THE STEINHART AQUARIUM - Gulf of Guinea Science ...

THE STEINHART AQUARIUM 

A VIEW FOR AND BY DOCENTS


A FIELD GUIDE FOR AND BY DOCENTS

ii A Docent & Guide View of the Steinhart Aquarium Species 

FOREWORD AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

The Steinhart Aquarium, a central part of the California Academy of Sciences since 1923, two years 

ago opened a complex of exhibits as innovative and exciting as the institution that houses it. With 

the Steinhart’s spectacular return to Golden Gate Park, docents, who everyday share their passion 

and insight with the public, needed access to useful information specifically about the ever-growing 

and changing Aquarium collection of live animals. This Field Guide along with the photo IDs of the 

inhabitants of multispecies tanks hopes to fill an important part of that need. 

This digital guide, easy to update, is well suited to track the on-going diversification of Aquarium animals. 

Ideally, the Field Guide will be a resource improved and updated by information and suggestions from 

our Academy family—curators, staff, docents, guides and other volunteers, and all who love our finny, 

tentacled, slithering, gliding, flying, arboreal, aquatic, terrestrial denizens—all 38,000 of them. 

This is a book created by volunteers for volunteers; contributors and advisors were many and appreciated! 

Researchers and Writers: Maureen Aggeler, Ellen Barth, Roberta Borgonovo, Susan Crocker, Susana 

Conde, Pat Dal Porto, Steve Doherty, Arville Finacom, Ann Hardeman, Sandy Linder, Ted Olsson, 

Will Meecham, Alan Pabst, Owen Raven, Mary Roberts, Maggie Scott, Alice Settle, Elizabeth Shultz. 

Peter Schmidt earns a special star for the original conception of a field guide and for writing well over 

half of the entries, even more if the first two editions are counted. 

Photography: Nearly all the pictures within these pages were taken by Ron DeCloux, whose skill and 

commitment add an important visual component to our understanding. See his complete portfolio at 

http://www.flickr.com/photos/cas_docents/collections. 

Support: The Aquarium staff answered many questions almost more quickly than we could frame 

them, especially Tom Tucker, Bart Shepherd, Dave Chan, Nicole Chaney, Charles Delbeek, Jim 

Evans, Frank Glennon, Brenda Melton, Kristen Natoli, Rich Ross, Pam Schaller, Matt Wandell, Seth 

Wolters, Nick Yim, and others. 

This is actually the fourth edition of a Steinhart Guide for and by docents. Many curators and other 

staff members have given us help along the way. We hope their patient explanations are reflected 

in these pages. Any inaccuracies are due to the our interpretations, and most certainly not to the 

information received. 

Special thanks to Kathleen Lilienthal, Manager of Docent and Guide Services, for her unfailing support. 

The Docent Materials Group 

Sandy Linder, Coordinator 

April, 2009

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Table of Contents iii 

Foreword ii 

Fish Families 5 

Field Guide Introduction 15 

Steinhart Aquarium Field Guide 19 

ID Pictures 

California Coast Main Tank 229 

Southern California Tank 237 

Tidepool 240 

Cal Coast Giants Tank 247 

Philippine Coral Reef Main Tank 249 

Caribbean Tank 272 

Neotropical Forest 276 

Amazon Flooded Forest 282 

Steinhart Species List 287 

Glossary 308 

Index 313

CARCHARINIDAE (REQUIEM SHARKS) 

12 genera 50 species 

Ron DeCloux 

FISH FAMILIES 


Requiem sharks are probably the largest family of living sharks with worldwide distribution in 

all tropical and temperate waters. Many migrate long distances and some enter brackish and 

freshwater. Most are small, relatively harmless species; a few are large, dangerous patrollers of 

coastal and open water. Better known species include the oceanic whitetip shark, sandbar shark, 

bull shark, blacktip and whitetip reef sharks, and tiger shark. All have five gill slits, which, like all 

sharks, lack a cover (operculum). 

Their streamlined body shape and behavior make the group the one people think of as “typical” 

sharks. Most are strong active swimmers and deadly hunters, well-equipped for finding and 

attacking prey. Like all sharks, they possess special sensing organs called ampullae of Lorenzini, 

gel-filled sensory pits on the snout so acute they are able to detect the electric charge produced by 

the nerves of another animal’s body, an incredible prey-honing system! Requiem sharks, unlike 

many other shark species, also have exceptionally good eyesight, comparable to human vision. 

Their teeth are typically serrated and bladelike with a single cusp. Sharks as a group may have 

from 6 to 20 rows of teeth, depending on the species. Usually only the first two rows of teeth are 

used for feeding. The others are replacement teeth that move forward in conveyor-belt fashion 

when older teeth are broken off. Sharks may replace teeth every few days, thus keeping the 

functional rows razor sharp.

6 

A Docent Field Guide to the Species of the Steinhart Aquarium 

All are viviparous except the ovoviviparous tiger shark. In this group, viviparous females have a 

placenta, in the form of a yolk sac, carries nourishment from the mother’s body to the young after 

the pups have exhausted the food supply in their eggs. 

How dangerous are these sharks. Statistics show about 50 shark attacks on humans occur each 

year, resulting in about 5 deaths. At least half these attacks are from requiem sharks, most notably 

the tiger, oceanic whitetip, and bull shark. As unsettling as those numbers seem, we are more 

likely to choke to death on a fish bone than be killed by a shark! 

MURAENIDAE (MORAY EELS) 


Mostly marine and found worldwide in tropical and temperate seas, this diverse group is noted 

for large mouths with numerous sharp teeth. Most species lack pectoral and pelvic fins; the 

anal and dorsal fins extend along much of the body and are continuous with the caudal fin. Gill 

openings are small and roundish, situated on the side of the head. 

Often secretive during the day, morays feed mostly at night on crustaceans, cephalopods, and small 

fishes. Their fanglike teeth are designed to tear rather than hold or chew, and can inflict painful 

wounds on humans. A second set of jaws in the pharynx can be thrust forward into the mouth to 

grasp prey. Like all true eels, their leptocephalus larvae are distinctive and characteristic. 

CYPRINIDAE (CARPS, TRUE MINNOWS, AND THEIR RELATIVES) 

210 genera 2,010 species 

The Cyprinidae, found on all continents except South America, Australia, and Antarctica, is the 

largest family of freshwater fishes. Best known species include the goldfish (Carassius auratus) 

and the common carp (Cyprinus carpio), which from the 18th century has been bred in Japan in the 

ornamental variety known as koi. 

Cyprinids as a group have a single dorsal fin, abdominal pelvic fins, a lateral line, and cycloid 

scales. They lack teeth in the mouth, but have 1–3 rows of pharyngeal teeth for grinding food 

against an opposing horny pad. All cyprinids are egg layers; most species do not guard the eggs. 

SYNGNATHIDAE (PIPEFISHES, SEAHORSES, AND SEADRAGONS) 


Pipefishes, seahorses and seadragons are characterized by long tubular snouts and elongate 

bodies encased in rings of bony plates. The head of pipefishes is in line with the body axis, 

while the head of seadragons and seahorses is bent downward from the body’s main axis. Fin 

configuration depends on the group; however, all syngnathids are slow-moving species that 

depend on cryptic behaviors. Seahorses also possess a prehensile tail that lacks a caudal fin.


All members of the family feed on minute invertebrates sucked into the long snout. Because they 

lack teeth and a true stomach, digestion is somewhat inefficient, and syngnathids need to feed 

almost continuously on their tiny prey. 

Reproductive habit is highly unusual in that parental care is mostly left to the male. Seahorse 

males possess a ventral brood pouch where eggs are fertilized and incubated after deposition 

by the female. Male pipefishes may have a brooding pouch or a simple patch of spongy 

material where eggs adhere. Seadragon males carry eggs on an adhesive brood patch under 

the tail. 

SCORPAENIDAE (SCORPIONFISHES AND ROCKFISHES) 


A large family of mostly marine fishes found in all tropical and temperate seas, the scorpionfish 

family takes its name from the venomous spines that adorn nearly all its members. Other 

characteristics include a compressed body, and most have spines on the head as well as near and 

on the operculum. The dorsal fin, while usually single, is often notched and supported by stout 

spines. Spines on the dorsal, anal, and pelvic fins have venom glands at their bases that, when 

compressed, deliver a toxic cocktail to would-be predators or careless humans. 

Scorpaenidae is the largest family of fishes along the California coast, where at least 65 species, 

including 60 kinds of rockfishes, are known. Rockfishes possess relatively mild toxins, but should 

still be handled with care. Fertilization is internal. Some species lay eggs; others give live birth, 

including all rockfish species 

William Eschmeyer, Curator Emeritus of the Academy, is one of the world’s leading experts on 

scorpionfishes. 

SERRANIDAE (SEA BASSES, GROUPERS, AND BASSLETS) 


Serranidae is a large family of marine fishes. They are usually found over reefs, in tropical to 

temperate waters. 

The basslets, small, colorful planktivores that in the wild feed primarily on tiny crustaceans 

and fish eggs floating in the upper levels of reef waters, are the common serranids found in the 

Philippine Coral Reef Exhibit. Like other serranids, basslets are protogynous hermaphrodites; in 

other words, they are born female, and a few change sex to become dominant males as breeding 

needs arise. They produce large quantities of eggs and their larvae are planktonic, generally at the 

mercy of ocean currents until they mature into adults.

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APOGONIDAE (CARDINALFISHES) 


Found in the Atlantic and Indo-Pacific oceans, cardinalfishes are primarily marine, though some 

are found in brackish waters and a few in freshwater streams. Many species inhabit reef flats, 

lagoons, and seaward reefs to 60 feet (18 m). 

The family is characterized by two separate dorsal fins, large eyes, and a large mouth. The name 

derives from the red coloration of some well-known species, though many are drab or striped. 

Most remain hidden during the day, and then disperse over the reef at night to feed on 

zooplankton and small benthic invertebrates, always remaining close to the substrate. Males of 

many species are mouth brooders. 

CHAETODONTIDAE (BUTTERFLYFISHES) 


Butterflyfishes, with their bright colors, distinctive shape, and interesting behaviors, are among 

the most recognizable coral reef fishes. Nearly all are found in tropical waters with the highest 

concentration of species occurring in the Indo-West Pacific. All species have a deep, laterally 

compressed body with a continuous dorsal fin and distinctive rounded anal fin. Many have a 

band across the eye and/or a false eyespot, patterns that may lure a predator to attack the tail 

rather than the head. 

The mouth is small, terminal, and protrusible with small brushlike teeth. The shape and size of 

the jaw varies among species and correlates with the type of prey taken. Some butterflyfishes 

prefer small invertebrates, others nibble on coral polyps or graze on algae, and still others feed 

on zooplankton. The length of the jaw, which in some species may be quite elongate, allows 

partitioning of resources, with some species able to reach a meal unavailable to another. 

POMACANTHIDAE (ANGELFISHES) 


Brightly colored, large, and elegant, the angelfishes are among the most spectacular of reef fishes. 

The family is circumtropical in distribution. Most are found in the tropical Indo-Pacific, mainly on 

coral reefs in relatively shallow water. 

Like their close relatives the butterflyfishes, they have a deep, laterally compressed body, a single, 

unnotched dorsal fin, and a small mouth with brushlike teeth. The most observable difference 

between the two families is the long spine at the corner of the preopercle common to angelfishes. 

Many angelfishes also have extensions, often long and graceful, on the back end of the dorsal and 

anal fins. 

Diet varies among species, ranging from algae, detritus, and plankton to sponges and small, 

benthic invertebrates. Typically, they spend daylight hours near the bottom in search of food, and 

shelter near boulders or in caves and crevices at night.


Some species are noted for dramatic changes in color and pattern from juvenile to adult. Breeding 

groups are haremic, with a single dominant male and several females. If the male dies, the 

dominant female can change sex, sometimes within a matter of days. 

CICHLIDAE (CICHLIDS) 


The Cichlidae is a family of primarily freshwater fish species with worldwide distribution. One of 

the largest fish families, at least 1,300 cichlid species are known and probably many others are yet 

to be discovered (some estimates suggest 3,000 total species may exist). Greatest cichlid diversity 

is found in Africa and South America. Substantial numbers are found in Central America and a 

few as far north as Florida and southern Texas. 

As a group, cichlids are highly variable in body size, from species as small as 2.5 cm such as the 

kribensis (Pelvicachromis pulcher) displayed in Staff Picks, to those approaching 1 meter, such as 

the peacock bass (Cichla ocellaris) on display in the Amazonian Flooded Forest tank. Cichlids live 

in almost every conceivable freshwater habitat, and their diets range from other fish, to fish scales 

and parasites, algae, and everything in between. 

Perhaps their most striking characteristic and an adaptation for success is the remarkable degree 

of parental care they invest in eggs, fry, and juveniles, care that may last for weeks or even months. 

See various species descriptions for examples. Many cichlids, such as the tilapias, are important 

food fishes; others such as the peacock bass, are prized as game fish. 

Cichlids have been called the Darwin’s finches of the water world. To the evolutionary biologist, 

their most intriguing characteristic is their rapid rate of speciation. For example, a few ancestors 

are thought to have invaded Lake Malawi about 700,000 years ago, and from this small 

number some 700 known species populate the lake today, each with a seemingly unique set of 

characteristics that prevent it from competing directly with others. Madagascar has a variety 

of cichlid species only distantly related to those of Africa, from which it separated over 100 

million years ago. Knowledge of the distribution and evolutionary divergence of cichlid species 

worldwide has added to our understanding of the movement of Earth’s tectonic plates over time. 

EMBIOTOCIDAE (SURFPERCHES) 


With the exception of one freshwater species, most surfperches are found in coastal waters of the 

North Pacific, and are common along the California coast. Members of the family are laterally 

compressed with oblong or elliptical bodies, a forked tail, and a continuous dorsal fin with a 

scaled ridge along its base. Most are silver, and many species are barred or striped. Many form 

schools or loose aggregations.

10 


All are livebearers. Internal fertilization is aided by the thickened front part of the male’s anal 

fin. Young are nourished within the female. Many are born relatively quite large, and some are 

capable of reproducing immediately after birth. 

POMACENTRIDAE (DAMSELFISHES, CHROMIS, AND ANEMONEFISHES) 


The Pomacentridae is a large family with worldwide distribution. Most species inhabit tropical 

seas, though a number are found in temperate seas as well. The garibaldi, the California State Fish, 

is a member of the family. The majority of species inhabit the Indo-Pacific, and many are common 

on Philippine coral reefs. Anemonefishes, better known as clownfishes and well represented in our 

exhibit, are damsels that live in association with sea anemones. 

While a few are drab, most family members are often brightly colored in shades of green, orange, 

yellow, red, even neon blue. Mostly small and laterally compressed, damselfishes often occur 

in high population densities and, though there are always exceptions, as a group are known for 

their territoriality and aggressiveness, expressed in both feeding and reproductive behaviors. Size 

doesn’t deter members of this feisty group that regularly take on a much larger fishes. 

Damselfish pairs establish a territory and defend it vigorously. Eggs are laid on the substrate, 

fertilized, and stoutly guarded by the male, who may also fan them with his fins to keep them cool 

and oxygenated. Many damsel species are capable of sex change, starting life as male and later 

becoming female. 

CIRRHITIDAE (HAWKFISHES) 


A family of small and usually colorful species, hawkfishes are found in tropical waters of the 

Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific oceans. The group is characterized by thickened and elongate pectoral 

fins, a single continuous dorsal fin, and numerous short filaments at the tip of each dorsal spine 

that look like pom poms. 

All are carnivores that feed on small benthic crustaceans and fishes. The common name derives 

from their habit of perching on coral heads or other advantageous sites, using their large pectorals 

for purchase. The family lacks swim bladders, an adaptation for their benthic lifestyle. 

Species studied are protogynous hermaphrodites. Dominant males are territorial and maintain a 

harem of females. 

LABRIDAE (WRASSES) 


Wrasses are a marine family found in tropical and temperate waters of the Atlantic, Indian, and 

Pacific oceans. The second largest family of marine fishes, wrasses are particularly abundant and 

conspicuous on tropical reefs worldwide.


Wrasses are most easily identified by their pointed snouts and prominent canine teeth that protrude 

in front of the jaw. Other common characteristics include their form of propulsion, which depends 

mostly on the winglike motion of the pectoral fins with only an occasional burst of speed provided by 

the caudal fin. Typically diurnal, many wrasses bury themselves in sand or seek crevices at night. 

Size, shape, and color are quite diverse as are habitat, diet, and reproductive strategy. Males, 

females, and juveniles often sport different colors and shapes, adding to the challenge of 

identifying a given species. Food preferences vary, depending on species, from fish, mollusks, 

worms, corals, echinoderms, plankton, vegetation and other choices in between. Some, such as the 

cleaner wrasse Labroides dimidiatus, are famous for their habit of removing mucus, parasites, and 

scales from larger fishes. 

Like a number of other fish families, many species of wrasses may change sex with age. In some 

species, males may be primary (the initial sex) or secondary (females that have undergone sex change). 

In others, such as the cleaner wrasse, all individuals are born female and some change sex as necessary. 

BLENNIIDAE (BLENNIES) 


Blennies are found worldwide in tropical, subtropical, and temperate seas. Blennies are bottom 

dwellers with blunt heads and long anal fins. They often possess cirri, branching appendages on 

the head. Most have small comblike teeth for feeding on algae, but some steal bites of fins, scales, 

or skin from other fish. Most lay adhesive demersal eggs that are often guarded by the male. 

Because of their small size and elongate bodies, blennies and gobies are often confused with one 

another; however blennies are distinguished by their single, long continuous dorsal fin, their 

pelvic fins situated in front of their pectorals, and their habit of resting on the bottom with curved 

bodies. Gobies have two-part dorsal fins and rest with straight bodies. 

GOBIIDAE (GOBIES) 


Members of a huge family, gobies are found in salt, brackish, and fresh waters, mostly in the tropic 

and subtropics, but are well represented in temperate waters as well. They are typically found in 

shallow coastal areas and around coral reefs. The Gobiidae has more marine species (probably 

more than 2,000) than any other fish family. 

Gobies are small, usually less than 10 cm (4 in). They have distinctive two-part dorsal fins, and 

the pelvic fins are fused together to form an adhesive disk used to maintain purchase on the 

substrate in strong currents. Most species possess two separate dorsal fins; lateral line is absent. 

Like bottom-dwelling blennies, gobies lack a swim bladder. Most are carnivores on benthic 

invertebrates; some feed on plankton. 

Though reproductive variations are numerous, gobies typically spawn over a nest prepared by the 

male, who clears a small area where eggs are deposited and subsequently guards the eggs.

12 


SIGANIDAE (RABBITFISHES AND SPINEFOOTS) 


Mostly marine and ranging widely in the tropical Indo-Pacific and eastern Mediterranean, 

siganids are highly compressed, relatively deep-bodies fishes. They have small terminal mouths, 

minute scales, and venomous spines on dorsal, anal, and pelvic fins that can inflict painful 

wounds to both divers and unwary aquarists. 

The common name “rabbitfish” comes from their voracious appetites as diurnal herbivores on 

algae as sea grasses. All are open-water spawners. Some species are highly valued as food fishes; 

colorful species are sought for the aquarium trade. 

ACANTHURIDAE (SURGEONFISHES) 


Acanthurids are exclusively marine dwelling and are found in all tropical and subtropical seas, 

except the Mediterranean. Typically found on offshore coral reefs, surgeonfishes have deep, 

compressed bodies with small mouths and close-set teeth efficient for nibbling and scraping small 

organisms from rocks and coral. 

Their distinguishing feature is a modified scale on the caudal peduncle which forms a scalpel-like 

blade often covered with toxic slime. These spines are used for species recognition, defense, and 

competition for mates. Surgeonfishes are unusually long-lived, with many known to exceed 30 

years of age. 

Acanthurids are grazers and planktivores. Those that feed on filamentous and leafy algae perform 

an important service to the reef, keeping thick mats of vegetation from smothering corals. 

Unicornfishes are diurnal planktivores, often seen hovering above the reef gleaning nutritious 

morsels. Because of their elaborate coloration, intriguing behaviors, and coral-protecting feeding 

habits, surgeonfishes are a favorite of both visitors and aquarists. 

BALISTIDAE (TRIGGERFISHES) 


Mostly found on coral reefs in relatively shallow water, triggerfishes have a highly compressed body 

and close-fitting scales that provide a flexible armor. They are mobile, but not fast swimmers noted 

for providing propulsion by the undulations of the second dorsal and the anal fins, with an occasional 

boost from the pectorals. The caudal fin is mostly used as a rudder. Like their close relatives the 

surgeonfishes, they sport spines on the caudal peduncle used to intimidate potential intraspecific 

competitors and others. Their small eyes on top of the head can be rotated independently. 

The common name comes a unique interaction between the large first dorsal spine and the smaller 

second one behind. When the posterior spine is erect, it locks the strong first spine in place, wedging the 

fish into a protective space, perhaps a hole or under a rock, where a predator can rarely extract it. When 

the posterior spine is depressed, the anterior spine folds back easily, like taking a lock off a trigger.


Most are solitary, diurnal predators that feed on various invertebrates. The upper jaw contains 

both sharp teeth for capturing prey and flattened, plate-like teeth used to crush shells, or an 

occasional careless human finger! 

OSTRACIIDAE (BOXFISHES) 


Found in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific oceans mostly in tropical or subtropical waters, 

boxfishes are named for the armor-like carapace of bony polygonal plates that encompass the 

head and body, like a shell. This body covering has gaps for the mouth, eyes, gill openings, anus, 

and fins when present. Pelvic fins are absent and the upper jaw is non-protrusible. Ridges on the 

surface of the plates are often armed with prominent spines. 

These slow moving, diurnal species feed on a variety of small sessile invertebrates and algae, 

depending on their armor for protection. Some species secrete a highly toxic substance which may 

be lethal to other fishes and even themselves if confined to small areas in an aquarium. 

Species studied to date are haremic. A dominant male defends a territory containing females and 

subordinate males. Other common names are trunkfishes and cowfishes.

14 

A Docent Field Guide to the Species of the Steinhart Aquarium

Ron DeCloux 

Steinhart Field Guide Introduction 

USING THE STEINHART 

FIELD GUIDE 

The Steinhart Field Guide (SFG) is designed to give species specific information about nearly all of 

the denizens of Steinhart Aquarium, including the Rainforest, in a user-friendly format. Depending 

on interest or need, a reader can find an overview of a particular species or simply look up a piece 

of information about a species that answers a visitor’s question. The Guide isn’t meant for cover-tocover 

reading or memorization, but rather as a reference handbook. When conflicting testimony was 

discovered in the literature, information in this guide tends to agree with the most recently published 

papers. 

Resources used for the Field Guide were extensive. The total bibliography, which is available to 

anyone with an interest, runs several pages, and includes books, jourmals, select websites, and firsthand 

information from Academy scientists and Aquarium staff. 

SYSTEMATIC ORGANIZATION 

The SFG is organized systematically, according to highly respected studies and reviews, 

including the Catalogue of Fishes, a review of the estimated 25,000 - 28,000 extant known species of 

fish undertaken by Academy curator William Eschmeyer, the Systematic List of Octocoral Genera by 

Academy curator Gary Williams, and Hexacorallians of the World, a classification by Daphne Fautin, 

Fellow and former curator of the Academy. 

15

16 A Docent Field Guide to the Species of the Steinhart Aquarium 

EXPLANATION OF VARIOUS CATEGORIES 

Note: if no information was available, a category is omitted. 

Name: 

The common name assigned to a species in the Steinhart Aquarium is taken primarily from 

FishBase, an internationally recognized resource that depends heavily on names suggested in 

occasionally by other accepted common names (aka = also known as). These aliases are often 

referred to in scientific literature or recognized by the public. According to www.fishbase.com 

there are currently more than 28,500 valid fish species with more than 188,700 common names. 

In the FG the species name is followed by the scientific name of its family and the English 

language name of the family. 

Distribution: 

Habitat: 

Recorded geographical distribution, per literature consulted. 

Ecological environment. May include notes concerning diurnal versus nocturnal location and 

activity. Also may include information on individual vs. colonial behavior, etc. 

Appearance: 

Diet: 

A general description, typically of adult, juvenile and/or larva, from the literature consulted. 

Length and weight statistics are maximum size reported in the literature. 

What an organism eats. 

Reproduction and Development: 

Information on how a species reproduces and grows. This information is lacking for some 

species on exhibit at the Howard Steinhart. 

Mortality/Longevity: 

Big fish eat smaller fish. That cliché aside, little seems to be recorded in the references consulted 

as to causes of mortality. Longevity records proved to be the most elusive data to track down. 

The SFG provides species-specific information, and so does not include general items such as 

the fact that one sea anemone lived more that 50 years in captivity, since the reference did not 

cite the species. One important point is that many longevity records are for captive individuals 

not subject to predation, as well as having the benefits of veterinary care and a constant supply 

of adequate nutrition. Lifespan in the “real world” may be far shorter.

Conservation status: 

Steinhart Field Guide Introduction 

Information in this section comments on the status of a particular species in nature and usu- 

ally includes a status rating by the IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature and 

Natural Resources), occasionally includes a CITES (Convention on International Trade in En- 

dangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) Appendix number as well as comments about unregulated 

exploitation and illegal trade. Repetitious information, for example that coral reefs, 

coral reef fishes and the invertebrates dependent upon those coral reefs are at risk due to global 

warming, habitat destruction, etc. (see Coral Reef—An Overview) was not included. However, 

docents should be aware of such threats. 

The IUCN issues a regular bulletin as to that organization’s opinion as to the status of the 

taxon that it is tracking. It is important to note that the IUCN is not monitoring the status of all 

species. Following is a categorization of the IUCN terms: 

EXTINCT (EX) - A taxon is Extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that the last 

individual has died. 

EXTINCT IN THE WILD (EW) - A taxon is Extinct in the Wild when it is known only 

to survive in cultivation, in captivity or as a naturalized population (or populations) 

well outside the past range. A taxon is presumed extinct in the wild when exhaustive 

surveys in known and/or expected habitat, at appropriate times (diurnal, seasonal, 

annual), throughout its historic range have failed to record an individual. 

CRITICALLY ENDANGERED (CR) - A taxon is Critically Endangered when it is 

facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild in the immediate future, as 

defined by any of the criteria described below. 

ENDANGERED (EN) - A taxon is Endangered when it is not Critically Endangered 

but is facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild in the near future, as defined by 

any of the criteria as described below. 

