

1958 

M. salrnoidesfloridatzus 1985 Reservoirs 

(Florida bass) 

Lepomis macrochirus California, USA 1950 Swamps, highland Localized distribution 

Rafferty (blue gills) 

L. cyanellus -do- 1950 -do- 

Continued


Diseases/Parasites 

Taxonomic status Introduced Habitat Present Status 

From Year 

Lo'alized distribution 

naturally breeding 

population 

Highland rivers, 

ricefields 

Before 

1937 

Japan 

Brackishwater 

Ponds 

1905 

1913 

Honolulu, 

Hawaii 

Family COB1TIDAE 

Mirgurniis aguil1icadatu 

(Canton (Loach) or 

whetherfish) 

Family POECIILIDAE 


Baird and Girard 

(Top minnow or 

Commercial fisheiy, 

natural breeding, 

1s, ncefields, 

fishpens/cages 

mosquitofish) 

Mollienesia lalipinna Honolulu 1914 Brackishwater 

Le sueur (top minnow 

Hawaii 

ponds 

or mosquitofish) 

Fundulus heteroclilus 

-do- 

1905 

(mosquitofish) 

Poecilia (Mollienesia) 

-do- 

1905 

reticul ala (mosquito fish) 

Molluscs 

Ampularia gigas 

Florida, USA 1980 River, ponds 

Golden miracle snail 

lakes, imgation 

(kuhol) 

Naturally breeding 

Lake 

(L de Bay) 

1980(?) 

1980 (?) 

Crislaria plicata Accidential 

introduction 

with Asiatic 

caips (?) 

Penaeid Shrimps 

Penaeus stylirostris 

Penaeus vanamei


in Singapore 

L.M. CHOU 

T.J. LAM 

Department of Zoology 

National University of Singapore 

Kent Ridge, Singapore 0511 

Chou, L.M. and T.J. Lam. 1989. Introduction of exotic aquatic species in Singapore, p. 91-97. In S.S. De Silva (ed.) Exotic 

Aquatic Organisms in Asia. Proceedings of the Workshop on Introduction of Exotic Aquatic Organisms in Asia. 

Asian Fish. Soc. Spec. Pub!. 3, l54p. Asian Fisheries Society, Manila, Philippines. 

Urbanization has changed much of Singapore's landscape and affected its natural fauna. Exotic species have been 

introduced for economic or commercial purposes. Two such species that have become firmly established in Singapore's 

inland waterways are the guppy (Poecilia reticulata) and the tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus). The country lacks 

extensive natural inland water bodies as well as indigenous inland fisheries, and the introduction of exotic species is not 

likely to cause much concern. No serious study on the ecological impact of introduced species has been made. 

The natural landscape of Singapore has changed drastically since the island's founding in 

1819. During the early days, large tracts of forests were cleared by industrious cultivators and 

replaced by plantations of pepper, coffee, rubber, sugar-cane, gambier and other crops. As 

urbanization continued, remaining forests as well as disused and existing agricultural land were 

systematically cleared at increasing pace for commerce, industry and housing. Today, 28.6 km2 

of nature reserves and secondary forests surrounding the reservoir catchment areas remain while 

land for agrotechnological use such as for agriculture and aquaculture, has been designated in ten 

parks intended for farming at high technology level. These parks occupy about 180 hectares, and 

the area is expected to increase to 2000 hectares over the next decade (Yap 1987). 

The drastic changes in the environment affected the natural fauna of the island. Some 

species of plants and animals were reduced or even exterminated. At the same time these 

changes favoured the proliferation of other species that were introduced accidentally or 

intentionally. Some of the exotic species were brought in and raised for their ornamental, 

economic or commercial potential. This included indigenous ones which would otherwise have 

been exterminated had they not been introduced for the reasons mentioned. This paper will deal 

only with the aquatic animal species. 

No studies have been made on the ecological significance and implications of introduced 

species. Aspects such as parasite and other disease introduction and transmission, their effect on 

the environment, and the competition of introduced species with indigenous ones have not been 

given attention, but warrant systematic investigation. In cases where the ecological impact of an 

introduced species can be predicted legislative and other measures have been taken by the 

government to stop their entry. An example of this is the ban on the import of piranhas under the 

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92 

Fisheries (Piranhas) Rules 1971, enacted as a supplement to the Fisheries Act, 1966. It is now 

illegal to rear or release the fish into natural waterways. 

Species Introduced for Biological Control 

The only species recorded as having been introduced for biological control is the guppy, 

Poecilia reticulata. This species was introduced in 1937 for mosquito control (Herre 1940) and 

has since become well established in polluted waters having free ammonia concenirations of a 

few hundred parts per million (Johnson 1973). 

Freshwater Species 

Trionyx sinensis (Chinese soft-shell terrapin) 

Species Introduced for Culture 

In the early 1970's, some hatchlings were brought in from Taiwan by an enterprising farmer 

to test the viability of the species in Singapore. It adapted well to the tropical conditions. 

Because of its higher fecundity and faster growth rate under these conditions, it is now cultured 

in preference to the slower-growing native species, T. cartilagineus. 

Endemic to China, T. sinensis has been successfully cultured for over 60 years in Japan and 

100 years in Taiwan. The warm climate in Singapore allows a higher production rate than in the 

temperate region, but its culture is land intensive. Therefore, although Chinese soft-shell terrapin 

farming is lucrative in Singapore, it is limited to two farms. 

There have been cases of escape of these terrapins into inland water systems. Although the 

implications have not been considered, there is every likelihood of some ecological disturbance 

because of their ability to reproduce faster in the tropics, and their voraciousness (live fish 

forming the main part of their diet), especially if they find their way into sheltered waters where 

fish are stocked, such as reservoirs. 

Crocodilus porosus (estuarine crocodile) and 

Tomistoma schiegeli (Malayan gavial) 

Sharma (1973) reported that it was unlikely for any large individuals of Crocodylusporosus 

to be found in the wild although they were a major hazard in coastal waters and mangroves in the 

earlier days. The presence of the Malayan gavial in Singapore waters although rumoured, has 

never been substantiated. Both species have together with other crocodilian species, been 

reintroduced for farming. Their escape always causes great concern because of the apparent 

danger to man and occasional escapes have occurred.

Oreochromis mossambicus (common tilapia) 

The very hardy tilapia was introduced by the Japanese Army during their occupation of 

Singapore from 1942-1945 (Harrison and Tham 1973). The constant warm climate enabled the 

species to breed rapidly all year round. It was not well received as a foodfish and has since 

become free-roaming, with feral populations inhabiting freshwater and low-salinity habitats. 

Most of the populations now consist of stunted individuals (Johnson 1973). The impact of this 

fish on the environment is yet to be fully assessed but it appears to have dominated reservoirs 

and man-made lakes. Khoo et al. (1977) have estimated the tilapia population in the Seletar 

Reservoir to consist of 10.2 million juveniles and 10.3 million adults in 1975/76. Mass mortality 

occurred in 1972 (about 300,000 died between October and December) due apparently to sudden 

oxygen decline as a result of mixing of oxygen-stratified water layers caused by climatic 

changes. 

Carps 

Common carp, Cyprinus carpio, Chinese carps, comprising Ctenopharyngodon idellus 

(grass carp), Aristichthys nobilis (bighead carp), Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (silver carp); and 

Cirrhina molitorella (mud carp). 

Chinese carps were introduced by the Chinese immigrants during the early history of 

Singapore. Their culture in ponds was on a restricted scale, with fry imported from China and 

timed such that harvests coincided with Chinese festivals. After the Second World War, the 

dramatic increase in cost of marine fish made the cheaper carps a popular food item. Their 

culture was subsequently stepped up to produce the fish the year round (Tham 1975). 

Gradually, increasing land demand led to a decline in carp culture as ponds were reclaimed. 

Carp culture is now confined to less than 100 hectares of ponds with prospects of further decline 

and to the reservoirs such as Seletar Reservoir where bighead carps are reared in floating cages 

without supplementary feeding to reduce algal and nutrient load as the fish feed on plankton. 

Marine species 

Finfish 

None of the finfish species imported for culture can be considered as exotic as they can also 

be found in local waters. These are mainly the grouper, Epinephelus salmoides, and seabass, 

Lates calcarifer (Anon 1986). The impact of culture of large numbers of these fish in 65 floating 

fish farms in coastal waters with the attending possibility of escape and spontaneous breeding, 

on the environment is not known. As local collection from the wild and hatchery production are 

still insufficient to support the industry, seabass and grouper fingerlings have to be imported 

from mainly Thailand and the Philippines. As with all imported species, the potential danger 

from diseases is present and the possibility of introduction of new strains of pathogens exists. 

However, ectoparasites found on imported fingerlings are probably similar to those found locally 

and it is likely that these parasites were absent prior to fish importation. Other species cultured 

on a smaller scale because of the lack of seed supply include snappers (Lutjanus johni, L. 

argentimaculatus), coral trout (local red grouper, Plectropomus maculatus), yellowfish jack 

93

94 

(Caranx ignobilis) golden trevally (C. speciosus), and siganids (Siganus canaliculatus, S. 

guttatus). Other species not commonly found or not existing locally but could be considered for 

culture are other groupers such as the tiger grouper (E. microdon) imported from Indonesia and 

cultured with some success, and the HongKong red grouper (E. akara). 

The red tilapia hybrid (Oreochromis niloticus hybrid) has been introduced for marine 

culture by some farmers using originally freshwater stocks acclimated to sea water conditions. 

Marine stocks may become available in the future. The fish has also been stocked in limited 

numbers (8000 fry) into the Singapore River, together with 560,000 banana prawns (Penaeus 

merguiensis) and 34,000 sea bass (L. calcarifer) (L. Cheong personal communication). The 

impact of this stocking is still uncertain. 

Shellfish 

The healthy market for prawns and limited land availability has encouraged farmers to 

culture prawns (P. merguiensis) semi-intensively in brackishwater ponds insteadi of trapping 

them by the traditional method. The Kuruma prawn (P. japonicus) has been imported by a 

Japanese company and initial trials in lined ponds and at intensive stocking have been 

sufficiently encouraging for commercial farming to be initiated. Other penaeid species such as P. 

monodon (tiger prawn), and foreign ones such as P. stylirostris (blue prawn), P. vannamei, P. 

esculentus (brown tiger prawn), P. orientalis (Oriental prawn) and P. indicus (Indian prawn) 

may be considered, if environmentally and economically suitable for culture. The tiger prawn, 

although indigeneous is not easily available, and culture is restricted because of the lack of 

suitable salinity conditions. 

The spiny lobster most popularly cultured because of its availability is Panilurus 

polyphagus, although other species from neighbouring countries could be imported if available 

in large enough numbers for culture. It is unlikely that their escape from the farni; will allow 

them to establish significantly in some of the marine habitats like coral reefs as they are much 

sought after by fishermen, collectors and enthusiasts. 

The indigenous mangrove crab (Scylla serrata), originally from mangrove areas, and 

previously cultured on small scale in narrow earth furrows in the vicinity of traditional prawn 

ponds, are now imported for culture in wire cages at some commercial floating fish farms due to 

the rapid reduction of mangrove forests. They are imported from Sri Lanka and Indonesia and 

kept in the cages for around two weeks to fatten, and then sold locally. It is unlikely that there is 

sufficient wild-caught stock for this purpose, and the reduction of mangrove areas in Singapore 

to less than 250 hectares will have contributed to the scarcity of the mangrove crab. 

Species Introduced for Ornamental Value 

Johnson (1964, 1973) reported 5 species of freshwater fishes which have been introduced. 

Puntius semifasciolatus was accidentally introduced from China and being tole:rant, is well 

established in the catchment area. Small populations of the true fighting fish, Betta splendens, 

have established in Jurong Lake and water bodies in the Sembawang area. Also well-established 

in the wild is the introduced Trichogaster pectoralis, while the mollies, Poecilia sp henops and 

Poecilia affinis, have established permanently in low salinity waters.

Many other species of ornamental fish are imported and/or farmed in Singapore (Table 1). 

Accidental escape or even deliberate release of these species into natural waterways is likely but 

the impact, if any, is not noticeable. They are probably unable to compete with the hardier feral 

guppy and tilapia. 

Discussion 

Singapore does not have extensive natural inland water bodies nor does it have an 

indigenous inland fisheries. There is also at present hardly any unique inland aquatic fauna to 

protect either. As such, introduction of exotic species does not cause much concern and there has 

not been any serious study of the impact of species introduced for farming or other purposes. 

However, two introduced species appear to have firmly established in Singapore's inland 

waterways, and these are the guppy (P. reticuluta) and the tilapia (0. mossambicus). 

Acknowledgement 

We would like to thank Mr. Robert Lee, Mr. Leslie Cheong and Mrs. Audrey Yuen of the 

Primary Production Department of Singapore for providing us with some of the information in 

this paper. 

References 

Anon. 1986. Manual on floating netcage fish fanning in Singapore's coastal waters. Fisheries Handbook No. 1, Pnmasy Production Department, 

Minisuy of National Development, Republic of Singapore. 

Harrison, IL. and A.K. Tham. 1973. The exploitation of animals, p. 251-259. In Chuang, S.H. (Cd.) Animal life and nature in Singapore. 

Singapore University Press, Singapore. 

Herre, A.W.C.T. 1940. Additions to the fish fauna of Malay and notes on rare or little known Malayan and Bomean fishes. Bulletin Raffles 

Museum Singapore 16: 27-61. 

Johnson, D.S. 1964. An introduction to the natural history of Singapore. Rayirath (Raybooks) Publications, Singapore, p. 106. 

Johnson, D.S. 1973. Freshwater life, p. 103-127. In Chuang, S.H. (ed.) Animal life and nature in Singapore. Singapore University Press, 

Singapore. 

Khoo, H.W., S.L. Yang and C.J. Cioh. 1977. A preliminary limnological study of Seletar Reservoir. Journal of Singapore National Academy of 

Science 6: 1-11. 

Sharma, R.E. 1973. Noxious and toxic animals, p. 229-250. In Chuang, S.H. (ed,) Animal life and nature in Singapore. Singapore University 

Press, Singapore. 

Tham, A.K. 1973 Fish and prawn ponds, p. 260-268. In Chuang, S.H. (ed.) Animal life and nature in Singapore. Singapore University Press, 

Singapore. 

Yap, H.B. 1987. More farmland in agrotech parks for tender. Primary Production Bulletin No. 274, May 1987: 1. 

95

96 

Table 1. Main species of aquarium fish imported into Singapore (infonnation kindly 

provided by the Primaiy Production Department of Singapore). 

Freshwater Fish 

Angel 

Barb 

Guppy 

Swordtail 

Platy 

Gouramy 

Plerophyllus allus 

Pterophyllus scalare 

Acrossocheilus bantamensis 

Barbodes birnaculalus 

Barbodes everetti 

Barbodesfasciatus 

Barbodes hassecti 

Barbodes hexazona 

Barbodes lateristriga 

Barbodes partipenlazona 

Barbodes schwanenfeldi 

Barbus arulius 

Barbus binotatus 

Barbus cumingi 

Barbusfilamenlosus 

Barbus holotaenia 

Capoeta arulius 

Capoeta chola 

Capoeta oligolepis 

Capoeta semifasciolatus 

Capoeta let razona 

Capoeta lilteya 

Esomus dannica 

Osteochilus hasselti 

Osteochilus vitattus 

Puntius asoka 

Puntius conchonius 

Puntius curningi 

Puntiusfilarnentosus 

Puntius gonionotus 

Puntius lineal us 

Puntius nigrofasciatus 

Puntius sachsi 

Puntius schwanenfeldi 

Puntius semifasciolatus 

Punlius stigma 

Tanichthys albonubes 




Xiphohorus variatuS 

Belontia signata 

Colisa chuna 

Colisafasciata 

Colisa labiosa 

Colisa lalia 

Helostoma rudolfi 

Macropodus opercularis 

Osphronemus goramy 

Sphaerichthys osphromenoides 

Trichogaster leeri 

Trichogaster microlepis 

Trichogaster pecloralis 

Trichogaster Irichopterus 

Trichogaster sp. 

Trichopsis vitt at us 


Cichlid 

Molly 

Goldfish 

Tetra 

Acarichthys heckelii 

Aequidens curviceps 

Aequidens maroni 

Aequidens puicher 

Aequidens let ramerus 

Apistogramma ramirezi 

Apistogramma sp. 

Astronotus ocellalus 

Aulonocaro .sp. 

Chromidotilapia sp. 

Cichiasoma cynogula/tus 

Cichlasomafestivwn 

Cichiasoma meeki 

Cichiasoma nigrofascictus 

Cichiasoma severum 

Chiclasoma sp. 

Geophagus sp. 

Haplochromis sp. 

Hemichromis bimacuiatu.s 

Hemichromis sp. 

fodotropheus sprengerae 

Jordane/lafloridae 

Labeotropheus sp. 