VULNERABLE (VU) - A taxon is Vulnerable when it is not Critically Endangered 

or Endangered but is facing a high risk of extinction in the wild in the medium-term 

future. 

LOWER RISK (LR) - A taxon is Lower Risk when it has been evaluated, but does 

not satisfy the criteria for any of the categories Critically Endangered, Endangered or 

Vulnerable. 

DATA DEFICIENT (DD) - A taxon is Data Deficient when there is inadequate 

information to make a direct, or indirect, assessment of its risk of extinction based 

on its distribution and/or population status. A taxon in this category may be well 

studied, and its biology well known, but appropriate data on abundance and/or 

distribution is lacking. Data Deficient is therefore not a category of threat or Lower 

Risk. Listing of taxa in this category indicates that more information is required 

17


and acknowledges the possibility that future research will show that threatened 

classification is appropriate. 

NOT EVALUATED (NE) - A taxon is Not Evaluated when it is has not yet been 

assessed against the criteria. 

The IUCN Criteria for Critically Endangered, Endangered and Vulnerable can be accessed at 

www.redlist.org by clicking on the Categories and Criteria menu. 

Other remarks on conservation status refer to CITES. The convention was concluded in 1973 in 

Washington, D. C., and by 1986 had more than 80 nation states as members. 

CITES seeks to regulate the trade in threatened wildlife (live, dead or parts; e.g., elephant ivory) 

by cooperation between exporting and importing countries. The species subject to regulation 

are listed in three appendices: 

Appendix I includes “all species which although threatened with extinction which 

are or may be threatened by trade. Trade in specimens of these species must be 

subject to particularly strict regulation in order not to further endanger their survival 

and must be authorized in exceptional circumstances.” 

Appendix II includes “all species which although not necessarily threatened with 

extinction may become so unless trade in specimens of such species is subject to strict 

regulation . . . .” Controls on species similar in appearance to threatened species are 

also listed in this appendix. 

Over 2000 species of coral, including all black corals (Order Antipatharia), blue corals 

(Order Coenothecalia), stony corals (Order Scleractinia), fire corals (Milleporidae 

spp., Stylasteridae spp.), and organ-pipe corals (Tubiporidae spp.) are listed in 

Appendix II of CITES. 

Appendix III includes species given strict national protection, for which party states 

seek international cooperation in enforcement. Appendix III is rarely used. 

The Convention is implemented by licences issued in member states, and no species listed in 

CITES can be legally traded without some sort of documentation.

ALGAE 

GREEN (DIVISION CHLOROPHYTA) 

Sea Lettuce 

Ulva spp. (Ulvaceae) 

Distribution: Ulva taeniata: Oregon to Point 

Dume, California. Other Ulva spp. more widespread. 

Habitat: Intertidal and shallow subtidal. 

Appearance: Thin thallus, colored leafy 

green. 

Reproduction and Development: Undergoes 

a cyclic alternation of generations between the 

sporophyte (spore-producing alga) and gametophyte 

(gamete-producing alga). Both types 

appear identical macroscopically. Mobile flagellated 

zoospores are produced by meiosis. The 

zoospores disperse and attach to a hard substrate, 

where they grow into a haploid male or female 

(the gametophyte), which produces and releases 

sperm or eggs by mitosis. Fertilization produces 

the diploid zygote, which settles, attaches and 

grows to become a diploid sporophyte. 

Conservation status: Tolerant of organic and 

metal pollution (although there are limits). Most 

likely will increase in population numbers as 

their more sensitive tide pool mates die off. Grow 

rapidly and produce vast quantities of spores 

and gametes, thus a true sea “weed.” 

Remarks: A popular “sea vegetable” for 

human consumption. 

Ron DeCloux 

California Academy of Sciences 

A FIELD GUIDE TO SPECIES OF 


19 

Moss Ball 

Aegagropila linnaeim (Cladophoraceae) 

Filamentous Green Algae 

Distribution: The free-floating spherical 

forms are known only from Austria, Iceland, 

Scotland, Japan, and Estonia. 

Habitat: Lake balls, as they are sometimes 

called, are restricted to a few freshwater lakes. 

Appearance: Velvet-green rounded shape. 

Known to grow to 30 cm (i.e., larger than the 

tank it presently inhabits). 

D i e t : P r o d u c e s n u t r i t i o n t h r o u g h 

photosynthesis. 

Reproduction and Development: Size of balls 

increases from vegetative growth. 

Conservation Status: A number of the lakes 

where these enigmatic balls once formed no 

longer support their growth, perhaps due to 

eutrophication and in some cases the use of 

the lakes for timber transportation, a practice 

that blocked sunlight to the plants. The plant’s 

limited dispersal capabilities may also increase 

the effect of local habitat degradation. 

Remarks: The moss ball is a species of 

filamentous green macroalgae (Chlorophyta). 

A moss ball is a rare growth form. 

The moss ball is called “Marimo” in Japan. A 

mari is a soft bouncy play ball; “Mo” refers to


aquatic plants. They are not related to moss! 

Mythology from the Iloklaido district of Japan, 

where the few lakes with moth balls are found, 

tells the story of a young couple who drowned 

in a local lake and their hearts turned into moss 

balls. In 1952, Marimo were declared a Special 

Japanese Natural Treasure. 

One adaptation suggested for the spherical 

shape: When silt or other fine debris collects 

on the upper surface, gravity causes the plant 

to rotate and the debris to fall off, leaving the 

plant able to collect more sunlight. 

BROWN (DIVISION PHAEOPHYTA) 

Rockweeds 

Fucus distichus, F. serratus, F. vesiculosus 

(Fucaceae) 

Distribution: Oregon to Point Conception, 

California. 

Habitat: Middle to upper tidal zone. 

Appearance: Dichotomously branched, murky 

green to dark brown algae. Length to 25 cm. 

Reproduction and Development: The tips of 

the blades become swollen and covered with 

small bumps when reproductive. Fucus can 

produce diploid zoospores asexually. 

Remarks: The Latin word fucus was originally 

applied to “seaweeds” in general. 

Feather Boa Kelp 

Egregia menziesii (Alariaceae) 

Distribution: Pacific Coast of North America, 

Alaska to Baja California. 

Habitat: Low to subtidal rocky outcrops along 

moderately exposed coasts; usually found in 

dense stands. 

Appearance: Olive green to dark brown thick 

strap-like blade called “fronds,” fringed with short 

lateral blades and studded with pneumatocysts 

(gas-filled cells promoting buoyancy); blades 

surmount stubby stipe attached to fleshy, conelike 

holdfast; length 5–7 meters. 

Reproduction and Development: Reproduce 

by spores; rapid growth. 

Mortality/Longevity: Perennial. 

Remarks: Common name comes from the feather 

boa, a style accessory worn draped around the 

neck; harvested commercially as nitrogen-rich 

“dressing” for agricultural land. 

Processed for algin, a gelatinous substance 

widely used as a thickening, stabilizing, 

emulsifying, or suspending agent in industrial, 

pharmaceutical, and food products, such as ice 

cream.used in inks and ice cream. 

Natural underwater habitat for many small 

species, mostly invertebrates; when uprooted 

by storm surge and cast onto the shore above 

the high tide line, degenerating kelp becomes 

habitat for numerous small land creatures. 

Oar Weed 

Laminaria spp. (Phaeophyceae) 

Distribution: North Atlantic and northern Pacific; 

also the Mediterranean Sea and off Brazil. 

Habitat: Low intertidal to subtidal areas 

along the coast, from 8–30 m. This genus is so 

characteristic at this depth, the zone is known 

in some schemes as the Laminaria zone. 

Appearance: Stout holdfast attaches to solid 

substrate to anchor its long, limber stipes and 

deeply incised blades. 

Diet: Photosynthetic. 

Remarks: Laminaria species, as well as other 

brown algae, are commercially grown for the 

extraction of iodine and algin. Algin is used 

in the food industry as a thickening agent 

and as a mold-making material in dentistry 

and prosthetics. These kelp are also used as 

fertilizer and stock feed in some areas 

Macrocystis aka Giant Kelp 

Macrocystis pyrifera (Lessoniaceae) 

Distribution: Pacific coast of North America 

from central California to Baja California. 

Habitat: Grows in extensive beds or forests 

in cool coastal waters where hard substrate is 

available for attachment. Restricted to shallow 

depths where young plants receive sufficient 

light for growth. 

Diet: Kelps photosynthesize, using the energy 

of sunlight to convert carbon dioxide, water, 

and nutrients into the organic compounds 

that sustain their growth. Unlike terrestrial 

plants, kelp absorb nutrients directly from the 

water; holdfasts, though they have a root-like 

structure, function solely for attachment. 

Reproduction and Development: Develops 

from microscopic spore that grows into a small 

male or female gametophyte. Gametophytes 

produce sperm and egg that join and

subsequently grow into the familiar kelp, 

which when mature sheds spores to repeat 

the process. 

Mortality/Longevity: Relatively few herbivores 

graze directly on living kelp, abalone and sea 

urchins being notable exceptions. Most of its 

energy enters the food chain as detritus, bits of 

dead organic matter dissolved in the water that 

are taken up by a variety of filter feeders. The 

plant is a perennial. Holdfasts may survive 4 

to 10 years, fronds from 6 to 12 months. 

Conservation Status: An increase in the 

population of sea urchins, probably caused 

by the indiscriminate hunting of the sea otter, 

which preys heavily on urchins, may have been 

a prime reason for the disappearance of large 

expanses of kelp forests along the Pacific Coast 

in the recent past. Now protected, sea otters 

have increased in number, and the kelp forests 

again cover their historic ranges. 

Remarks: Kelp forests provide food and shelter 

for many kinds of invertebrates and fish as well 

as a few species of birds and marine mammals, 

such as otters and seals. Holdfasts are home 

for a variety of small snails, worms, and other 

organisms. 

Giant kelp is the fastest growing organism 

known, adding almost .6 m a day to its length 

under optimal conditions! 

Kelp beds along the Pacific Coast are the most 

extensive and richly populated in the world, 

supporting millions of organisms representing 

some 1,000 species. 

RED (DIVISION RHODOPHYTA) 

Encrusting Coralline Algae 

Corallina spp. (Corallinaceae) 

Distribution: Widespread in all the world’s 

oceans. 

Habitat: Common on intertidal rocky shores 

and coral reefs. 

Appearance: Their crustose growth form can 

range from just a few micrometers to several 

centimeters thick. May present a few pink to 

grayish pink patches on rocks or reefs, or cover 

nearly 100% of an area. Some species may be 

purple, yellow or blue. The structure is hard, 


21 

strengthened by calcareous deposits within 

the cell walls. 

Diet: Create their own food through 

photosynthesis. Like all red algae, they 

contain phycoerythrin, a pigment which 

reflects red light and absorbs blue light. Blue 

light penetrates water to a greater depth than 

most other wavelengths, allowing red algae 

to photosynthesize in deeper water than most 

other algal groups. 

Remarks: Some 1600 species of encrusting 

coralline algae have been described. The 

family also includes articulating corallines 

(see below). 

Thick encrusting corallines provide 

microhabitat for a number of invertebrates, 

some of which also feed on the algal film that 

grows on the coralline. 

Encrusting corallines are especially significant 

in the ecology of coral reefs: their calcium 

carbonate structure helps cement the reef 

together, and they are important sources of 

primary production. 

Articulating Coralline Algae 

Corallina spp. (Corallinaceae) 

Distribution: Aleutian Islands to the Galapagos 

Islands (Corallina vancouveriensis). Corallina 

officinalis has an even greater distribution, and 

the variety chilensis occurs along the entire 

California coast and beyond. 

Habitat: Corallina vancouveriensis forms dense 

tufts and mats in the middle to lower intertidal 

zone. Corallina officinalis var. chilensis occurs 

from tide pools to the subtidal. 

Appearance: Both are red (Rhodophyta) articulated 

calcareous algae with pinnate branching. 

Armored segments much more robust on Corallina 

vancouveriensis. 

Reproduction and Development: Alternation 

of generations. The sporophyte and gametophyte 

plants appear similar. 

Remarks: Heavy calcification of the outer part 

of the cell wall is an effective defense against 

herbivory. 

Generic name means “little coral.” 

Corallina officinalis is the medicinal algae of the 

ancients, named by Linnaeus for its use as a 

vermifuge (to expel parasites from the intestinal 

tract). Linnaeus erroneously believed the 

corallines were coral-like animals.


In 1837 it was discovered that corallines were 

algae, not animals. 

Turkish Towel 

Gigartina spp. (Gigartinaceae) 

Distribution: California coast (and beyond). 

Habitat: Lower intertidal to subtidal zones. 

Appearance: Oval, generally undivided blades 

to width of 20 cm. Apex is blunt. Open coast 

algae are thick; algae of this species in calm 

water are thin and crisp. 

Diet: Photosynthesize. 

Reproduction and Development: Alternation 

of generations. The sporophyte and gametophyte 

plants appear similar. 

Remarks: Common name derives from 

prominent papillae. 

Some gigartina spp. are grown commercially 

for the extraction of carrageenan, a gel used 

in many food products as a thickening and 

stabilizing agent. 

Iridescent Red Algae 

Iridaea spp. (Gigartinacea) 

Distribution: Along the Pacific Coast from 

British Columbia thru northern California. 

Habitat: Rocky intertidal and subtidal. 

Appearance: Characterized by a glistening 

iridescence caused by the reflection and 

refraction of light off the multiple layers of its 

cuticle and cell walls. Colors change with the 

angle of incident light, which in turn changes 

with the movement of the thallus (leaf-like 

structure) in the currents. 

Diet: Photosynthetic. 

Reproduction and Development: Most reds 

have a complex three-stage life history. 

Remarks: Some species are a dark red, others 

almost green or black. Color differences are due 

to more or less red-producing phycoerythrin 

pigment in the cells. 

Sea Sacs 

Halosaccion glandiforme (Palmariaceae) 

Distribution: North Pacific; Alaska to Point 

Conception, California. 

Habitat: Exposed rocky habitats in the midintertidal 

zone. 

Appearance: Small green-yellowish sacs, 

usually filled with seawater and air; young 

algae have purple pigmentation characteristic 

of red seaweeds. Anchored by short, circular 

holdfasts. 

Remarks: Water and air-filled sacs protect the 

seaweed from overheating and drying during 

periods of exposure. Air bubbles keep the sacs 

upright during submergence. 

Sacs may contain small crustaceans that take 

advantage of protected living space. 

PLANTAE 

ANGIOSPERMAE 

(FLOWERING PLANTS) 

Saltgrass 

Distichlis spicata (Poaceae) 

Grasses 

Distribution: Endemic to Western Hemisphere; 

found in most of the contiguous United States 

as well as Hawaii. 

Habitat: Coastal strand above all but highest 

tide line; upper reaches (landward edges) of 

tidal and seasonal wetlands; alkali basins. 

Appearance: Semi-erect, low-growing grass 

with wiry, stiff green leaves; c 30 cm in height 

but normally drooping, often prostrate; tiny, 

but conspicuous purplish-yellow flowers in 

spring and early summer; salt crystals often 

visible on stems and leaves. 

Reproduction and Development: Angiosperm. 

Asexual reproduction by cloning year-round 

along scaly rhizomes; seeds germinated along 

spikelets viable but success rate low due to 

harvesting by birds and marsh mammals. 


Remarks: Halophyte. Roots absorb salt water 

from which the salt crystals are visibly secreted 

along blades and stems. Spikiness unpleasant 

on bare feet. 

Can be weedy and invasive. Currently being 

studied for its potential to reclaim saline 

saturated soils. 

Cordgrass aka Pacific Cordgrass 

Spartina foliosa (Poaceae) 

Grasses 

Distribution: Endemic to Central and Southern

California into Baja; introduced successfully 

into Del Norte County; hybrids prevalent in 

Alameda County. 

Habitat: Salt-laden, tidal wetlands in coastal 

estuaries, especially partially submerged 

channels; tolerates deep submersion (half its 

height) for up to half a day (two high tides). 

Appearance: Stout, coarse-grained, hollow. 

oxygen-filled stalks up to 39 cm in height; 

leaves may be 10 mm broad at base; flowers 

appear along stalks. 

Reproduction and Development: Angiosperm. 

Asexual, self-regenerative, reproduction by 

cloning year-round along buried runners 

(rhizomes); seeds able to germinate but success 

rate low. 


Conservation Status: Endangered wherever 

marshes are drained for shoreline development. 

Threatened by spread of introduced S. 

alterniflora, a native of the U.S. Gulf and Atlantic 

coastlines which competes and hybridizes 

easily with S.foliosa; since S. alterniflora is a 

soil accreting agent (S. foliosa is not), its spread 

threatens the continued existence of coastal 

wetlands. 

Remarks: Halophyte. Able to exclude some 

salts from sea water as it enters root system; 

remaining salts excreted through vegetative 

glands; nitrogen fixing nodules on roots. 

Keystone species of tidal marshes. Efforts 

underway to plant reclaimed wetlands with 

taller growing specimens to restore clapper 

rail habitat. Few animals equipped to eat 

cordgrass; it contributes directly to the health 

of the marsh ecosystem as detritus which is 

processed by microorganisms that return its 

nutrients to the life cycle. 

Water Chestnut Tree 

Pachira aquatica (Bombacaceae) 

Distribution: Tropical America from southern 

Mexico to Guyana and northern Brazil. 

Habitat: Prefer a site that is flooded much of 

the time, along the edges of a swamp or river. 

Best suited to areas with a wet/dry season, 

since growth is fastest when the water recedes 

and oxygen is available to the roots. Grow at 

altitudes up to 1280 m, average temperature of 

25° C, and 100–200 cm of precipitation a year. 

Description: Showy evergreen tree which in 


23 

the wild can grow to 18 m. Trunk is thick with a 

cylindrical shaft. In flooded sites trees develop 

stilt roots and buttresses. In cultivation trees may 

be more shrub-like. Shiny, dark green palmately 

compound leaves 20–25 cm in length. Buds 

open into large creamy white flowers. Although 

showy, flowers may be hidden by dense foliage. 

The capsular fruit is similar to cocoa bean, a 

football-shaped woody pod, up to 30 cm in 

length and 12 cm in diameter, olive-yellow green 

in color. Globular, dark brown nuts. 

Remarks: Nuts are edible, tasting somewhat 

like peanuts; can be eaten raw, roasted, or fried. 

Toasted seeds can be ground and reportedly 

“can be prepared as a chocolate that tastes good 

but smells repulsive.” 

Young leaves and flowers are cooked and used 

as vegetables. 

Leaves are soaked in water to produce a liquid 

used by indigenous people for protection 

against poisoning and as an antidote for bites 

of poisonous animals. 

Red Mangrove 

Rhizophora mangle (Rhizophoraceae) 

Distribution: Native to tropical New World, 

Atlantic and Pacific coastlines plus Galapagos 

Islands; Western coast of Africa; numerous 

Pacific islands. 

Habitat: Salt-saturated sand or mud, inundated 

twice daily, along tropical seacoasts, river and 

estuary margins; often adjacent to coral reefs. 

Appearance: Ranges in height from 6–15 m; has 

multiple prop roots descending from widely 

spreading branches; reddish-brown. Ridged, 

scaly bark; tough, broad, smooth-edged leaves, 

dark green on top, pale beneath, 5–15 cm long. 

Small, yellowish-white flowers produce small 

reddish-brown conical berries in November. 

Reproduction and Development: Vivipary 

(germination of seeds while still attached to 

mother plant); after a tap root from 15–30 cm 

in length develops, seedlings detach, fall onto 

mud or into water and float horizontally on 

the tide to random destinations. 


Conservation Status: Endangered where 

shoreline is cleared for fish and shrimp farming 

or industrial and recreation uses. 

Remarks: Halophyte; semi-succulent; lenticels 

in bark provide aeration of roots and stems.


“Mangal,” mangrove groves or stands, are 

important breeding, feeding and nursery 

grounds for fish and birds; decomposed leaf 

litter sustains the system. 

Mangroves are being used in tropical shoreline 

reclamation worldwide. 

Brazilian Beauty Leaf 

Calophyllum brasiliense (Clusiacea) 

Distribution: Natural range extends from 

Mexico throughout Central America to 

northern South America. It also grows in the 

West Indies. 

Habitat: A canopy tree of humid tropical 

rainforests with annual rainfall above 300 cm. 

Prefers temperatures between 24°–30 °C, and 

elevations below 1500 m. Frequently found in 

coastal areas and in plains of rivers, creeks, or 

marshes. 

Description: Upright evergreen trees that can 

reach heights of 30–45 m. Bark is grey to black 

with longitudinal furrows. Leaves are simple, 

elliptic or oval, and about 10 cm long. They 

are shiny, dark green above and light dull 

green below. Numerous white fragrant showy 

flowers, 5–10 cm diameter on stems with 2–20 

flowers per stem. White male flowers have 

clusters of 40–50 orange stamens. Fruits are 

golf-ball size globular berries, turning from 

greenish yellow to brown as they mature. 

They are poisonous, and contain chemical 

compounds that may relieve pain and have 

anticancer and antiviral properties. 

Remarks: Timber is resistant to termites, and 

has been used for external buildings. 

A brown dye is made from the bark. 

Latex has been used in Central American 

folk medicine to reduce fevers and heal cuts. 

In the Brazilian Amazon it is used to control 

diabetes. 

Leaves are used for anti-inflammatory effects 

and in infusions to control asthma and 

digestive problems. 

Recently, studies suggest the roots, flowers and 

fruits have been found to contain compounds 

more potent than aspirin or acetaminophen 

in relieving pain and inflammation as well 

as having other antifungal and antiviral 

properties. Derivatives might prove useful 

against some cancers and Epstein Barr virus. 

Black Olive Tree aka Oxhorn Bucida 

Bucida buceras (Combretaceae) 

Distribution: Bucida are native to Yucatan 

peninsula and the coast of Mexico, Central 

America and northern South America. Have 

been planted as shade and ornamental trees 

in Florida and West Indies. Grown for timber 

in Puerto Rico. 

Habitat: Along streams, on coastal margins and 

on hummocks of mangrove swamps. Tolerate 

salt spray, and grow well in coastal areas. Best 

at lower elevations, temperature of 24°–30° 

C, and 75–200 cm of rainfall a year, but are 

drought tolerant once established. 

Description: Mature trees are 12–15 m evergreens 

with a smooth trunk and strong wind-resistant 

branches. Pyramidal shape when young, but 

develops full, oval crown with age. Leaves: 

dark bluish green, rounded or oval at the apex 

and tapering toward the base, blades 5–10 cm 

long and clustering at the branch tips. Flowers: 

small inconspicuous greenish yellow in 10 cm 

spikes, may be male or complete. Fruit: small 

black-olive shaped fleshy fruits containing one 

seed; non-edible and highly tannic, messy and 

stains when it drops. 

Remarks: Wood is used as a fuel and makes 

excellent charcoal. It is heavy and difficult to 

work due to the high silica content. Resistant to 

dry and subterranean termites, the wood is used 

for decks, pilings, bridges and ship timbers. 

In Haiti a bark and leaf decoction is used to 

treat fevers. 

An unidentified mite is responsible for a hornshaped 

gall, thus the common name Oxhorn 

Bucida. 

West Indian Mahogany 

Swietenia mahogani (Meliacae) 

Distribution: Native range is southern Florida, 

Bahamas, and West Indies. Because of its value 

as wood only few large trees remain, except in 

preserves. 

Habitat: Grows on a wide variety of sites. 

Requires a mean rainfall between 9–21 m per 

year. Can colonize areas with salt spray. 

Description: A medium to large tree with a 

broad dense crown and a straight trunk, often 

buttressed. Can be 22 m tall with a diameter 

greater than 0.6 m. Semi-deciduous: loses

leaves as new ones replace them. May be 

without leaves for a few weeks if weather is 

unfavorable. Leaves are compound with 3–4 

leaflets arranged like the veins of a feather. 

There is no leaflet at the tip. Flowers are small 

and inconspicuous. Both male and female 

flowers are on the same tree. Brown egg-topear 

shaped fruit up to 13 cm long. Produce 

multiple winged seeds about 5 cm long, which 

are dispersed by the wind. Seeds are collected 

for “plantations” to provide 2nd growth forests 

for harvest of wood. 

Remarks: Swietenia mahogani is known as the 

best source of superior wood for furniture. 

Its color is deeper red and the grain more 

even than other species of mahogany. It is 

now rare and the major source of mahogany 

wood is Swietenia macrophylla. Since the 1600s 

the primary use of West Indian mahogany 

has been as a cabinet wood for fine furniture. 

A carpenter, sailing with Sir Walter Raleigh 

in 1595, first described its characteristics. 

The first recorded piece of furniture from 

mahogany was a chair made in 1661. It is 

now in Trinity Hall Museum in Aberdeen, 

Scotland. In 1704 a severe frost killed many 

of the walnut trees in Europe and mahogany 

furniture became even more in demand. In 

1721, English parliament repealed a heavy 

duty on timber imports from the colonies. 

Since then the popularity of mahogany has 

threatened its survival. 

Fanciful uses: In a lexicon of Magic, Harry 

Potter’s James had a wand made of mahogany. 

It was “excellent for Transfiguration.” J.K. 

Rowling said if she had a wand it would be 

mahogany with a phoenix feather core. 

Peach Palm 

Bactris gasipaes (Palmae) 

Distribution: Indigenous to Amazonian 

areas of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Brazil. 

Cultivated widely since pre-Colombian times 

and distributed throughout the Neotropics. 

Habitat: Grows on a variety of tropical sites. 

Optimal rainfall: between 200–380 cm per year, 

rather evenly distributed the year round. 

Description: There are many cultivated 

varieties with different characteristics adapted 

to local conditions. Can attain a height of 20–30 

m. Most have stiff black spines in circular rows 

from base to summit. A few have minimal 


25 

spines, which is desirable, since it makes it 

easier to harvest. Leaves are 2.5–3.5 m long 

with many linear pointed leaflets up to 0.6 

m long and 3 cm wide; dark green above 

and pale below. Inflorescence is about 30 cm 

and may contain up to 30,000 flowers, both 

male and female, but primarily male. Flowers 

are pollinated by 2 species of beetles, which 

have a tight biologic association with the 

palm. Great variation in color, size, shape and 

quality of fruit, usually in clusters of 50 to 100 

individuals. Some varieties are seedless and 

some have a single brown seed. 