La,nprologus sp. 

Melanochromis sp. 

Nannochromis nudiceps 

Nannochronsis sp. 

Pelmatuchromis kribensis 

Pseudotropheus aura rus 

Pseudotropheus zebra 

Pseudolropheus sp. 

Steal ocranus casuarius 

Symphysodon aequifasciata 

Tilapia aurea 

Tilapia sp. 

Uaru amphiacanthoides 


Poecilia sphenops 

Poecilia velifera 

Carassius auratus aielus 

Anoptichthysjordani 

Aphyocharax rubripinn is 

Astyanaxfasciatus mexicanus 

Astyanax mexicanus 

Cheirodon axelrodi 

Gymnocorym bus terneizi 

Hasemania nanas 

Hemigrammus caudoeitiatus 

Hemigranmus erythrmonus 

Hemigrammus gracilis 

Hemigrammus ocellifer 

Hemigram,nus pulcher 

Hemigrammus rhodostomus 

Hyphessobrycon bento:?i 

Hyphessobrycon bfasciatus 

Hyphessobryconflamsreus 

Hyphessobrycon herhetaxelrodi 

Hyphessobrycon pulchripinnis 

Hyphessobrycon rosac'us 

Hyphessobrycon rubro.stigma 

Hyphessobrycon schol2ei 

Hyphessobrycon serpa? 

Continued



Leach 

Danio 

Discus 

Fighting Fish 

Shark 

Algae Eater 

Harlequin 

Megalamphodus megalopteriss 

Metynnis maculatus 

Metynnis roosevelti 

Micratestes interrupt us 

Moenkhausia oligolepis 

Nematobrycon amphiloxus 

Paracheirodon innesi 

Prionobramafihigera 

Prisiella riddlei 

Thayeria obliqua 

Acanthophihalmus myersi 

Acanthophthalmus semicinctiss 

Acarahopsis choirorhynchus 

Botia horae 

Botia hyinenophysa 

Botia macracantha 

Botia modesta 

Botia sidihimunki 

Cobitis iaenia 

Noemacheilus botia 

Noemacheilusfasciatus 

Noemacheilus kuiperi 

Brachydanio albolineatus 

Brachydaniofrazkei 

Brachydanio malabaricus 

Brachydanio rerio 

Danio malabaricus 

Symphysodon aequfasciaia aequjfasci 

Symphysodon aequzj'asciata axeirodi 

Symphysodon aequifasciata haraldi 

Symphysodon discus 

Betta bellica 

Betta brederi 

Betta splendens 

Balantiocheilus snelanopterus 

Labeo bicolor 

Labeo erythrunus 

Labeo variegatus 

Lepiobarbus hoeveni 

Morulius chrysophekadion 

Gyrinocheilu.s aymonieri 

Rasbora dorsiocellata 

Rasbora einthoveni 

Rasbora elegans 

Rasbora heteromorpha 

Rasbora kalochrorna 

Rasbora macuiala 

Rasbora pauciperforala 

Rasbora sieineri 

Rasbora taeniata 

Rasbora trilineala 

Rasbora vaterfloris 

Mono Mohodactylus argenteus 

Monodactylus sebae 

Bumble Bee Brachygobius sp. 


Carp 

Scat 

Eel 

Scissor Tail 

Catfish 

Marine Fish 

Gown 

Butterfly 

Damsel 

Tang 

Peacock Lion 

Trigger 

Wrasse 

Surgeon 

Aristichthys nobilis 

Carassius gibelio 

Cienopharyngodon idella 


Hypophthalmichthys molitrix 

Scat ophagus argus 

Electrophorus eleciricus 

Fluta alba 

Macrognathus aculeatus 

Mastacembelus ,naculatus 

Mastacembelus sp. 

Rasbora caudimaculata 

Brochis coeruleus 

Chacasp. 

Corydoras aeneus 

Corydoras hasiatus 

Corydorasju!ii 

Corydoras melanistius 

Corydoras melanislius brevirostris 

Corydoras myersi 

Corydoras naitereri 

Corydoras paleatus 

Corydoras xinguensis 

Hypostomus plecostomus 

Kryptopterus bicirrhis 

Kryptopierus macrocephalus 

Leiocassis siamensis 

Leiocassis sp. 

Malapterurus eleciricus 

Microglanis arahybae 

Mystus tengera 

Ompok hi maculat us 

Pangasius sanitwongsei 


Synodontis nigriventris 

Synodontis notatus 

Synodontis sp. 

97

Status of Introduced Species 

in Sri Lanka 

SENA S. DE SILVA 

Departments of Fisheries Biology and Zoology 

University of Ruhuna 

Matara, Sri Lanka 

De Silva, S.S. 1989. Status of introduced species in Sri Lanka, p. 99. In S.S. De Silva (ed.) Exotic Aquatic Organisms in 

Asia. Proceedings of the Workshop on Introduction of Exotic Aquatic Organisms in Asia. Asian Fish. Soc. 

Spec. Pubi. 3, 154 p. Asian Fisheries Society, Manila, Philippines. 

Much has been written on the introduced species and their impact on the fisheries of Sri 

Lanka in the last two decades. As such no attempt is made here to deal with this subject, again, 

as there is very little available in the way of fresh information. The readers are therefore, directed 

to the following references. 

De Silva, S.S. 1985. Status of the introduced cichlid Sarotherodon mossambicu.s (Peters) in the reservoir fishery of Sri Lanka: a management 

strategy and ecological implications. Aquaculture and Fisheries Management 16: 91-102. 

De Silva, S.S. 1987. Impact of exotics on the inland fishery resources of Sri Lanka. Archives Hydrobiologie Beiheft, Ergebnisse der Limnologie 

28: 273-293. 

Fernando, C.H. 1971. The role of introduced fish in fish production in Ceylon's freshwater, p. 295-310. In E. Duffey and A.S. Watts (ed.) The 

Scientific Management of Animal and Plant Communities for Conservation. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, England. 

Fernando, C.FI. and H.H.I. Indrasena. 1969. The freshwater fisheries of Ceylon. Bulletin Fisheries Research Station, Ceylon 20: 101-134. 

99

00

Exotic Aquatic Species in Taiwan 

I-CHIU LIAO 

Taiwan Fisheries Research Institute 

199 Hou-Ih Rd., Keelung 20220 

Taiwan 

HSI-CHIANG LIU 

Institute of Oceanography 

College of Science 

National Taiwan University 

Taipei, Taiwan 

I-Chiu Liao and Hsi-Chiang Liu. 1989. Exotic aquatic species in Taiwan, p. 101-118. In S.S. De Silva (ed.) Exotic Aquatic 

Organisms in Asia. Proceedings of the Workshop on Introduction of Exotic Aquatic Organisms in Asia. Asian 

Fish. Soc. Spec, Pubi. 3, 154 p. Asian Fisheries Society, Manila, Philippines. 

There are 38 aquatic species known to have been introduced to Taiwan. The earliest introductions were 

probably those of the Cyprinidae family, although documentation to this effect is lacking. Other more recently introduced 

species, like the tilapias, are relatively well documented. Some of the introduced species have been successfully cultured. 

The introductions are discussed and, where information is available, a more detailed history, including problems, if any, is 

presented. The problem of the lack of consolidated information is also discussed. 

Distances in the world today have shrunk considerably due to the improvements in 

transportation and communication technology. Under such conditions, many species of aquatic 

organisms have been transferred to regions of the world where they are not naturally occurring. 

The term "exotic" species refers to any species introduced by man from a foreign land (McCann 

1984). This should not be confused with "transplanted" species - native species moved by man 

into an ecosystem outside their native range, but still within their country of origin, and with 

"nonnative" species - any species introduced by man into an ecosystem outside its original native 

range, including both exotic and transplanted (McCann 1984). 

Of special interest in this report are exotic aquatic species known to have been introduced to 

Taiwan at different times. However, it would be useful to mention at this point, the particular 

case of two species in Taiwan, which would be hard to categorize in the context of the above 

definitions. One is Penaeus monodon or grass prawn. This species is native to Taiwan, but since 

insufficient spawners were available locally, about a decade ago, Taiwan began importing great 

numbers of adult P. monodon from neighboring countries, like the Philippines and Malaysia, and 

induced these adults to spawn. Most of the P. monodon that have been cultured here were 

spawned from adults obtained from abroad. The other is Plecoglossus altivelis, commonly 

known as "sweet fish" or "ayu". It is an indigenous species in Taiwan, but became extinct in the 

60's. It only began repopulating local waters when Japan introduced it several years hence. 

Perhaps in the future, more accurate and exact definitions of such terms should be formulated 

and internationally agreed upon - to cover special cases such as that of P. monodon and P. 

altivelis. 

101

102 

Table 1 lists various species known to have been introduced to Taiwan at different times. An 

assessment of the status of these species, based on five criteria, is presented in Table A.II.8, in 

the Appendices to this volume. This assessment table (as well as Table 1) was limited to major 

food fishes only, as this was the focus of the workshop in which this report was presented. 

However, a list of ornamental fishes introduced into the country is given in Annex I. 

Status of Introduced Species 

Many of the exotic aquatic species introduced into Taiwan, such as the tilapias, have been 

greatly beneficial. A few, like the giant African snail, Achatina fulica, and the apple snail, 

Ampullarius insularu,n, have caused serious damage to the local environment. The more 

information is documented on introductions of exotic species, the easier it will be to monitor 

their consequences and the government will be able to manage the country's fisheries resources 

and aquaculture industry better. 

It is regrettable that the history of introductions of exotic aquatic species into Taiwan has not 

been well recorded. This report is the result of an initial effort to collect and compile whatever 

information is available from various, scattered sources. It is far from complete. Hopefully, other 

colleagues can gradually build upon the modest foundation that it has attempted to lay down. 


Finfish 

Gambusia affinis or topminow was introduced from North America to Taiwan in the early 

20's. It is generally accepted that this species was introduced to control malaria. It spread all 

over Taiwan as a wild fish and also came to be considered as a good experimental fish. 


Oreochromis mossambicus or Mozambique tilapia was originally imported from Indonesia 

by the Japanese in 1944, when Taiwan was still under the Japanese occupation. However, its 

culture failed. In 1946, it was brought back into the country under rather peculiar circumstances, 

and not as a deliberate introduction for scientific research or culture purposes. Two Taiwanese 

men named Wu and Kuo had been commissioned as Japanese soldiers during the Second World 

War. When the war was over, and they were released from military service, they returned home 

to Taiwan with several 0. mossambicus which they took from Singapore as souvenirs, of which 

13 survived. Since then, this species of tilapia was cultured successfully and became very 

popular in Taiwan. In memory of its "accidental" introducers, it was called "Wu-Kuo yu", yu 

being the Chinese word for fish. 

It is true that this species has a number of weak features. For instance, it is not very resistant 

to low temperature, it spawns too fast, and when it matures, its color turns black, making it quite 

unattractive and not so acceptable to consumers. But because it grows fast, produces a high 

yield, and is a sturdy fish, it was readily accepted by the Taiwanese fish farmers and consumers 

as a cheap and available source of protein immediately following World War II. This fact is to be

appreciated in the context of the widespread poverty and hunger, which were the aftermath of the 

war. 

Other specimens were imported in 1981 from the Republic of South Africa (RSA) for the 

purpose of studying cross-breeding. In Taiwan, this species was initially crossed with 0. 

niloticus male. The result is a popular hybrid with rapid growth, large size and much better 

appearance (Kuo 1969). The Taiwanese call this hybrid "fu so yu", fu so meaning "lucky, 

longlife". 


Salmo gairdneri or rainbow trout was first introduced from Japan in 1957. Three thousand 

fertilized eggs of this species were released into a reservoir, where most probably perished. In 

1959 and 1960, 200,000 'eyed' eggs were introduced (each year), but again, all perished. Finally, 

in 1961, 50,000 'eyed' eggs were imported, hatched and reared to adult stage at Ma-Lin, a 

research station of the Lukang Branch of the Taiwan Fisheries Research Institute TFRI) (Chen 

1976). This hatchery has been in operation from that time until the present. Aside from this 

research hatchery, a number of commercial hatcheries for this species also currently exist in 

Taiwan. 

The difficulties encountered in its culture in Taiwan have to do mainly with the need for an 

adequate cold water supply. It commands a good price, but the volume of production is limited 

by the lack of appropriate culture areas, i.e., those with abundant supply of cold water, and this 

also limits expansion. 

Tilapia zulu 

Introduced from RSA in 1963 by Tang, Tilapia zulu or redbelly tilapia never gained much 

popularity due to its small size, slow growth and aggressive behavior towards other fish (Chen 

1976; Liao and Chen 1983). Also, it does not taste very good and is not suited for polyculture. 

The main reason for its introduction was to cross-breed it with 0. rnossambiciis. T. zulu is 

relatively cold-resistant as compared with 0. mossambicus, and it was hoped that a more coldresistant 

hybrid would result. Sixteen fish had been introduced but the species never did become 

popular for culture. 

0. niloticus 

0. niloticus or Nile tilapia was introduced from Japan by Yu and Imai in 1966 (Chen 1976; 

Liao and Chen 1983). Fifty-six individuals were originally introduced. By itself, 0. niloticus 

makes a fine culture species, and it also produces good results when crossed with 0. 

mossambicus. But so far, the best result is achieved when it is crossed with 0. aureus males; 

predominantly male and much larger offspring are produced. 

103

104 


Pan gasius sutchi or pangasius catfish was introduced from Thailand in 1969 by Ling (Chen 

1976). It cannot tolerate the cooler climate of Taiwan, but it has high tolerance for low oxygen 

content. It is quite palatable and larger than the local species of catfish, Clarias fuscus. Also, it 

has a very efficient conversion rate, even if it is given only tilapia feed. However, its 

acceptability has suffered somewhat because people mistake it for the sea catfish, Anus 

maculatus (Thunberg), which closely resembles it in appearance , but which is of much poorer 

quality. After its introduction, it was experimentally cultured at a government-run pilot farm. At 

present, though, it has come to be used more as an ornamental fish than a food fish. 

Clarias batrachus 

Clarias batrachus or walking catfish was introduced in 1972 from Thailand (Chen 1976). It 

is known for its fast growth rate. One fish can reach up to 2 kg in one year. Although C. 

batrachus is also generally regarded as a pest (Welcomme 1984), it has nonetheless achieved 

considerable popularity. It has apparently cross-bred with the native species C. fuscus, resulting 

in a hybrid that has spread all over Taiwan, to such an extent that C. fuscus is now in danger of 

extinction. 

0. aureus 

0. aureus or blue tilapia was introduced from Israel in 1974 by Liao, Huang and Tseng with 

the assistance of Pruginin (Chen 1976; Liao and Chen 1983). The 83 specimens imported were 

intended for obtaining all-male offspring when crossed with 0. niloticus females. The resulting 

hybrid is now the tilapia mainly cultured in Taiwan; it provides a fine example of success 

achieved with exotic aquatic species. Annual production of this hybrid currently.exceeds 50,000 

tonnes. 

Ictalurus punctatus 

Ictalurus punctatus or channel catfish was introduced from the U.S.A. in the mid 70's. 

However, the warmer climate in Taiwan is not very suitable for its culture. It is also very 

sensitive to water quality, such as that resulting from pollution. Not being so popular, this 

species is no longer cultured. 

Anguilla anguilla 

Anguilla anguilla or European or French eel was introduced to Taiwan around 1976 (Chen 

1976). It is native to Europe and at the time of its introduction, it was considered as a promising 

species for culture. Although A. japonica, the native species, is a good culture species, and the 

technology for raising it was well understood by the local aquaculturists, the inability to produce 

adequate quantities of this species prompted the introduction of A. anguilla.

However, A. anguilla cannot tolerate the high temperature in Taiwan and has been infected 

by many diseases and parasites, resulting in its slow growth. Survival rate under culture was 

usually low. As a result of these disadvantages, prospects for the culture of this species locally 

are not very bright. 

Leptobarbus hoevenii 

Leptobarbus hoevenii, also known as barb or sultan fish, was introduced to Taiwan in 1979 

from Indonesia. Currently, it is being experimentally cultured at the Lukang Branch of TFRI. 

Another species, which has not yet been identified, but which could be L. hosei, was also 

introduced at a later date. It is smaller than L. hoevenii, but is much easier to mass produce. 

Because of this, it has attracted the interest of many aquaculturist. 

Megalobrama amblycephala 

Megalobrama amblycephala or Wu-chang fish was introduced from mainland China in 

1979 and generally remained unpopular among culturists. Another Megalobrama species may 

have been inadvertently introduced, although it has not yet been identified. Both species are so 

bony and thus are not very much appreciated by local consumers. Lately, M. amblycephala has 

been used for cross-breeding with the Ctenopharyngodon idellus. 

Micropterus salmoides 

A fish native to North America, Micropterus salmoides or largemouth bass was introduced 

to Taiwan in the late 70's. 

In other countries where M. salmoides has also been introduced, it was reported to have 

endangered or actually caused the extinction of certain indigenous species. In Taiwan, however, 

the techniques for artificial propagation of M. salmoides have been established and improved, 

and this fish has rapidly gained popularity. Much care has been taken so that this fish is used 

only for monoculture, and not stocked in natural waters. M. salmoides was easily accepted and 

liked by Taiwanese consumers. At present, it is cultured in several places in Southern Taiwan 

and is even exported to Hong Kong. 

Red tilapia 

There is a local red tilapia strain in Taiwan, which is different from and should not be 

confused with the exotic Oreochromis sp. Thirty specimens of the latter were introduced in 1979 

by Liao, Chao, Chen, Huang, and Liu, with the assistance of Yeh, from the Philippines, where it 

is also exotic (Liao and Chen 1983). This exotic Oreochromis strain was introduced here to be 

used in genetic studies and cross-breeding. 

105

106 

0. hornorum 

This species is also known as wami tilapia. It was introduced from Costa Rica in 1981 by 

Huang and Yeh. The objective of the introduction was to obtain monosex progeny by 

hybridization with other Oreochromis spp. All the hybridization attempts have been successful 

in producing all-male offspring, and the hybrids are now being used for extension. However, 

these hybrids are smaller in size than 0. niloticus and 0. aureus hybrids. 

T. rendalli 

T. rendalli or red breast tilapia was introduced from RSA in 1981 by Liao, Sch.00nbee and 

Clark (Liao and Chen, 1983). All 25 specimens were introduced for the mere purpose of adding 

a new species to the local gene pool. 

Colossoma bidens 

Colossoma bidens or freshwater pompano was introduced from Brazil probably around 

1986. It is currently being cultured experimentally and appears promising. However, there is 

often a negative impression of this fish because of its similarity to the aggressive piranha, 

Pygocentrus piraya, and this can hamper its extension. 

Sciaenops ocellatus 

Sciaenops ocellatus or red drum was introduced in 1987 by Liao, Huang, Lee and Arnold 

from the United States. This species has an impressive growth rate, and although it is still in an 

experimental stage of culture, it shows much promise. 

Cyprinidae 

The following cyprinids are generally believed to have been introduced several centuries 

ago from mainland China, although exact dates of introduction were not recorded. 

Aristichthys nobilis or bighead carp 

Carassius auratus or crucian carp 

Cirrhina molitorella or mud carp 

Ctenopharyngodon idellus or grass carp 

Hypophthalinichthys molitrix or silver carp 

Mylopharyngodon piceus or snail carp. 

Collectively, they are referred to as the "Chinese carps". The year 1963 was a milestone in 

Chinese carp culture; during that year, Taiwan succeeded in devising the techniques for induced 

spawning of these Chinese carps. Prior to 1963, they had to be introduced yearly from mainland 

China, through Hong Kong, because fry were always in short supply. 

Another carp, Cyprinus carpio or common carp, was introduced long ago from Japan and is 

also being commercially monocultured.

Today, most of these carps are polycultured commercially with considerable success, and 

their fry are exported in substantial volumes. Annual production of all these carps, put together, 

is currently 30,000 t. 

Macrobrachiusn rosenbergii 

Crustaceans 

Macrobrachium rosenbergii, also known as Malaysian prawn or giant river prawn, was 

introduced in 1970 from Thailand by Ling. From one male and one female, the only survivors 

from the entire shipment, thousands have been bred, spurred by the success achieved at the 

Tungkang Marine Laboratory (TML) of TFRI (Liao et al. 1973). This has facilitated the 

development of a relatively successful enterprise. Its monoculture makes up a big industry. 

Lately, M. rosenbergii has peculiarly become a popular species for game fishing in Taiwan. 

Penaeus stylirostris 

Penaeus stylirostris or blue shrimp was introduced from Panama in 1979 by Perysn and Lee 

(Liao and Chao 1983). It was the first saltwater prawn species introduced to Taiwan. Of the 

500,000 nauplii introduced, 50,000 were brought to TML, where they were successfully reared 

to the adult stage. However, there were difficulties met on inducing it to mate. As a result, this 

species has become extinct. 

P. vannawi 

P. vannamei or white leg shrimp was the second exotic shrimp introduced to Taiwan. In 

1981, 86 young P. vannamei were brought by Huang from Panama. Although this species grows 

well in Taiwan, it is hard to induce the shrimp to mate in captivity. Furthermore, this species is 

known to have latent infectious hypodermal and hematopoietic necrosis or IHHN (Bell and 

Lightner 1984), and this presents potential problems. Thus, care must be taken to identify the 

source of the P. vannamei introduced. 

P. brasiliensis 

P. brasiliensis, also known as red spotted shrimp or Guiyana pink, was introduced in 1981 

by Liao and Chao with the assistance of Instituto de Pesquisas de Marinha and Chang of Brazil 

(Liao and Chao 1983). Its culture has been intensively experimented, though only a size of 40 g 

was attained after a one-year growout (Liao and Chao 1983). Unfortunately, there are no more 

surviving P. brasiliensis in Taiwan. 

107

108 

P. schmitti 

P. schmitti or southern white shrimp has been introduced from Brazil by Liao and Chang 

and is experimentally cultured. Unfortunately, efforts to propagate this species have failed. 

Achatinafulica 

Molluscs 

Achatinafulica or giant African snail was introduced from Singapore in 1932. This species 

has propagated and has become a pest to agriculture. 

Ampullarius insularum 

The mollusc Ampullarius insularum or apple snail was introduced into Taiwan in 1979 from 

Argentina. It was adopted for culture, but it has become more of a pest. Its eggs, conspicuously 

coloured bright red, now seem to be found in almost any body of water in Taiwan, creating a 

considerable problem when they hatch, because they cause widespread damage to ricefields. 

Laminaria japonica 

Seaweeds 

Laminaria japonica, also known as kelp or konbu, was first introduced from Japan in 1976. 

Currently, it is cultured in small scale, mainly in the northern part of Taiwan. 

Undaria pinnatifida and U. undaroides 

Undaria pinnatijlda and U. undaroides or wakame were introduced from Japan in 1981 by 

Chiang. They are now commercially cultured in Quemoy and Peng-hu islands as well as in 

northern Taiwan. Both species show bright prospects for interested culturists. 

Rana catesbeiana 

Reptiles 

In 1924, before World War II, when Taiwan was a Japanese-occupied territory, the Japanese 

introduced the Rana catesbeiana or American bull frog to Taiwan. The first introduction was not 

successful because the farmers who reared the frogs became discouraged and abandoned the 

project. After the war, in 1951, it was reintroduced from Japan by TFRI and distributed to 

interested farmers. The attraction of frog culture is that little capital investment and space are 

required. Thus the interest could be shared by rural and city dwellers. Rana catesbelana has now 

become a very popular culture species.

Caiman latirostris and Alligator mississippiensis 

Caiman latirostris or caiman is commercially cultured in Taiwan under intensive conditions. 

Alligator mississippiensis or alligator is also commercially cultured, but under semi-intensive 

conditions. 

Both of these reptiles are already part of a budding industry in Taiwan and probably hold 

good prospects for the future. 

Usefulness of introductions 

Discussion 

When properly planned, recorded, documented and managed, introductions of exotic aquatic 

species can be very beneficial. One successful introduction in Taiwan (aside from the tilapias) 

involves Plecoglossus altivelis - that is, assuming it falls under the definition of "exotic" or 

"introduced" species. It was originally a native species in Taiwan, but as a result of manmade 

damage to its environment, the populations decreased greatly, and eventually, this species 

disappeared completely. Eyed eggs were then introduced from Japan and under the guidance of 

research institutes and the protection of game fishing clubs, Taiwan's reservoirs and rivers were 

once again restocked with P. altivelis. 

Several other species, such as M. rosenbergii and R. catesbeiana, are also very popular and 

commercially important. Before the recent heavy industrialization of Taiwan, these species 

helped in improving the social and economic conditions of a big number of aquaculturists. The 

culture of these species had a very visible social impact on the country. Their popularity and 

commercial viability are also demonstrated in other parts of the world. 

Exercising caution 

Many other exotic species, out of the 38 mentioned above, turned out to be successful 

introductions. These species have the proven qualities for culture in most conditions and are 

generally quite popular. One important factor which enhanced the success of these introductions 

was the careful and systematic process in which they were carried out. Without such careful 

testing, the consequences could be quite detrimental, as in the case of the two snails, Achatina 

fulica and Ampullarius insularum. 

However, caution must still be exercised, even with successfully introduced species. The 

case of the tilapias is an example of the benefits and dangers of introduced species. Although the 

tilapias offer many advantages as a culture species, and most tilapia introductions into Taiwan 

(see Table 2) have been successful, it is important to note that tilapia introductions into other 

countries have been blamed for the transfer of certain parasites. For instance, six species of 

Cichlidogyrus (gill flukes) were transferred from Africa to Israel as a result of tilapia 

introductions (Hoffman and Schubert 1984). This is a potential threat and should be considered 

whenever tilapia is being introduced. Furthermore, 0. mossambicus, T. rendalli and T. zulu are 

generally regarded as pests when introduced as exotic species (Welcomme 1984). 

Another species which should be regarded with caution when being considered for 

introduction is the S. gairdneri. The introduction of S. gairdneri can be somewhat controversial, 

since this species has been associated with the spread of furunculosis. This disease is thought of 

109

110 

to be native only to S. gairdneri of western North America. After introductions of S. gairdneri, 

furunculosis became a serious problem in European brown trout. Now, this disease can be found 

in most places where salmonids are cultured (Welcomme 1984). S. gairdneri is also known to be 

a carrier of Myxosoma cerebalis (Hoffman and Schubert 1984), a virulent parasite, which can 

survive in extremely low temperatures. It remains as a threat even if the carrier is already frozen. 

A danger such as this would warrant even more care to prevent the spread of an unwanted 

parasite that may do much damage to local species. 

Inadequate documentation 

The documentaticn of introductions, even of the successful ones, has general:ly not been 

satisfactory. However, solving this problem may not be as simple as it seems. Some naive 

aquaculturists may introduce a potentially harmful species, unaware of the ecological effects of 

such an action, while unscrupulous traders or businessmen may do the same, quite deliberately, 

even with full knowledge of the detrimental consequences. In either case, the proper authorities 

are usually left uninformed of the introduction and thus, an already difficult problem is 

compounded. 

Ecological pact 

Inadequate documentation, itself an already complex problem, leads to an even more serious 

problem - the inability to monitor the impact of unrecorded exotic species on the native 

ecosystems. The danger of this lack of information and knowledge is that some of the species 

introduced could actually assume dominant niches in the natural ecosystems which may, over 

time, prove detrimental. Although most, if not all, are maintained in very controlled 

environments, the number that may escape these environments would not be easy to trace. 

There are still other exotic species not discussed in this report, for lack of data, but which 

are strongly suspected to have caused damage to the populations of some indigenous fishes. 

Among these "controversial" exotics are Poecilia velafera, which has endangered the native 

species Rhyacichihys aspro and Mesopristes cancellatus, and Tricogasrer trichopterus, which 

has endangered Capoera semfascio1ata (see Table A.IIl). Sometimes, because of unmonitored or 

unrecorded introductions, the scientific names of some species which have been brought in could 

not even be determined. With all these unidentified exotic species coming in to Taiwan, the task 

of studying the ecological impact of these species becomes even more complicated for fisheries 

scientists and authorities. 

In Taiwan, the tilapias were introduced by research institutes. Fisheries and aquaculture 

scientists studied them carefully before disseminating them among the interested farmers. 

Screening and meticulously experimenting on these exotic species before releasing them for 

commercial culture have helped prevent environmental and other problems. It enabled the 

researchers to gather valuable information regarding the ecology of these species, and therefore 

also enabled them to provide the necessary instruction to the people interested in the culture of 

tilapia.

Conclusions 

The case of the tilapias and that of P. altivelis exemplify the usefulness of well controlled 

introductions. However, two or several favorable cases are not enough. The problem on the lack 

of information on exotic aquatic species in Taiwan still remains, and calls for a more determined 

effort to maintain a record of all introduced species through a centralized system. A more 

vigorous educational campaign should be undertaken by agencies, both private and 

governmental, concerned with aquatic resources. 

Intensive research on introduced species should be conducted before their dissemination 

throughout the aquaculture industry. Quarantine procedures must be made more efficient and 

must be implemented more effectively. Only in these ways may it be possible to start to 

minimize the incidence of illegal or unmonitored introductions and other related problems. 

The proper planning and implementation of exotic introductions are difficult to carry out 

successfully without cooperation among countries. Information must be shared and exchanged 

between and among nations and mutually beneficial agreements must be forged, such as that 

established at the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and 

Flora, more popularly known as the "Washington Conventiont'. The workshop on exotic species 

organized by the Asian Fisheries Society in June of 1988 was a meaningful move to address the 

issue. It is hoped that this initiative will be followed up and continued by the same and other 

organizations. 

Acknowledgement 

The authors thank the following people who, in one way or another, have helped in the 

preparation of this report: Mr. R. Lazo, Mr. C.Y. Liu, Ms. M. Carigma, Ms. F. Lucero, Mr. W.Y. 

Liu, Mr. T.A. Lee, Mr. C.S. Tzeng, Mr. T.C. Yu and Mr. H.C. Yang. 

References 

Bell, T.A. and D.V. Lightner. 1984. TERN virus: infectivity and pathogenicity studies in Penaeus .rtylirostris and Penaeus vannamei. Aquaculture 

38: 185-194. 

Chen, T.P. 1976. Aquaculture practices in Taiwan. Fishing News Books Limited, Famham, Surrey, England. 161 p. 

Hoffman, G.L. and G. Schubert. 1984. Some parasites of exotic fishes, p. 233-261. In W.R. Courteney, Jr. and J.R. Stauffer, Jr. (eds.) 

Distribution, biology, and management of exotic fishes. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, U.S.A. 

Kuo, H. 1969. Notes on hybridization of tilapia. JCRR Fish. Ser. 8: 116-117. (In Chinese with English abstract?) 

Liao, IC. and N.H. Chao. 1983. Development of prawn culture and its related studies in Taiwan, p. 127-142. In G.L. Rogers, R. Day and A. Lim 

(eds.) Proceedings of the First International Conference on Warm Water Aquaculture-Crustacea. Office of Continuing Education, 

Brigham Young University, Hawaii Campus, Hawaii, U.S.A. 

Liao, IC. and T.P. Chen. 1983. Status and prospects of tilapia culture in Taiwan, p. 588-598. In L. Fishelson and Z. Yaron (eds.) Proceedings of 

the International Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture, 8-13 May 1983. Nazareth, Israel. 

Liao, IC., N.H. Chao and L.S. Hsieh. 1973. Preliminary report of the experiments on propagation of giant freshwater prawn, Macrobrachiwn 

rosenbergii in Taiwan. J. Fish. Soc. Taiwan 2(2): 48-58. 

McCann, J.A. 1984. Involvement of the American Fisheries Society with exotic species, p. 1-7. In W.R. Courtenay, Jr. and J.R. Stauffer, Jr. (eds.) 

Distribution, biology, and management of exotic fishes. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, U.S.A. 

Welcomme, R.L. 1984. International transfers of inland fish species, p. 22-40. In W.R. Courtenay, Jr. and J.R. Stauffer, Jr. (eds.) Distribution, 

biology, and management of exotic fishes. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, U.S.A. 

111

Table 1. Exotic species introduced into Taiwan. 