Remarks: Peach palm is a source of hearts 

of palm. It is sold as a commercial crop in an 

expanding global market. Terminal buds can 

be cut; lateral shoots will maintain the plant 

and sustain the plantation. 

Native people eat the fruit as a source of 

protein, carbohydrate, and fat. On average 

peach palm fruit is 8% protein, 15% fat, and 

70% carbohydrate. The oil is 60% unsaturated 

and 40% saturated. The flavor of peach palm 

fruit has been described as like maize or 

potatoes, as slightly sweet, or as resembling a 

European chestnut. The fruit is also made into 

flour similar to maize or cassava and used for 

cakes and bread. After the oil is extracted, the 

mesocarp yields a high quality meal that is 

used both by humans and as animal feed. 

PHYLUM CNIDARIA 

CLASS HYDROZOA 

Fire Coral 

Millepora sp. (Milleporidae) 

Distribution: Pantropical. 

Habitat: Shallow reefs. 

Appearance: Colored brownish, greenish or 

grayish, often with a yellow hue and light tips. 

Skeleton calcareous with diverse growth-forms 

from fine branching, to domes, encrusting, or 

sheet-like. May form extensive colonies to 2 

m diameter. 

Diet: Microplankton; zooxanthellae also provide 

nutrition. 

Reproduction and Development: Sexual 

reproduction, with both medusa and polyp


stages; asexual reproduction via budding. Note 

Anthozoan corals have only a polyp stage. 

Conservation Status: All coral reef species are 

threatened due to global warming. 

Remarks: Fire corals are important reef-building 

organisms, though they are not closely related 

to the most common group of reef-building 

hard corals (Scleractinians), which belong 

to an entirely different class (Anthozoa). 

Unlike octocorals or hexacorals, fire corals 

possess polyps so small they are almost 

microscopic. One type is armed with 

nematocysts for food-capture and defense; the 

other type is capable of sexual reproduction. 

Potent nematocysts are also used to clear 

the coral of organisms that might shade 

zooxanthellae and can inflict a painful, burning 

sting to humans, hence the common name. 

Fire corals can outcompete many other corals 

by growing large quickly. and dominating the 

available space. 

CLASS ANTHOZOA 

SUBCLASS OCTOCORALLIA 

ORDER HELIOPORACEA 

(BLUE CORAL) 

Blue Coral 

Heliopora coerulea (Helioporidae) 

Distribution: Red Sea, east Africa; western and 

central Indo-Pacific. 

Habitat: Normally lives in shallow reef waters, 

tidal to 18 m; frequently exposed at low tides. 

Prefers strong light and currents. 

Appearance: Colonies up to 1 m across; have 

sturdy, thick, slate-like branches. Growth forms 

and colony shapes are variable (sheets, plates 

and branching columns). Living coral is brown, 

the color of its zooxanthellae. 

Diet: Feeds on products of its zooxanthellae, 

and extends feeding tentacles at night for 

plankton capture. 

Reproduction and Development: Sexes 

separate; a brooder with fertilization and 

larval development taking place within female 

polyps. Larvae are released when almost fully 

developed and settle immediately. 

Remarks: H. coerulea is the sole member of its 

genus. 

Though it looks like a stony coral, it is the only 

octocoral that has a massive calcium carbonate 

skeleton. much like hydrocorals or hard corals. 

Blue coral can be an important reef builder. 

The common name comes from the powderblue 

color of the skeleton, which is impregnated 

by an oxidized iron salt manufactured by the 

coral and not visible when the animal is 

alive. 

Has been called a living fossil as its morphology 

has shown little change in some 150 million 

years. 

ORDER ALCYONACEA 

(SOFT CORALS AND GORGONIANS) 

Organ Pipe Coral 

Tubipora musica (Tubiporidae) 

Distribution: Tropical Eastern Indo-Pacific 

and Red Sea. 

Habitat: Shallow water to about 15 m. 

Appearance: Thickly-set tubes are joined by 

calcareous shelves that often form multi-level 

platforms. Colonies form rounded clumps 

2–30 cm. in diameter. Tubes and platforms are 

reddish-purple; tentacles are greenish, goldenbrown 

or gray. 

Diet: Polyps encased in the hard tubes 

emerge to feed nocturnally. Microcarnivore 

of plankton. 

Reproduction and Development: Polyps arise 

from a creeping mat or stolon. 

Remarks Popular in the aquaria trade. 

Cladiella 

Cladiella spp. (Alcyoniidae) 

There are at least 40 species in this genus. 

Distribution: Indo-Pacific, Red Sea. 

Habitat: Tropical coral reefs. Zonation varies 

by species, intertidal to 30 m. 

Appearance: Colonies may be encrusting or 

rise from a broad and short stalk, with a knobby 

lobed upper surface. Many species bear brown 

tentacles on white stalks. When polyps expanded 

the colony looks brown, when they 

contract, the colony is white. Diameter varies

y species, 10–30 cm. 

Diet: Microcarnivore of plankton. Algal 

endosymbionts photosynthesize. 

Remarks: Cladiella is difficult to distinguish 

from Ancyonium. 

Lobophytum 

Lobophytum spp. (Alcyoniidae) 

Notes apply to entire genus comprised of at 

least 47 species. 



by species, intertidal to 30 m. 

Appearance: Typically colored yellowish 

brown, some ridged leather corals colored 

green by their algal endosymbionts. Ridged 

leather corals often encrusting or low and 

spreading. Upper surface with ridges and 

crests. Some colonies to 1 m in diameter. Lobed 

leather corals often encrusting or low and 

spreading. Upper surface with rounded or 

finger-like lobes. Usually no real stalk; colony 

often grows out from a low platform. Large 

polyps distinctly spaced from one another.. 

Diet: Microcarnivore of plankton. All with 

algal endosymbionts. 

Remarks: Like Sarcophyton, to which it’s 

closely related, Lobophytum has two distinct 

types of polyps, one quite small, the other 

larger. Sinularia has only one. 

Sarcophyton aka Mushroom Leather Coral 

Sarcophyton spp. (Alcyoniidae) 

More than 35 species in genus. 



by species, intertidal–30 m. Most often found in 

shallow-water reef flats in turbid water wwith 

gentle current.. 

Appearance: The largest species in the genus 

reaches a height of 1 meter. It is the largest 

species in the family Alcyoniidae. Colors vary 

among species: white, grey, yellowish-green, 

green. Colonies mushroom, funnel, or cup 

shaped, often with a folded margin. Typically 

have a thick, rubbery appearance with tentacles 

that extend from the large, often convoluted 

upper surface. Main stalk, often visible, bears 

no polyps. 

Diet: Microcarnivore of plankton and algal 

photosynthesis. 


27 

Reproduction and Development: Typically 

reproduces asexually by budding or fragmentation. 

Mortality/Longevity: Some species are fed 

upon by nudibranchs and snails. 

Remarks: Many of the mushroom leather corals 

produce toxic terpenoid compounds. Some 

may prove beneficial for cancer treatments or 

other medical uses. 

Sinularia 

Sinularia spp. (Alcyoniidae) 

Comments apply to genus of ~110 species. 



by species, intertidal to at least 25 m., but most 

abundant in shallow lagoons. 

Appearance: Highly variable by species, as can 

be gleaned by common names. 

Flat Leather Coral (9 species) spreading and 

plate-like or upright and funnel-shaped, central 

polyp-bearing portion without lobes or 

ridges, margin thin and undulating or lobed, 

polyps dense or thickly set; 

Slimy Leather Coral (3 species) long, slender, 

tube-like lobes which can be flabby and extremely 

slimy; 

Digitate Leather Coral (majority of species 

in the genus) can be low, flat, and encrusting 

with a very short stalk, or tall and erect with 

well-developed stalk, colonies may be soft 

and flaccid, or a tough, leathery texture, upper 

surface with numerous finger-like lobes that 

may be singular, bifurcated, or branching; 

Knobby Leather Coral (many species) broad 

stalk, upper surface covered with short lobes 

or low rounded knobs. 

Diet: Nutrition from algal symbionts; also 

microcarnivore of plankton. 

Reproduction and Deveolopment: Separate 

sexes; broadcast spawners. Also reproduce 

asexually by fission. Aborescent forms regularly 

drop tips of branches that subsequently 

attach to rocks or other hard surfaces. 

Remarks: Species of Sinularia can only be accurately 

identified by microscopic examination 

of the skeletal sclerites. 

Chemical products such as various cytotoxic 

diterpenes have been isolated from some Sinularia 

species. Such compounds are being studied for


their toxic effects on human cancer cells. 

Tree Coral 

Capnella sp. (Nephtheidae) 

Distribution: Indo-Pacific. 

Habitat: Reef slopes in clear water with strong 

currents. Also on coral rubble in shallow water 

close to shore. 

Appearance: Cream, gray, brown, pink to 

green. Has a thick trunk, like a tree, with many 

branches; small, but conspicuous polyps are 

crowded on the upper branches; polyps are 

non-retractile. 

Diet: Phytoplankton and microfauna; also 

harbors zooxanthellae and can, if necessary, 

thrive without active feeding. 

Reproduction and Development: Reproduces 

both sexually and asexually. Most often in 

aquaria reproduce by dropping tips of small 

branchlets that become new colonies. Colonizes 

aggressively. 

Remarks: Like most leather corals, Capnella 

species shed a mucous coat on a regular basis 

to clear themselves of algae and debris. Such 

cleansing activity is less frequent when coral 

is situated in a high current area. 

Waving Hands Polyps 

Anthelia spp. (Xeniidae) 

Distribution: Red Sea, Indo-Pacific, and east 

to Hawaii. 

Habitat: Shallow water with high light 

intensity,usually in areas exposed to strong 

tidal currents. 

Appearance: Have polyps with one or more 

rows of long pinnules along each tentacle edge 

that are readily moved by water currents, thus the 

common name. Each stalk contains one “hand” 

with eight “fingers.” Color white, gray, brown, or 

pale blue. Non-retractile polyps. Usually grow in 

mat- or crust-like colonies that may cover large 

areas of the reef. Height: 2–10 cm. 

Diet: Nourishment primarily from products of 

symbiotic zooxanthellae. 

Reproduction and Development: Asexual by 

means of creeping mat that forms stolon-like 

fingers. Also sexual reproduction. This matlike 

base from which the polyps rise on slender 

stalks distinguishes Anthelia from other coral 

look-alikes, such as Xenia (see below). 

Remarks: Unlike some Xenia species, Anthelia 

do not move rhythmically of their own 

accord. 

Pulsing Xenia 

Xenia spp. (Xenidae) 

Distribution: Red Sea, Indo-Pacific. 

Habitat: Many reef locations. 

Appearance: Usually form small colonies 

with a diameter of about 10 cm. Most species 

develop mushroom-shaped colonies with 

polyps which make pumping movements in 

their upper parts. Polyps, each on a delicate 

stem 3–5 cm tall, rise colonially from a sturdy 

stalk some 8 cm long. 

Diet: Nutrition primarily from their 

zooxanthellae, but may also absorb organic 

compounds through their body tissue. 

Reproduction and Development: Sexual; 

internal brooders. Colonies also propagate by 

splitting in two. 

Remarks: Purpose of the pumping action is 

unknown; it may promote water circulation for 

the colony that benefits feeding or gas exchange. 

Green Star Polyps 

Briareum sp. (Briareidae) 


Habitat: Outer reef slopes and in lagoons and 

bays. Attach to solid reef structures or coral 

rubble at 4.5–30 m. Usually carpet the area in 

the form of mat-like communities—occasionally 

so compact that the individual polyps are 

difficult to distinguish. 

Appearance: Central mouth with elongated 

tentacles on the perimeter. Completely extended 

and flattened disc reveals distinctive, 

spoke-like orientation of tentacles. Usually 

colored greenish overall, may be brownish, 

yellowish, orangish or blueish.Polyps often 

extend from an encrusting sheet. Colors may 

fluoresce. Disc up to 3.5–5 cm. 

Diet: Most nutrition provided by symbiotic 

algae; also capture microplankton. 

Reproduction and Development: Colonial; 

primarily reproduce asexually by polyp budding 

from thin runners, or stolons; capable of 

rapid spreading. 

Conservation status: Global warming puts all 

coral reef-associated species (and terrestrial 

species too!) at risk.

Remarks: Can retract polyps individually in 

response to attack. 

Finger Sea Fan 

Diodogorgia nodulifera (Anthothelidae) 

Distribution: Western Atlantic Ocean. 

Habitat: Hard surfaces on low profile reefs in 

deep water, 25 m or more. 

Appearance: Two color variations: bright 

yellow-orange with red and white polyps, and 

red to purple with white polyps, like those 

on display. Sclerites support the smooth, stiff 

branches. 

Diet: Lacking zooxanthellae, this sea rod feeds 

exclusively on zooplankton, and must be feed 

by hand in an aquarium setting. 

Reproduction and Development: Most often, 

brittle branches fragment and form new 

colonies. 

Remarks: This handsome gorgonian is popular 

in aquaria, but requires expert care. 

Encrusting Gorgonian 

Erythropodium caribaeorum (Anthothelidae) 

Distribution: Caribbean, south Florida and 

Bahamas. 

Habitat: Reefs, especially shallow fringe, patch 

and back reefs, 1–30 m. 

Appearance: Colonies form encrusting tancolored 

mats. Extended polyps and tentacles 

are fine and hair-like. When polyps retract, 

surface is smooth and leathery. Size 7.5–90 

cm. 

Diet: Nutrition primarily from zooxanthellae. 

As in many gorgonians, tan color a result of 

endosymbiotic zooxanthellae. 

Remarks: Able to kill stony corals and other 

gorgonians by encrusting. Its nematocysts 

(stinging cells) can kill most stony corals by 

their touch. 

Gorgonians are far more common in the 

Caribbean than in the Philippines. 

A different species of Erythropodium is found 

in the Indo-Pacific. 

Warty Sea Rod aka Swollen-knob 

Candelabrum 

Eunicea mammosa (Plexauridae) 

Distribution: Southern Florida, Bahamas and 

Caribbean. 

Habitat: Shallow, turbulent hard substrates, 


29 

patch reefs, outer reefs, wall lips. Depth range 

is 1.5–27 m. 

Appearance: Light yellowish brown 

candelabrum shaped colonies. Colonies 

compact with stout branches. Close-set, tubular 

calyces that give a knobby appearance when 

polyps are closed. Colonies to 30 cm. height. 

Diet: Microcarnivore. Like most gorgonians, 

the zooxanthellae in the tissue of the polyps 

aid in nutrition. 

Among gorgonians, the Plexauridae is one of 

the largest families 

Sea Rods 

Plexaura spp. (Plexauridae) 

Distribution: South Florida, Bahamas, 

Caribbean. 

Habitat: Clear water patch reefs from 1.2–45 

m depth. 

Appearance: Some Plexaura sea rods may grow 

in flat, vertical planes with only occasional 

dichotomous branching when small, becoming 

bushy with age. May grow to 1.2 m or more. 

When polyps are retracted, area around 

apertures is flat or protrudes only slightly. 

Colors variable. 

Diet: Feed mainly on the products of 

zooxanthellae. 

Reproduction and Development: Reach 

maximum size in 10–30 years. 

Remarks: Gorgo is Greek for “grim, fierce, 

terrible,” a reference to the myth of three 

sisters, the Gorgons (Medusa being the most 

famous of the siblings), with snakes for hair. 

Plexaura homomalla, common in the Caribbean, 

has been found to contain high levels of 

prostaglandin, which may induce vomiting 

and subsequent learned aversion in predators. 

This steroid is more usually found in mammals; 

in humans it controls contraction and dilation 

of blood vessels, protects the lining of the 

stomach, and reduces inflammation. 

Slit-pore Sea Rod 

Plexaurella spp. (Plexauridae) 

Distribution: Southern Florida, Bahamas, 

Caribbean. 

Habitat: Clearwater patch and fore reefs at 

depths of 9–50 m. 

Appearance: Similar in appearance to Plexaura 

spp., but usually somewhat slimmer. Colonies


are bushy with club-tipped branches growing 

in several planes. Color tends toward pale 

brown or yellowish, polyps a darker brown. 

Slit-like openings of retracted polyps are visible 

on well-separated, raised mounds that dot the 

surface of branches. 

Diet: Nutrition from symbiotic zooxanthellae; 

also may feed on microplankton. 

Porous Sea Rods 

Pseudoplexaura spp. (Plexauridae) 

Distribution: Caribbean Sea, southern Florida, 

and the Bahamas. 

Habitat: A common coral on Caribbean reefs. 

Appearance: Grow into bushy forms with short 

stems and thick, finger-shaped branches, up to 

2 m high. The genus is recognized by the oval 

or round openings that can be seen as pores 

when the polyps are retracted. 

Diet: Feed on the products of their 

symbiotic zooxanthellae; also may feed on 

microplankton. 

Remarks: The 4 species in the genus are 

very similar, identified only by detailed 

examination. 

Golden Gorgonian 

Muricea californica (Plexauridae) 

Brown Gorgonian 

Muricea fruticosa (Plexauridae) 

Distribution: Caribbean Sea including south 

Florida and the Bahamas; southern California 

to Panama. 

Habitat: Shallow water with suitable light for 

photosynthetic symbionts. 

Appearance: Usually grow densely branched 

and laterally in several planes. Mediumsized:15–45 

cm high. 

Diet: Nutrition primarily from symbiotic 


Remarks: Members of the genus are called 

Spiny Sea Fans, so described because of the 

sharp terminal spikes on the calyces, or coral 

cups, that cover their branches. 

Rough Sea Plume 

Muriceopsis flavida (Plexauridae) 

Distribution: Caribbean and southern 

Atlantic; common off Brazil. 

Habitat: In shallow reef communities with 

vigorous currents. 

Appearance: One of two common species 

in the Caribbean. Different from most 

Pseudopterogorgia, in which secondary branches 

are pinnate (grow from opposing sides); 

Muriceopsis secondary branches originate on 

all sides of the main stem and are thicker. 

Colonies may reach 1.5 m tall. Color is a pale 

tan tinged with pink. 

Diet: Nutrition from zooxanthellae and filter 

feeding. 

Red Gorgonian 

Leptogorgia chilensis (Gorgoniidae) 

Distribution: Monterey Bay, California to Isla 

Cedros, Baja California. 

Habitat: Depth from 15–60 m. 

Appearance: Red branches with white polyps. 

Branch length to 90 cm. Branches not in a single 

plane. 

Diet: Microcarnivore. 

Mortality/Longevity: Preyed upon by 

some nudibranchs The zoanthid anemone 

Parazoanthus luciferus often colonizes this 

gorgonian which results in the death of most 

or all of the colony’s polyps. 

Remarks: Most gorgonian polyps are expanded 

during the daylight rather than at night, a habit 

noticeable in the Southern California tank. 

Sea Plumes 

Pseudopterogorgia spp. (Gorgoniidae) 

Distribution: Caribbean Sea, including the 

Bahamas and Southern Florida, south to 

Brazil. 

Habitat: Moderately deep patch reefs in clear 

water. 

Appearance: Various growth forms. Some 

develop into very large, bushy colonies to 2 m 

tall. Most have pinnate branches with polyps 

arranged in rows. 

Diet: Nutrition from zooxanthellae and filter 

feeding. 

Purple Sea Plume aka Bipinnate Sea Plume 

Pseudopterogorgia bipinnata (Gorgoniidae) 

Distribution: Southern Florida, Bahamas, 

Caribbean. 

Habitat: Patch reefs. Depth range 1–12 m. 

Appearance: Colonies made up of hundreds 

of individuals usually grow in a single plane 

with broadly spread primary and secondary

anches. Paired branchlets extend from 

branches at regular intervals. Coloration is 

purple-violet, occasionally whitish to brilliant 

yellow. Height to 60 cm. 

Diet: Possess zooxanthellae and also filter feed 

on plankton. 

Mortality/Longevity: Commonly preyed 

upon by the flamingo tongue snail (Cyphoma 

gibbosum). This snail leaves a dark trail of 

exposed gorgonian skeleton where it has 

scraped away the soft tissue. 

Purple Frilly Sea Plume 

Pseudopterogorgia elizabethi (Gorgoniidae) 

Distribution: Western Atlantic Ocean; Florida, 

Caribbean. 

Habitat: Inshore and patch reef flats and 

slopes. 

Appearance: Usually less than 1 m tall. Side 

may be pinnate (paired on opposite sides of the 

main branches) but sometimes are not. 

Diet: Nutrition from zooxanthellae and 

supplemental filter feeding. 

Remarks: Compounds that possess nonsteroidal 

anti-inflammatory and analgesic 

properties have been isolated from this species 

and are the subject of active research, 

Pacific Gorgonian 

Rumphella sp. (Gorgoniidae) 

Distribution: Widespread in the Indo-Pacific. 

Habitat: Lagoons in areas of bright light and 

surge. Also on reef slopes or in sand adjacent 

to reef. 

Appearance: Medium- to large-sized colonies, 

often bushy with large, slender, rounded 

branches. Grey, light yellow or light brown. 

Diet: Mainly products of their zooxanthellae. 

One of the few Pacific gorgonians to have 


Remarks: While this genus is widely 

recognized, more needs to determined about 

its biology and systematics. 

ORDER PENNATULACEA 

(SEA PENS) 

Giant Sea Pen 

Ptilosarcus gurneyi (Pennatulidae) 

Distribution: Gulf of Alaska to southern 

California. 


31 

Habitat: Shallow subtidal to 70 m on sand and 

mud substrates in areas of strong current that 

aids feeding. Sessile, benthic. Often found in 

large beds with many individuals. 

Appearance: A primary polyp is modified 

to form the body, which includes a base 

that extends into the sediment and a stalk 

(the rachis) that rises between the feathery 

extensions. Large adults may extend 60 cm out 

of the sediment with another 30 cm extending 

into the substrate. Color from pale cream to 

deep orange-red. 

Diet: Filter-feeder on particulate organic 

matter, larvae, and other small zooplankton. 

Reproduction and Development: Each polyp 

in the colony is either male or female; each 

spawns its gametes into the water column 

where fertilization occurs. Larvae eventually 

settle on sand and metamorphose into a 

founder polyp that becomes the stalk and from 

which other colony polyps arise by asexual 

proliferation. 

Mortality/Longevity: Preyed upon by several 

nudibranchs including Hermissenda crassicornis, 

as well as various sea stars, including the 

sunstar (Pycnopodia helianthoides) and the 

leather star (Demasterias imbricata). May rapidly 

burrow into sediment to avoid predation. 

Remarks: Besides the primary polyp, sea pens 

have other specialized polyps. Feeding polyps 

with feathery tentacles can be seen on the 

rachis or its lateral extensions. Embedded in 

the rachis’ surface are “pumping” polyps that 

use cilia to draw water into the colony’s body. 

Cilia lining water channels work with larger 

muscular contractions of the body to deliver 

nutrients throughout the body. 

Giant sea pens typically inflate when they 

feed, and then deflate to a much smaller 

size. Sometimes they completely bury in the 

sediment. 

Many sea pen species are extremely abundant, 

forming vast fields on deep-sea abyssal 

plains.


SUBCLASS HEXACORALLIA AKA 

ZOANTHARIA 

ORDER ZOANTHINARIA 

(ZOANTHID ANEMONES) 

Zoanthid Colony Polyps 

Palythoa spp. (Zoanthidae) 

Distribution: Common in tropical seas worldwide. 

Habitat: Tropical coral reefs on ledges and 

slopes. 

Appearance: Polyps joined by common basal 

tissues with enrusting growth form. Numerous, 

broad, flattened disc-like polyps up to 3 

cm diameter. Stalks inconspicuous. Colored 

tan to brown, basal tissue lighter. Colonies 

often huge. 

Diet: Most energy from symbiotic algae. Also 

capture micro- and macroplankton. Polyps 

open day and night. 

Reproduction and Development: Most 

commonly reproduce by budding. 

Remarks: Like corallimorpharians, zoanthids 

are anatomically more similar to stony corals 

than to any other group; however, they do not 

make a hard skeleton. 


Protopalythoa spp. (Zoanthidae) 

Distribution: Common in tropical seas worldwide. 

Habitat: Tropical coral reefs. Form large aggregations, 

especially in fore reef and shallow 

reef zones. 

Appearance: Olive green to brown color. Aggregate 

in large mats, each individual with a 

prominent stalk. Polyps have flattened oral 

disks up to 3 cm in diameter. Color of stalk and 

oral disc are the same. Tentacles may be long 

or short but are always thin with pointed tips. 

Diet: Energy from symbiotic algae; also 

microcarnivore of plankton. 

Remarks: P. grandis,found in the Caribbean 

tank, is noted for its gigantic polyps, usually 5 

cm or more in diameter; thus the name. 


Zoanthus spp. (Zoanthidae) 

Distribution: Tropical marine. 

Habitat: Typically shallow depths in tropical 

coral reefs. Particularly abundant on the back 

side of shallow reef flats. Forms carpet-like 

mats over extensive areas of dead coral. 

Appearance: Polyps reach 5 cm in height. Often 

“two-toned.” Colors highly variable, even 

within a species. Tentacles short and blunt; oral 

disc and tentacles often of contrasting colors. 

Diet: Microcarnivore of plankton as well as 

energy from symbiotic algae. 

Remarks: The polyps are connected with 

branching stolons. 

ORDER CORALLIMORPHARIA 

(FALSE OR MUSHROOM CORALS) 

Club-tipped Anemone aka Strawberry 

Anemone 

Corynactis californica (Corallimorphidae) 

Distribution: British Columbia, Canada to 

Baja California. 

Habitat: Colonies abundant from the low rocky 

intertidal to 30 m. 

Appearance: Typically red or orange-pink, 

occasionally purple, yellow, buff, brown or 

nearly white. Captive specimens usually a 

washed-out pale pink. Height and diameter 

about 1 cm, expanded tentacular crown to 2.5 

cm in diameter. 

Diet: Carnivorous: copepods, nauplius larvae, 

other zooplankton. 

Reproduction and Development: Asexual by 

longitudinal fission. 

Remarks: Corynactis and other members in the 

Order Corallimorpharia more closely resemble 

true stony corals than sea anemones, but lack 

a calcareous exoskeleton. 

Discosoma 

Discosoma spp. (Discosomatidae) 

Distribution: Widespread in Indo-Pacific; also 

common in the Caribbean. 

Habitat: Tropical coral reefs, typically in dense 

aggregations. 