Culture 

Status 

Production 

for 1987* 

(t) 

Date of 

Importation 

Area of 

Origin 

Common 

Name 

Scientific 

Name 

FINFISH 

Gambusia affinis Topminnow North America 1920 - Popular; monocultured 

Oreochrom,s Mossambicus Mozambique ulapia Indonesia 1944 See Table 2 Widespread 

Salmo gairdneri Rainbow trout Japan 1957 949.0 Cold water, supply 

limits expansion; monocultured 

Tilapia zulu Redbelly tilapia South Africa 1963 See Table 2 Unpopular 

0. niloticus Nile tilapia Japan 1966 See Table 2 Popular, used to culture 

a hybrid with 0. mossambicus 

females 

Pangasius sutchi Thailand catfish Thailand 1970 Unpopular, polycultured 

Clarias batrachus Walking catfish Thailand 1972 ** Popular 

0. aureus Blue Lilapia Israel 1974 See Table 2 Crossed with 0. nibticus 

female to obtain 

all male offspring 

Ictalurus punctatus Channel catfish U.S.A. mid ** Unpopular 

1970's 

Anguila anguilba European eel Europe 1976 - Culture discontinued 

Indonesia 1979 - Unpopular; not easy to 

breed 

Leptobarbus hoevenii Barb or sultan 

fish 

Megalobrama amblycephala Wu-chang fish Mainland China 1979 - Unpopular, mono- and 

polycultured 

Pnnn1r mnnociiltnred 

u;,-,.,.,,t,,,.,,,.,.,, I.,.,,,d.,. I -,,,,I, ,,.4, A.-.,., 

1970's 

Continued


Culture 

Status 

Production 

for 1987* 

(t) 

Date of 

Importation 

Area of 

Origin 

Common 

Name 

Scientific 

Name 

Used for genetic studies 

and crossbreeding 

Oreochromr sp. Red tilapia Philippines 1979 See Table 2 

Used to obtain monosex 

progeny by hybridization 

0. hornorwn Wami tilapia Costa Rica 1981 See Table 2 

Used to add new 

species 

South Africa 1981 See Table 2 

T. rendalli Red breast 

tilapia 

Promising; monocultured 

Colossoma bidens Freshwater pompano Amazon 1986 

South America 

Experimental 

Sciaenops ocellatus Red drum U.S.A. 1987 - 

Important culture 

species withe exportation 

of fry; polycultured 

Aristichthys nobilis Bighead carp Mainland - 

China 

Mass produced; polycultured 

2,899.6 

Carassius auralus Crucian carp Mainland China 

and Japan 


species with exportation 


Cirrhina molitorella Mud carp Mainland China 120.0 




Ctenophaiyngodon idellus Grass carp Mainland China 10,031.1 




Hypophthalmichthys molitrix Silver carp Mainland China 9,89l.9*** 




Mylopharyngodon piceus Snail carp Mainland China 

Mass produced; polycultured 

Cyprinu.s carpio Common carp Japan before 4,386.8 

1950 

Continued


Culture 

Status 

Production 

for 1987* 

(t) 

Date of 

Importation 

Area of 

Origin 

Common 

Name 

Scientific 

Name 

CRUSTACEANS 

Mass produced; vesy 

popular, monocultured 

1,354.0 

1970 

Thailand 

Giant river 

Macrobrachiwn rosenbergii 

Experimental 

1979 

Panama 

Blue shrimp 

Penaeus slylirostris 

Experimental; will not 

mate in captivity 

1981 

Panama 

White leg shrimp 

P. vannamei 

Production reached 

fourth generation 

1981 

Brazil 

Red spoiled shrimp 

P. brasiliensis 

Southern white 

shrimp 

P. schmilti 

MOLLUSCS 

Major agricultural pest 

1932 

Brazil 

Giant Msican 

snail 

Acha!inafidica 

Major agricultural pest 

1979 

Argentina 

Apple snail 

Apullarius insularwn 

SEAWEEDS 

Not cultured 

1976 

Japan 

Kelp or konbu 

Laminariajaponica 

Commerciaily cultured 

1981 

Japan 

Wakame 

Undaria pinnati Ida 

Commercially cultured 

1981 

Japan 

U. undariodes 

REPTILES 

Popular; monocultured 

1924 

Japan 

American bull 

frog 

Rana catesbeiana 


- 

Alligator 

Alligator mississippiensis 


Caiman 

Caiman latirostrLr 

* Estimates by the Taiwan Fisheries Bureau. 

** Total production for the three species of catfish is 101.2 t. 

This is the total production for both bighead carp and silver carp.

Table 2. Record of tilapia introductions to Taiwan. 

Purposes Extension and 

Cultural Status 

Number 

introduced 

Introducer Assisted by 

by 

Species Year Area of 

Origin 

To increase the supply Unsuccessful 

of animal protein 

during WWII 

Oreochromss mossambi cur 1944 Indonesia 

Brought back out of Widely spread 

curiosity by 2 returning 

soldiers from 

SE. Asia 

0. mossambicus 1946 Singapore Wu & Kuo 13 

To be used in pro- Well spread because it is cold 

ducing cold-re- resistant; hard to polycuhure 

sistant hybrid 

Tilapia zihii 1963 South Africa Tang 16 

Introduced for culture Well accepted especially its large 

iisd hybridization due size resulting from a cross with 0. 

to its large size mossambicus female 

0. ,ulolicus 1966 Japan Yu lrnai 56 

Hybridization Well accepted especially when 

crossed with 0. niloticus female 

0. aureiss 1974 Israel Liao, Huang Pruginin 83 

& Tseng 

Genetic studies and Maintained at Tungkang Marine Lab.; 

cross breeding not ready for extension 

&jsg 30 

1979 Philippines Liao, Chao, 

Chess, Huang, 

& Liu 

Ore ochromss sp. 

(Red tilapia) 

To obtain monosex Not ready for extension 

progeny 

0. hornorum 1981 Costa Rica Huang Yeh 56 

To be used in cross Not ready for extension 

breeding studies 

0. mossambicus 1981 Costa Rica Huang Yeh 4 

Tobeusedincross Notreadyforextension 

breeding studies 

0.mo,ysambjcus 1981 SouthAfrica Liao Schoonbee 50 

& Clark 

To add new species Not ready for extension 

T. rendalli 1981 South Africa Liao Schoonbee 25 

& Clark 

Tomaintainnew Underhybndizationstudy 

strain 

0. ruloticus 1984 France Liao& Serene 690 

Chao 

Tomaintainnew Underhybsidizationstudy 

iin 

O.aw-eur 1984 France Liao& Serene 170* 

Chao 

36** 

Tomaintainnew Underhybridizationstudy 

strain 

0.massambicur 1984 France Liao& Serene 40 

Chao 

Total production of tilapia for 1987 exceeds 100,000 t. 

* Israeli strain. 

Filipino strain.

116 

Abudefdufoxyodon 

Abudefdufstarcki 

Abudefdufmelanopus 

Acanthophthalmus semicinctus 

Acanthopsis choirorhyncus 

Acanthurus leucosternon 

Achirus errans 

Adioryx spinosissimus 

Aeoliscus strigatus 

Aluteres scripta 

Alestes taeniurus 

Ambassis lala 

Amblydoras hancockii 

Amphiprion biaculeatus 

Amphiprion clarkii 

Amphiprionfrenatus (Brevoort) 

Amphiprion ocellaris cuvier 

Amphiprion perideraion (Bleeker) 

Amp hiprion parasema 

Amphiprion polymnus 

Amphiprion sebae 

Anoptichthysjordani 

Aphyocharax rubropinnis 

Aphyocyprinus sp. 

Aphyosemion australe 

Aphyosemion bivittatzim 

Aphyosemion calliurmahli 

Aphyosemion sjoestsdti 

Aphyosemion arnoldi 

Apistogramma ramirezi 

Aplocheilus dayi 

Apogon macularus 

Apogon orbiculatus 

Apteronotus albifrons 

Arapaima gigas 

Arnoldichthys spilopterus 

Aulonocara nyassae 

Bacantiocheilus melanopterus 

Badis badis 

Balantiocheilus melanopterus 

Balistoides conspicillum 

Barbodesfasciatus 

Barbus everetti 

Barbusfasciatus 

Barbus lateristriga 

Barbus nigrofasciatus 

Barbus schwanefeldi 

Barbus semfasciolatus varia 

Barbus tetrazona 

Barbus titteya 

Betta splendens 

Bodianus amthioides 

Bodinus loxozonus 

Botia horae 

Annex I 

LIST OF AQUARIUM FISH INTRODUCED INTO TAIWAN 

Botia lecontei 

Botia macracantha 

Botia modesta 

Botia pulchripinnis 

Brachydanio albolineatus 

Brachydanio nigrofasciatus 

Brachydanio rerio 

Brachygobius xanthozona 

Brycinus longipinnis 

Calloplesiopa altinelis 

Callochromis pleurospilus 

Capoeta tetrazona 

Carnegiella strigata 

Centropyge argi 

Centropyge bicolor 

Centropygeferrugatus 

Centropygefisheri 

Centropyge loriculus 

Centropyge multicolor 

Centropyge nox 

Centropyge potteri 

Cephalopholis urodlus 

Chaetodermis spinosissiums 

Chaeron ephippiwn 

Chaeton ocrofasciatus 

Chaeton quaddimaculatus 

Chaeton rainfordi 

Chaeton reticulatus 

Chaeton sp. 

Chaetodontoplus duboulayi 

Chaetodontoplus mesoleucus 

Chalinochromis brichardi 

Chanda ranga 

Cheirodon axelrodi 

Chelmo rostratus 

Chilodus purl ctatus 

Chiloscyllum colax 

Chrysiptera starki 

Cichiasoma salvini 

Colisa chuna 

Colisafasciatus 

Colisa labiosa 

Colisa lalia 

Condylactis sp. 

Corisfulis 

Corydoras metae 

Corynopoma riisei 

Cromileptes altivelis 

Cynolebias bellouii 

Cynotilapia afra 

Gyp hotilapiafro ntosa 

Daino malabaricus 

Dascyllus aruanius 

Continued

Annex I. Continued 

Dascyllus melamurus 

Dascyllus resticulatus 

Dasyatis kuhlii 

Dendrochirus zebra 

Diane,na longibarbis 

Diploprion bifascarum 

Distichodus lusosso 

Distichodus sexfasciatus 

Ecsenius bicolor 

Eigenmanni virescens 

Enoplometopus occidentalis 

Epaizeorhynchus kallopterus 

Epinephelus tauvina 

Eretmodus cyanostictus 

Esomus malayan 

Euxiphipips sextriatus 

Euxiphipips nevarchus 

Euxiphipips xanthometopon 

Flamneu sammara 

Gasteropelecus levis 

Gasterosteus aculeatus 

Gate rin chaetodonides 

Genicanthus larmark (Lacepede) 

Geophagus thayeri 

Gobiodon specie 

Glymmistes sexlineatus 

Gnathonemus macro lepidotus 

Gnathonemus petersi 

Gymnocorymbus ternetzi 

Gyrinocheilus aymonieri 

Ha/ic hoeres chrysus 

Hapalochlaena maculosa 

Haplochromis desfontainesi 

Haplochromis linni 

Helosrorna rudoiphi 

Helostoma iemmincki 

Hemigrammus gracilis 

Hemigrammus ocellfer 

Hemigrammus pulcher 

Hemigrammus rho dpstomus 

Hemiodus gracilus 

Hemiodus semitaenitatus 

Hemitaurichthys polylepis 

Hippocampus coronatus 

Hippocampus keliggi 

Hippocampus specie 

Holacanthus arc uatus 

Ho/acanthus ciliaris 

Holacanthus clarionensis 

Holacanthus isabelita 

Holacanthus passer 

Ho/acanthus tricolor 

Hymenocera sp. 

Hoiplolatilus purpureaus 

Hyphessobrycon callistus 

(Callistus callistus) 

Hyphessobrycon callistyus rosaceus 

Hyphessobryconflammeus 

Hyphessobrycon herbertaxeirodi 

Hyphessobrycon heterorhabdus 

Hyphessobrycon innesi 

Hyphessobrycon pulchripinnis 

Hyphessobrycon rubrostigma 

Hyphessobrycon scholzei 

Hypostomus sp. 

Hypseleo iris compressa 

Julidochromis transcriptus 

Julipocheromis transcriptus 

Krypropterus macrocephalus 

Labeo bicolor 

Labeo erythrurus 

Labeo frenatus 

Labeo numensis 

Labeotropheus trewavasae 

Labroides dimidiatus 

Lactoria cornua 

Lamprologus co,npressicep 

Lamprologus leleupi 

Lebistes reticulatusi 

Lebrasoma reliferum 

Lepisosteus oculatus 

Lepomis megalotis 

Leporinusfasciatus 

Lienardellafasciata 

Lima scabra 

Lo vulpinos 

Loricariafilamentoa 

Lutjanus sp. 

Macro gnat hus aculeatus 

Macropodus opercularis 

Maso literatus 

Mastacembelus maculatus 

Mesogonistlus chaetodon 

Merynnis schreitmullerii 

Microlabichthys tukapascalus 

Microp his smithi 

Moenkhausia oligolepis 

Mogurnda mogurnada mogurnd 

Continued 

117

118 

Annex I. Continued 

Mollienisia sphenops (latipinna) 

Momadactylus argentens 

Monodactylus sebae 

Muraena pardalis 

Mylossorna duriventris 

Nannostomus anomalus 

Nemaptereleoteris magnficus 

Nemateleotris specie 

Neosilurus ater 

Neopetrolisthes ohshimai 

Notopterus chitala 

Opistognathus aurifons 

Opistognathus whitehurstii 


Osteochilus vittatus 

Osteochilus hasselti 

Osteoglossum bicirrhosum 

Osteoglossumferreirai 

Oxymonacanthus Ion girostris 

Pamacanthus imperator 

Pan gastus sutchi 

Pan que nigrolineatus 

Pantodon buchholz 

Parambassis gulliveri 

Pelotropoma melanoleucus 

Peocilabrycon aqratus 

Phenaxorgammus interruptus 

Pholidichthys leucoraenia 

Pimelodus clarias 

Platax teira 

Platax pinnatus 

Plecostomus punctatas 


Poecilobrycon aura tus 

Poecilobrycon puctatas 

Pogonoculius zebra 

Polycentrus shomburgki 

Polyodon spat hula 

Pomacanthus annularis 

Pomacanthus arcuatus 

Pomacanthus chrysurus 

Pomacanthus coeruleus 

Pomacanthus imparotor 

Pomacanthus maculosus 

Pomacanthus paru 

Pomacanthus zonipec tus 

Premnas biaculeatus 

Prevagor melanocephalus 

Pristella riddlei 

Prochidodus amazonensis 

Prochidodus insignis 

Prochidodus taeniurus 

Pro gnathodes aculeatus 

Pseudobalistisfuscus 

Pseudotropheus sp. 

Pterois antennata 

Pterophyllum eimekei 

Pterophyllum hecker 

Purple chromis 

Pygolites diacanthus 

Rasbora borapetensis 

Rasbora dorsiocellata 

Rasbora heterornorpha 

Rosbora maculata 

Rasbora trilineata 

Rhinomurena amboinensis 

Rhynchocinetes sp. 

Scolcpsis sp. 

Scorpaenodes littoralis 

Selenotoca multifasciata 

Serranus spilurus 

Shaerichthys osphrornenoides 

Siganus vulpinus 

Spilotichthys picturatus 

Stenopus hispidus 

Symphysodon aquifasciata 

Symphysodon discus 

Synaphobranchus sp. 

Synchiropus splendidus 

Syngnathus boversi 

Snodontis angelicus 

Synodontis davidi 

Tamichihys albonubes 

Telmatherina ladigesi 

Thayeria boehlki 

Thayeria sanctaemariae 

Toxotes jaculator 

Trichogaster leeri 

Trichogaster trichopertus 

Trichogasrer trichopertus (surnatranus) 

Trichogaster microlepis 

Triportheus elongatu.s 

Tropheus duboisi 

Uara amphiacanthoides 

Xanthichthys species 

Xiphophorus hellerii 


Zebrasona veliferum 

Zebrasoma scopas

Exotic Aquatic Species in Thailand 

TWESUKDI PIYAKARNCHANA 

Department of Marine Science 

Faculty of Science 

Chulalongkorn University 

Bangkok, Thailand 

Piyakamchana, T. 1989. Exotic aquatic species in Thailand, p. 119-124. In S.S. De Silva (ed.) Exotic Aquatic Organisms in 

Asia. Proceedings of the Workshop on Introduction of Exotic Aquatic Organisms in Asia. Asian Fish. Soc. 

Spec. Pub!. 3, 154p. Asian Fisheries Society, Manila, Philippines. 

The first record of an exotic aquatic species in Thailand can be traced back to Ayudhaya period of about the year 

1691-1692. At present there are about 15 species of fishes which were introduced for aquaculture purposes. Among them 

only a few are confirmed as reproducing in the natural habitats. The exotic species in the aquarium trade on the contrary 

were reported to increase rapidly from 69 species in 1963 to about 92 in 1988. Only 3 fish diseases were recorded to come 

from these exotic species. Records on the real impact to the natural ecosystem from the introduced species are scarce. 

The introduction of exotic fish into Thailand dates back to the Ayudhaya Period probably 

around the years 1691-1692 (Amatayakul 1957). However, not until 1953, was a royal decree, 

which prohibited the introductions of many exotic species of animals and plants, proclaimed and 

implemented. 

The purposes of introducing exotic animals and plants into Thailand are at least three fold; 

for consumption, for aquaculture, and for home aquarium and exhibition purposes. 

The major countries from which these exotic animals are exported into Thailand are Japan, 

Indonesia, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Hongkong, Philippines, Burma and The United 

Kingdom. Some countries frequently act as middlemen. At present, the trading aquarium exotic 

species, especially fish, is very popular in Thailand. 