Appearance: Unlike Rhodactis spp., most Discosoma 

spp. have smooth disc surfaces that lack 

obvious tentacles, though some may have small 

or rudimentary tentacles that are visible as rows 

of knobs. The warty corallimporharian, in the 

Caribbean Reef, is one of the exceptions. Color 

and size vary by species. Diameter to 8–15 cm.

Diet: Microcarnivore of plankton; may also 

possess zooxanthellae. 

Reproduction and Development: Sexual and 

asexual, mostly through budding and pedal 

laceration. 

Remarks: Aquarists commonly use the generic 

term Actinodiscus. 

Rhodactis 

Rhodactis spp. (Discosomatidae) 

Distribution: Tropical marine. 

Habitat: Tropical coral reefs. 

Appearance: 10 cm diameter. Numerous small 

branched tentacles on the central portion of the 

oral disc. Rim is covered with small, unbranched 

tentacles and is greatly expanded nocturnally. 

Diet: Mostly photosynthetic; also takes microplankton. 


asexual, mostly through budding and pedal 

laceration. 

Remarks: Like other species in this order, lacks 

a hard skeleton. 

Bullseye Mushroom 

Rhodactis inchoata (Discosomatidae) 


Habitat: Areas of tropical reef with moderate 

light and low-energy water movement. 

Appearance: Varied colors, most often a violet 

to blue; mouth often red or pink. Tentacles form 

cauliflower-like clusters on the central disk. 

The area around the mouth is typically bare, 

giving the species its common name. Usually 

4–5 cm, but may grow to 8 cm. 

Diet: Feeds primarily on nutrients provided 

by zooxanthellae. Also snares zooplankton 

with its tentacles or occasionally captures 

even larger food items by folding the oral disc 

around them. 


primarily by longitudinal fission, 

Remarks: Like most Rhodactis species, R. 

inchoata is semi-aggressive and placed some 

distance from other species. 

Ricordea Mushroom 

Ricordea spp. (Ricordeidae) 

Distribution: Pan-Pacific. Found in both Philippines 

and Caribbean. 


33 

Habitat: Often hundreds of polyps of a species, 

all genetically identical, cover rocky substrates 

and coral rubble on reefs to 30 m. May also live 

as solitary individuals. 

Appearance: Spherical; short, non-retractile, 

knob-like tentacles cover oral surface. Colors 

vary within species (tentacles greenish, 

greenish-brown, blue-gray with base often a 

different color). Colors may fluoresce. Mouth 

and outer row of tentacles may be colored 

differently than other tentacles. 

Diet: Most if not all nutrition provided by zooxanthellae; 

may also consume plankton, food 

particles, and small invertebrates. 

Reproduction and Development: Sexually 

and asexually (by longitudinal fission, pedal 

laceration, or budding).File 

Conservation Status: Have become locally 

abundant (Monterey Bay peninsula, California) 

during the past 50 years due to rising ocean 

temperature. 

Remarks: Ricordea spp. cannot retract the 

tentacles that cover the disc. 

Florida Ricordea 

Ricordea florida (Ricordeidae) 

Distribution: Tropical western Atlantic Ocean, 

southern Florida south to Brazil; also in the 

Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico. 

Habitat: Shallow, turbid waters in large 

colonial aggregations, also solitary in deeper 

waters on hard substrates. 

Appearance: Rounded, grape-like tentacles 

on the oral disc. Color intensities may vary 

from white to near black; others exhibit bright, 

even florescent colors including orange, green, 

yellow, blue, and purple with some having 

blue, purple, or orange rings surrounding 

a contrasting middle color. Max. diameter: 

5–7.5 cm. 

Diet: Most nutrition from symbiotic algae. 

Also feed on small particulate matter. 


by fission. 

Remarks: Genetic material that produces R. 

floridas’s fluorescent colors has been isolated, 

introduced into the freshwater zebrafish (Danio 

rerio). Under blue light they fluoresce brilliant 

green, orange, or blue, like the Ricordea polyps 

from which the pigments were derived. 

Perhaps parents of on-the-move teenagers will


be the next to group to place orders! 

These (and other) ricordea can warp their 

surfaces, changing the water flow that passes over 

them to direct particular matter to their mouth. 

In the wild, R. florida is known to change colors 

seasonally or in response to specific events 

such as hurricanes. 

Ricordea Mushroom 

Ricordea yuma (Ricordeidae) 


Habitat: Coral reefs on rubble or dead coral, at 

various depth and often in turbid water. 

Appearance: R. yuma, more muted than R. 

florida, presents soft pinks, browns, or greens, 

with short, club or berry-shaped protuberances 

(verrucae), though some color variations, 

particularly those produced through captive 

breeding, can be strikingly vibrant. Single 

mouth is upraised and surrounded by tentacles. 

Average diameter: 2.5–4 cm. 

Diet: Some nutrition from products of 

photosynthesizing zooxanthellae; additionally 

captures plankton, other particulate matter, 

and an occasional small invertebrate. Ricordea 

spp. can warp their surfaces to change the 

water flow over them and direct food particles 

toward their mouths. 

Reproduction and Development: Both sexual 

and asexual, the latter usually by longitudinal 

fission of the parent colony. 

ORDER SCLERACTINIA 

(STONY CORALS) 

Cauliflower Coral 

Pocillopora damicornis (Pocilloporidae) 

Distribution: Widely distributed throughout 

the Indo-Pacific. 

Habitat: Able to thrive in varied habitats 

ranging from exposed reef fronts to protected 

lagoons and lower reef slopes. 

Appearance: Growth form varies considerably 

depending on depth and currents. Colonies 

may be solid and dome-shaped, like many on 

exhibit. Others have branches either flattened 

and blade-like or fine and irregular. Color is 

cream to tan, green or pink. 

A distinguishing feature of the family: wartlike 

growths, called verrucae, which cover the 

colonies. The verrucae of P. damincornis are less 

prominent than those of many other species. 

Corallites are immersed in the skeleton and, 

in the wild, appear only at night. In captivity, 

they may also extend during the day. 

Diet: Feed on microplankton, mostly at 

night. Significant nutrition provided by 

photosynthetic zooxanthellae. 


separate. Their wide distribution is probably 

related not only to their ability to thrive 

under many conditions, but to the species’ 

multiple methods of reproduction. They 

brood both sexually and asexually produced 

planula larvae, the latter a feat rare among 

coral species. They also reproduce asexually 

by fragmentation, a process common in many 

hard corals: when a piece of the coral is broken 

off by wave action or contact and settles in a 

suitable location, a new colony may thrive and 

grow. Also, pocilloporids are known to practice 

“polyp bailout.” In this strategy, found less 

commonly in corals, a living polyp ejects itself 

from the skeleton, drifts in the current, and 

may settle successfully to found a new colony. 

Bailouts usually occur in response to stress. All 

of these reproductive methods occur regularly 

in captivity. 

Mortality/Longevity: Colonies are thought to 

live no longer than 7–8 years in the wild. 

Remarks: Pocilloporidae are second only to 

Acropora spp. as contributors to reef growth. 

Are known as “coral guinea pigs” because they 

survive well in laboratory conditions and are 

among the most studied coral species. 

P. damicornis is said to thrive of a greater variety 

of conditions than any other coral. 

Its common name is derived from the tight 

clusters of branches topped with fuzzy polyps. 

Bird’s Nest Coral 

Seriatopora histrix (Pocilloporidae) 


Habitat: Upper reef slopes, lagoons, deep forereefs 

in areas with pronounced currents. 

Appearance: Easily identified by its sharppointed, 

tapering branch tips and polyps lined 

up in straight rows. Colors: brown, tan, pink, 

green purple yellow. 

Diet: Nutrition chiefly from zooxanthellae and

extends feeding tentacles at night in search of 

plankton and other organic particles. 

Reproduction and Development: In the wild, 

is a hemaphroditic brooder. Also produces 

asexually, both in the wild and in captivity, 

by polyp “bailout” like Pocillopora spp. (see 

above). 

Remarks: Hapalocarcinus marsupialis, a species 

of gall-forming crab, has a most unusual 

relationship with Seriatopora spp. The female 

takes up residence within the branches of 

the coral, and with her chelae, influences 

the growing tips to grow a gall, or cage, that 

effectively encloses her. Protected there for life 

from most predators, she filter feeds on minute 

particles and may also feed on the coral’s mucus 

and/or tissue. The much smaller male crab can 

enter the “bars” of her cage to mate. Pocillopora 

and Stylophora, also pocilloporids, are hosts to 

this crab as well. 

Stylophora Coral 

Stylophora sp. (Pocilloporidae) 

Distribution: Red Sea and eastern African 

coast and the Indo-Pacific. 

Habitat: Prefer reef fronts in high light and 

strong currents, but found in many other 

locations. 

Appearance: Forms round clusters of thick 

branches, usually with round, blunt ends. 

Polyps are small, but easily seen. Colors range 

from pink, green, purple to tan, and branch tips 

are often a paler or contrasting color. 

Diet: Depend on the products of their 

zooxanthellae. Also, extend polyps to feed at 

night in the wild; polyps may be visible day 

and night in captivity. 

Reproduction and Development: Like other 

pocilloporids, is a hermaphroditic brooder 

(though sperm and eggs develop at different 

times). When mature larvae are released, they 

can adhere to floating objects and develop 

into new colonies that produce still more 

larvae, a practice that accounts from the wide 

distribution of some Stylophora species. 

Remarks: Stylophora’s fast growth and ability 

to thrive in many conditions make them good 

research species. Because they have been 

found to produce allelopathic chemicals, they 

have been widely studied in immunological 

research. 


35 

Some damselfish species are known to shelter 

within the branches of Stylophora. The fish gains 

protection and the coral receives nutritional 

benefit from the fish’s waste, shown by increased 

growth and reproductive rates by corals engaged 

in this mutualistic relationship. 

Montipora Coral 

Montipora spp. (Acroporidae) 

Distribution: Indo-Pacific. A wide distribution 

with a very large number of species, perhaps 

70–80. 

Habitat: Adaptable to a variety of habitats; 

commonly found in the wild in shallow turbid 

lagoons, reef crests, and deep waters. Their 

tolerance for a variety of conditions seems to 

make them a hardy group. 

Appearance: Many growth forms, including 

columnar, branching, encrusting, and plating. 

Also a wide range of colors, including 

bright pinks, oranges, purples, greens, and 

blues. They are typically very small-polyped 

corals. 

Diet: Nutrition mostly provided by zooxanthellae. 


asexual. 

Remarks: A relatively passive coral that is best 

situated some distance from more aggressive 

corals, such as Euphyllia spp. 

Staghorn, Elkhorn and other Acropora Coral 

Acropora spp. (Acroporidae) 

Distribution: Indo-Pacific, Caribbean. 

Habitat: Most commonly found in shallow reef 

environments with bright light and relatively 

strong currents. Often dominate shallow parts 

of the reef, especially the surf zone. 

Appearance: Growth forms extremely variable: 

slender branched fingers, broad antlers, 

table-like plates are common. Among the most 

colorful of reef-building corals; may be cream, 

yellow, blue, green, purple, pink, even fluorescent. 

Polyps small; set along the branches. 

Characterized by light-colored polyps at the 

tips of branches where budding and growth 

take place, fueled by the energy produced by 

zooxanthellae in lower parts of the branch that 

give it color. 

Diet: Feed on microplankton, mostly at night; 

significant nutrition provided by photosyn-


thetic zooxanthellae. 

Reproduction and Development: Most 

Acropora species are broadcasters, a few are 

brooders; also readily reproduce asexually by 

budding and fragmentation. Fast growing. 

Remarks: Acropora spp. are particularly susceptible 

to bleaching when stressed by pollution, 

warm water temperatures, or excessive 

sediment or nutrient runoff. 

The most numerous and widespread genus of 

the stony corals (Order Scleractinia); over 360 

named species known. A major contributor to 

reef structures worldwide. 

The crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster 

planci) is a major staghorn predator. 

Porites Coral 

Porites spp. (Poritidae) 

Distribution: Pan-tropical, Caribbean and 

Indo-Pacific. 

Habitat: Found in a variety of reef habitats, 

especially shallow, sheltered areas. 

Appearance: Form variable; may be rounded, 

flat, branching, column-like, or encrusting. 

Some species produce extremely large colonies, 

over 10 m across. Like many stony corals, 

they are morphologically plastic, capable 

of considerable variation in form in response 

to environmental conditions, such as current, 

light, and habitat. 

Diet: Most nutrition provided by photosynthetic 


Reproduction and Development: Porites spp. 

belong to the approximately 15% of corals that 

reproduce by “brooding”: the mature sperm, 

when released from a polyp, swims through 

the water, finds a conspecific that has ripe eggs, 

and, entering through the mouth, fertilizes the 

eggs internally. The larvae, known as planulae, 

mature within the maternal polyp. Most other 

corals are broadcasters: sperm and egg are released 

synchronously; after fertilization, planula 

larvae drift in the current until settling. 

Remarks: Porites spp. provide habitat for a number 

of organisms that are dependent on them. 

Along with Acropora and Pocillopora, are important 

contributors to reef structures worldwide. 

Daisy Coral aka Flowerpot Coral 

Alveopora sp. (Poritidae) 

Distribution: Red Sea, Indian Ocean to central 

Pacific. 

Habitat: Various, from protected turbid 

environment to crystal clear water on reef 

slopes. 

Appearance: Usually branching but sometimes 

forms massive or encrusting colonies. Polyps 

are large and most extend from long tubular 

columns. Each polyp has 12 tentacles, usually 

with blunt tips. Tentacles usually extended 

both day and night. 

Diet: Nutrition from zooxanthellae and 

perhaps additional phytoplankton. 

Remarks: Alveopora have proved difficult 

to maintain in captivity by the beginner or 

intermediate aquarist. 

Clownfish have been known to take up 

residence in Alveopora, perhaps because its 

longer tentacles are similar to those of an 

anemone. 

Cactus Coral 

Pavona spp. (Agariciidae) 


Habitat: Lagoons and outer reefs, typically in 

relatively shallow water with strong currents 

and bright light, though capable of thriving in 

less than intense light. 

Appearance: Massive, laminar, or foliaceous 

colonies with corallites on both sides of the 

leaves or plates. Like all members of the family, 

have small, fine tentacles that create a fuzzy 

appearance or the coral’s surface. Colors: 

mostly brown to green with white or cream 

margins. 

Diet: With such highly reduced tentacles, 

receive a higher percentage of their nutrition 

from photosynthesis of symbionts than most 

other zooxanthellate corals. 

Reproduction and Development: Asexual 

reproduction by fragmentation is common, 

often hastened by the activity of boring 

sponges. Easily fragged in captivity. 

Remarks: Though lacking effective feeding 

tentacles, sweeper tentacles are numerous and 

powerful, maintaining the coral’s territory. 

Lettuce Coral 

Agaricia sp. (Agariciidae) 

Distribution: The Caribbean Sea. 

Habitat: Shallow reefs with strong wave 

energy.

Appearance: Various growth forms include 

chalices, encrusting sheets, thick leaves and 

flat plates. Can grow to about 2 m diameter. 

Diet: Most nutrients supplied by symbiotic 


R e p r o d u c t i o n a n d D e v e l o p m e n t : 

Hermaphroditic brooders. Shed planula larvae 

year round. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: over 50 years. 

Remarks: Their common name comes from the 

fact they resemble underwater lettuce plants. 

A primary reef-building coral of the Caribbean.. 

Leptoseris Coral 

Leptoseris sp. (Agariciidae) 

Distribution: Mostly known from the tropical 

Pacific, though one species in found in the 

Atlantic. 

Habitat: Ledges and overhands in deeper 

water; prefer reduced light and current areas. 

Appearance: Genus consists of delicate, 

leaflike species. Mostly foliate and laminar, 

sometimes encrusting. Colors range from 

green, brown, to cream, often with contrasting 

striations and margins. 

Diet: Leptoseris spp. are among deepest-water 

symbiotic corals known. 

Remarks: The genus is fairly uncommon in 

the aquarium trade, though successful captive 

breeding is making them more available. 

Mushroom Coral 

Fungia spp. (Fungiidae) 

Distribution: Indo-Pacific from the Red Sea 

and east Africa, west to Hawaii in tropical and 

subtropical latitudes. 

Habitat: Among other coral, rubble, or on sand. 

Appearance: Genus noted for short, tapering 

tentacles and a very large mouth opening. The 

structure is home to a single polyp. Many septa 

stretch from the central mouth to sides of the 

polyp. Form may be nearly circular or elongate. 

Diameter to 28 cm. 

Diet: Nutrition from photosynthetic algae. 

Fungia corals have been observed eating 

jellyfish, which may be a primary food source 

for some and a good “fit” for their large 

mouths. 

Reproduction and Development: Sexual or 

asexual reproduction. In either mode, a vase- 


37 

shaped polyp gradually grows into a flattened 

disc, attached to the substrate by a stalk, which 

later dissolves. A scar on the underside of 

the adult skeleton marks the position of the 

stalk. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span of some longlived 

species (by one estimate): 24–46 years. 

Conservations Status: All corals are threatened, 

Fungia perhaps more than some as it is valued 

in both the live and dead coral trade, where it 

is used for jewelry and other ornaments. 

Remarks: Rather than forming colonies like 

most corals, Fungia corals are usually solitary 

and free-living. Because they are unattached, 

Fungia can be easily moved by waves, and so 

are most often found in protected places, often 

at depths where wave action is reduced. 

Their typical inverted cap-gilled mushroomlike 

appearance gives these corals their 

common name. 

Are able to produce a mucus that damages 

tissues of other corals and so prevents 

overgrowth. Mucus also facilitates food 

capture. 

By inflating the body cavity, mushroom corals 

are able to upright themselves after being 

overturned. 

Cycloseris, also a genus often on display, is 

closely related to Fungia. However, Cycloseris 

tends to be more perfectly round and often 

domed toward the center. The skeletons have 

differnt features (all diffiuclt to determine 

by casual observation), and Cycloseris spp., 

because they are not attached to the substrate 

as juveniles, lack the stalk scar typical of Fungia. 

Slipper Coral 

Polyphyllia sp. (Fungiidae) 

Distribution: Indo-West Pacific. 

Habitat: Shallow water in protected areas. 

Common on soft, muddy bottoms; also on 

sand and rubble. 

Appearance: Elongated, slipper-shaped 

solitary coral with many mouths. Color: 

usually brown, but occasionally green or 

cream. Tentacles brown with white tips, about 

2 cm long and occasionally forked at the ends; 

extended during the day. 

Diet: All species in the Fungiidae bear 

endosymbiotic algae and also extend feeding 

tentacles to capture zooplankton.



sexually by broadcast spawning. Asexually, 

by bits that grow and break off the parent, 

eventually developing into full-grown, freeliving 

coral polyps. 

Remarks: Like their relatives the Fungia, 

Polyphyllia juveniles are usually attached to 

a rock or coral and detach as they mature. 

The closely related Cycloseris genus is always 

free-living. 

Peaceful toward other fungids, Polyphyllia 

maintains its territory by extending a mucous net 

capable of causing necrosis in unrelated corals. 

Galaxy Coral 

Galaxea fascicularis (Oculinidae) 

Distribution: Red Sea and east Africa coast; 

Indo-Pacific to the Fiji Islands and Samoa. 

Habitat: Occurs from shallow to deep water 

and in clear or turbid, calm or exposed areas. 

Appearance: Grows in many different forms: 

small encrusting types to dome shapes, from 

large columnar colonies to small irregular 

branches. May form colonies several meters 

in diameter. 

Diet: Nutrition provided by symbiotic 

zooxanthellae augmented by active plankton 

capture. Tentacles nearly always extended, 

even during the day. 

Reproduction: Coral reproduction can be 

a complex phenomenon. G. fascicularus, for 

example, may have female colonies that 

produce only eggs or hermaphroditic colonies 

that produce both eggs and sperm. 

Remarks: Like others in their genus, has 

corallites with a ring of pointed septa that gives 

them a star-shaped appearance. 

Has very long “sweeper” tentacles with 

powerful nematocysts that discourage 

encroachment from other coral species as 

well as conspecifics, and so needs careful 

positioning in an aquarium setting. 

Chalice Coral 

Echinophyllia spp. (Pectiniidae) 

Distribution: Western Central Pacific. 

Habitat: Tropical reefs at depths 3–35 m. 

Appearance: Most often forms convoluted 

plates, though some growth may be encrusting 

within the same colony. Color varies and 

commonly includes fluorescent reds, pinks, 

green and blue. Spiky or bumpy surface. 

Diet: Most nutrition from zooxanthellae, but 

also extends feeder tentacles at night. 

Remarks: This genus has only recently been 

described, and is relatively new to aquarium 

display. 

Placement requires care as Echinophyllia has 

exceptionally long sweeper tentacles and can 

be aggressive towards nearby corals. 

Chalice Coral 

Oxypora sp. (Pectiniidae) 


Habitat: Reef slopes in shallow water, with 

limited water movement. Colors may be light 

brown, cream, or green, with contrasting 

centers of brown, green, pink, or red centers. 

Appearance: Usually laminar or foliaceous in 

growth form, often with thin plates. Corallites 

always visible and often large. 

Diet: Nutrients provided by photosynthetic 

zooxanthellae during the day. Polyps with 

long, transparent feeding tentacles appear at 

night. 


Hermaphoditic broadcast spawner. 

Remarks: Sweeper tentacles have a powerful 

sting that can damage other species of corals 

nearby. 

Some Oxypora species have a superficial 

resemblance to Mycedium and Echinopora 

species, and may be easily misidentified. 

Mycedium Coral 

Mycedium elephantotus (Pectiniidae) 


Habitat: Shallow fore reef areas and even more 

common on reef slopes and overhangs. 

Appearance: Forms foliaceous (leaf-like), plate, 

cup-shaped or semi-encrusting colonies that 

may exceed 2 m in diameter. Most are brown 

with pink or greenish tinges and often brightly 

colored green or red oral discs. Protuberant, 

inclined corallites texture its surface. 

Diet: Nutrition provided by symbiotic 

zooxanthellae; feeds supplementally on 

plankton. 

Reproduction and Development: Like most 

corals, reproduction may be either sexual or 

asexual.

Remarks: Its scientific name and a popular 

common name “elephant nose coral” are 

somewhat imaginative references to the raised 

shapes of the corallites. 

Acanthastrea 

Acanthastrea spp. (Mussidae) 


Habitat: Found from shallow water to about 

20 m, though some known from greater depth. 

Thrive in conditions from strong to subdued 

lighting and wave action from strong to mild. 

Appearance: May form colonies of only a few 

polyps to encrusting colonies several meters 

across, depending on the species and water 

conditions. Some colonies may reach 3 m 

across; ours are much smaller. 

Diet: Nutrition from zooxanthellae; extends 

tentacles at night to feed on microplankton 

and small invertebrates and can also, like 

many corals, absorb dissolved organic matter 

through their tissues. 


Hermaphrodites; reproduce sexually by 

spawning, asexually by fragmentation and 

fission. 

Remarks: A favorite today among collectors, 

Acanthastrea is a relatively large genus (perhaps 

15-17 species) in the family Mussidae. They 

resemble and are often difficult to distinguish 

from other mussid corals such as Symphyllia 

and Lobophyllia, and are even confused with 

species of the family Favidae. 

A fairly aggressive coral that can extend long 

mesenterial filaments from the stomach that 

can kill or devour other coral polyps by a 

process similar to digestion. Aquarists take 

care placing other valued corals out of reach! 

Meat Coral 

Acanthophyllia deshayesiana (Mussidae) 


Habitat: Protected reef environments, often 

attached to rocks under overhangs or on soft 

substrates; prefers gentle currents. 

Appearance: Large, fleshy polyps. Unlike its 

lookalike, Cynaria lacrymalis, A. deshayesiana has 

opaque rather than translucent polyps, and has 

skeletal features that differ from other mussids. 

Color may vary from red-brown to bright green 

or red, and, in some cases, specimens may be 


39 

striped or mottled with another color. Like 

other mussids, when the soft tissue expands, 

it drapes dramatically over the edges of the 

skeleton, often covering it completely. 

Diet: Nutrition derived mainly through 

photosynthesis performed by symbiotic 

zooxanthellae, but also feed on small 

invertebrates and other organic items. 


Hermaphrodites, reproducing in the wild by 

spawning. 

Remarks: The common name “Meat Coral” 

refers to the polyps’ fleshy appearance and 

common red coloration. 

The name “button coral” refers to at least 

5 genera of solitary polyps of the family 

Mussidae, including Acanthophyllia and 

Cynarina and Scolymia, all on display in the 

Steinhart Aquarium. 

This species was formerly identified as 

Cynarina deshayesiana or Scolymia species, 

but has recently (2009) been reclassified as 

a member of its own genus. A. deshaesiana is 

flatter and larger than Scolymia corals and not 

as transparently fleshy or “bubbly” as Cynarina 

corals. 

Pineapple Coral 

Blastomussa merleti (Mussidae) 

Distribution: Indo-Pacific: Indonesia. 

Habitat: Reefs, especially turbid environments 

on lower reef slopes. 

Appearance: Color: commonly dark red 

with conspicuous green oral discs. Also 

pink, orange, brown or dark grey with white 

margins. Some aquacultured specimens are 

quite colorful. Tentacles have fleshy mantles 

extended during the day that hide the colony 

structure below. B. merleti have much smaller 

corallites that are less closely packed together 

than those of B. wellsi. 

Diet: Majority of nutrition comes from 

products of photosynthetic zooxanthellae; 

supplemented by microplankton. 

Reproduction and Development: During their 

early growth, individual corals extend from a 

common center, creating a dome covered with 

closely spaced corallites. Sometimes, however, 

these corals lose their connections and become 

cloned solitary individuals. 

Remarks: “Blastos” used to be rare in the


aquarium trade because of the difficulty 

of collecting them in deep, turbid water. 

However, they are easily bred in captivity and 

are becoming more common. 

Blastomussa Coral 

Blastomussa wellsi (Mussidae) 

Distribution: Tropical Indo-Pacific. 

Habitat: Lower reef slopes in areas of low to 

moderate currents. 

Appearance: Has large, fleshy polyps that, 

when extended, cover the skeleton. May be 

blue, brown, red or green. Usually grow in 

small colonies of no more than a dozen polyps, 

but more often 3–5. 

Diet: Depends on photosynthetic zooxanthellae 

for nutrition; also microplankton. 

Mortality/Longevity: No known predators, 

but butterflyfishes and angelfishes typically 

feed on large polyp corals such as these. 

Remarks: A highly desirable and fairly rare 

species in the aquarium trade. 