Historical Background 

There are three periods in which the exotic aquatic animals were introduced into 

Thailand. The first period was before 1953 in which three species of Chinese carps, grass, 

bighead and silver carps were introduced, mostly by the Chinese immigrants, for aquaculture 

purposes. 

These fish carried parasites such as anchor worm (Lernaea sp.) cotton wool disease 

(Saprolegina sp.), and fish louse (Argulus sp.). These fish, in the latter dates, were widely spread 

all over the country, and the parasites and associated diseases spread with them. There are no 

reliable records on the degree of the destruction by these diseases to the native species. 

The second period was during 1953-1982. This period was based on the time of the first 

proclamation of the Royal Decree called "The Prevention on the introduction of certain 

freshwater fishes, 1953." 

119

120 

This decree prohibited the introduction of cyprinids into the country without permission. It 

also required the introducer to present evidence that they were free from certain diseases. 

The third period is from 1983 to the present time. There was an amendment of the Royal 

Decree in 1982 and it was made law in 1983. The main reason for this amendment was to stop 

the wide outbreak of the so called "ulcerous fish diseases" in this country during 1983. The 

diseases which were found to be caused by certain viruses suspected to have been introduced 

through exotic aquarium fish. The decree which is still in use prohibited the introduction of 

aquatic organisms of freshwater and marine origin. They include the following: 

Fish - 176 species. 

Other aquatic animals (e.g., crabs, corals, molluscs and others) - 21 species. 

Algae - 16 species. 

Aquarium Purposes 

Introductions 

A compilation of exotic aquarium species is given in Tables la and lb. Because of the 

insufficient records available from Government agencies and the private sector, information is 

not available on the dates and country of introduction, and it is impossible to complete the list 

and details of historical and the present status of most species. The first record on 1)0th local and 

introduced fish species was made by Chuensri (1963). 

Among these exotic fishes, the goldfish (Carassius auratus) is claimed to be the oldest. It 

had been introduced in Thailand (then called Siam) in 1692-1697, during the Audhaya Period 

(Amatayaku 1957). The second introductory period of the aquarium fishes started about 70 years 

ago. The Fisheries Department, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperative, and the Ministry of 

Public Health, jointly introduced the mosquito eating fishes (Gambusia spp.), for malaria 

control. This species is now widely distributed in natural waters especially in the urban region of 

the big cities in Thailand. 

It is also recognized that of all exotic fishes, the cichlids are the most popular. The second 

priority are those of the Family Cyprinidae. 

For Aquaculture Purposes 

Of the 36 species of fishes cultured in Thailand, about 15 species are introduced, and are 

listed in Table 2. It could be dated back to the year 1912 when common carp, Cyprinus CarplO 

was introduced from China. The Chinese grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus) and bighead 

(Aristichthys nobilis) were introduced by Chinese immigrants in 1932. 

At least two species e.g., trout (Salmo gairdneri) and Amago salmon (O,i.chorhynchus 

rhodurus) were introduced to Thailand for experimental purposes in the highland development 

project in the northern part of Thailand.

Present Status of the Exotic Species 

The present status of the exotic species are classified at different levels. Those species that 

are used for aquaculture such as the two species of tilapias (Oreochromis mossambicus and 0. 

niloticus) are now well established in the ecosystem of Thailand. They are completely viable. 0. 

niloticus is more popular as food than the other. Common carp is also known to breed in natural 

waters. 

Among the three species of the Chinese carps, which are successfully grown in aquaculture 

systems, none of them breed naturally. Of the aquarium exotic species, few successfully breed 

naturally and the rest are bred artificially. 

In some species for example, a black tetra of black kamoor, (Gymnocorymbus terneizi) and a 

Jack Dempsey (Cichiosoma biocellatum) were first imported from South American countries 

(Paraguay, Bolivia and Argentina) and in 1950s reintroduced from Hongkong and Japan. They 

breed successfully in the natural habitats of Thailand. 

Recorded Ecological Effects 

Surprisingly, there are very few documented ecological effects by introduced species in 

Thailand. The author observed that 0. mossarnbicus is a nuisance species and even considered it 

as a bottom surface competitor to the brackish water shrimp e.g., Penaeus merguiensis, in culture 

ponds. A species of American freshwater crayfish (Procambrus clarkii) and a cherry snail, 

Ampularia gigas were suspected by some freshwater prawn culturists to be the cause of the stem 

damages of rice in the paddy fields. It was also suspected that the introductory American bull 

frog, (Rana catesbina) might be harmful to the local species of frogs (Ta Yoo 1986). 

Four exotic aquatic plants were reported by Santi (1986) and Tandaraporn (1962): 

Echimodorus peruensis or the Peruvian sword or black amazon sword, Cabomba caroliniana, 

Najas indica and Potamogeton crispus. These are also suspected to be competitors to local 

aquatic plants. Tandaraporn (1962), reported the possible effect on fishes of three species of 

aquatic plants, namely C. caroliniana, N. indica and P. crispus in helping to prolong the survival 

of 0. mossambicus. 

Of the exotics, introduced for aquaculture, the Chinese carps are reported to have been 

responsible for introduction and spread of some diseases (Kanthomthurapuch 1984). 

Conclusions 

Three purposes are recognised as reason for introduction of fishes into Thailand; for 

consumption, for aquarium and for aquaculture (Tables 1 and 2). There are about 15 species of 

exotic fish that can be classified as being used in aquaculture. They have successfully survived 

and grow in natural waters and impoundments in Thailand. Only two species 0. mossambicus 

and 0. niloticus are capable of reproducing in reservoirs and in natural waters. 

It is also noticeable that the number of exotics of African origin has increased from 1963 to 

1988. There were at least 19 species of African fishes in 1988, as compared to 6 species in 1963. 

The exotic species form the American continent (North, Central and South America) have 

also increased from 42 species in 1963 to 52 species in 1988 (Table 3). 

121

122 

It is also found that the exotic species for the aquarium fishes in Asia have decreased from 

18 species in 1963 to only 15 species in 1988. The exotic marine fishes, mainly from the 

Philippines have increased from 2 species in 1963 to 5 species in 1988 (Table 3). Only a few 

species of the exotic aquarium fishes can breed successfully naturally in Thailand. 

It is also suspected that the cause of the decrease of the exotic species of aquarium fish from 

Asian countries might be either by the more restricted enforcement of the conservation laws or 

by the increasing deterioration of the natural habitats for these species in the respective 

countries. 

It is necessary for the countries in the region to cooperate in order to protect these most 

valuable resources. 

References 

Axelrod, H.R., W.E. Burgess, C.W. Emmens, N. Prones, J.G. Walls and R. Hunziker. 1987. Atlas of freshwater aquarium fishes. H.F.H. 

Publication, Inc. 992p. 

Amatayakul, C. 1957. Gold Fish. Thai Fisheries Gazette 10(2): 169. 

Cheunsri, C. 1963. The survey of the exotic aquarium fishes in Bangkok. Senior thesis for the B.S. degree, Faculty of Esheries, Kasetsart 

University, 99 p. 

Daungsawat, S. and T. Puphipat. 1982. Life history of exotic species. The Institute of the National Freshwater Fisheries, Report 7: 52p. 

Kanthomthurapoch P. 1984, Introducing of the life aquatic animals of Thailand. Thai Fisheries Gazette 3: 251-258. 

Pawapootanon, A. 1982. Fish stocking program in the Ubolratana Reservoir. Thai Fisheries Gazette 35(2): 205-2 13. 

Tandarapom, K. 1962. Use of aquatic plants for fish culture. Thai Fisheries Gazette 15(4): 419-426. 

Tayoo (Pen name). 1986. Kob Krating: Is it a real threat then? Thai Fisheries Gazette 13: 7-8. 

Santi (Pen name). 1986. Aquarium Tank Plant Decoration. Thai Fisheries Gazette 13: 12-15.

Table 1 a. Exotic fishes introduced to Thailand from North, Central and South America. 

Taxonomic Status Common Name Introduced from Year Disease 

Original 

Acestrorhnamchus hepsetes Argentina 1960 

Aequidens rivulatu.s Riverlatus cichlid erun 

terro 

South America 

Aphyocharax robotropinis Bloodfish Argentina 1950 

Apteronotus albifrons Black ghost 

Astronotus ocellatus Oscar, peacock eye cichlid Amazon, Paraguay White spot disease 

Astyanexfasciatusr albino silver tetra Central & South America 

Carnegiella marchae Black winged hatchet fish Orinoco, Amazon, Brazil 1957 

C. strigata Marble hatchet fish Guiana, South Amazon 

Chiaroden axeirodi Cardinal tetra South America 

Cichiasoma bicellatwn Jack Dempsey Amazon 1950-56 

C. citrinellum Red devil cichlid 

C. corydhaenoides Chocolate cichlid 

C. managuen Manguense cichlid Nicaragua, Central America 1983 

C. meeki Fire mouth cichlid Yucatan 

C. nigrofasciatum Pink cichlid White spot disease 

C. severum South Texas 

C. cyanguttatwn Texas cichlid 

C. synspilum Firehead cichlid 

Corydoras aineu.s Bronze catfish 

C. haotatus Dwarf corydatus Amazon 1950 

C. paleatus 


Peppered cory Argentina, Brazil 

Gymnocorymobus lerneizi Black tetra, Black Kamoor Paraguay, Argentina 1950 

Gastropelacus leviz Silver hatchet fish Brazil 1956 

G. sternicla common hatchet fish Venezuela 

Hemigrammus ocelliler head and tail light Amazon, Brazil, Guiana 

H. puicher 

H. rhodostomu.s 

Pretty tetra Amazon, Peru 1960 

Ilyphessobryconflammesss Flame tetra, Red tetra Rio de Janeiro 1950 

H. innesi Neon tetra Upper Amazon 1953 

Hypostomus plecostomu.s Sucker catfish 

Lebistes reticulatus Guppy, Rainbowfish Trinidad, Venezuela 

Lepisosteu.s oculatu.s Gar pike or spotted Gar pike North America 

Molliensia velfera Giant Sailfin molly Yucatan 

Moenkhausia sahctaefilominae Moenkhausia 

M. digolepis Glass tetra Brazil 1957 

Namnostomus aripirangensis 

N. anomalu.s steindachner 

Brown pencil fish Amazon 

Osteoglossum bicirrhoswn arozena Guiana, Amazon 1959 

Phraetocephalus hemlliupteru.s Red tailed catfish 

Paecilia reticulata Guppy, million fish 

Poecilo brycon unifasciatus one-tailed pencilfish 1959 

Poecilia latipinna Sailfish molly Mexico, Texas, 

Florida, Virginia 

Pseudoptatystomafasciatwn tiger shovelnosed catfish Amazon 

Pristelta riddui Pristella x-ray fish North of SA, Guiana 1950 

Pterophyllwn scalar 

Thaveria bochlkei 

Angelfish Guiana 

T. obliques South America 

Tilapia buttikoferi Hornet tilapia cichlid 

Xiphophorus maculatus Red platy Guatemala, Honduras 

123

124 

Table lb. Exotic fishes introduced to Thailand from Africa, Asia and Australia. 

Taxonomic Status Ccinmon Name Introduced from Year Disease 

Original 

Po/ypterus deihezi 

Monodactylus arrgenteus and 

M. sebae, M.falciformis 

Labidochromsr exasperatus 

Hepsetas odoe 

Tetraodon miurus 

Hapiocronsis polystigma 

Distighodas sexfasgiasus 

Brachydania redo 

Amphiprionfrenatu.s 

Acanthurus leucosleron 

Et ropi us rnaculatur 

Barbus, sach.ri 

Barbus titteya 

Luciocephaiu,r puicher 

Pesudochronsis paccanella 

Porno centhres semicircvjasus 

Tanichthyzs albonubes 

Micralesles interrupt us 

Phenacogramnsus interrupt us 

Hap! ochrornis senustus 

Aulonocara nyashsa 

Heterosis ,siloticus 

Scieropages fordmi 

Halaptearus elecirictes 

Platax orbics.Jaria 

Melanochromis auraS us 

Distichodus lusosso 

Hap!ochrorni.r moorii 

Etroplus maculalus 

Aulonocara nyassae 

Gnaihomus pet ersi 

Hap! ochrornis callipterus 

Mormyras nigricans 

Pee udot ropheus iropheus 

(Source: Daungsawat and Phupipat 1982) 

Delnezi's biebir 

Mono, Malayan Angle, 

Fingerfish 

Likoma pearl cichlid 

African pika characin 

Red Puffer, Congo puffer 

Polyatigma cichlid, 

Polly cichlid 

dow terra, Six-barred 

distichodus 

Zebra danio 

Tomato crown fish 

Powder blue surgeon 

Orange chromide cichild 

Gold-fmned bath, 

Sach's barb 

Cheny bath 

Pike-head 

Paccaneila 

Blue koran 

White doud, mountain minnow 

Congo tetra 

Malawi- blue 

African arovana 

Australian arovana 

Electric catfish 

Bat fish 

Auratus cichlid, 

Malawi Golden cieblid 

Long nosed clown tetra 

Blue dolphin, 

Blue lumphead 

Orange chromid cichlid 

Yellow Malawi, 

Malawi Gold 

Elephant nose 

Callipterus cichlid 

Mormyrid 

Tropheops cichlid, 

Black dorsal fin 

Table 2. Live fish species which were introduced to Thailand for aquaculture 

and for scientific research. 

Scientific Name Introduced From 

Oreochrorner ,nossarnbi cur 1949 Malaysia 

T. melanopleura 1955 Belgium 

O.rsi!oticus 1965 Japan 

0. aareue 1970 Israel 

Cyprissuscarpio 1912 China 

Hypophthalmichthys molitrix 1932 China 

Cienopharyngodon (della 1932 China 

Ari.rtichthys nobilis 1932 China 

Labeo rohita 1968 India 

Cotta cotla 1979 Bangladesh 

Caraxrirsr caro.ssius 1980 Japan 

Cirrhin,sa inrigala 1980 Japan 

Angaillafaponica 1973 Japan 

Salmo gairdneri 1973 Canada 

Onchorhyncris rlrodorus 1981 Japan 

Middle of Congo 

river, Africa 

East Africa, 

Malaysia. Borneo 

Common in Malawi, Lake 

Tanganyika, Africa 

Central Africa 

Africa, Congo River 

Africa, Congo river 

Western India 

Phillipines 

Indo-pacific to Red Sea. 

Sri Lanka and part of India 

Singapore. Malaysia 

Sri Lanka. Asia 

Malaysia, Sumatra, 

Sends Islands, Borneo 

Indonesia 

Phillipines 

China 

Zaire, Africa 

Victoria Lake 

Malawi Lake 

River Nile, Africa 

New Guinea 


Philhipines 

Malswi Lake, Africa 

Congo river, Africa 

Sri Lanka, India, Asia 

Sri Lanka, India, Asia 

Malawi Lake, Africa 



Africa 


Note: Marine 

Note: M:arine 

Note: Marine 

Note: Marine 

Note: Marine 

Note: Marine 

Note: Marine 

Table 3. Comparison of the exotic species for aquarium fishes in 1963 and 

1988. 

Origin 1963 1988 

Asia 18 Species 15 Species 

Africa 6 Species 19 Species 

Australia I Species 1 Species 

America North, 

Central & South 42 Species 52 Species 

Marine 2 Speciea 5 Species 

Total 69 Species 92 Species

Australian Government Position: 


FRANCES B. MICHAELIS 

Australian National Parks 

and Wildlife Service 

GPO Box 636 

Canberra, ACT 2601 

Michaelis, F.B. 1989. Australian government position: introduction of exotic aquatic species, p. 125-132. In S.S. De Silva 

(ed.) Exotic Aquatic Organisms in Asia. Proceedings of the Workshop on Introduction of Exotic Aquatic 

Organisms in Asia. Asian Fish. Soc. Spec. Pub!. 3, 154 p. Asian Fisheries Society, Manila, Philippines. 

The impact of introduced aquatic species on native species in Australia is considered. In addition the role of the 

Commonwealth Government and other statutory agencies in the protection of the Australian native flora and fauna is 

discussed. The mechanisms that regulate importation of live animals and plants into Australia are briefly presented. 

Australian obligations enacting international conventions for the protection of flora and fauna, and future directions in 

conservation are dealt with. 

In Australia the impact of introduced aquatic species on native species and their habitats has been considerable. 

About 22 species of freshwater fish, numerous aquatic invertebrates and 15 species of undesirable aquatic weeds have been 

mtroduced. There is an awareness of the need for State and Commonwealth legislation to protect native aquatic species and 

their habitats within Australia. 

The most important Commonwealth legislation to protect aquatic fauna is the Wildlife Protection (Regulation of 

Exports and imports) Act, 1982 which protects endangered wildlife and wildlife that would be threatened by continued 

unregulated trade. The Act seeks to prevent the introduction of live plants and animals that could adversely affect the 

Australian natural environment. The Act is administered by ANPWS, with technical advice in aquatic matters from the 

Advisory Committee on Live Fish (ACOLF) of the Australian Fisheries Council. At present, a few hundred species are 

permitted imports under Schedule 4 (freshwater fish) and Schedule 6 (marine aquarium fish). 