Button Coral 

Cynarina lacrymalis (Mussidae) 


Habitat: Common and widespread on deep 

reefs, shallow lagoon reefs, and soft bottoms 

in relatively calm, turbid water. 

Appearance: A single-polyp coral. Tissue 

is distinctly translucent with skeletal septa 

visible; color variable, but commonly brown 

or gray with green fluorescent markings. The 

diameter of the skeleton is rarely more than 7.5 

cm, but expanded polyps may extend 30 cm. 

Most often solitary, but occasionally found in 

small clusters. Septa of skeleton is toothed, thus 

a common name, “tooth coral.” 

Diet: Products of photosynthetic symbionts; 

also microplankton, small crustaceans, even 

small fish. 

Remarks: The name is derived from the Greek 

word kinaria (artichoke), a form it mildly 

resembles. One of the largest single-polyp 

corals. 

Lobed Brain Coral 

Lobophyllia spp. (Mussidae) 


Habitat: Some species fairly common along the 

reef rim and fore reef slope. 

Appearance: May form colonies of loosely 

joined individuals or be solitary. Living coral 

is covered by fleshy mantle that covers the 

skeleton. Living tissue usually green or brown, 

sometimes pinkish or red, with a variety of 

textures. 

Reproduction: Hermaphroditic broadcast 

spawners. 

Diet: Nutrition from zooxanthellae; also extends 

tentacles at night to feed on microplankton, 

detritus, and other organic particles. 

Button Coral 

Scolymia sp. (Mussidae) 

Distribution: Indo-Pacific and Caribbean. 

Habitat: Generally restricted to reef slopes, 

particularly in areas without large populations 

of reef-building corals. 

Appearance: Wide range of forms from small 

solitary corals to large colonial groups. Solitary 

more common. May be flattened, rounded, or 

slightly irregular in shape with a single oral 

opening. Often colored green with a more 

or less clear purple-colored crown around 

the polyp edge; may also be red or pink. A 

fleshy mantle, often ruffled in shape, covers 

the skeleton. Usually distinguished from 

Lobophyllia by flatter shape. 

Diet: Nutrition from zooxanthellae; extends 

tentacles at night to feed on microplankton and 

small invertebrates. 

Closed Brain Coral 

Symphyllia spp. (Mussidae) 


Habitat: Shallow and deep water, in turbid 

lagoons and in clear outer reef zones, usually 

partially shaded. 

Appearance: Very similar to Lobophyllia spp., but 

with meandering lobes which radiate from the 

center and form a flat colony. Also distinguished 

by a distinct groove running along the top of 

the tissue walls. 

Plating Hydnophora aka Horn Coral 

Hydnophora spp. (Merulinidae) 

Distribution: Widely distributed in the Indo- 

Pacific. 

Habitat: Common in variety of reef habitats. 

Appearance: Colonies may be massive, 

encrusting, or branched; usually brown,

greenish, or yellowish. Conical protuberances 

over the entire colony’s surface. Tentacles 

often partially extended during the day. 

Diet: Nutrition mostly provided by symbiotic 

zooxanthellae, but also take other food 

sources, such as plankton 

Reproduction: Hermaphroditic, probably 

broadcast spawners. 

Remarks: Hydnophora rigida is by far the most 

common species of the genus. 

Hydnophora aka Horn Coral 

Hydnophora rigida (Merulinidae) 

Distribution: Widely distributed in the Indo- 

Pacific. 

Habitat: Common in variety of reef habitats. 

Often found in lagoons or on protected reef 

slopes. 

Appearance: Colonies may be massive, 

encrusting, or branched; usually cream 

or green. Conical protuberances, called 

hydnophores, cover the entire colony’s 

surface, and are formed where adjacent 

corallite walls meet and fuse. Hydnophora 

rigida is by far the most common species of 

the genus. Though usually branched and 

often found in brown and bright to fluorescent 

green, the species in captivity may form large, 

encrusting colonies of more neutral shades. 

Diet: Nutrition mostly provided by symbiotic 

zooxanthellae, but also capture plankton and 

absorb dissolved matter. In captivity, feeding 

tentacles are often partially extended during 

the day. 


Hermaphroditic broadcast spawner. 

Remarks: Hydnophora species are aggressive, 

extending stinging sweeper tentacles and 

mesentarial filaments, and usually winning 

encounters with other corals. 

Trumpet Coral 

Caulastrea sp. (Faviidae) 


Habitat: Prefer sandy substrate at shallow 

to mid depths in areas protected from heavy 

wave action. 

Appearance: Plump, circular polyps cluster on 

branched stalks. Septa of skeleton are distinct 

and usually visible through the polyp tissue. 

Diet: Rely on products of photosynthetic 


41 

zooxanthellae as well as microplankton. 


Hermaphroditic broadcast spawners in the 

wild; also propagate asexually in the wild and 

in captivity by fragmentation and budding. 

Remarks: One of many corals that extend 

long sweeper tentacles as a defense against 

encroachment by other coral colonies. The 

tentacles nematocysts can damage tissue of 

corals that venture too close. 

Caulastrea species are a favorite of aquarists 

for their success in captivity and ease of 

propagation. 

The branches below the polyps offer refuge 

to commensal sponges, mollusks, and other 

invertebrates, including other small coral 

species. 

Diploastrea Coral 

Diploastrea heliopora (Faviidae) 

Distribution: Red Sea and east Africa; Indo- 

West Pacific. 

Habitat: Occasional on most reefs, especially 

upper slopes or in areas exposed to swell or 

currents. 

Appearance: Colonies are dome-shaped and 

may grow very large, up to 2 m high and 5 m 

across. Individual polyp skeletons (corallites) are 

mound-like and densely situated on the colony’s 

surface. Usually cream or grey, sometimes 

greenish. Color morphs, such a bright green 

corallites with purple center, are common. 

Diet: Nutrition from zooxanthellae; feeding 

tentacles extended at night. 

Remarks: Very dense skeleton discourages 

boring organisms. 

Their skeletal density, slow growth, long 

lifespan (up to 700 years, perhaps longer), 

and wide distribution have made Diploastrea 

useful for climate change studies. Oxygen 

isotopic profiles from skeletons have tracked 

variations in sea surface temperature to the 

fineness of seasons and decades, providing 

useful information about paleoclimate in the 

tropical Indo-Pacific. 

D. heliopora is the single species in the genus. 

Brain Coral 

Diploria sp. (Faviidae) 

Distribution: Endemic to the tropical Atlantic- 

Caribbean.


Habitat: Offshore reefs, usually at depths 

between 1–30 ft. 

Appearance: Brown or yellow, usually 

hemispherical or plate-shaped stony coral. 

Surface is deeply convoluted, reminiscent of a 

human brain. May grow to 2 m. 

Diet: Most nutrition from products of 

photosynthesizing zooxanthellae. Also extends 

feeding tentacles to capture zooplankton and 

bacteria. 


Hermaphroditic brooder, a common coral 

reproductive strategy in which the egg is 

fertilized within the polyp and released to the sea 

as a more mature larvae that will spend less time 

in the plankton and be of larger size, both factors 

that reduce predation and increase the prospects 

of successful settlement. Asexual reproduction 

by division of pre-existing polyp as well as 

formation of new polyps in the space between 

the tentacles of pre-existing polyps. The latter 

method is called extratentacular budding and is 

common in faviids and many other reef-forming 

corals as a means of increasing colony size. 

Echinopora Coral 

Echinopora lamellosa (Faviidae) 

Distribution: East Africa to the Red Sea; the 

Indo-Pacific east to Samoa and the Marshall 

Islands, south to Great Barrier Reef. 

Habitat: A variety of coral reef habitats from 

reef slope to sheltered areas. 

Appearance: Like most Echinopora spp., E. 

lamellosa grows in a variety of forms from 

foliaceous (leafy) to scroll-like, branched, or 

even semi-encrusting, depending on location 

and currents; however, does not form the typical 

faviid brain-shaped colony. Distinct corallites, 

which are usually separated by several mm 

and look like small, spiky hillocks, cover the 

upper surface. Colony usually brown or green, 

sometimes with yellow or pinkish tinges. 


active feeder when tentacles extended. 

Reproduction and Development: Like the 

majority of stony corals, a hermaphroditic 

broadcast spawner. 

Favia Coral (Moon Coral, Brain Coral) 

Favia spp. (Faviidae) 

Distribution: Widely distributed in the Pacific 

and Atlantic Oceans. 

Habitat: Various locations on coral reefs. 

Appearance: Most species of the genus Favia 

have massive and rounded colonies, though 

some are encrusting. Usually brown or green, 

but occasionally white or yellow. Corallites 

have their own walls and are separated from 

their neighbors by a groove, a feature that 

distinguishes them from Favites spp., which 

have shared corallite walls. Septa numerous 

and visible. 

Diet: Nutrition from symbiotic zooxanthellae. 

Also active plankton feeders; Favia extend 

feeding tentacles only at night. 

Remarks: Faviidae is the second largest stony 

coral family, after Acroporidae. If extinct 

species are also counted, Faviidae, a major 

player in reef building during the Mesozoic 

and early Cenozoic eras, is the most speciesrich 

of all coral families. 

Commonly known as Brain Coral, because 

many species of faviid corals have a corallite 

pattern that looks like the structure of a human 

brain. 

Goniastrea Coral 

Goniastrea sp. (Faviidae) 

Distribution: South Pacific, Indo-Pacific. 

Habitat: Shallow water areas on reef flats and 

fringes, rocky shores, or harbor backwaters. 

Appearance: Massively round or dome-shaped 

with a honeycomb appearance. Colors range 

from shades of yellow, green, brown, and pink. 

May grow to 1 m in diameter. 

Diet: Products of photosynthetic zooxanthellae; 

also extends tentacles at night to feed on 

microplankton. 

Reproduction and Development: Sexual by 

mass release of sperm and eggs, and asexually 

by budding. 

Remarks: As a species that often grow in 

shallow water, they are unusually capable of 

surviving violent water movements, intense 

sunlight, and exposure to air at low tides. 

Maze Coral 

Platygrya sp. (Faviidae) 

Distribution: Indo-Pacific, including the Red 

Sea and around Australia and Southeast Asia. 

Habitat: Inhabits a variety of reef locations, 

including reef flats, back reefs, and deeper 

waters.

Appearance: Colonies can be massive, 

encrusting, dome-shaped or flattened. 

Corallites form meandering walls of brown, 

green, or gray surrounding contrasting valleys 

of cream, pink, gray, or even fluorescent green. 

Easily confused with Goniastrea and Leptoria 

species. 

Diet: Primary nutrition received from the 

photosynthesis of symbiotic zooxanthellae. 

Supplemental diet from capture of 

microplankton by stinging tentacles. 


Hermaphroditic. Reported to spawn once 

a year, between July and August, releasing 

sperm and eggs during the new moon. 

Conservation Status: Like all coral species, 

Platygyra spp. are listed on Appendix II 

of the Convention on International Trade 

in Endangered Species (CITES), meaning 

international trade in the species should be 

carefully monitored and controlled. 

Open Brain Coral 

Trachyphyllia geoffroyi (Trachyphylliidae) 


Habitat: Prefers soft sand or muddy substrates 

on sheltered reef slopes or in lagoons. 

Appearance: Name comes from Gr: trachys 

(rough) and phylon (leaf) as it looks like a 

leaf lying on the substrate. Trachyphyllia are 

secondarily free-living, usually beginning 

growth as a single polyp attached to a hard 

surface. Later it breaks off, and is found 

detached on sandy or muddy bottoms. Color 

may vary with depth or substrate: pink to red, 

brownish, gray, green, or blue, even multistreaked 

and iridescent. Fleshy polyps extend 

well beyond the margin of the stony skeleton. 

Diet: Nutrition from photosynthetic zooxanthellae; 

also microplankton and other small 

food bits. Tentacles extended in low light or at 

night to capture plankton. 

Remarks: A popular species in the aquarium 

trade. 

Elegance Coral 

Catalaphyllia jardinei (Caryophylliidae) 


Habitat: Found to depths of 40 m, but do 

especially well in shallower, lagoon habitats 

and sandy or muddy areas between reefs 


43 

with sea grasses where they bury into the soft 

substrate. Prefer areas with gentle currents. 

Appearance: The cone shape of their skeleton’s 

base allows Catalaphyllia to burrow into soft 

substrates, and the large polyps of C. jardinei 

are conspicuous and easily recognized by their 

colorful oral discs and long tentacles that make 

it look deceptively like an anemone. Colors are 

varied and striking. 

Diet: Receives nutrition from the photosynthesis 

of symbiotic algae. May also capture small 

invertebrates and even fish in feeding tentacles, 

armed with unusually powerful nematocysts. 

Like many stony corals, they also capture 

planktonic organisms, organic particles, and 

can absorb dissolved organic matter directly 

through the body wall. 

Reproduction and Development: Broadcast 

spawner. Not propagated in captivity, but 

may reproduce by budding under optimal 

conditions. Also a portion of a polyp may 

become detached from the skeleton and form 

a new colony. 

Conservation: Though not listed by IUCN 

or CITES, the popularity of C. jardenei in the 

aquarium trade is cause for concern about 

overharvesting. 

Mortality/Longevity: Strong stinging tentacles 

are used for defense and the capture of small 

prey. 

Remarks: The ability to expand its tissue 

with water allows the coral to lift itself out of 

accumulating sediments to avoid burial in its 

muddy habitat. 

Strong nematocysts and long tentacles require 

this potential bully to be placed some distance 

from other corals. Only Euphyllia ancora seems 

to dominate this aggressive species. 

Tentacles are known to raise welts on the skin 

of unwary aquarists. 

Frogspawn and Anchor Corals 

Euphyllia spp. (Caryophylliidae) 


Habitat: Prefer shallow environments with 

moderate wave action, especially on protected 

horizontal substrates or rocky outcrops. 

Appearance: These are large polyp corals 

(LPC). Polyps expand during the day. Often 

mistaken for a soft coral because large polyps 

hide the hard, cone-like calcium carbonate skel-


etal base and six-fold symmetry that identify 

Euphyllia as hard corals (scleractinians). Colors: 

various shades of brown, green, yellow, and 

gray. Tips of tentacles usually a different color. 

Diet: Most nutrition provided by zooxanthellae; 

take small meaty foods in captivity and 

probably in the wild as well. 


separate. Sexual reproduction by broadcast 

spawnjng, asexual by budding. 

Remarks: Most Euphyllia spp. are aggressive 

and are capable of powerful stings. At night, 

they can extend sweeper tentacles a foot or 

more, most often to target other corals living 

too close, attacks that can irritate or kill. They 

are more tolerant of corals in the same family. 

Stings can cause allergic reaction in humans. 

Euphyllia species of the Steinhart: 

Anchor Coral (Euphyllia ancora) - Polyps have 

large tubular tentacles with anchor, hammer, 

or T-shaped tips. Color blue-grey, tan, to 

orange with cream or green outer borders on 

the tentacles. 

Frogspawn Coral (Euphyllia paradivisa) - 

Named because of the colony’s resemblance 

to a mass of fish or frog eggs. Color green to 

brown to tan. 

Fox Coral 

Nemenzophyllia turbida (Caryophylliidae) 

Distribution: Red Sea and east coast of Africa; 

Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, and north 

New Guinea. 

Habitat: Turbid or sheltered areas on sand or 

muddy bottoms to 35 m. 

Appearance: May be colonial or free-living. 

Polyps a translucent white, green or pink, and 

quite large, totally covering the skeleton when 

extended during the day. 


lacks visible feeding tentacles. 

Remarks: When the polyp is expanded and 

covers the thin skeleton, the fox coral looks like 

a corallimorpharian in shape, size, and smooth 

surface without tentacles. 

Brown Cup Coral 

Paracyathus sternsi (Caryophylliidae) 

Distribution: British Columbia to Baja 

California. 

Habitat: Lower sides of rocky reefs; depth: 

10– 35 m. A dominant sessile invertebrate at 

deeper sites with low water motion. 

Appearance: Color ranges from light brown to 

a deep brownish purple; tentacles clear. 

Diet: Small organic particles and zooplankton. 

Prey is killed or disabled by stinging tentacles 

and then entrapped and carried to the mouth 

by specialized sticky cells on the tentacles. Cup 

size: c. 4 cm. 


separate. Fertilized eggs brooded in the 

female’s gastrovascular cavity. 

Remarks: More likely to occur singly than in 

groups like the orange cup coral (Balanophyllia 

elegans). 

Bubble Coral 

Plerogyra sinuosa (Caryophyllidae) 

Distribution: Indo-Pacific and Australia region. 

Habitat: Turbid bays and lagoons, on reefs in 

deep water or under overhangs. 

Appearance: Colonial corals often covered 

with clusters of bubble-like structures (thus 

the common name), each over 1 cm in length. 

Colored gray, bluish, greenish, brownish or 

rich cream. 

Diet: Light-capturing bubble-like vesicles extend 

during the day to support the photosynthesis 

of the algal symbionts. Tentacles extend 

at night to capture small prey. 

Remarks: This is a stony coral, despite the soft 

appearance the “bubbles” give during the day. 

Orange Cup Coral 

Balanophyllia elegans (Dendrophylliidae) 


California; common especially in southern 

California. 

Habitat: Found on wharf pilings, under shaded 

rocks and ledges from the low intertidal zone 

to about 200 m. 

Appearance: Generally orange, but yellow 

morphs are not uncommon. Tentacles typically 

transparent and covered with warty knobs that 

store nematocysts. Up to 25 mm in diameter. 

Diet: Small animals, organic particles. Captures 

prey with both stinging and sticky nematocysts. 

Feeds mostly at night. 


separate; eggs fertilized and developed in

female’s gastrovascular cavity. When released, 

larvae settle nearby. 

Mortality/Longevity: Polyps (the living 

animal) can retract almost completely into its 

protective cup. 

Remarks: Unlike tropical corals, cup coral does 

not form reefs. Instead it builds only its own 

cuplike limestone base, cements it to rock, and 

lives a solitary life. Groups of individuals may 

live in close proximity. 

Whisker Coral 

Duncanopsammia axifuga (Dendrophylliidae) 

Distribution: Australia, New Guinea and 

eastern Indonesia. 

Habitat: Deeper water, attached to hard objects 

near sandy or muddy substrate. 

Appearance: Normally green, blue-gray, 

or brownish. Polyps are extended day and 

night, and the long tentacles can obscure the 

distinctive tubular corallites that support the 

colony. 

Diet: Photosynthetic products of zooxanthellae 

as well as zooplankton and small invertebrates 

by captured by tentacles. 

Reproduction and Development: Sexual; 

asexual by budding. Is captive grown. Until 

recently was relatively unknown in the 

aquarium trade. 

Remarks: A relatively unaggressive coral 

without sweeper tentacles that grows best in 

fairly open space. 

Orange Cup Coral 

Tubastrea sp. (Dendrophylliidae) 

Distribution: Circumtropical distribution; 

widespread in the Indo-Pacific. 

Habitat: Often found in entrances to caves and 

on underhangs where they take advantage of 

concentrated nutrient levels. 

Appearance: Polyps may be brilliant yellow or 

orange (like most of those on display) as well 

as bright green, olive green, brown or blackish 

depending on species, the last two colors also 

on display. 

Diet: Zooplankton, such as small crustaceans 

and fish larvae. Lack zooxanthellae; polyps 

typically emerge at night when the reef’s 

plankton content is high. 


reproduction by release of planular larvae; 


45 

also asexual reproduction by budding of 

new polyps from extensions of the skeleton. 

Readily release new polyps in captivity. Note 

their growing colonies in Matt Wandell’s Staff 

Picks tank. 

Remarks: Because they lack zooxanthellae, 

Tubastrea are not reef-building corals and in 

aquaria must be hand fed, usually twice a day, 

a tricky balancing act between offering enough 

food to keep the corals healthy but not so much 

that water quality deteriorates. 

One of the first coral genera shown to produce 

bioactive compounds similar to soft corals. One 

such compound, called tubastrine, has antiviral 

properties. Tubastrea also produces toxins 

that discourage competition and settlement of 

other stony corals. 

Turbinaria Cup Coral 

Turbinaria sp. (Dendrophylliidae) 

Distribution: Throughout the Indo-Pacific. 

Habitat: Variable, from shallow turbid water to 

clear reef flats and deeper reef slopes. 

Appearance: May form cup, vase, or spreading 

scroll-like shapes, depending on light and 

water conditions. Color yellow, brown, or 

sometimes green. Corallites separate and 

distinct. 

Diet: Many members of this family lack 

zooxanthellae and are not reef builders. The 

genus Turbinaria is an exception. 

Reproduction and Development: Unlike most 

stony corals, which spawn in summer, this 

genus spawns in the fall. 

Remarks: When irritated, can produce large 

amounts of clear mucus which can damage 

other corals; the mucus is presumed to contain 

nematocysts or a toxin. 

ORDER CERIANTHARIA 

Tube Anemone 

Pachycerianthus fimbriatus (Cerianthidae) 

Distribution: California (total distribution 

poorly known). 

Habitat: Fairly common in soft mud bottoms 

of bays and harbors and protected sandy 

substrates of the outer coast. Low intertidal 

and subtidal in S. California; subtidal only in 

N. California.


Appearance: Solitary tube to 35 cm long when 

expanded. The tough, slippery, black, secreted 

tube projects above the mud substrate. Tentacular 

crown with two circles of translucent 

whitish to brown-gold tentacles. The inner 

circle usually held over the mouth, the outer 

circle projecting up or out. 

Diet: Small invertebrates and plankton.. 

Mortality/Longevity: The nudibranch Dendronotus 

iris munches on the tentacles, yet 

predators are not a major threat to this species. 

Can live longer than 10 years. A Mediterranean 

species of tube anemone lived in an aquarium 

for more than 50 years. 

Remarks: Resemble sea anemones in a tube. 

Unlike sea anemones the anal pore is at the 

end of the body. 

Self-made tubes are composed of mainly 

discharged nematocyst threads, capsules and 

mucus. 

Tentacles retract very rapidly into the tube if 

the animal is disturbed.. 

ORDER ACTINIARIA 

(SEA ANEMONES) 

Giant Plumose Anemone 

Metridium giganteum (Metridiidae) 

Distribution: Eastern North Pacific: Alaska to 

southern California. 

Habitat: Subtidal, usually 12–75 m, attached to 

rocky substrate. Individuals usually aggregate 

in groups on deeper rocky reefs. 

Appearance: Erect smooth column up to a 

meter in height. Color variable from white 

through cream to tan, brown and orange. Carries 

short, feathery tentacles in white, brown 

or gray. 

Diet: Plankton—whatever drifts by or is carried 

in by the tide;. 

Reproduction and Development: Unlike the intertidal 

M. senile, which can reproduce asexually 

and sexually, the giant plumose anemone seems 

to reproduce only sexually. Reproduction occurs 

when males release sperm to trigger the release of 

eggs by females. Unlike M. senile, congregations 

are genetically distinct individuals. 

Mortality/Longevity: Predators include Pisaster 

spp. sea star and some species of nudibranchs 

Remarks: The family Metridiidae is one of 

several groups of anemones that have a unique 

antipredator defense. When attacked, they contract 

suddenly, extruding specialized nematocysts 

through the mouth and body wall. These 

nematocysts, much larger than those found in 

the tentacles, can deter or even kill predators. 

Cloned Plumose Anemone 

Metridium senile (Metridiidae) 

Distribution: Southern Alaska to Southern 

California and both Atlantic coasts. 

Habitat: Depth to 166 m. M. senile lives on 

rocks, shells, wood pilings and stony breakwaters 

in bays and harbors in the low intertidal 

and subtidal zones. 

Appearance: M. senile is colored white, cream, 

tan, orange or brown. Height to 50 cm. Tentacular 

crown diameter to 25 cm, hundreds to 

thousands of small, slender tentacles give a 

feathery (plumose) appearance. 

Diet: Passive suspension feeders that trap 

prey in mucus-coated tentacles. Particles 

delivered to mouth via ciliary action. Primarily 

eats small zooplankton, copepods, and 

larvae of decapod crustaceans, bivalves and 

gastropods; also eats polychaetes and scraps 

of squid and fish. 

Reproduction: The plumose anemone reproduces 

asexually by “pedal laceration”: breaking 

off and leaving small fragments of its pedal 

disc. Sexes are separate. When males release 

sperm, females are stimulated to release eggs. 

The fertilized eggs transform into planktonic 

planula larvae. The planulae settle and metamorphose 

into young anemones. 

Mortality/Longevity: The shagrug nudibranch 

feeds on small plumose anemones. Some sea 

stars feed on large adults. 

Remarks: Plumose anemones crawl slowly 

along the substrate by muscular waves of the 

pedal disc. 

Aggregating Anemone 

Anthopleura elegantissima (Actiniidae) 

Distribution: Alaska, USA to Baja California. 

Habitat: Rocky surfaces in very low intertidal 

to mid-intertidal, singly or in dense aggregations, 

up to several hundred per m 2 . 

Appearance: Aggregating individuals to 6 cm 

in column diameter and 8 cm across tentacular

crown. Non-crowded (solitary) individuals to 

25 cm tentacular crown width. Column colored 

white to light green. Tentacles are tipped 

pink, blue or purple. The wartlike tubercules 

are branched. 

Diet: Copepods, isopods, amphipods and other 

very small animals. Zooplankton captured with 

tentacles. Zooxanthellae (dinoflagellates) and 

zoochlorellae (unicellular green algae) endosymbionts 

supplement their host’s nutrition. 

Reproduction and Development: Sexes are 

separate; reproduce sexually. Sperm released 

throughout summer. Also reproduce asexually 

by longitudinal fission. The latter process results 

in clones of same-sexed individuals in concentrations 

of several hundred individuals per m 2 . 

Mortality/Longevity: Like other anemones 

may decrease in size if starving. 

Preyed upon by nudibranchs such as the shag 

rug, Aeolidia papillosa , snails, and sea stars such 

as the leather sea star, Dermasterias imbricata. 

Conservation status: Tide poolers often march 

over and crush colonies. 

Remarks: In laboratory conditions, aggregating 

anemones with endosymbionts move toward 

or away from light, apparently to maximize 

optimum light intensity. Anemones kept in 

darkness for long periods lose all endosymbionts 

and don’t move toward light when light is 

reintroduced to their environment. 

Anemones with endosymbionts expand in 

moderate light and contract in strong light; 

anemones lacking endosymbionts do not expand 

and contract. 