The Convention of Conservation of Nature in the South Pacific (Apia Convention) and the Convention for the 

Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific (SPREP Convention ) are outlined to p"vide 

models that might be considered by the Asian nations for regional co-operation in environmental conservation. 

In Australia, the impact of introduced aquatic species on native species and their habitats has 

been considerable. The following have been introduced: 

about 22 species of freshwater fish (McKay, present volume) 

eight marine and estuarine (including anadromous) fish (Pollard and Hutchings, pers. 

comm.) 

numerous aquatic invertebrates 

15 species of undesirable aquatic weeds (Arthington and Mitchell 1986) and 

at least eight species of marine algae (Pollard and Hutchings, pers. comm.). 

There is an awareness of the need for State and Commonwealth legislation to protect native 

aquatic species and their habitats in Australia. The present paper addresses ways in which 

Commonwealth Legislation protects native aquatic species. 

125

126 

The Role of the Commonwealth Government 

In Australia, responsibility for management of native fauna is vested with each State and 

Territory Government. The Commonwealth (Federal) Government has responsibilities for fauna 

in Commonwealth Territories, as well as for matters relating to fauna in import and export 

control, foreign affairs and foreign trade. Responsibility for fisheries management rests with the 

State and Territory Governments except for the above mentioned matters. 

In 1976, the Endangered Species Regulations were promulgated under the Customs Act 

1901. This legislation remained in force until 1 May 1984 when the Wildlife Protection 

(Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982 came into effect. 

In the matter of import and export control of fish (excluding fish products'), the most 

important Commonwealth legislation is the Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and 

Imports) Act 1982. This Act protects endangered wildlife and wildlife that would be threatened 

by continuation of unregulated trade (Schedules 1 and 2), generally precludes export of live 

Australian fauna for commercial purposes, and seeks to prevent introduction of live plants and 

animals that could adversely affect the Australian natural environment (Schedules 5 and 6). 

Schedule 6 contains a listing of aquarium fish, both freshwater and marire that are 

'permitted imports'. Schedules to the Act are regularly amended. With the commencement of the 

Act, all previous controls were consolidated into a single piece of legislation and responsibility 

for administration was placed with the Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service 

(ANPWS). 

Under the Act, the export and import of wildlife (and wildlife products) which is threatened 

with extinction or considered endangered is strictly regulated. Permits for trade in such wildlife 

are provided where certain conditions prevail, and the trade is for scientific or bona fide 

zoological purposes, or the wildlife has been bred in captivity or artificially propagated. 

Importation of species, such as aquarium fish, which could threaten the survival of wildlife 

within Australia is also subject to control. 

Intending importers should write to the Director, ANPWS, GPO Box 636, Canberra, ACT 

2601 Australia and complete a proforma outlining distribution, ecology and potential of the 

species to establish feral populations. 

All applications are considered by the Advisory Committee on Live Fish (ACOLF) to the 

Standing Committee of the Australian Fisheries Council. This technical advisory committee 

includes Commonwealth Government (ANPWS, Australian Quarantine Inspection Service 

(AQIS)), State and Territory Fisheries Authorities (8 members), an expert on fish disease and an 

expert on aquarium fish and meets twice a year. 

Criteria used by ACOLF in assessing applications are attached (Appendix III); the emphasis 

being on the potential of the species to survive and disperse in the wild. 

The export of Australian wildlife requires a permit unless exempted by the Act. Export of 

live Australian animals is only permitted for scientific or bona fide zoological purposes, or as 

household pets, in which case there are stringent requirements which must be met. 

The Role of ANPWS in Administration 

ANPWS has, since proclamation of the Wildlife Protection Act, been endeavouring to 

strengthen and develop close liaison with all Australian Conservation agencies and with all 

Federal departments which have a relationship to the control of wildlife.

There are presently eight State or Territory Wildlife agencies in Australia. Each operates 

independently and exercises control and enforcement of wildlife matters under separate pieces of 

legislation. Such legislation regulate the trade, holding of, and movement of wildlife both within 

and between Australian States and Territories. Law enforcement is conducted at the State and 

Territory level by officers of each conservation Service and is supported by Statelferritory 

police forces. Such legislation is not considered further in this paper. 

The international movement of fauna and flora is a Federal responsibility and, dependent 

upon the commodity, is administered by a variety of departments, e.g., with regard to fish: 

Trade in fish products - Australian Fisheries Service, Department of Primary Industries 

and Energy; 

Import and Export of fish - Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service, Australian 

Quarantine and Inspection Service (AQIS). 

At the Federal level, enforcement is primarily the responsibility of the Australian Federal 

Police and the Australian Customs Service. 

In September 1985, ANPWS hosted the first national seminar on wildlife law enforcement, 

which was conducted in Canberra. The seminar was designed to encourage wide-ranging 

discussions on enforcement matters (regardless of State or Federal requirements). Similar 

seminars have been held in Canberra, October 1986 and in Adelaide, April 1988, on the theme of 

intelligence gathering. 

As a result of the above seminars, a number of prosecutions were initiated at both the State 

and Federal level. ANPWS has been dealing with a number of Convention on International 

Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) countries particularly USA, West Germany, South Africa 

and Denmark, on enforcement matters. 

The Role of ANPWS in Research 

The aim of the ANPWS Research and Survey Program is to facilitate the production of 

reliable scientific and socio-economic information for the formulation and implementation of 

nature conservation policies and management programs. Priority information needs are 

periodically reviewed and the scope of the program is revised accordingly. The Research and 

Survey Program comprises a suite of projects funded on the basis of contracted consultancy 

services. Projects on exotic fish are listed at Appendix I and the full titles of the Reports are 

given in the references. 

A recent survey of the introduced Tilapia, in the Cairns region of North Queensland (Lear 

1987) suggested that they have set up populations up to 3 km from point of release over a period 

of 5 years, and will eventually become common in wetlands in the Cairns city area. The means 

of dispersal, whether by nature or man, could not be determined. 

127

128 

The International Obligations of Australia 

The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora 

(CITES) is probably the most important international agreement protecting endangered species 

of plants and animals. 

The governments of ninety three countries, including Australia, have now signed CITES. 

Through CITES, these countries are trying to establish a worldwide network of controls on trade 

in endangered species and species that could become endangered. 

Within the member countries of CITES, Australia stands to the fore in providing protection 

of its native animals and plants, in particular those that are endangered. 

The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat 

(Ramsar Convention) aims to promote the conservation of wetlands and waterfowl, to establish 

nature reserves on wetlands and provide adequately for their protection and wardening and to 

promote training of personnel competent in the fields of wetlands research, management and 

wardening. In addition, it aims to increase, through management, waterfowl populations on 

appropriate wetlands. 

Australia signed the Convention without reservation as to ratification in 1974 and became 

the first country to do so. The agreement came into force internationally on 21 December 1975. 

Regulations to implement this Convention in Australia were not needed since the 

Convention imposes responsibilities which may be met either administratively or by action under 

existing legislation. 

A Working Group of the Council of Nature Conservation Ministers (CONCC)M) has been 

established to advise on the implementation of the Ramsar Convention. CONCC)M has agreed 

that the nomination of wetlands to the List of Wetlands of International Importance is the 

responsibility of the individual States and the Northern Territory. The Australian National Parks 

and Wildlife Service, which is the principal advisor to the Commonwealth Government on 

national nature conservation and wildlife policies, provides the Convenor for the Working Group 

and co-ordinates activities under the Convention, including submission of nominations for 

wetlands to be added to the list (Appendix II) and the preparation of the national reports. 

There are two international conventions in which Australia has an interest that serve as 

models for regional co-operation in environmental conservation. Although there are some 

important differences, the two can be seen as complimentary. 

The Convention on Conservation of Nature in the South PacWc (Apia Convention) was 

adopted in 1976 but has not yet entered into force. Australia intends to accede to 

the Convention, which aims to take action for the conservation, utilization and 

development of the natural resources of the South Pacific Region. Article V, 

paragraph 4 states "Each contracting party shall carefully consider the 

consequences of the deliberate introduction into ecosystems of species which 

have not previously occurred therein". 

The Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the 

South Pacific Region (SPREP Convention) is not yet in force. Australlia signed the 

Convention in 1987 but has not yet ratified it. Article 14 is concerned with 

Specifically Protected Areas and the Protection of Wild Flora and Fauna. It aims 

to "preserve depleted, threatened or endangered flora and fauna ... prohibit or

egulate any activity likely to have adverse affects on the species, ecosystems or 

biological processes that such (protected) areas are designed to protect". 

Possible Future Directions 

Future directions may involve new legislation, a threatened species initiative and further 

education. 

The new legislation would be helpful if it provided uniformity between States, Territories 

and the Commonwealth to define fish species that may be imported, translocated, released, etc. 

Commonwealth Government activities already protect threatened species and their habitats 

by the provision of research funds, provision of funds to States for purchase of property, 

management of threatened species in areas under Commonwealth control, and the 

implementation of obligations under international treaties. 

The Commonwealth Government has established an Endangered Species Advisory 

Committee to advise the Minister for the Arts, Sport, the Environment, Tourism and Territories 

on strategies, priorities and implementation of the endangered species program. The Government 

is also moving to create within the Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service (ANPWS) an 

Endangered Species Unit which will establish programs for conservation of endangered wildlife 

in co-operation with State agencies. 

There is an urgent need for programs to inform the public about native aquatic invertebrates 

and fish, and to make people aware of the dangers of exotic fish and invertebrate introductions. 


Anon. 1976. Convention on Conservation of Nature in the South Pacific. Apia, 12 June 1976. 

Anon. 1982. Wildlife protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982. Australian Government Publishing Service. No. 149 of 1982. 

Arthington, A.H. and D. Milton. 1983. Ecology and interaction of exotic and endemic freshwater fishes in South Eastern Queensland streams. 

Consultancy Report prepared for Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service, Canberra, Australia. 403 p. 

Arthington, A.H. and D. Mitchell. 1986. Aquatic Invading Species, p. 34-53. In R.H. Groves and JJ. Burdon (eds.) Ecology of Biological 

Invasions: An Australian Perspective. Australian Academy of Science, Canberra. 

Lear, R.J. 1987. Survey of introduced Tilapia in the Cairns Region, North Queensland. Consultancy Report prepared for Australian National 

Parks and Wildlife Service, Canberra. Australia. XX p. 

McKay, RJ. 1978. The Exotic freshwater fishes of Queensland. Consultancy Report prepared for Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service, 

Canberra, Australia. 103 p. 

McKay, R.J. Present volume. 

Michaelis, F.B. 1985. Threatened Fish. Report on threatened fish in inland waters in Australia. Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service. 

Report No. 3: 45 p. 

Michaelis, F.B. 1986. Conservation of Australian aquatic fauna, p. 599-613. In P. De Deckker, and W.D. Williams (eds.). Limnology in Australia. 

CSIRO Australia, Melbourne and Dr. W. Junk Publishers, Dordrecht. 

Mitchell, D.S. 1986. Aquatic macrophytes and man, p. 587-598. In P. De Deckker and W.D. Williams (eds.). Limnology in Australia. CSIRO 

Australia, Melbourne and Dr. W. Junk Publishers, Dordrecht. 

UNEP. 1987. Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region, Regional Seas, UNEP. 

129

130 

APPENDIX I 

Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service 

Research and Surveys Program 

Exotic Fish 

Year Project Investigator 

1976177 A survey of alien freshwater 

fish in the Moreton Bay Region 

1977178 A survey of alien freshwater fish 

in Queensland coastal streams 

APPENDIX II 

Wetlands Designated by Australia to the List of Wetlands 

of International Importance 

Mr. R.J. McKay, 


Mr. R.J. McKay, 


1980/81 Ecology and interaction of Exotic Dr. A. Arthington, 

1982/83 and Endemic Freshwater fishes in Griffith University 

South-eastern Queensland streams 

1984/85 Marine Aquarium Fish - permitted 

imports for aquarium purposes 

1986/87 Investigation of Spread of Tilapia 

Sarotherodon spp. in Cairns! 

Townsville Region 

Ms P. Kailola, 

Adelaide 

Mr. R. Lear, Cairns, 

Queensland 

Name State or Location Area (ha) 

Territory 

Cobourg Peninsula, 

N.T. 11022'S, 

191,660 

Aboriginal Land and 

131046' - 

Wildlife Sanctuary 132°35'E 

Kakadu National N.T. 12005' - 667,000 

Park, Stage I 13 030'S, 

131022' - 

l33000'E 

Moulting Lagoon Tas. 42005'S, 

l48°lO'E 3,930 

Logan Lagoon 

Tas. 40010'S, 

2,320 

Conservation Area 

Sea Elephant 

Tas. 

1480 l7'E 

39045'S, 

1,730 

Conservation Area 

l44°05'E 

Pittwater - 

Tas. 42047'S, 

2,920 

Orielton Lagoon 

l47°30'E 

Apsley Marshes Tas. 4 1056'S, 

l48°12'E 

940 

East Coast Cape Tag. 40018' - 4,230 

Barren Island 

40026'S, 

Lagoons 

148020' 

148°26'E 

Flood Plain Lower 

Tas. 41054'S, 

1,650 

Ringaroorna River 

147°56'E 

Jocks Lagoon Tas. 41021'S, 

148°18'E 

70 

Northwestern 

Corner of Lake Crescent 

Tas. 42090'S, 

l47°l0'E 

270 

Little Waterhouse 

Tag. 40052'S, 

90 

Lake 

147°37'E 

Corner Inlet Vic. 38036' 

38055'S, 

146011' - 

146°53'E 

51,500 

Continued

Appendix II. Continued 

Name State or Location Area (ha) 

Tethtory 

Barmah Forest, Vic. 35050' - 

36001'S, 

144°56' - 

28,500 

145°20'E 

Gunbower Forest Vic. 35039' - 19,450 

36000'S, 

144008' - 

I 44°30'E 

Hattah-Kulkyne Vic. 34°38' - 1,018 

Lakes 34045'5, 

142023' - 

142°29'E 

Kerang Wetlands Vic. 35030' - 9,172 

35050'S, 

143042' - 

144°10'E 

Port Phillip Bay Vic. 37053' - 7,000 

(Western Shoreline) and 

Bellarine Peninsula 

38015'S, 

144024' - 

144°48'E 

Western Port Vic. 38012' - 52,325 

3 803 1'S, 

145002' - 

145°32'E 

Western District Vic. 38000' - 30,182 

Lakes 38020'S, 

143007' - 

143°55'E 

Gippsland Lakes Vic. 37049' - 43,046 

3 8012'S, 

147004' - 

148008'E 

Lake Albacutya Vie. 35046'S, 

10,700 

Towra Point Nature 

NSW 

141°58'E 

34000'S, 

281 

Reserve 

151010'E 

Kooragang Nature 

Reserve 

NSW 32051'S, 

151°46'E 

2,206 

Coorong and Lakes SA 35018' - 140,500 

Alexandrina and Albert 36033'S, 

138046' - 

139°50'E 

Boo! and Hacks SA 37006' - 3,200 

Lagoons 31010'S, 

140039' - 

140°44'E 

Macquarie Marshes 

NSW 30045'S, 

18,200 

Nature Reserve 

147°33'E 

Coongie Lakes SA 28°36' - 

26018'S, 

139000' - 

141 000'E 

1,980,000 

'Riverland SA 3401!' - 

26018'S, 

140042' - 

!41000'E 

30,600 

Total Area 3,304,690 

131

132 

APPENDIX LII 

Criteria for Permitted Importation of Aquarium Fish 

ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON LIVE FISH (ACOLF) to the 

Standing Committee of the 

Australian Fisheries Council 

Evaluation of fish species for exclusion from the list of permitted aquarium fish imposts 

should take into consideration the following points: 

Any histosy of forming feral populations elsewhere or of having caused a 

significant problem elsewhere. 

The capacity for survival and dispersal within Australia, particularly in 

combination with other undesirable characteristics. 

Any likelihood of having a significant detrimental impact on other fish species 

or wildlife, or on the aquatic environment. 

The status of the species as a known carrier of a dtsease not yet found in 

Australia, 

The ability of the species to cause injury to man, livestock, wildlife or the 

environment (e.g., possessing spines, electric organs, toxins). 

The potential for growth to a large size, particularly in species likely to be 

attractive under Australian conditions for aquaculture, sportfish stocking, 

weed control or similar activities not connected with the aquarium hobby. 

The degree of difficulty in distinguishing the species from other (undesirable) 

species. ("Look-alikes"). 

In addition, for marine aquarium fish, the ability of the'species to establish in 

estuaries or migrate into freshwaters. 

The availability of reliable biological information.

Recommendations of the Workshop 

1.0 TERMINOLOGY: 

1.1 

It was apparent that the terminology needed careful consideration, in spite of the 

issue of exotics and or introductions having been dealt with from time to time. 

The matter was more complicated in the region because zoogeographical 

boundaries and country boundaries in most cases were very different from one 

another. 

1.2 A separate sub-committee was appointed to examine and report on suitable 

definitions for an exotic introduction, transplant and introduction. The committee 

could not come-up with acceptable definitions during the workshop and the 

workshop requested Dr. Chua Thia-Eng and Mr. Jay Maclean to survey the 

available literature and submit suitable definitions for consideration by the 

Committee on Exotics. 

2.0 DATA BASE: 

2.1 A considerable amount of fresh data was presented on the introduction of exotics 

into the region at the meeting. Some of the information however, needed to be 

revised by participants and the Chairman of the Exotics Group (Dr. S.S. De S) 

will coordinate this activity and standardize the presentation of the data. 

2.2 The Chairman will also attempt to obtain comparable data from those countries 

which were not represented at the Workshop, and if possible also make attempts 

to dig into the "grey literature" to find the same. 

In order to achieve this end it might be necessary to identify and liaise with 

scientists who are interested in the topic in each of the countries in the region. 

2.3 The Workshop took into account the interests and experience of the FAQ, EIFAC 

and the American Fisheries Society on this topic and the need for the Society to 

liaise with these organizations was noted. 

3.0 NEW INTRODUCTIONS: 

3.1 The information available on the procedures adopted in making or deciding upon 

an introduction was scanty, except perhaps in Australia. Japan for example has no 

restrictions on live aquatic introductions. 

3.2 As such, it was deemed appropriate and relevant to document the information 

available with respect to each country. The delegates were requested to furnish 

this information, in a schematic form, in due course. The Committee on Exotics 

will attempt to compile this information in a publishable form. 

133

134 

4.0 AQUARIUM FISH: 

4.1 

4.2 

4.3 

The delegates expressed concern over the growing aquarium fish trade which in 

most instances is responsible for introduction and spread of diseases. 

The meeting agreed that an attempt should be made to list the common aquarium 

fish species imported/exported into from each country in the region, with notes on 

the quarantine measures adopted. All delegates were of the view that this is a very 

difficult task to achieve and would take a considerable amount of time to prepare 

an accurate list. 

Instances in which a fish such as pirranha imported for the aquarium industry in 

Thailand has been discovered in the natural waters, were cited as examples of the 

need to address the issue in greater depth. 

5.0 IMPACT OF INTRODUCTIONS: 

5.1 

5.2 

It was agreed that most introductions, especially the food fish species, have had 

considerable socio-economic impact in most countries, in the region. It was also 

recognized that unlike in Europe, North America or for that matter, Australia, the 

assessment of the impact in most Asian countries should be made from. a different 

view point. As an initial step, five criteria were agreed upon to dei:ermine the 

impact of introduced, common food fish species, such as for example i;he tilapias, 

carps, etc. into each of the countries. 

The final assessment is to be published in the Proceedings of this Workshop. 

It was also felt that Asia has suffered few losses of native species upi:o now and 

the number endangered are also small as a result of introductions. However, this 

was no matter for complacency and the need to scrutinize the new proposals for 

introductions was accepted. 

6.0 FUTURE ACTION: 

6.1 

6.2 

It was agreed that the results of this Workshop should be published as an Asian 

Fisheries Society Publication. The publication would include the revised, 

presented papers and further data which the participants were asked to furnish and 

summary tables on a regional basis. 

A standing committee of the Society on 'Exotics' consisting of 

Prof. Sena S. De Silva 

Dr. Frances Michaelis 

Dr. M. Shariff 

(Chairman) 

(Australia) 

(Malaysia)

(two more to be co-opted) was appointed. This Committee will liaise with other 

organizations and countries, explore ways of addressing the issue of exotics in 

depth, and collect and synthesize data on exotics to provide relevant and useful 

information to Governments in the region when and if needed. 

135

List of Participants 

Dr. Angela H. Arthington, Division of Australian Environmental Studies, 

Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland 4111, AUSTRALIA 

Mr. Don Buckmaster, Fisheries Division, Department of Conservation 

Forests and Land, Arthur Rylan Institute, 123, Brown Street, Heiderberg, 

Victoria 3084, AUSTRALIA 

Dr. Kenji Chiba, Fisheries Lab, The University of Tokyo, Maisak, 

Hamana, Shizuaka, 431-02 JAPAN 

Dr. F. Brian Davy, IDRC, Tanglin P.O. Box 101, SINGAPORE 9124 

Prof. Sena S. De Silva, Department of Fisheries Biology, University of 

Ruhuna, Matara, SRI LANKA 

Dr. Chua Thia-Eng, do ICLARM, MC P0 Box 1501, Makati, Metro 

Manila, PHILIPPINES 

Dr. H. Muhammad Eidman, Faculty of Fisheries, Bogor Agricultural 

University, Darmaga Campus, Bogor, INDONESIA 

Mr. Darryl Grey, Department of Industries and Development, GPO Box 

4160, Darwin NT 5794, AUSTRALIA 

Dr. John D. Humphrey, Australian Fish Health Reference Laboratory, P0 

Box 388, Bendila, Victoria 3672, AUSTRALIA 

Dr. Rogelio 0. Juliano, University of the Phillipines in the Visayas, Iloilo 

City, PHILIPPINES 

Dr. Akio Kanazawa, Faculty of Fisheries, Kagoshima University., 4-58-20 

Shimoarata, Kagoshima, JAPAN 

Ms. Henen K. Lasson, Northern Territory Museum, P.O. Box 4646, 

Darwin, N.T. 5794, AUSTRALIA 

Dr. I. Chiu Liao, Taiwan Fisheries Research Institute, 199 Hou - Ih Rd. 

Keelung, TAIWAN 

Dr. Hsi-Chuang Liu, Institute of Oceanography, College of Science, 

National Taiwan University, Taipei, TAIWAN 

136

Mr. J. Maclean, do ICLARM, MC P0 Box 1501, Makati, Metro Manila, 

PHIILIPPINES 

Dr. Frances Michaelis, ANPWS, GPO Box 636, Canberra, Act 2601, 

AUSTRALIA 

Mr. Michael Peani, cl- Department of Industries and Development, GPO 

Box 4160, Darwin, N.T. 5794, AUSTRALIA 

Dr. Twesukdi Piyakarncha, Dept. of Marine Science, Faculty of Science, 

Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10500, THAILAND 

Prof. Meng Quing-Wen, Shanghai Fisheries University, 334, Jun Gong 

Road, Shanghai, CHTNA 

Dr. David Ramm, Fisheries Division, Dept. of Industries and 

Development, GPO Box 4160, Darwin, N.T. 5794, AUSTRALIA 

Prof. H.P.C. Shetty, Director of Instruction (Fisheries), University of 

Agricultural Sciences, College of Fisheries, Mangalore 575002, INDIA 

137

138 

APPENDICES 

On the basis of the specific recommendation made by the Workshops attempts were made to 

gather additional information regarding introductions made in those Asian countries that were 

not represented,compile a list of aquarium fish introduced into each country, and assess the 

impact of major food fish species introductions. Needless to say that all the objectives set out 

could not be fully realized at the time the Proceeding went for print. 

Contacts were made with scientists in Bangladesh, Burma, Cambodia, Laos, Nepal and 

Vietnam amongst others; not all of them however, have responded. In spite of these limitations 

some of the information is included as it is hoped that this will provide the base for a more 

comprehensive documentation at a later date. 

The appendices that follow are therefore, not strictly a part of the Proceedings but are 

components of the follow-up activities adopted by the Workshop.

Appendix I 

Definitions of Exotics 

The 1986 ASFA Thesaurus gives a "scope note" or "rough definition" of introduced species 

as "Establishment in a new geographical area of a species by migration or artificial 

transportation." 

The same Thesaurus gives a "rough definition" of transplantation as "Artificial" introduction 

of organisms into habitats where they do not occur naturally. 

The ASFA Thesaurus does not use the word exotic. 

Welcomme, R.L. 1988. (International introductions of inland aquatic species. FAO Tech. 

Pap. 294, 318 p.) follows the 1987 EIFAC Code of Practice, which used these definitions. 

Introduced species (includes both non-indigenous and exotic species): Any species 

intentionally or accidentally transported and released by man into an environment outside 

its present range. 

Transferred species (includes transplanted species): Any species intentionally or 

accidentally transported and released within its present range. 

"Transfers are usually intended to support stressed populations, introduce genetic 

diversity into a stock or to reestablish a species whose stocks have failed locally. 

Introductions are intended to insert a totally new element into the fauna". 

Welcomme commented, "One reservation is made with respect to these definitions in that a 

species is considered to have been introduced to a country once it has crossed national 

boundaries. This means that species are included in the listing if they are transported into a 

country as part of current commercial practice for food or ornament and not for stocking into 

natural environments. Experience has shown that even such species may have impacts through 

the release of pathogens or through escape." 

Marine species: Any aquatic species that does not spend its entire life cycle in fresh 

water. 

Introduced species (= non-indigenous species; includes both non-indigenous and exotic 

species): Any species intentionally or accidentally transported and released by man into 

an environment outside its present range. 

Transferred species (= transplanted species): Any species intentionally or accidentally 

transported and released within its present range. 

Quarantined species: Any species held in a confined or enclosed system that is designed 

to prevent any possibility of the release of the species, or any of its diseases or any other 

associated organisms into the environment. 

139

140 

In the article "Strategies for reducing risk from introductions of aquatic organisms" by C.C. 

Kohler (Fisheries 11(2): 2-3 (1986)), the definitions used, which were those of Shafland, P.L. 

and W.M. Lewis 1984 (Terminology associated with introduced organisms. Fisheries 9(4): 17- 

18), were explained thus: 

For the present purposes, the terminology associated with introduced organisms follows 

that of Shafland and Lewis (1984). They define introduced as a plant or animal moved 

from one place to another by man (i.e., an individual, group, or population cr organisms 

that occur in a particular locale due to man's actions). They define exotic as an organism 

introduced from a foreign country (i.e., one whose entire range is outside the country 

where found), and a transplant as an organism moved outside its native range but within 

a country where it occurs naturally (i.e., one whose native range includes at least a 

portion of the country where found). The above terminology was adopted by the AFS 

Exotic (Introduced) Fish Section, but not without some debate. There is some 

disagreement with respect to the "fish nationality" context inherent within the 

terminology. Some scientists argue that since fish can't possibly recognize national 

boundaries that the inclusion of "nationality" in terminology should be avoided. On the 

other hand, man does recognize national boundaries, and since a fishery is defined as a 

system composed of habitat, biota and man (Lackey 1974), the "nationality" usage would 

seem to have validity. The term introduction implies man's involvement (Kohier and 

Stanley 1984), and therefore should not be confused with natural migratory or 

invasionary movements. Fortunately, the definition quandary can be effectively resolved 

by referring to "introduced species" (exotics and transplants) when dealing with the topic 

in an ecological context, and incorporating the "political" terminology when addressing 

the international concerns.

Appendix II 

Assessment of the Impact of Major Food Fish Species 

Introduced into Some of the Asian Countries 

The Workshop decided upon five criteria, admittedly not all of them easily evaluable 

nor objective, as the most appropriate means of assessing the success of the major food 

fish species introductions on the information available presently. The five criteria are as 

follows: 

the introduced species is self-reproducing in natural waters and/or easily 

bred under hatchery conditions in the host country, 

the introduced species has resulted in an increase in production, 

the introduced species has not been responsible for transmission and/or 

introduction of a new disease, 

the introduced species has not endangered any of the indigenous fish 

species, and 

the introduced species has not had any detrimental/deleterious effects on 

any waters. 

On this basis a total of 58 species belonging to 15 families which are considered as 

food fish by each country were assessed, and the details are given in Tables All. 1-9. In 

certain instances a species considered as a food fish by one country may not be given a 

similar status by another. For example, Oreochromis mossambicus is not treated as a food 

fish in Australia and in Singapore. If a species has been introduced to all countries in 

Asia under review and is treated as a food fish by all, a total maximum score of 45 is 

possible. In this manner, the actual score for each species as a percentage of the 

maximum attainable was calculated (Table AII.1O). From the data presented it is 

therefore, evident that very few species have had an overall detrimental influence on the 

native flora and fauna. Also it should be borne in mind that in certain countries because 

of the prevailing socio-economic conditions and cultural preferences a species may be 

considered as a 'nuisance' or having a degradatory effect on the native fauna. A case in 

point is the role of 0. mossambicus in Indian waters; it is conceded there had been an 

increase in production, at least in some waters due to this species, and there is no firm 

evidence to show that it has brought about a decline in production or elimination of 

native species. In spite of these, the species is categorized as a 'nuisance' species. A 

similar trend of thought to be now developing with respect to Chinese bighead carp. 

Admittedly, it is difficult to remove these biases entirely, especially when the criteria 

of assessment of the success of a species are not fully objective. It is important for the 

readers to be aware of these apparent biases. 

It is also evident from the assessment tables of individual countries that few food fish 

introductions are associated with introduction of parasites and diseases. Most food fish 

introductions were made in the 1950's to late 1960's. It may be because a knowledge of 

141

142 

fish diseases was not well developed during this period and that some of the accidental 

introductions of parasites and diseases may have gone unnoticed or not attributed to the 

introduced species. 

Table All. 1. Assessment of the status of food fish species introduced into Australia. 

Species 

Criteria 

1 2 3 4 5 

SALMONTDAE 

Salmo gairdneri + + 

Salmo trutta + + - 

Salvelinusfontinalis + + 

CYPRINIDAE 

Tinca tinca + + + 

Rutilusrsuilus + + - + 

PERCICHTHYIDAE 

Percafluviatilir + + - + 

The Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, forms the basis of a developing fisheiy, but salmon are 

confined at present to cages in the sea. 

Table AU.2. Assessment of the status of food fish species introduced into India. 

Species 

1 2 

Criteria 

3 4 5, 

CYPRINIDAE 

Carassiuscarassius + - + + 

Cyprinss carpio var. communis + + + + - 

Cyprinuc carpio var. specularis + + + + - 

Cienopharyngodon idella + + + + + 

Hypophthalmichthys molitrix + + + - 

Puntiusjavanicus + - + - + 

CICHUDAE 

Oreochromis mossambicus + + 

OSPI-IRONEMTDAE 

Osphronemus goramy + - + + + 

SALMONIDAE 

Salmogairdneri + + + + + 

S.truttafacio + + + + +

Table All.3. Assessment of the status of food fish species introduction into Japan (only those species 

which satisfied at least one of the five criteria are included). 

Taxonomic status Criteria 

1 2 3 4 5 

SALMONIDAE 

Salmo gairdneri + 

trulia 

O.kisutch + 

Sal velinus namaycush + 

S.fontinals 

Coregoniss lava ret us maraena + 

CYPRINIDAE 

Aristichthys nobilis + - - 

Hypophthalinichthys molitrix + - - 

Mylopharyngodon piceus + - 

Rhodeus ocellatus ocellatus + + + 

Cyprinus carpio ruscus - - 

Cyprinuscarpio* + - - 

Megalobrama amblycephala + - 

Tinca tinca + - 

KTALURJDAE 

Ictaluriss punctatus + 

ATHERINTDAE 

Odonthestes bonariensis + 

CENTRARCHTDAE 

Lepomis ,nacrochirus + + 

Micropterus salmoides + + + 

CICI-ILTDAE 

Oreochromis aureus + - 

0. ,nossambicus + + - 

0. urolepis hornorum + - 

(reported as Tilapia macrocephala) 

0. niloticus + + - 

Tilapia spa rrmanii + + - 

zulu + + - 

BELONTIIDAE 

Macropodus chinensis + + 

CHANNTDAE 

Channa argus + 

C.maculata + + 

143

144 

Table All.4. Assessment of the status of food fish species introduction into Malaysia. 

Family/species 

Criteria 

1 2 3 4 5 

CICHLIDAE 

Oreochromis mossambicus + + + + 

O.nilolicus + + + + 

CYPRJMDAE 

Cyprinuscarpio + + + + + 

Cienopharyngodon idella + + + + + 

Aristichthys nobilis + + + + + 

Hypophihalmichihys nwlitrix + + + + + 

Labeo rohita + + + + 

OSPFIRONEMIDAE 

Trichogaster pectoral is + + + 

Table AILS. Assessment of the status of food fish species introduction into the People's Republic of 

China. 