Pebbles, shell fragments and bits of sea algae 

readily adhere to this anemone’s flesh when it 

is above the tideline. This adaptation results in 

reduced desiccation (sunlight is reflected, not 

unlike an aluminum roof). 

Abutting colonies have “clone wars” with their 

neighbors. Stinging cells (nematocysts) are 

used to destroy their enemy’s flesh. 

Giant Green Anemone 

Anthopleura xanthogrammica (Actiniidae) 

Distribution: Alaska to Panama. 

Habitat: Rocky intertidal, tide pools and wharf 

pilings; attach firmly to substrate. Usually 

solitary; in favorable locations can occur in 

numbers to 14 per m 2 . 

Appearance: Column to 30 cm tall and 17 cm 


47 

in diameter; tentacular crown to 25 cm diameter. 

Contracted animals form a hemispherical 

mound. Colored green to dark greenish-brown, 

occasionally white. 

Diet: Detached mussels and sea urchins, also 

take crabs and small fishes. Zoochlorellae 

endosymbionts supplement host’s diet with 

organic materials produced by photosynthesis. 

Also have symbiotic zooxanthellae. 

Reproduction: Sexual; release sperm and 

brownish eggs from late spring through summer. 

Hatched larvae float freely and become 

widely dispersed before settling. 

Mortality/Longevity: Tentacles are chomped 

by the shag rug nudibranch Aeolidia papillosa 

and the gastropod Tinted Wentletrap Epitonium 

tinctum. The column is consumed by the wentletrap 

snails Opalia chacei and O. funiculata, as well 

as the seaspider Pycnogonum stearnsi. Some sea 

stars also include this giant green species on their 

menu, especially smaller anemones. 

Conservation status: Tide poolers often march 

over and crush colonies. 

Remarks: Green color is due to presence of a 

fluorescent green pigment in the epidermis, 

as well as zoochlorellae (symbiotic unicellular 

green algae.) Anemones in caves and shaded 

areas may lack endosymbionts and are thus 

colored very light green or white. 

The hermit crab Pagurus samuelis often 

scampers around on the giant green anemone; 

perhaps the crab becomes so covered with 

the host’s mucus that the anemone can’t 

distinguish itself from the crab. Since hermit 

crabs ingested into the gastrovascular cavity 

are released, perhaps there is an as yet to be 

described symbiosis. 

Condylactis Sea Anemone 

Condylactis sp. (Actiniidae) 

Distribution: Found throughout the Caribbean 

and Western Atlantic; also Indo-Pacific. 

Habitat: Found in lagoons or on inner reefs. 

Appearance: Disc size: 10–40 cm. 

Diet: Like many other cnidarians, these 

anemones host zooxanthellae. Also collect 

small invertebrates and fishes with their 

tentacles.. The amount of food they eat 

determines how fast they grow. 

Reproduction and Development: Male and 

female release eggs and sperm into the water.


After fertilization and development, larvae 

metamorphose and settle out as juvenile 

anemones. Can also reproduce asexually 

through splitting and budding. 

Remarks: Indo-Pacific Condylactis spp. and 

clownfish do not display symbiotic behavior 

in the wild. However, aquarists report that if 

introduced in an aquarium, the anemone may 

serve as a clownfish host. There are no clownfish 

species in the Caribbean. 

Bubbletip Sea Anemone 

Entacmaea quadricolor (Actiniidae) 


Habitat: Usually in deep crevices with only the 

tentacles visible. 

Appearance: Tentacles to 10 cm length, often 

but certainly not always inflated and balloonlike 

at the tips. The oral disc and column are 

smooth and brown, green, or occasionally a 

fluorescent reddish orange. 

Diet: Microcarnivores of plankton, supplemented 

with nutrition from zooxanthellae 

algal symbionts. 


sexually by spawning and asexually, mostly by 

longitudal fission. Have spawned successfully 

in captivity. 

Remarks: Thirteen species of anemonefishes 

are known to occur in a symbiotic relation with 

this anemone. 

Bubbles inflate during daylight, a response interpreted 

by some researchers as providing more 

surface area to gather sunlight for algal symbionts. 

Corkscrew Tentacle Sea Anemone 

Macrodactyla doreensis (Actiniidae) 

Distribution: Ryuku Islands; Philippines; 

Indonesia; New Guinea and the Coral Sea. 

Habitat: Prefers shallow waters with soft 

substrate of sand and/or mud. Lives with 

column buried in the substrate and rarely 

moves unless conditions stress the animal. 

Appearance: The base is usually orange; oral 

disc, if flared, has prominent white radial lines. 

Long tentacles are up to 15 cm long, often with 

corkscrew shape. May grow to 50 cm, but more 

commonly found at 20–30 cm. 

Diet: Most nutrition produced by symbiotic 

zooxanthellae. Also feeds on particulate matter 

and small organisms. 

Mortality/Longevity: Certain angelfish, 

butterflyfish and seastars eat tentacles. 

Remarks: M. doreensis is known to host four 

species of anemonefish on exhibit in the 

Steinhart Aquarium—the pink, Clark’s, and 

spinecheek anemonefishes and well as Nemo, 

the false clownfish. 

From a Singapore website: “To some (hungry) 

visitors, the anemone reminds them of a bowl 

of udon noodles”! 

Painted Anemone aka Painted Urticina 

Urticina crassicornis (Actiniidae) 

Distribution: Alaska, USA to south of Carmel, 

California; also both coasts of Atlantic. 

Habitat: Sides and undersurfaces of rocks, low intertidal 

and subtidal along exposed rocky shores. 

Appearance: Column diameter to 8 cm, height 

to 10 cm, smooth, lacking adherent material, 

variably colored red or green, with patches of 

green, yellow or red. Tentacles short, stocky, 

patterned variously, tips usually white. 

Diet: Carnivorous. Capture prey with nematocysts. 

(Most reports assert nematocysts are used 

defensively rather than aggressively.) 

Reproduction and Development: In eastern 

Atlantic populations, eggs are fertilized 

internally and retained; young are released 

as well-developed tiny anemones. In Puget 

Sound, WA this species spawns. Following 

fertilization, planula larvae often settle on 

tubes of annelid worms or on stones. Settled 

planulae rapidly develop into tiny 0.6 mm 

anemones. After 1 year anemones are 1.0 cm in 

diameter. Size is determined by available food 

rather than by age. 

White-spotted Rose Anemone 

Urticina lofotensis (Actiniidae) 

Distribution: Northern Washington state, USA 

to San Diego, California, circumpolar. 

Habitat: Rocks and walls of surge channels, 

low intertidal to 15 m on exposed outer coast. 

Appearance: Column diameter to 10 cm, height 

to 15 cm. Column bright scarlet or crimson 

with white warty spots in longitudinal rows; 

tentacles slender, elongate, scarlet to crimson. 

Diet: Carnivorous. According to one resource, 

capture prey by stunning with nematocysts. 

Most other reports affirm that nematocysts 

are used defensively rather than aggressively.

Fish-eating Anemone 

Urticina piscivora (Actiniidae) 

Distribution: Alaska to southern California. 

Habitat: Low intertidal to about 50 m, in 

areas with rocky attachment sites and at least 

moderate current. 

Appearance: Typically about 25 cm across, 

though large individuals can grow to 60 cm. 

Column is red with white, sometimes red, 

tentacles, and a creamy yellow oral disc. 

Diet: Invertebrates and small fishes. These 

anemones have no zooxanthellae and depend 

wholly on capturing their food, a strategy aided 

by their exceptionally virulent nematocysts 

(stinging cells), which can cause long-lasting 

lesions on humans. Food items are usually swept 

into the anemone’s tentacles by the current. 

Remarks: Painted greenlings (Oxylebius pictus), 

sometimes seek protection among the tentacles 

of fish-eating anemones as well as on the Tealia 

anemone (Urticina lofotensis). Though the 

strategy is similar to that of tropical clownfishes, 

the greenling-anemone association is facultative 

rather than obligatory as the fish can survive well 

in areas without anemones. 

Leathery Sea Anemone 

Heteractis crispa (Stichodactylidae) 

Distribution: Red Sea, Indian Ocean to W 

Pacific Ocean. 

Habitat: Among coral reefs and rubble. 

Appearance: Very large anemone to more than 

50 cm in diameter. Expanded bushy crown 

of tentacles obscure oral disc and mouth. 

Tentacles are up to 1 m long, slender and 

sinuous; often opaque greyish-brown, violet 

or green, occasionally pink. Tips sometimes 

blue or purple. Column with tough, leathery 

texture, usually with fragments of seashells 

and coral attached. 

Diet: Microcarnivore of plankton. Zooxanthellae 

present. 

Remarks: At least 14 species of anemonefishes 

are symbiotic with the sebae anemone. 

Magnificent Sea Anemone 

Heteractis magnifica (Stichodactylidae) 


Habitat: 1–25 m, often on prominent structures 

in strong currents or in strong surge locations. 

Appearance: Disc to 1 m in diameter. Column, 


49 

which may be red, purple, or pink, grows to 20 

cm. Tentacles are of uniform thickness and do 

not taper at te tip; tentacles and oral disc are 

colored alike in shades of magenta-purple, blue, 

green , red, white or brown. 

Diet: Most nutrition from products of zooxanthellae. 

Also may eat fish and crustaceans., 

Reproduction and Development: Asexual reproduction 

by longitudinal fission. Sexual reproduction 

presumed although data are lacking. 

Remarks: Host to at least 12 anemonefish 

species. 

When disturbed, H. magifica “balls up,”showing 

only the column with only a few tentacles 

protruding. 

Giant Carpet Anemone 

Stichodactyla gigantea (Stichodactylidae) 

Carpet Anemones 

Distribution: Indo-Pacific and the Red Sea. 

Habitat: Shallow water so low that the 

anemone may be exposed at low tide. Usually 

on sandy surface with pedal disc attached to 

hard surface below. 

Appearance: Deeply folded oral disc, covered 

with short, slightly tapering tentacles that 

tend to constantly vibrate. Column ranging 

from yellowish to pinkish, tan or gray-green 

covered with blue to maroon warty projections. 

Tentacles usually brown or greenish, though 

occasionally a bright purple, deep blue, or 

striking green. May grow to a meter in 10 years. 

Diet: Nutrition mostly from products of 

photosynthetic zooxanthellae, but also captures 

invertebrates and small fishes. 


separate; females ingest the sperm and fertilize 

the embryos internally. Embryos are internally 

brooded, released from the mouth as miniature 

copies of the adult, and drift as plankters until 

settling. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: At least 10 

years, probably much longer. 

Remarks: This big fellow has a potent sting and 

may harm corals and anemones as it moves 

about. Its sting can also cause a severe reaction 

in humans. 

Sun Anemone 

Stichodactyla helianthus (Stichodactylidae) 

Distribution: Common to the Bahamas,


eastern and southern Caribbean; rare in the 

northwestern Caribbean. 

Habitat: Shallow reef areas with mild to strong 

currents; prefer strong light and water flow. 

Appearance: A large, green to whitish, carpetlike 

sea anemone. The oral disc covered by 

many short tentacles with rounded tips. Max. 

diameter: 15 cm. 

Diet: Nutrition mainly from photosynthetic 

zooxanthellae. Also actively collect small 

invertebrates and fish with their tentacles. The 

amount of food they eat determines how fast 

they grow. 


separate; release eggs and sperm into the water. 

Can reproduce asexually through splitting ad 

budding. May occupy large areas in dense 

aggregations. 

Remarks: Research suggests a peptide molecule 

found in a toxin produced by the sun anemone 

may have pharmacological value in the treatment 

of such various conditions as type-2 diabetes and 

autoimmune diseases in humans. 

Miniature Carpet Anemone 

Stichodactyla tapetum (Stichodactylidae) 

Distribution: Indian and Pacific Oceans, Red Sea. 

Habitat: In rock crevices on fringing coral reefs; 

also on sand, mud or rock of reef shallows in 

areas of moderate water flow. 

Appearance: Tentacles short, bulbous, densely 

packed. Often arrayed in fields on the entire 

disc. 

Diet: Primarily by-products of symbiotic 

zooxanthellae as well as drifting plankton. 


reproduction. Members of this family rarely 

divide in captivity. 

Remarks: Tentacles deliver a potent sting for 

their size. 

Some species of Stichodactyla anemones host 

anemone fish. This species does not. 

CLASS SCYPHOZOA 

(TRUE JELLYFISH) 

Moon Jelly 

Aurelia aurita (Ulmaridae) 

Distribution: Widespread. Atlantic, Arctic, 

Pacific, and Indian Oceans. 

Habitat: Moon jellies are found near coastlines; 

they can survive over a wide range of 

temperatures (-6 °C to 31 °C; optimum 9 °C to 

19 °C). They can also live in brackish waters. 

They inhabit both oceans and inshore seas, 

often in large numbers. 

Appearance: Size range between 5 and 

40 cm. Delicate coloration. Lack the long, 

potent stinging tentacles seen in some other 

jellyfishes. 

Diet: A. aurita feeds on plankton. A mucous 

layer traps small organisms on the jellyfish’s 

surface. Flagellae move the food from point 

of capture along well defined paths to the 

animal’s stomach. 

Reproduction and Development: Males and 

females are distinct and reproduction is sexual. 

Sexes can be distinguished since females hold 

the fertilized eggs, which appear as whitishgray 

clumps on the manubrium (the conical 

mass that extends from the undersurface of 

the jellyfish.) Males may sometimes be seen 

with long sperm filaments trailing from the 

oral arms. After fertilization there are several 

distinct larval forms as the organism develops 

from egg to adult. 

Mortality/Longevity: The death of the organism 

may follow reproduction, which leaves the 

gonads open to infection and degradation. 

Documented predators include the ocean 

sunfish, the leatherback sea turtle, and a few 

species of larger jellies. They are also hunted 

by birds. They are relatively defenseless, since 

they do not have tentacles that sting. A. aurita 

is a food item in many Asian and Southeast 

Asian countries. 

Upside-down Jellyfish 

Cassiopea andromeda (Cassiopeidae) 

Distribution: Native to Indo-Pacific, but 

introduced in Caribbean, southern Florida, 

Hawaii, and elsewhere. 

Habitat: Upon shallow substrates, typically 

in calm sandy areas, often around mangroves. 

Intertidal to 10 m. 

Appearance: To 30 cm diameter, disc-shaped bell 

has elaborately fringed oral arms. Coloration 

is gray, brown or green with triangular white 

blotches surrounding the bell. 

Diet: Symbiotic algae in its tissues provide

nutrition by photosynthesis, thus the upside 

down posture that allows algae, which live 

on the ventral surface, to receive maximum 

sunlight. The rhythmic pulsations create water 

flow that carries zooplankton over the tentacles 

to supplement the diet. 


both asexually (by budding) and sexually. 

Conservation Status: Common and 

widespread, though pressure from coastal 

development along mangrove shallows may 

pose a future threat. 

Remarks: The sting is relatively mild, but 

may create an irritating, itchy rash; especially 

sensitive individuals can experience vomiting 

and skeletal pain. 

Sea Nettle 

Chrysaora fuscescens (Pelagiidae) 

Distribution: Mostly found along the west 

coast of North America from Mexico to British 

Columbia. 

Appearance: The sea nettle is a giant, semitransparent 

jellyfish, with an amber-colored, 

swimming bell commonly as large as 30 cm 

in diameter, with some measuring more than 

a meter. In addition to four oral arms attached 

to the underside of the mouth, the sea nettle 

has 24 long tentacles around the perimeter of 

the bell that extend up to 4 m. 

Diet: Carnivorous; feeds on zooplankton, small 

crustaceans, comb jellies, fish eggs and larvae. 

Sea nettles sting their prey with their tentacles, 

which have millions of microscopic stinging 

cells that inject toxins to stun or kill tiny 

animals. The main oral arms then transport 

food to the heart-shaped gastric pouches in 

the bell, where digestion occurs. Jellyfish are 

prodigious predators; they swim and feed 

continuously. 

Reproduction: Like any other jellyfish, the 

life cycle of sea nettles has both a polyp and 

a medusa stage. Sexes are separate; egg and 

sperm are broadcast into the surrounding 

water during summer. Ciliated larvae develop 

in the water column, eventually settling on 

a hard surface and growing into miniature 

polyps. The polyp lives on the bottom and 

survives the winter in a dormant state. During 

May through August, the polyp asexually 

reproduces tiny sea nettle medusas that bud 


51 

off and eventually grow into the familiar, large 

medusa stage. 

Mortality/Longevity: In the medusa stage, sea 

nettles live from 2–6 mos, usually perishing in 

rough waters or being eaten by predators— 

ocean sunfish and leatherback turtles are two 

of the most prevalent jellyfish predators. 

Remarks: Question: What has no heart, bones, 

eyes or brain, is made up of 95% water, and yet 

is still a remarkably efficient ocean predator? 

(The jellyfish) 

Some jellies commute 1,000 m up and down in 

the water column daily! 

Larval and juvenile cancer crabs may hitch 

rides on the jelly, dropping off as the jelly 

comes inshore. 

Sea nettle stings can result in extreme localized 

pain. Fortunately this jelly is not aggressive. 

In recent years, tests of a commercially 

developed sting inhibitor have shown promise 

in reducing the severity and frequency of stings 

from sea nettles and other jellies. Reportedly, 

the inhibitor is chemically based on the mucus 

coating of clownfish, known to protect against 

anemone stings. 

Sea nettles were first captive bred at the 

Monterey Bay Aquarium. 

The bell of this and other jellies is called a 

“medusa” because, with its long, fringing 

tentacles, it resembles the snake-haired Gorgon 

Medusa of Greek mythology. 

PHYLUM ANNELIDA 

Featherduster Worms 

Sabellastarte sp. and Protula sp. 

Distribution: Indo-Pacific, Hawaii. 

Habitat: Mainly tropical marine areas, with 

muddy or sandy bottoms. 

Appearance: Featherduster worms are sessile 

marine segmented worms. They form and 

live in tubes, attached to rocks, coral or sand 

by their bases. Their plumes extend beyond 

the open end of the tube to feed. They have 

primitive eyes and will withdraw the plume 

if they sense motion. Some species may be 

shed their plumes if environmental conditions 

are poor.


Diet: Filter feeders eating plankton, detritus, 

and bacteria, using the plumes to sweep food 

toward the mouth. 

Reproduction and Development: Simple 

methods of reproduction. Some species may 

reproduce asexually at times. Most have 

separate sexes, with poorly defined gonads. 

Usually broadcast gametes through excretory 

openings into the water. In some species the 

worm may leave the tube to reproduce. 

Remarks: Tube worms in the family Sabellidae 

produce non-calcareous tubes from skin like 

secretions. Those in the family Serpulidae 

secrete calcium carbonate into their tubes. The 

tube mouth is blocked by an operculum when 

the worm retracts. 

The “featherdusters” are tentacles covered with 

microscopic cilia. The cilia move water past the 

food groove and capture bacteria and plankton 

contained in the water. The food groove is lined 

with mucus producing cells. Food particles get 

knocked into the mucus, which is thick and 

gluey on top, but liquid and mobile below. 

The cilia move the mucus carrying the worm’s 

dinner into the gut. Essentially, the worm has 

produced a conveyor belt to feed itself. 

PHYLUM MOLLUSCA 

CLASS POLYPLACOPHORA 

(CHITONS) 

Lined Chiton 

Tonicella lineata (Ischnochitoninae) 

Distribution: Aleutian Islands, Alaska south 

to San Miguel Island, California, west to Sea 

of Okhotsk and northern Japan. 

Habitat: On rocky substrates covered with 

erect or crustose coralline algae in the intertidal 

zone and subtidal waters. 

Appearance: Length to 5 cm. Body is elongateoval, 

valve is low, rounded, smooth and shiny. 

Coloration is typically reddish and marked 

with sinuous or zigzag lines of alternating 

colors of blue, red, whitish; occasionally 

blotched or lacking in color. 

Diet: Primarily coralline algae. 

Reproduction and Development: Spawning 

varies by latitude. On San Juan Island, 

Washington, eggs are released during May 

or June, while in Oregon and California 

eggs are released during April. The greencolored 

eggs exit the female in groups of 

two or three; intermittent spawning lasts 

around one and one-half hours. Following 

fertilization, the trochophore larvae begins 

development for several days as the foot, 

mantle and larval eyes form. Larvae settle when 

they locate an appropriately hard substrate 

containing crustose coralline algae. The larvae 

metamorphose into a miniature adult in 12 

hours after settlement. The developing shell 

valves are initially lightly calcified and thus 

very flexible. By the sixth day the diminutive 

chiton has all external morphological features 

excepting its gills. Thirty days after settlement 

it has a fully-developed radula and is equipped 

to attack its coralline algae “salads.” 

Mortality/Longevity: Predators include the sea 

star Pisaster ochraceus. 

Remarks: Its coloration blends well with 

the substrate of coralline algae. Thus its 

appearance is likely an adaptation against 

visual predators. 

Activity rhythms vary by depth. Individuals in 

the intertidal zone don’t move when exposed 

during a low tide; they only locomote once 

immersed by a rising tide. 

Mossy Chiton 

Mopalia muscosa (Mopaliidae) 


Baja California 

Habitat: On rocks and in tide pools, middle 

to lower intertidal in locations with light to 

moderate surf; also in estuaries, very unusual 

habitat for a chiton. 

Appearance: Length to 9 cm. Shell is dull 

brown, and frequently eroded and encrusted. 

The fleshy girdle surrounding the shell plates 

is densely covered with stiff, reddish-brown 

bristles; thus the common name. 

Diet: Forages exclusively at night. Primarily 

feeds upon the red algae turkish towel (Gigartina 

papillata) and the green alga Cladophora spp. 

In some studies, mossy chiton’s guts contained 

up to 15% animal matter, a large percentage 

consumed inadvertently. 

Reproduction and Development: Spawn 

mostly in spring and summer. Eggs and sperm

usually shed in large tide pools. Following 

fertilization, hatching occurs within a day’s 

time. Free-swimming larvae settle around 11 

days. Mossy chitons attain sexual maturity at 

2 years of age. 

Mortality/Longevity: A popular treat for 

Pisaster ochraceus. 

Remarks: A chiton’ shell is composed of 8 

overlapping plates that can flex over irregular 

shapes of rocks, allowing the animal to create 

a tight, secure seal. Most chitons can also roll 

into a plate-covered ball in response to danger. 

Gumboot Chiton 

Cryptochiton stelleri (Acanthochitonidae) 

Distribution: Northern Hokkaido Island, Japan; 

Kurile Islands, Japan; Kamchatka, Siberia; Aleutian 

Islands, Alaska; to the California Channel 

Islands of San Miguel and San Nicolas. 

Habitat: Low intertidal in areas protected 

from strong surf. Also subtidal in kelp forests. 

Adults not nomadic; in one study marked individuals 

remained within 20 m of the release 

site for over 2 years. 

Appearance: Length to 35 cm. Dark brown to 

“brick” red in color. Mantle thick and leathery. 

Diet: Red algae, especially Gigartina spp., 

Iridaea spp. and certain coralline algae; also 

green and brown algae. 


occurs in the spring in California. A gumboot 

may lose 5% of its body weight at this time. 

Eggs are laid in gelatinous spiral strings up to 

1 m long. The laying of this string triggers the 

males to release sperm. 0.5 mm larvae hatch 

5 days after fertilization. After a 20-hour freeswimming 

stage, larvae settle. 

Mortality/Longevity: Does not affix firmly to the 

rocky substrate like other chitons. Thus is often 

washed out of the low intertidal to be stranded 

on the high beach during storms. Valves are often 

broken, but are able to mend. Has few predators. 

The predaceous lurid rock snail rasps pits into 

the dorsal surface. Largely ignored by sea otters. 

Live to more than 20 years. 

Remarks: This species is the largest chiton on 

the planet. 

The valves of this chiton frequently occur in 

historic kitchen middens of coastal California 

Native Americans. Exactly how gumboots 

were prepared remains unknown. Long, 


53 

covered-by-lid slow-cooking over a fire might 

be the answer culinary anthropologists seek. 

The commensal inhabitants include the 

polynoid worm Arctonoe vittata and the pea 

crab Opisthopus transversus, which cling to 

the chiton’s gills. They feed on plankton and 

detritus brought in by the respiratory currents 

of the gumboot host. 

CLASS GASTROPODA 

(SNAILS AND SLUGS) 

Red Abalone 

Haliotis rufescens (Haliotidae) 

Distribution: Sunset Bay, Oregon to Baja 

California. 

Habitat: Uncommon in the lower intertidal 

zone in rocky areas with heavy surf. Most now 

in 6–17 m depth in central California. 

Appearance: Shell (to 30 cm) is usually brick 

red and overgrown with fouling organisms. 

Shell’s color influenced by diet. The red color 

is from the pigment phycoerythrin consumed 

in its red algae diet. Brown specimens eat primarily 

brown algae. 

Diet: Algae, especially red and brown species. 

Drifting pieces of algae are trapped by epipodal 

tentacles before the foot traps the plant. 

Reproduction and Development: After 

spawning, fertilized eggs sink. Half a day 

later swimming trochophore larvae develop. 

About one day later this becomes a veliger 

larva. After a week or two, depending on water 

temperature, the larvae settle to the bottom, 

metamorphose, and begin to graze. Growth 

slows with increasing size and age. 

Mortality/Longevity: Mortality is very high 

in the planktonic stages. Settled abalone are 

preyed upon by sea stars, crabs, octopuses, 

fishes, sea otters and humans. Individuals can 

live more than 20 years. 

Conservation status: Highly endangered. 

Due to overexploitation by the abalone fishery, 

the population plummeted in the late 

twentieth century. Poaching continues to be 

a problem. 

Remarks: The holes in the shell excrete feces, 

urine, gametes and water that has circulated 

through the gills.


Red abalone have been used as a laboratory 

animal in many physiological and biochemical 

investigations. 

Rough Keyhole Limpet 

Diodora aspera (Fissurellidae) 

Distribution: Alaska to Baja California. 

Habitat: Beneath stones or canopy of algae in 

the lower intertidal zone in its northern range, 

more common subtidally in the south. 

Appearance: Shell to 7 cm long, thick, triangular 

in profile. Color gray with radiating grayishbrown, 

or black and white radiating striations. 

Diet: Omnivorous. Encrusting bryozoans are 

consumed in preference to algae. 

Reproduction and Development: Spawners. 

After various larval stages metamorphose, 

larvae settle to substrate and metamorphose 

into miniature adults. 

Mortality/Longevity: Consumed by sea stars 

including the sunflower star and the Pacific 

sea star. 

Remarks: Upon contact with sea stars this 

limpet extends its foot, elevating the shell. The 

mantle flap divides at its margin into a series of 

folds, two of which extend greatly to cover the 

dorsum and ventral surface; thus the starfish 

lacks a toehold. 

Shield Limpet 

Collisella pelta (Acmaeidae) 

Distribution: Aleutian Islands, Alaska south 

to Baja California. 

Habitat: Rocky reefs, mid-low subtidal zones. 

Active only when wet or submerged. Associated 

with brown algae and mussel beds. 

Appearance: Ribbed shell to 4 cm in diameter. 

Exterior color highly variable: brown/green; 

also colored “checkered” black and white. 

Variation at least partially caused by dietary 

differences. 

Diet: A wide variety of algae, both microscopic 

and large. Primarily feeds upon erect algae, 

especially the reds (Endocladia muricata, Rhodoglossum 

spp., Iridaea spp.), and the browns 

(Pelvetia fastigiata, feather boa kelp Egregia 

menziesii, and sea palm Postelia palmaeformis). 


throughout the year in central California. 

Young (typically black, with weak shell rib- 

bing) occur on the stipes and holdfasts of the 

feather boa kelp, Egregia menziesii. They move 

to a rock substrate when about 1 cm long, develop 

ribbing and change shell color. Reach 3 

cm in three years. 

Mortality/Longevity: Preyed upon by sea stars 

including the ochre sea star (Pisaster ochraceus). 

Remarks: Gives an escape response to its three 

known sea star predators, but rarely to other 

predatory sea stars. 

Owl Limpet aka Giant Owl Limpet 

Lottia gigantea (Acmaeidae) 

Distribution: Washington state to Baja California. 

Habitat: Cliff faces and rocks of surf-beaten 

high to middle intertidal. At low tide large 

individuals occupy a “home scar” in a rock 

that exactly fits the margin of their shells. Owl 

limpets aggressively defend their territory. 

Appearance: Low, oval shell has an eroded 

surface; length to 9 cm. Brown shell with 

white spots. 

Diet: During high tide graze upon algal film 

within their territory (appropriately the size of 

a large dinner plate; 1000 cm 2 ). 

Reproduction and Development: Breed in 

autumn and winter in California. 

Change sex from male to female. 

Mortality/Longevity: Preyed upon by humans 

as well as shorebirds such as oystercatchers. 

Can live at least 15 years. 

Conservation status: Not on IUCN Red List. 

However, collection by humans as a food source 

threatens many populations. Prized as a food in 

Mexico. Illegally poached in California. 

Remarks: Owl limpets push smaller limpets 

including other Lottia gigantea, mussels and 

sea anemones out of its territory by “bulldozing” 

(pushing) them with their shell. Small 

barnacles are rasped off with its goethite (a 

hard iron compound) -capped radula. 

Coastal Native American middens often contain 

owl limpet shells. 

There was once a commercial fishery for 

limpets, primarily owl limpets, in California. 

During 1919 and 1920 the limpet harvest was 

more than 8000 kg.

Black Turban Snail 

Tegula funebralis (Trochidae) 

Distribution: Vancouver Island, Canada to 

Central Baja California. 

Habitat: Tide pools and on rocks in middle 

intertidal of protected areas. 

Appearance: Shell dark purple to black. Diameter 

to 3 cm. Males tend to have a pale foot 

while females have a dark foot. 

Diet: Opportunistically grazes upon brown 

algae, microscopic films, attached macroalgae 

and wrack. Prefers soft algae such as giant kelp 

(Macrocystis), bull kelp (Nereocystis), and turkish 

towel (Gigartina). Very young snails graze 

on the film of microscopic algae on rocks. 


separate. Females deposit eggs in gelatinous 

masses, each containing several hundred 

eggs. Veliger larvae hatch from the mass on 

the seventh day. Larvae settle one week later. 

Mortality/Longevity: Preyed upon by humans, 

sea otters, the red rock crab (Cancer 

productus), and especially the ochre sea star 

(Pisaster ochraceus). May live to 20–30 years, 

extremely old for a gastropod. 

Remarks: Formerly popular as food with 

Native Americans. 

Brown Turban Snail 

Tegula brunnea (Trochidae) 

Distribution: Oregon to Santa Barbara Island, 

California. 

Habitat: Rocky shore, low intertidal to subtidal 

deep tidal lagoon and surge channel 

subhabitats, often on upper blades and stipes 

of subtidal kelp. 

Appearance: Shell color orange or bright 

brown. Shell is smooth and rounded, diameter 

to 3 cm. 

Diet: Opportunistically graze upon brown algae 

including Macrocystis, Egregia and Laminaria. 


separate. 


of Pisaster spp., the crab Cancer antennarius, 

and sea otters. 

Blue Ring Top Snail 

Calliostoma annulatum (Callistomatidae) 

Distribution: Found inshore on brown algae 

and on rocks; offshore on kelp forests. 


55 

Habitat: Found inshore on brown algae and 

on rocks; offshore on kelp forests. 

Appearance: Cone-shaped yellow shell with 

purple bands along the beaded spiral; foot 

bright orange or yellow. Diameter to 2.5 cm. 

Diet: Hydroids, encrusting bryozoans, 

detritus, diatoms, dead fish; also known to 

feed on club-tipped anemones (Corynactis 

californica). 

Reproduction and Development: Separate 

sexes; broadcast sperm and eggs into the sea 

where fertilization occurs. 

Remarks: When attacking an anemone, the 

blue ring top snail rears up on its foot, lunges, 

and bites at one of the anemone’s tentacles. 

The foot regularly discharges a mucous layer 

on the shell which apparently makes the 

animal more difficult for predators to grasp. 

Blue Top Snail 

Calliostoma ligatum (Callistomatidae) 

Distribution: Eastern Pacific: Alaska to Baja 

California. 

Habitat: Brown algae inshore on rocks and 

offshore kelp forests. 

Appearance: Cone-shaped yellow shell with 

purple bands along the beaded spiral; foot 

bright orange or yellow. Diameter to 2.5 cm. 

Diet: Omnivore; feeds on kelp, hydroids, encrusting 

bryozoans, detritus, diatoms, dead fish. 


sexes; broadcast sperm or eggs into the sea 

where fertilization occurs. 

Red Top Snail 

Lithopoma gibberosum (Turbinidae) 


California. 

Habitat: Low intertidal rocks and subtidal 

kelp beds. 

Appearance: Squat, cone-shaped, brick-red 

shell often overgrown by algae or hydroids. 

Diameter to 12 cm. 

Diet: Algae. 


spawners. Little is known about their biology. 

Wavy Turban Snail 

Lithopoma undosum (Turbinidae) 

Distribution: Eastern Pacific: Point Conception 

to northern Baja California.


Habitat: Low intertidal zone to sub-intertidal 

to about 20 m depth. 

Appearance: A large marine gastropod. 

Circular shell with undulating (“wavy”) 

ridges. Max. size: 13 cm. 

Diet: Algae. 

Remarks: The shell is often covered with algae 

and other encrusting organism, an effective 

means of camouflage. 

Queen Conch 

Strombus gigas (Strombidae) 

Distribution: South Florida, Bahamas and 

Caribbean. 

Habitat: Sea grass beds (especially turtle grass 

Thalassia testudinum), sand flats and shallow, 

sandy lagoons, often around patch reefs. 

Appearance: Short conical spire with blunt 

spikes. Shell’s exterior is orangish, often obscured 

by algal growth and debris. Aperture 

rosy-pink, with a thickened flared lip. Mottled 

gray head with large proboscis and long eye 

stalks. Eye at tip of stalk, tentacles below. Long, 

claw-like operculum. 

Diet: Primarily microscopic algae grazed from 

the surface of the blades of turtle grass. 

Reproduction and Development: Mating occurs 

in open sandy areas, the two partners lined 

up fore to aft. Packets consisting of gelatinous 

strings of eggs are deposited on sandy substrates. 

Eggs hatch into planktonic larvae. Adult 

reaches 30 cm length in 2–3 years. After that time 

shell is thickened by additional layers of calcium 

carbonate added on the internal surface. 

Mortality/Longevity: Juveniles preyed 

upon by gastropod mollusks, cephalopods, 

crustaceans and fishes. Adults are consumed 

by sharks and loggerhead turtles; the latter is 

capable of crushing the shells of adult queen 

conchs. Avidly preyed upon by humans as a 

food source. 

Conservation Status: Has become uncommon 

in many locations, especially in shallow depths, 

due to overharvesting for food. 

Remarks: Locomote by hopping by extending 

the muscular foot and “pole vaulting.” Adults 

can move vertically with waving motions of the 

foot and also adhere to substrates. 

The conchfish (Astrapogon stellatus) spends 

daylight within the mantle cavity of this conch, 

and emerges nocturnally to feed. 

A conch pearl is formed when an animal or 

mineral particle trapped beneath the mantle is 

covered with layers of calcium carbonate until 

it reaches nearly marble-size. 

Marble Cone Snail 

Conus marmoreus (Conidae) 


Habitat: Shallow water to 90 m depth. 

Appearance: Shell length to 10 cm. Flat, 

noduled spire. Reticulated pattern of black or 

dark brown with white patches overall. 

Diet: A predator of predators; harpoons on 

other members of its family (Conidae). Its 

“harpoon” is a single, specialized radula tooth 

equipped with a spearlike barbed tip. The 

barbed tooth has a groove through which the 

snail injects a neurotoxic peptide poison into 

its victim. 

Remarks: Research on cone snail toxins is an 

active field and has resulted in a new highly 

effective painkiller recently approved by the 

FDA that, unlike opium-derived medications, 

has a low risk of addiction. 

Small cone snails pose little danger to humans 

beyond a beelike sting; however, large cone 

snails inject enough toxin to be deadly. About 

30 human deaths have been attributed to cone 

snail envenomation. 

SUBCLASS OPISTHOBRANCHIA 

(SEA SLUGS AND THEIR KIN) 

White Dorid 

Doris odhneri (Dorididae) 

Distribution: Alaska to California. 

Habitat: Rocky areas, mostly at low intertidal 

and subtidal depths. 

Diet: Sponges. 

Appearance: Body of uniform color, usually 

white. Like all dorid nudibranchs, the 

rhinophores and gills are retractable into 

pockets on the mantle. Tubercles on the mantle 

are especially large around the animal’s 

rhinophores and gill bush to protect these 

structures. Max. length: 20 cm. 

Remarks: Dorids have radulae with smooth, 

hook-like teeth characteristic of the family. 

The radula, a file-like organ possessed by all

mollusks except bivalves, is covered with 

chitinous teeth which the white dorid uses to 

scrape off its food. 

Many species of nudibranchs are identified by 

the structure of their radular teeth. 

Terry Gosliner, Academy Senior Scientist, 

is one of the world’s leading experts on 

nudibranchs. 

Sea Lemon 

Peltodoris nobilis (Dorididae) 

Dorid Nudibranchs 


Habitat: Rocky areas, mostly at low intertidal 

and subtidal depths to about 25m. Often seen 

on harbor pilings. 

Appearance: Color variable: may be pale 

yellow to a deep rich yellow or orange. Back 

is covered with tubercules and dark spots; gills 

are white at the tips. One of the largest of all 

nudibranchs; max. size: 20 cm. 

Diet: Sponges. 

Reproduction and Development: Hermaphrodites. 

The coiled cream-colored egg ribbons, 

each containing as many as 2 million eggs, are 

sometimes seen in the exhibit. 

Remarks: P. nobilis is one several dorid 

nudibranchs with a fruity, distinct lemon scent 

usually given off when the animal is handled, 

thus its common name. When concentrated, 

the odor repels many predators. 

California is well-known for the diversity of 

nudibranchs found in its coastal waters. 

Opalescent Nudibranch 

Hermissenda crassicornis (Fabelinidae) 

Distribution: Kodiak Island, Alaska to Baja 

California, Mexico; Japan 

Habitat: Tidepools, rocks, pilings, mudflats. 

Benthic: low tide line to 37 m. 

Appearance: Length to 5 cm. Grayish white 

body with neon blue edges, brilliant orange 

dorsal pinstripe from front to back. Cerata 

are burnt umber to brown with orange to 

white tips. 

Diet: Hydroids, sea anemones, sponges, 

corals, bryozoans, other nudibranchs. 


Hermaphroditic (possessing both male and 

female organs), though rarely self-fertilizing. 

Egg strings in narrow coils with as little as a 


57 

few eggs to as many as a million. Eggs mature 

in from five to 50 days depending on water 

temperature. 

Mortality/Longevity: Less than one year. 

Remarks: An encounter between members 

of this species may result in mutual mating 

or hostile combat with the victor dining on 

the loser. 

One of several nudibranch species valued in 

medical research for the study of ganglia and 

nerves. 

A good example of warning coloration; fish 

have been observed to avoid this brightly 

colored species whose nematocysts inflict 

damage to the tissues of unwary consumers. 

Adults store nematocysts, ingested from their 

cnidarian prey, in the cerata. 

California Sea Hare 

Aplysia californica (Aplysiidae) 

Distribution: Humboldt Bay, California to 

Gulf of California. 

Habitat: Among seaweed, sometimes in 

kelp canopy, lower intertidal to over 18 m. 

Occasionally in sandy areas, mudflats, bottom 

of bays, estuaries and harbors. 

Appearance: A huge (to more than 40 cm long 

and weighing several kg) sea slug; reddish, 

brownish and/or greenish (color dependent 

on diet). 

Diet: Herbivore. Feeds primarily diurnally on 

various algae and the eelgrass Zostera. 

Reproduction and Development: All adults 

are simultaneous hermaphrodites. During 

mating, any individual may perform as a male, 

or as a female, or as both sexes simultaneously. 

“Daisy chains” of mating animals are often 

reported from the field. The designated female 

lays long, tangled, yellow-green, spaghettilike 

egg strings containing up to one million 

eggs intertidally and subtidally among rocks 

and algae. The eggs hatch ~two weeks later. 

Hatched veliger larvae swim for ~one month, 

settle and metamorphose into juveniles 

which double their weight every 10 days for 

3 months. 

Mortality/Longevity: Very few species 

have been reported as preying on postlarval 

sea hares, possibly due to their toxic 

digestive gland. Giant green anemones are


one exception; however, these anemones 

regurgitate if they consume the digestive 

gland. Sea hares live one year or less. 

Remarks: When alarmed, sea hares exude a 

dark purple fluid which gets its color from a 

pigment in the red algae in the slug’s diet. 

Due to its large nerve cell bodies (in the peripheries 

of the 9 major ganglia linked by 

nerve fiber tracts), the sea hare has become a 

darling of researchers relating overt behavior 

of animals to the structure and function of cells 

and the cellular network. 

CLASS BIVALVIA AKA 

PELECYPODA 

California Mussel 

Mytilus californianus (Mytiloidae) 

Distribution: Aleutian Islands, Alaska to 

Southern Baja California. 

Habitat: Abundant clusters attached to substrate 

and each other with byssal fibers in 

massive beds. Low intertidal to 40 m deep. 

Common in surf-swept rocky areas. 

Appearance: Shell length typically to 13 cm (25 

cm in some subtidal areas). Blue-black exterior, 

sculpted with ribs and irregular growth lines. 

Diet: When submerged, filter-feed nearly continuously 

on detritus particles and plankton 

(esp. dinoflagellates). 


sexes; broadcast sperm or eggs into the sea 

where fertilization occurs. Spawn November– 

May. Larvae are free-swimming ~ 4 weeks. 

After settling and attachment, grows to full 

size in about 3 years. 

Mortality/Longevity: Preyed on by sea stars, 

in our area, esp. the ochre sea star (Pisaster 

ochraceus), snails, crabs, birds, and humans. 

They create mussel beds—coastal areas densely 

covered with mussels—which provide habitat 

for many small worms and crustaceans. 

Sea otters have devastated formerly extensive 

mussel beds in Monterey Bay. 

Crocea Giant Clam 

Tridacna crocea (Tridacnidae) 

Distribution: Malay Peninsula to Australia, 

New Guinea, Indonesia, Philippines, Okinawa, 

Fiji and Guam. 

Habitat: Lives within small cracks on shallow 

reef flat corals. This species is a “small” giant 

clam; maximum length is 10 cm. Valves have 

very short fluted concentric sculpture on the 

tests. 

Diet: Filter feeds but majority (perhaps approaching 

90%) of nutrition is a result of the 

activities of endosymbiont zooxanthellae. 

Reproduction and Development: Uses valves 

of shell to bore into substrate. 

Conservation status: Not yet on the IUCN Red 

List. Exploited by humans as a food source. 

Remarks: The colorful pigments in the mantle 

tissue probably reduce light intensity to 

protect zooxanthellae. 

Giant Clam 

Tridacna derasa (Tridacnidae) 

Distribution: Cocos Keeling atoll to Australia; 

Fiji, Solomon Islands, New Guinea, Palau, 

Indonesia and Philippines. 

Habitat: Quiet waters, often associated with 

sandy or silty habitats in shallow reef flats. 

Some occur deeper, to 30 m in clear water. 

Appearance: Unmistakable, the common 

name says it all. Tridacna derasa is second largest 

species in genera, length to 50 cm. T. gigas 

is the largest (to 1.37 m) bivalve in the world. 

T. derasa weigh to more than 500 kg. Mantles 

are typically mottled deep blue, green or turquoise 

due to pigments that probably reduce 

light intensity. 

Diet: Intercellular symbiotic zooxanthellae 

photosynthesize and produce food for their 

host clam. The gape of all tridacnids is directed 

upwards, allowing maximum exposure 

to sunlight for their algal symbionts. Like 

most bivalves, a giant clam pumps water and 

planktonic items into its mantle cavity with its 

incurrent siphon. This allows for filter feeding 

with its elaborate gill structures, as well as gas 

exchange. Expels with its excurrent siphon. 

Reproduction: Broadcast spawners; release 

sperm and eggs into open waters. Fertilized 

eggs develop into planktonic larvae that settle 

and attach with byssal threads to the substrate. 

Mortality/Longevity: Humans have harvested 

this tasty bivalve for years. The giant clam 

Tridacna gigas is reputed to live to 200 years. 

Conservation Status: Rare in many areas 

due to overharvesting as a food for humans.

Commercial propagation shows promise of 

success and may offset some taking of natural 

populations. 

Remarks: Despite seafarers’ tales of fellow 

crew members being caught in this clam’s traplike 

valves, it is unlikely that this could occur. 

Giant Clam 

Tridacna gigas (Tridacnidae) 

Distribution: Found throughout the tropical 

Indo-Pacfic. 

Habitat: Benthic on rocky or sandy substrate 

of coral reefs and lagoons to depths of 20 m. 

Appearance: T. gigas is the largest and 

heaviest of all living mollusks. The pale 

or clear spots on the mantle, known as 

“windows,” allow sunlight to enter and 

stimulate the photosynthesis of symbiotic 

algae (zooxanthellae). The two holes in the 

mantle are the siphons, one is fringed with 

tentacles for the intake of water for food and 

oxygen, the other tube-like for the discharge 

of large volumes of water if the clam’s shell 

closes rapidly 

Diet: Zooxanthellae provide most of the 

clam’s nutrition as well as a ready supply of 

oxygen. In turn, the clam provides protection 

and access to light for the zooxanthellae. Like 

other clams, also uses gills to filter small food 

particles from the water and to carry out gas 

exchange. 

Reproduction and Development: Tridacnas are 

broadcast spawners, releasing sperm and eggs 

into the open water in great numbers. Fertilized 

eggs develop into planktonic larvae that 

settle and attach to the substrate with byssal 

threads. Byssal threads become less necessary 

as increasing weight holds the animal in place. 

Mortality/Longevity: Very long-lived. One 

resource suggests 100-year lifespan, another 

200 years! 

Conservation Status: Listed as vulnerable 

by the IUCN. The giant clam is declining in 

numbers, and is extinct in many parts of its 

former range. In Southeast Asia and the Pacific 

islands, the flesh is considered a delicacy. In 

China, the adductor muscle is believed to be an 

aphrodisiac and sells for large sums. Recently, 

commercial propagation shows some promise 

of success. 

Remarks: Giant clams have sometimes been 


59 

called “killer clams,” with stories of humans 

caught and drowned by sinister attacks on 

arms and legs. Fortunately for divers, these 

tall tales are untrue. The most common injury 

associated with giant clams are hernias, back 

strains, or broken toes, self-inflicted on people 

trying to lift these huge animals from the water! 

Maxima Clam aka Small Giant Clam 

Tridacna maxima (Tridacnidae) 

Distribution: Has widest range of giant clam 

species. Indo-Pacific coastlines from east Africa 

to China, Southeast Asia, Australia, and Pacific 

islands. 

Habitat: On reefs or sand, often embedded in 

coral in shallow water. 

Appearance: Aptly named, the small giant clam 

is less than a third the size of T. gigas. Grows to 

40 cm. Mantle is usually bright blue, green, or 

brown, but may be orange or lavender. Shell 

has distinctively furrowed edges. 

Diet: Nutrients from photosynthesis of zooxanthellae 

and from filter-feeding. 


spawner. Like other Tridacnas, juveniles are 

males when first sexually mature, but later 

become hermaphrodites. Sperm and eggs 

are released at different times to avoid selffertilization. 

Mortality/Longevity: Tridacna clams, especially 

the mantles, are preyed upon by mantis and 

cleaner shrimps, various snails, crabs, wrasses, 

triggerfishes, and angelfishes. 

Conservation Status: Classified as Lower Risk 

– conservation dependent on IUCN Red List; 

also Appendix II of CITES. 

Squamosa Clam 

Tridacna squamosa (Tridacnidae) 

Distribution: South Africa; Red Sea to Samoa, 

Tonga and Marshall Islands. 

Habitat: Shallow reef flats to depths of about 

20 m. Live vertically oriented with the hinge 

side down. 

Appearance: Width to 40 cm. The rows of large 

leaflike flutes on the surface of the valves are 

diagnostic. Like all Tridacna giant clams the 

mantle color of individuals is highly variable 

due to the presence of zooxanthellae as well as 

pigments of brilliant green, blue, red, violet, or 

brown in the mantle tissue.


Diet: Filter feeds but majority (perhaps approaching 

90%) of nutrition is a result of the 

activities of intercellular endosymbiont zooxanthellae 

that live in blood sinuses within 

the mantle. 

Reproduction and Development: Initially attached 

to substrate with byssal threads. Grow 

very rapidly during the first 2 years. 

Mortality/Longevity: May reach adult size 

when 30 years old. 

Conservation status: IUCN listed as Threatened. 

Tridacna clams are being heavily exploited 

as a food item for humans. The meat 

of a single conspecific individual (T. gigas) 

was recently poached and sold (for $3.00 vs. 

the $300.00 retail rate) in Papua New Guinea. 

Remarks: The pigments in the mantle probably 

reduce light intensity to protect zooxanthellae 

from overexposure. 

Scallop aka Swimming Scallop 

Chlamys spp. (Pectinidae) 

Distribution: Gulf of Alaska to San Diego. 

Habitat: Mostly subtidal, or sometimes 

intertidal, at depths of 2–150 m. 

Appearance: Up to 6 cm in length. Convex valves 

with ribs radiating from umbo (prominence near 

the hinge) to ventral edge, and covered with 

prominent spines or ruffles. Usually has sponges 

encrusting on its surface. 

Diet: Filter feeds about 4 liters of water per 

gram per hour, using their ctenidia (or gills) to 

collect microscopic food and oxygen. 


separate. Veligers (free swimming, planktonic 

larvae) arise 50 hours or so after eggs are 

fertilized. Shells form annual growth rings. 

Mortality/Longevity: This scallop lives about 

6 years (at least in Southern British Columbia.) 

A variety of sea stars prey on this mollusk. 

Also, is parasitized by Odostomia columbiana, 

the clam sucker snail, so called because it uses 

its eversible proboscis to suck body juices from 

its host. 

Remarks: Escapes predators by swimming, 

forcing water out as a jet near the bivalve’s 

hinge. Encrusting sponge and scallop are in a 

mutualistic relationship. The sponge repels sea 

star predators, possibly by chemical secretions; 

the scallop’s movement may reduce sediment 

accumulation on sponges. 

Has several hundred eyes at edge of mantle; 

these detect light and dark, but do not form 

images. 

Giant Rock Scallop 

Crassedoma giganteum (Pectinidae) 

Distribution: Common from British Columbia 

to Baja. 

Habitat: In or on rock crevices, pilings, and 

floats; intertidal to 50 m. 

Appearance: Typical scallop shape. While most 

scallops grow to c. 18 cm, this giant can reach 

30 cm in diameter. Females larger than males. 

Diet: Filter feed on plankton and suspended 

organic particles. 

Reproduction and Development: Protandrous 

hermaphrodites. Usually spawn in spring, 

April to mid-June depending on latitude. 

Larvae are planktonic. 

Mortality/Longevity: Live to 25 years. 

Remarks: Juveniles can swim. At about 2.5 cm 

diameter, individuals cement to rock or other 

hard surface with byssal threads. 

Humans gather rock scallops and consume the 

adductor muscle, raw or fried. 

CAS displays casts of the real thing, as they 

are extremely difficult to maintain in captivity. 

CLASS CEPHALOPODA 

Chambered Nautilus 

Nautilus pompilius (Nautilidae) 

Distribution: Eastern Indian Ocean to Fiji. 

Habitat: 60–750 m. Rise to shallower depths 

each evening. 

Appearance: Snail-like shell lined with alternating 

wavy brown and white lines. Circumference 

to 20 cm. 

Diet: Migrate to shallower waters each evening 

to feed. Benthic scavenger and predator. Prey 

located visually. Preferentially eat decapod 

crustaceans, such as crab, also carrion. 

Reproduction and Development: Males have 

a modified arm which functions to transfer a 

sperm packet. Fertilization occurs much later 

when the eggs are deposited. Mature at one year. 

Mortality/Longevity: Eaten by carnivorous 

fishes. 

Conservation status: Collected for the shell

trade. Consumed in its range by humans. Not 

on IUCN Red List. 

Remarks: Only extant genus of cephalopods 

with an external shell. 

Internally the shell is divided by transverse 

septae into chambers; only the last chamber is 

occupied by the animal. 

To “swim,” the nautilus draws water into 

its mantle cavity and then expels if forcefully 

through a siphon, which can be moved to change 

the animal’s direction. Though the nautilus is 

able to adjust its neutral buoyancy much like a 

submarine, by adding to or reducing the amount 

of liquid in its chambers, its water jet provides 

the propulsion for its often daily migration from 

the cool depths it prefers in the daytime to the 

nighttime shallows where it feeds. 