Family/species 

CENTRARCHIDAE 

Micropterus sairnoides 

Procambarus clarkii 

CHARACIDAE 

Colossotna bidens 

Criteria 

1 2 3 4 5 

CICHLIDAE 

Oreochromis ,nossambicus + - 

O.niloticus + + + 

O.aureus + + + + 

Sarotherodon galilaeus - + + + 

T. zillii + + + 

+ 

+ 

+ + + 

CLARUDAE 

Clarias batrachus + + + + 

C. macrocephalus + + + + 

C.lazera + + + + 

CYPRINIDAE 

Carassius auratu.s cuvieri + + + 

Puntius gonionotus + + 

Catla catla + + + + 

Labeo rohita + + + 

Cyprinuscarpio + + + 

(Scattered mirror carp) 

ICTALURIIDAE 

Ictalurus punctalus 

I. nebulosict 

PANGASIDAE 


SALMONIDAE 

Salmogairdneri 

Coregornispeled 

Coregonus sp. 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+

Table All.6. Assessment table of the statue of food fish species introduced into the Philippines. 

Species Criteria 

2 3 4 5 

ANBANTIDAE 

Helostoma lem,nincki 

CENTRARCHIDAE 

Microplerus salmoides 

Lepoms macrochirtss 

L. cyanellus 

CICHLIDAE 

Oreochromis mossambicu.s 

0. niloticus 

0. aureus 

T. zulu 

CLARIIDAE 

Clarias batrachus 

Clarias lazera 

CYPRIMDAE 


Ctenopharyngodon idella 

Aristichthys nobilis 

Hypophihalmichihys molitrix 

Labeo rohila 

Catla catla 

Carassius carassiu.s 

Cirrhinus molitorella 

C. mrigal 

Puntiusjavanicus 

Osteochilus hasselli 

ICTALURIDAE 

Ictalurus catus 

I. punctatus 

OSPHRONEMIDAE 

Trichogaster pectoralis 

T. trichoplerus 

T. leeri 


(no information) 

+ + + 

+ + + 

(No information available) 

+ + + 

+ + + 


- + + 

+ + 


+ + + 

- + + 

+ + + 

+ + + 

+ + + 


- + + 



+ + + 


(No known population) 

(No known population) 

+ + 

+ + + + 

+ (No information) 

+ + 

(Only those species that have had some impact on fish production is considered). 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

145

146 

Table A117. Assessment of the status of food fish species introduction into Sn Lanka. 

Species 

1 2 

CICHLIDAE 

Oreochroms mossambicus + + + + + 

0. niloticus + + + + + 

Tilapia rendalli + + + + + 

Tilapia zulu + - + - + 

OSPFIRONEMIDAE 

Osphronemus goramy + + 

Criteria 

3 4 5 

CYPRThTDAE 

Aristichihys nobilis + + + 

Catlacatla + + + 

Cirrhinus mn gal + 

Crenopharyngodon idella + + - 

Cyprinus carpio + + + 

Hypophihalmichihys molitrix + + + + + 

Labeo rohita + + + + + 

SALMONTDAE 

Salmogairdneni - + + + 

S.truita + + +

Table All.8. Assessment table of the status of food fish species introduced into Taiwan. 

FINFISH 


1 2 3 4 5 

ANGUILUDAE 

Anguilla anguilla 

CENTRARCHIDAE 

Microplerus salmoides 

CHARALIDAE 

Colossoma bidens + + + + 

Sciaenops ocellatus - - + + + 

CICHUDAE 

Oreochromis mossambicus + + + 

O.aureus + + + 

O.hornorum + + + 

0. nilolicus + + + 

Oreochromis sp. (red tilapia) + + + 

T. rendalli + + + 

CLARIIDAE 

Clarias balrachu.s + + + + 

CYPRIITDAE 

Arislichihys nobilis + + + + + 

Carassius auralus + + + - + 

Cirrhina ,noliiorella + + + + + 

Clenopharyngodon idellus + + + + + 

Cyprinuscarpio + + + - + 

Hypophlhalmichrhys molitrix + + + + + 

Leprobarbus hoevenii - - + + + 

Megalobrama amblycephala + + + + + 

Mylop/taryngodon piceus + + + + + 

ICTALURTDAE 

Ictalurus punclatus 

PANGASIDAE 

Pangasius cute/ti + + + + + 

SALMONIDAE 


Table All.9. Assessment table of the status of major food fish species introduced into Thailand. 


1 2 3 4 5 

CICHLIDAE 

Oreochromis mossambicus + + - - + 

O.aureus + + 

0. niloticus + + - + 

T. rendalli + + - 

CYPRINTDAE 

Aristichthys nobilis + - 

Catla caila + + - 

Cirrhina mrigala + + - 

Clenopharyngodon idellus - + - 

Cyprinuscarpio + + - + 

Hypophthalmichthys molitrLs - - + - 

Labeo rohita + + 

147

Table All. 10. The summaiy score of each food fish species in the host countries (mdi. - India; Malay. - Malaya; PRC - People's Republic of China; SL - Sri Lanka; Taiw. - Taiwan; 

Thai. - Thailand) and the potential total score (PTS), the total score ('1'S) and the total score as a percentage of PTS (%). (+) - introduced but no information available and were not 

taken into the score analysis. 

Family/Species Countries introduced into Score analysis 

Aust. mdi. Jap. Malay. PRC Philip. SL Taiw. Thai. PTS TS 

ANABANTJDAE 

Helostoma temminicki + 

ANGUILLIDAE 

Anguilla anguilla + 5 3 60 

ATHERINIDAE 

Odonthestes bonariensis + 5 1 20 

BELONIIDAE 

Macropodus chinensis + 5 2 40 

CENTRARCHTDAE 

Lepomis ,nacrochirus + + 10 7 70 

L. cyanellus + 

Micropterus salmoides + + + + 20 15 75 

Procambarus clarkii + 5 3 60 

CHANNIDAE 

Channa argsts -1- 5 1 20 

C. maculata + 5 2 40 

CHARACIDAE 

Colossoma bidens + + 10 7 70 

CICHLIDAE 

Oreochromisaureus + + + + + 20 11 55 

O.hornorwn + + 10 5 50 

O.mossambicus + + + + + + + + 40 29 73 

0. niloticus + + + + + + + 35 28 80 

Sarotherodon galilaeus + 5 3 60 

Tilapia rendalli + + + 15 11 73 

T. sparrmanii + 5 2 40 

T. zulu + + + + 20 12 60 

CLARI[DAE 

Clarias batrachus + + + 15 12 80 

C.lazera + + 5 4 80 

C. crccepha!us + 5 4 go 

CYPRINIDAE 

Aristichihys nobilis + + + + + + 30 22 73 

Carassiusauratus (varieties) + + 10 9 90 

C. carassius + + 10 7 70 

Catla cotta + + 15 11 73 

Continued

Table All.10. Continued 

Family/Species Countries introduced into Score analysis 

Aust. mdi. Jap. Malay. PRC Philip. SL Taiw. Thai. PTS TS % 

Cirrhinus pnolitorella + + 5 4 80 

Cirrhinus mrigal + 10 6 60 

Ctenopharyngodon idella + + + + + + + 35 25 71 

Cyprinus carpio + + + + + + + + 40 32 80 

Hypophzhalmichthys molirrix + + + + + 35 25 71 

Labeo rohia + + + + + 25 20 80 

Leptobarbus hovenii + 5 3 60 

Megalobrama amblycephala 10 6 60 

My! opharyngodon picejis + + 10 6 60 

Osteochilu hasselti + 

Puntius gonionotus + 5 4 80 

P. javanicus + + 10 3 80 

Rhode us ocellatus ocellatus + 5 3 60 

Rutilus rutilus + 5 3 60 

Tinca tinca + + 10 4 40 

ICTALURIDAE 

Ictaluruspunctatus + + + + 15 8 53 

Lcatus + - - 

I. nebulosus + 5 4 80 

OSPRRONEMIDAE 

Osphronemus gouramy + + + 15 12 80 

Trichogaster pecloralis 

+ + 

10 8 80 

T. leeri 

+ 

T. Irichopterus + 5 5 100 

PANGASIDAE 

Pangasius sutchi + 10 9 90 

PERCICHTHIDAE 

Percafluviasilis + 5 3 60 

SALMONIDAE 

Coregonus peled + + 10 5 50 

C.sp. + 5 4 80 

C. lavaretus maraena + 5 1 20 

Onchorhynchus kisutch 

5 1 20 

Salmogairdneri + + + + 30 21 70 

S. trutta + + + + 20 12 60 

Salvelinusfontinalis + + 10 3 30 

S. namaycush + + 5 1 20

Appendix III 

Instances of Decline/Disappearance of Indigenous 

Species as a Possible Consequence of 

Introduced Fish Species 

It will be apparent from the individual presentations that the number of instances, in the area 

under review, that an indigenous species was made extinct or endangered as a consequence of an 

introduction were few. Nevertheless, this is no reason for complacency. Also, in certain 

instances though the decline of indigenous species has been attributed to an exotic i:he evidence 

available is mostly circumstantial. In spite of these shortcomings this Appendix summarizes such 

instances. 

150

Table Affi. Indigenous species which are known to be endangered and or declined as a result of introductions in different countries. 

Countiy/Species Locality Status Reasons Authority 

AUSTRALIA 

Melanotaenja eachamensjs Lake Eacham Extinct (?) Translocation of Banao et 

(Lake Eacham rainbow fish) Queensland (IUCN) mouthbrooder al. (1987) 

Glossania apricu 

Galaxia.sfanianu.s Swan River Endangered Introduction of Michaelis (1985) 

(Swan galaxias) Tasmania Salrno trutta 

Galaxtasjohnstani 

(Clarence galaxias) 

Clarence river, 

Tasmania 

Endangered Introduction of 

Salvelinusfontiia1is 

INDIA 

Cat/a cat/a Some reservoir Decline in Introduction of Shetty et al. 

populations catches silver carp pres. volume 

JAPAN 

Rhodeu.s' ocellatu.s smithi Endangered Introduction of 

R.o. ocellatus 

MALAYSIA 

Trichogaster 

trichopterus 

(Snakehead gouramy) 

PIT11UPPINES 

Mistichihys luzonensis 

(Sinarapan) 

Native Cyprinid 

Paddy fields, 

swamps 

Lake Buhi 

Lake Lanao 

Endangered(?) Introduction of 

T. pectoralis 

Extinct(?) 

Endangered(?) 

Introduction of 

T. mossambica 

Introduction of 

Flock Glossogobiu.s 

giuris 

TAIWAN 

Macropodu.s opercularis almost extinct Due to the 

introduction of 

Ainpullarius insularu,n 

Clariasfuscu.s almost extinct C/arias batrachus do 

Oryzias latipes extinct Gambzesia affinis do 

do 

Chiba et al. 

pres. volume 

Ang et al 

present volume 

Baluyut (1988), 

De Silva, 

Juliano et al. 

(pres. vol.) & 

Frey (1969) 

Liao & Liu 

(pres. vol.) 

Leiobagru.sfosmosanus population has Micropterus salmoides Liao & Chiu 

Leiocassis adiposalis been greatly 

(pres. vol.) 

reduced 

Rhyacichthys aspro 

Mesopristes cancel/at us 

population has 

been greatly 

reduced 

Poecilia velifera do 

Erylhroculter ilishaeformis extinct Tilapia zulu do 

Oreochromis aureus 

0. mossambicus 

0. niloticu.s 

Capoeta semfa.sciolata population has 

been greatly 

reduced 

Tricogasrer trichopterus do 

151

Appendix IV 

Ornamental Fishes 

The inclusion of lists of exotic ornamental fishes in each of the countries in the proceedings 

will not be a realistic task. In the text lists of ornamental fishes introduced into Malaysia, 

People's Republic of China, Singapore, Taiwan and Thailand are included in each of the papers 

on these countries. 

A list of ornamental fishes introduced to Australia is available from Mr. R. McKay (also in 

diskette from IBM Compatible PC). 

The Indian Branch of the Asian Fisheries Society has prepared a list of ornamental fish 

introduced into India, and this will be published in the Proceedings of the Workshop on Exotic 

Organisms in India. The particular reference is: Bhaskan, I.S., Reddy, P.S., Elambarathy, B., 

Subranianium, B. and Lazarus, R.J. (in press), Exotic freshwater aquarium fishes and their role 

in the aquarium fish trade of India. 

In addition lists of aquarium fishes introduced into some of the other countries are 

documented in: Conroy, D.A. (1975), An evaluation of the present state of world trade in 

ornamental fish. FAO Fisheries Circular No. 335, pp. 120. 

The Committee on Exotic Fishes of the Asian Fisheries Society will attempt to publish a 

separate document on ornamental fishes in the near future. 

As much as interest is created in the exotics, there is a need to conserve the stocks of 

ornamental fish exported from each of the countries in the region because some of the species 

exported are endemic to specific countries/habitats, and are already cited as endangred species 

in the IUCN's red data book. 

152

Appendix V 

Existing Legislation or Code of Practices 

Adopted by Individual Countries in Respect 

of Introducing Aquatic Species 

The operative legislation of some of the countries has been dealt with in the individual 

presentations. In this Appendix, a summary of the legislation, and in the event there is no 

legislation the mechanisms that operate in deciding on introducing a species to that country, is 

presented. 

AUSTRALIA: 

The operative legislation covers all plant and animal introductions to Australia by the 

Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Export Imports) Act 1982 of the Commonwealth (Federal) 

Government. 

The Act is administered by the Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service, and on 

matters regarding aquatic species technical advice is rendered by the Advisory Committee on 

Live Fish (ACOLF) of the Australian Fisheries Council. The ACOLF also serves in an advisory 

capacity for inter-state translocations. 

Australia is also a signatory to the CITES and the SPREP conventions. 

INDIA: 

There is no existing legislature on the importation/introduction of aquatic organisms. 

However, the Indian Council for Agricultural Research, through the Commissioner of Fisheries, 

decides on any proposed introductions. 

India is also a signatory to CITES. 

INDONESIA: 

Indonesia has recently adopted the code of practice developed by the European Inland 

Fisheries Advisory Committee (EIFAC) for the introduction of aquatic organisms (Artmadja 

Hardjumulia, pers. comm.). However, this informal adoption has yet to be legalized. 

JAPAN: 

There are no restrictions or rules governing introduction of exotic species into Japan. Japan 

is a signatory to CITES and is only bound by this convention. 

153

154 

MALAYSIA: 

IDRC CR11 

rnFIN 

257598 

The present Fisheries Act 1984, which replaced the Fisheries Act 1963, governs the 

introductions into Malaysia and also translocations between West Malaysia to Labuan or Sabah 

and Sarawak and vice versa. The Director General of Fisheries is empowered by Section 40(2) of 

the Act to issue permits for introductions, and to establish and determine the quarantine 

procedure and facilities. The above Federal Statute is an addition to the number of State 

enactments some of which have been in existence since 1934. 

Malaysia is also a signatory to the CITES. 

PHILIPPINES: 

There are no laws governing the introduction of aquatic organisms. Most research institutes 

and universities however, follow strict quarantine measures with imported species. 

SRI LANKA: 

There are no laws governing the introduction of aquatic organisms per Se. However, the 

strict customs regulations act as a safety valve, and imported live organisms are expected to be 

brought into the country on the recommendation of Zoological Gardens, The Department of 

Agriculture and in the case of aquatic species, the Ministry of Fisheries. The deliberate release of 

aquatic organisms in the wild can be carried out only on the authority of the Ministry of 

Fisheries. 

Sri Lanka is a signatory to CITES. 

TAIWAN: 

There are still no laws/regulations governing the importation of aquatic organism into 

Taiwan. However, a few governmental organizations have some regulations with respect to 

certain types or species of fish. Importation of food and ornamental aquatic organisms is under 

the jurisdiction of the Taiwan Fisheries Bureau and the Council of Agriculture. The final 

authority for issue of permits lies with the Executive Yuan of the Council of Agriculture, which 

acts on the advice of Taiwan Fisheries Bureau. 

THAILAND: 

Mi101 

A Royal Decree in 1953 prohibited the introduction of many exotic animals and plants. It 

was amended in 1982 and was made into law in 1983. The law prohibits the introduction of 176 

species of fish, 21 species of invertebrates and 16 species of algae.

TITLES IN THE ASIAN FISHERIES SOCIETY 

SPECIAL PUBLICATION SERIES 

Fish Quarantine and Fish Diseases in South and Southeast Asia: 1986 Update. 1987. Edited by J.R. Arthur. 

Asian Fish. Soc. Spec. Pub!. 1,86 p. Price: Members, free. Nonmembers, US$5. 

Fisheries Education and Training In Asia: Workshop ProceedIngs. 1988. Asian Fish. Soc. Spec. Pub!, 2, 

162 p. Price: Members, free. Nonmembers, US$8. 

Exotic Aquatic Organisms In Asia. 1989. Edited by S.S. Dc Silva. Asian Fish. Soc. Spec. Pub!. 3, 154 p. 

Price: Members, free. Nonmembers, US$8. -

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