Flambuoyant Cuttlefish 

Metasepia pfefferi (Sepiidae) 

Cuttlefish 

Distribution: From Indonesia, the Philippines, 

Papua New Guinea, to Australia. 

Habitat: Shallow, low-energy tropical marine 

waters (3 to 85 m) with mud, sand, or coral 

rubble substrate. 

Appearance: The mantle and head are covered 

with flap-like, fleshy protuberances (papillae), 

and a V-shaped fleshy ridge runs along the 

underside. Yellow fins flutter along the sides to 

propel the animal slowly though the water or 

along the substrate. Max mantle length: 6–8 cm. 

Diet: Active diurnal foragers on a variety 

of foods, especially fish and crustaceans, 

including “hard-hitting” mantis shrimp. 

Encircling the mouth are 8 purplish, blade-like 

arms with rows of suckers used to manipulate 

prey and 2 flattened, retractable tentacles 

which can be rapidly extended to catch prey. 

Use camouflage to stalk their prey; also blow 

jets of water through the funnel to uncover 

prey in sand or mud. 


display by the male, copulation occurs face-toface. 

The male uses a modified arm to insert his 

sperm under the female’s mantle, where eggs 

are fertilized then laid, usually in a protected 

space, such a crevices or even coconut shells, 

unreachable by predatory fish. 

M. pfefferi has never been successfully bred and 

raised in captivity, until the Steinhart took on 


61 

the challenge. Steinhart Biologist Rich Ross in 

2010 was the first person to successfully breed 

and hatch M. pfefferi in captivity. He was also 

the first to cultivate the dwarf cuttlefish Sepia 

bandensis a year earlier. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: c. 1 year. 

Remarks: When disturbed, M. pfefferi earns 

its common name by quickly changing from a 

dark base color to a rippling pattern of black, 

dark brown, and white, with yellow patches 

around the mantel, arms and eyes. Arm tips 

may be bright red. From birth, juvenile M. 

pfefferi are capable of the same camouflage 

patterns as the adults. 

This fellow’s flamboyance may also carry a 

warning message. One researcher recently 

claimed this species to be the only cuttlefish 

known to be toxic, asserting that muscle tissue 

of this species possesses a toxin as deadly as 

that of its cephalopod relative, the blue-ringed 

octopus! Aquarists beware, certainly until 

further substantiation. 

Cuttlefish swim by undulations of the fin 

that passes around the body, and can also 

move quickly, like other cephalopods, by “jetpropulsion,” 

forcefully expelling water from 

the body cavity through the funnel. 

Other cuttlefish species maintain buoyancy 

by regulating the gas-to-liquid ratio in a 

porous, internal structure, made of aragonite 

(CaCO 3 ) and called a cuttlebone. Without the 

cuttlebone, the animal, because of the weight of 

its tissues, would be about 4% denser than sea 

water and sink. M. pfefferi has an extra trick. Its 

cuttlebone is so small that it cannot maintain 

buoyancy and regularly sinks to the substrate. 

Instead of swimming, it uses its tentacles to 

crawl along the bottom like an octopus! 

The cuttlefish maintains buoyancy by 

regulating the gas-to-liquid ratio in a porous, 

internal structure, made of aragonite (CaCO 3 ) 

and called a cuttlebone. Without the cuttlebone, 

the animal, because of the weight of its tissues, 

would be about 4% denser than sea water and 

sink. 

All cephalopods, with the exception of 

nautiluses and a single group of octopods, 

produce and release sepia ink, a dark pigment 

used to confuse and escape from predators. 

Cuttlefish have brown ink (sepia) and octopuses 

generally produce blank ink. Ink is produces


in sacs located between the gills, mixed with 

mucus, and spread through the water by a jet 

of water from the funnel. 

Recent studies have shown that cephalopod 

ink is toxic to some cells, including cancer cells. 

Dwarf Cuttlefish 

Sepia bandensis (Sepiidae) 

Cuttlefish 

Distribution: The Indo-Pacific region, 

including the Philippines, Indonesia, and 

Papua New Guinea. 

Habitat: Shallow coastal waters near or on 

coral reefs or sandy substrates. 

Appearance: Length: 5 cm–10 cm. It has 8 arms 

with rows of suckers along each and 2 feeding 

tentacles. The animal moves by the undulation 

of lateral fins that surround the body. 

Diet: Crustaceans and fish. The feeding 

tentacles shoot out to capture prey with suckers 

and , along with arms and a parrot-like beak, 

hold the prize while the cuttlefish radula 

scrapes off digestible parts. Active diurnally. 

Reproduction and Development: They mate 

at 2–4 months of age, a time when the male 

changes colors to black and white and displays 

aggressive behavior to other males. Viable eggs 

may take up to a month to hatch. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: 6 mos. to 3 yrs. 

Remarks: The cuttlefish isn’t a fish at all–it 

is a cephalopod, closely related to octopuses, 

squid, and nautiluses. 

Cuttlefish have an internal shell within their 

bodies that they can fill with more or less gas 

to create neutral buoyancy. Cuttlebone is often 

collected and used as a calcium supplement, 

beak sharpener, and all-purpose toy for caged 

birds. 

Like most cephalopods, cuttlefish have 3 

hearts. Two hearts pump blood to the gills, 

and a central heart pumps oxygenated blood 

to the body. 

Masters of camouflage, cuttlefish and most 

cephalopods can change their colors, shapes 

and textures in seconds to avoid predators and 

blend into their surroundings. They have keen 

vision, but are color blind. 

They also produce large amounts of ink, both 

as a decoy and foul-tasting deterrent. Known 

as sepia ink, after the genus name of cuttlefish, 

it was a dye once prized by artists. 

The Steinhart Aquarium is the first institution 

in the U.S. to breed dwarf cuttlefish. To date, 

(2010) more than 350 have hatched at the 

Academy, most of which have been sent to 

other aquaria and research institutions. 

Quote from Rich Ross, Academy biologist and 

cuttlefish breeder extraordinaire: Over time, 

[cuttlefish] learn to recognize and respond to 

you, and will often greet you when you walk 

into the room (or maybe they just know you 

bring the food). They are smart, beautiful and 

unusual, and unlike certain other eight-armed 

cephalopods (think octopus), they don’t try to 

escape from your aquarium! 

Giant Pacific Octopus 

Enteroctopus dofleini (Octopodidae) 

Distribution: Range throughout temperate 

Pacific waters, from southern California north 

to Alaska, west to the Aleutian Islands and 

Japan. 

Habitat: Occur in intertidal zones and to 

depths up to 750 m. 

Appearance: Large bulbous “head” (mantle) 

with 8 tentacles bearing suckers. Very large 

specimens can have a tentacle span of more 

than 9 m from tip to tip, and weigh more than 

45 kg. 

Diet: Mostly crustaceans (shrimps, crabs, 

scallops,) and mollusks (abalones, clams); fish 

and other octopuses are also eaten. Shells of 

prey that are difficult to pull or bite open can 

be “drilled” in order to gain access to the soft 

tissue: salivary secretions soften the shell, and a 

tiny hole is created with the radula (a toothed, 

hardened “tongue”). The octopus then secretes 

a toxin that paralyzes the prey and begins to 

dissolve it. The shell is pulled apart and the 

soft tissues are consumed. 

Reproduction and Development: Males 

appear to be drawn to the female by following 

a scent she releases into the currents. The 

third right arm of the male has a modified tip 

that is used during mating to transfer large 

spermatophores (up to 1 m long) to the female, 

which she accepts from one or more males, 

and stores for future use. It may take several 

weeks for the female to find a suitable den for 

her eggs. She lays the 20,000 to 100,000 eggs, 

fertilizing each as it is produced. She tends, 

cleans, and aerates them until they hatch 5–7 

months later (rate of development depends

on temperature.) Females do not feed during 

this time, and die after the eggs hatch. (The 

male returns to the sea after mating and dies.) 

The young are about the size of a grain of 

rice, and spend 4–12 weeks drifting in the 

plankton, before settling to the bottom for 

further development. A giant octopus becomes 

sexually mature in about three years. 

Mortality/Longevity: Predators include 

marine mammals (harbor seals, sea otters, and 

sperm whales). Also, occasionally are eaten 

by others of their own kind and are caught 

commercially. Life span in the wild is 3-5 years. 

Conservation Status: Not endangered. 

However, the octopus is sensitive to water 

pollution and its populations in some areas 

may depend on limiting contaminants. 

Remarks: The animals are surprisingly 

intelligent invertebrates. They are able to learn 

and to perform complex tasks, such as twisting 

the cap off a jar to reach enclosed food. Captive 

animals have been known to leave their tank at 

night to feed in other, nearby tanks, and then 

return to their home tank before morning. 

They are notable for their complex eyes, similar 

in structure and acuity to the human eye. 

The octopus can change color in less than a 

second. In the skin, specialized cells called 

chromatophores hold yellow, red, orange, 

blue or black pigments. When the tiny muscles 

around the pigment cells contract, the colors 

show as large spots; when they relax, the colors 

dissipate. The octopus uses color change as 

camouflage, but also changes color with shifts 

in interest and activity, such as during feeding. 

When pursued or threatened, the octopus can 

squirt ink into the water before fleeing, an 

action that confuses and obscures the vision of 

predators, helping the animal to escape. 

This species is the largest octopus known: the 

record forweight is 70 kg (153 lbs) and 7 m (23 

ft) arm span. 

Red Octopus 

Octopus rubescens (Octopodidae) 


Habitat: From the intertidal and shallow 

subtidal as juveniles to 180 m depth as adults. 

Appearance: Often red, as its common name 

implies; however, able to change colors—in the 

blink of an eye. 


63 

Diet: Small crabs (a favorite), hermit crabs, and 

other crustaceans, mollusks, and an occasional 

fish. Nocturnal forager. 

Reproduction and Development: Mate 

offshore at depth, then females spawn in the 

shallow subtidal. Larvae hatch after 6–8 weeks 

of protection and grooming by the female, 

who then dies. Juveniles usually live within 

the protection of kelp holdfasts before moving 

offshore onto the continental shelf, where they 

are quite common. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: about 2 years. 

Remarks: See description of giant Pacific 

octopus for added information about octopuses 

in general. 

Female red octopuses in the Discovery Tide 

pool may on occasion spawn and be seen 

grooming and aerating their eggs. 

These animals should not be touched! Not only 

do they have sharp beaks and the inclination 

to use them, they also secrete venom from 

salivary glands on the wound, which can take 

several weeks to heal. 

PHYLUM ARTHROPODA 

CLASS CHELICERATA 

ORDER SCORPIONES 

Death Stalker Scorpion 

Leiurus quinquestriatus (Buthidae) 

Distribution: North Africa and the Middle 

East. 

Habitat: Dry habitats, especially desert areas 

except on sand dunes. Hides under stones or 

in small, natural burrows and crevices. 

Appearance: About 8 cm long; tan body with 

slim, small pincers, used for capturing and 

manipulating prey, and segmented tail with 

stinger, used for delivering venom. Pincers 

and stinger tip often dark, even black. Females 

larger than males. 

Diet: Spiders, insects including crickets, flies, 

moths. Occasionally captured by pincers alone, 

but usually by venom delivery. 

Reproduction and Development: Ovoviviparous; 

female bears eggs internally for up to a 

year, about 30 young are born live.


Mortality and Longevity: Lifespan: up to 5 

years in the wild. 

Remarks: Adaptations of scorpions to arid 

habitat include waxy outer covering of 

exoskeleton that reduces desiccation; ability 

to estivate and/or hibernate; nocturnal habit. 

The death stalker is the most toxic scorpion 

on the planet. Its venom can cause extreme 

pain, convulsions, paralysis, even death by 

heart or respiratory failure. Sting is rarely fatal 

to a healthy adult, but severity of symptoms 

is weight-dependent; small children are at 

extreme risk. 

Components of venom are being studied for 

potential use in the treatment of brain tumors 

and diabetes. 

Only the most experienced keepers should 

care for this aggressive arachnid. Fortunately, 

antivenom is available. 

Scorpions that have small, narrow pincers generally 

possess more toxic venom than brawnier 

types, presumably to make up in chemical potency 

what they lack in physical strength. 

Scorpions kill twice as many people as snakes 

do. 

Note this scorpion is in the same family as the 

species in African Hall’s Olive Baboon exhibit. 

Desert Hairy Scorpion 

Hadrurus arizonensis (Caraboctonidae) 

Distribution: Found in Mexico, western 

Arizona, southern California and Nevada, 

southwestern Utah. 

Habitat: Semi-arid and arid habitats. Dig and 

live in deep burrows in soil during summer. 

Appearance: Black cephalothorax with 

pale yellow rimmed segments; pale yellow 

abdomen, pincer-like pedipalps, and legs; pale 

undersurface; and abundant erect dark brown 

sensory hairs. Largest of the nine scorpion 

species in North America. Max. size: 14 cm. 

Diet: Other scorpions, insects, spiders, small 

lizards and snakes. Forages at night for prey 

and mates. 

Reproduction and Development: Like all 

scorpions, the female gives birth to live young, 

which remain on the mother’s back for 10–15 

days. After shedding their first skin, the young 

scatter to live independently. Young grow 

slowly, shedding their skin several more times 

before maturity. 

Mortality/Longevity: Predators include owls 

and bats. 

Conservation Status: Important to the area 

ecology and food chain. 

Remarks: Venom in the scorpion’s stinger is 

used to subdue struggling prey and for self 

defense. The venom is not very potent or 

painful to humans. 

Females are more active in food seeking; males 

are more active in mate seeking. In both sexes, 

older scorpions are more active than younger 

ones. 

Like all scorpions, has poor eyesight, excellent 

hearing, and a fine sense of touch (body hairs 

detect air and ground vibrations). 

Also like all scorpions, they fluoresce under 

ultraviolet light, a characteristic that allows 

scientists (and well-equipped backpackers) to 

detect them in the night and perhaps signals 

scorpions to avoid damaging UV light. 

ORDER ARANEAE 

(TRUE SPIDERS) 

Cobalt Blue Tarantula 

Haplopelma lividum (Theraphosidae) 

Distribution: Southeast Asia. 

Habitat: Tropical forests. H. lividum lives in 

deep burrows. Reclusive; seldom seen outside 

its burrow during the day, becoming somewhat 

more active at night. 

Appearance: Iridescent blue legs, light brown 

carapace. Abdomen dark brown, often with 

horizontal stripes. 

Diet: Insects. Silk is laid down in and around 

the burrow, and the spider darts out to capture 

insects that disturb the silk. 

Remarks: Notable for its aggressiveness. It 

is not recommended for hobbyists unless 

they are experienced and well informed. Like 

Asian tarantulas generally, H. lividum lacks the 

urticating hairs of North and South American 

species; instead it relies on biting for defense. 

Brazilian Salmon Pink Bird Eater 

Lasiodora parahybana (Theraphosidae) 

Distribution: Throughout eastern Brazil. 

Habitat: Terrestrial; floor of tropical rainforests. 

Appearance: A large-bodied tarantula with 

abdomen and legs covered with sensitive, long,

and partially pink or salmon-colored hairs.. 

Max. size: body, 9-10 cm; leg span, 20-25 cm. 

Diet: Eat large crawling insects and other 

invertebrates, small rodents, lizards, & frogs. 

Regardless of its name, the spider is rarely seen 

eating birds. However, it does occasionally 

attack the newly hatched chicks of grounddwelling 

birds. Prey is subdued by venom 

injected by chelicerae. Digestive juices are 

injected that liquefy the kill, which is then 

sucked in by the mouthparts. 

Reproduction and Development: This species, 

like most tarantulas, is solitary and comes in 

contact with others of its species only during 

mating. Once sexually mature, the male spins 

a small area of silk onto which he deposits his 

sperm. The sperm is then absorbed into the 

pedipalps, which during mating are inserted into 

the reproductive organ of the female, transferring 

sperm which can remain viable within the 

female. The female lays up to 2000 eggs in a 

thick, silken sac, approximately 3 months after 

breeding. She will guard this sac fiercely, and 

incubation lasts approximately 3 weeks, after 

which white spiderlings are born. Young are 

voracious feeders. As a result the babies grow 

very quickly, up to 15 cm in the first year. 

Mortality/Longevity: Tarantulas have few 

enemies except the tarantula hawk wasps. 

Members of this wasp family use their sting 

to paralyze species specific tarantualas. The 

wasp lays an egg on the tarantula’s abdomen 

and then seals the spider in its burrow. The 

wasp larva hatches and feeds on the immobile 

and doomed tarantula. Males usually die 

shortly after maturity and mating, usually 

Females can live up to 15 years in the wild, 

perhaps significantly longer. Typically thrive 

in captivity 4–8 years. 

Conservation Status: Still quite common, 

though destruction of the rainforests reduces 

natural habitat. 

Remarks: Like most tarantulas and some other 

spiders, if this spider loses one of its legs, it can 

regrow the lost appendage, which begins as a 

small stump & then grows more complete with 

each molting. 

While not highly aggressive and bites are not 

fatal to humans, this big bruiser can inflict a 

serious wound which one researcher defined 

as “capable of medically significant mechanical 


65 

damage”! Translation: handle with care! 

Will become aggressive if threatened. 

Though body hairs are most often used to 

detect predators and prey by picking up air 

movements around the spider, they are also 

used as defensive weapons. If pursued by a 

potential foe, the spider rubs its legs against 

its abdomen, throwing tiny, barbed hairs that 

become imbedded in the attacker. The barbs 

can cause significant irritation, especially if 

lodged in the eyes or nasal passages. 

Possible origin of the fanciful name “Bird- 

Eating Spider”: In 1705, a Swiss naturalist and 

painter, Madame Maria Sibylla Merian, painted 

a Dutch Guianan bird-eating spider with a size 

ridiculed as a flight of female fancy until 1863 

when an English naturalist observed a spider of 

similar features and size in the Amazon forest. 

Black Widow Spider 

Latrodectus mactans (Theridiidae) 

Distribution: In the U.S. ranges north to New 

England, south to Florida, Texas, Oklahoma; 

west to California, and throughout the 

southwest deserts. Also found in Canada, 

Mexico, the West Indies, and South America. 

Habitat: Favors retreats close to the ground, 

especially dark, sheltered spots, such as 

under stones, in woodpiles, crevices, barns, 

and outbuildings. Usually not found indoors. 

Appearance: Female is glossy, coal-black color 

with long, slender legs and round abdomen; 

her underside usually carries a characteristic 

red hourglass mark. Larger than the browner 

male, the female may grow to about 3.8 cm, 

counting legspan. 

Diet: Carnivorous, mostly on insects, but 

also on other small invertebrates. When prey 

becomes ensnared in the web, black widow 

wraps it in silken threads and injects venom. 

When movement ceases, the spider releases 

digestive enzymes that liquefy the flesh of prey. 

Reproduction and Development: Female 

produces eggs sacs, which she guards until 

spiderlings hatch and are wind dispersed. 

A single mating provides her with a lifetime 

sperm supply. The widespread story that 

female’s eat the male after mating is actually 

an infrequent occurrence. 

Mortality/Longevity: Probably lives, like most 

spiders, about one year. Preyed upon by muddauber 

wasps.


Remarks: Bright markings serve as warning to 

predators. While eating a black widow may not 

kill a bird or other small predator, the digestive 

discomfort warns the attacker that this spider 

is to be avoided. Males are less venomous and 

also less brightly marked. 

Black widow venom is highly potent (15 times 

that of rattlesnakes and reportedly more potent 

than that of cobras or coral snakes); however, 

because the spider is not large, the chelicerae 

cannot inject venom to depth or in quantity. 

It is rare for bites to kill humans, though young 

children or the elderly are likely to have severe 

reactions. Most victims recover completely in 

2–5 days. 

Golden Orb Weaving Spider 

Nephila sp. (Nephilidae) 

Golden Orb Weavers 

Distribution: Southeast U.S south through 

Argentina and Peru. Nephilia spp. are found 

worldwide in the tropics and subtropics. 

Habitat: Areas of high humidity and relatively 

open space; forest areas along trails and 

clearing edges. 

Appearance: Highly sexually dimorphic. 

Females, which grow up to 8 cm, are 5–6 times 

larger than males. Adults are mostly yellow 

with elongated abdomen and long, hairy legs. 

Diet: Small flying insects: beetles, flies, moths, 

etc. After prey is entangled in the web, the 

spider incapacitates it by biting and then 

encases it in silk. 

Reproduction: Mating is a tricky proposition 

for orb weaving males. For successful 

reproduction, males must successfully 

stimulate females in order to prevent being 

a meal for their would-be mate, though this 

unfortunate ending is relatively rare with this 

species. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: a single season 

(1 year). 

Remarks: Orb weavers construct webs for 

defense and capture of prey. 

The silk of the web usually has a golden color 

which is visible to the naked eye and is the 

source of the common name. 

The impressive web of most orb weavers is a 

semi-permanent structure, repaired and rebuilt 

daily as necessary. 

This spider lives in hot places. The long 

cylindrical abdomen of the spider may be 

angled towards the sun to reduce the amount 

of exposed body surface and thus prevent 

overheating. The reflective silvery surface of 

much of the body serves the same purpose. 

See Nephila madagascariensis for more 

information on Nephilia spp. 

Madagascar Golden Orb Spider 

Nephila madagascariensis (Nephilidae) 

Golden Orb Weavers 

Distribution: Various species of orb weaving 

spiders are widely distributed. They exist in 

the southern United States, Central and South 

America, Southeast Asia, and the South Pacific. 

Nephila madagascariensis is found on the island of 

Madagascar and certain parts of Southern Africa. 

Appearance: Females are much larger than 

mature males, reaching 10–14 cm length when 

full grown. Males are about one-sixth this size. 

In females, the dorsal side of the abdomen has 

bright yellow markings surrounded by a light 

gray border. The rest of the body and legs are 

black with patches of brown. 

Diet: Eat insects that get caught in their webs, 

primarily flying insects. They kill their prey with 

a venomous bite. While painful, a bite from this 

spider would not seriously hurt humans. 

Reproduction and Development: Mating occurs 

at the center of the web where the female lives. The 

males stays in a corner of the web, and approaches 

the female when she is eating or is in the process 

of molting her exoskeleton, and mating occurs. 

In about 30 days the eggs hatch. The nymph 

spiderlings, each about as big as a pinhead remain 

in the egg case for 5– 6 days until their first molt. 

Then they emerge and stay in a tight cluster until 

their second molt, about 24–30 days later. After 

this molt, they begin to disperse. 

Mortality/Longevity: Females usually live about 

a year, and males about 6 mos. 

Remarks: Golden orb spiders weave large, 

strong webs out of golden colored silk. The 

webs can be as big as 2 m across. The silk 

strands are reputed to be five times stronger 

than steel and three times more elastic than 

Kevlar. 

Spiders can produce up to seven types of 

silk, each optimized for a certain task. These 

can include silk for drag lines, structural silk,

cementing silk, tough outer silk for the egg 

case, soft inner silk in the egg case, and others. 

They weave their threads from a liquid, 

stored as a gel in the spinning gland. The gel 

is a mixture of water-soluble proteins that 

turns into a solid fiber when pulled through 

structures in the spinning gland, called 

spinnerets. Scientist are trying to mimic the 

process, using genetically engineered bacteria 

to produce the protein gel. They have invented 

artificial “spinnerets” where the gel is mixed 

with salt water and forced through tiny 

channels. While they have succeeded in getting 

silk, it was not high quality. 

Fishing Spider 

Dolomedes okefinokensis (Pisauridae) 

Distribution: Swamps in the southeast United 

States, particularly southern Georgia and 

Florida. 

Habitat: Dolomedes spiders live in semi-aquatic 

areas. 

Appearance: In general, members of the genus 

Dolomedes are large (2.5–7.5 cm) and hairy; 

most species are brown with a striking pale 

stripe on each side. D. okefinokensis exhibit 

female gigantism and male dwarfism, with the 

male being less than half the size of the female. 

Diet: Fishing spiders usually eat aquatic 

insects, but they have also been known to eat 

small fish and even small frogs. They often 

hunt nocturnally, to avoid predators. Like most 

spiders they inject venom to kill and digest 

the prey. 

Reproduction and Development: Females 

may eat the males after breeding. This may 

help the female have adequate nutrition to 

produce healthy young. 

Mortality/Longevity: Main predators are birds 

and lizards. Dragonflies may also eat young 

spiders. Probably live for one season. 

Remarks: Dolomedes spiders are covered 

in short hydrophobic hairs. This aquatic 

adaptation gives them many advantages. 

They can use surface tension to stand or run 

on water. The air trapped among the hairs 

forms a thin film over their bodies when they 

descend beneath the water. They breathe with 

book lungs that open into the air film, allowing 

them to breath under water. The trapped air 

also makes them buoyant, and when they 


67 

release their hold on rocks or plant stems they 

pop up to the surface. 

While hunting they hold on to the shore with 

their back legs and rest their bodies on the 

water surface. Fishing spiders have vibrationdetecting 

organs on their front legs and feet 

that help them identify not only the source 

of the vibration, but also the distance and 

direction to the source. They feel vibrations 

carried in the water, just as other spiders feel 

vibrations transmitted through their webs. 

SUBPHYLUM CRUSTACEA 

CLASS MALACOSTRACA 

ORDER STOMATOPODA 

(MANTIS SHRIMPS) 

Peacock Mantis Shrimp 

Odontodactylus scyllarus (Odontodactylidae) 


Habitat: Warm waters of bays, lagoons, and 

reefs in sand or rubble areas where they build 

U-shaped burrows. 

Appearance: Beautifully colored in peacock 

colors of greens, blues, and reds. Has a green 

body, blue head, green antennal scales, red limbs. 

The body is elongated with a long, flattened, 

blue tail and ranges in size from 3–18 cm. Highly 

noticeable is the pair of clubbed-shaped, praying 

mantis-like claws. 

Diet: Feeds on other shrimp, worms, snails, 

crabs, mollusks. Lies in wait for prey in front 

of burrow, then swims out and quickly crushes 

prey with a strong, powerful smash. The 

claw moves through the water so quickly it 

generates cavitation bubbles, which explode 

with a second powerful burst. The speed with 

which the claw moves through the water 

generates a force 100 times the shrimp’s body 

weight, and is so fast it can only be caught and 

measured by expensive, high-speed cameras. 

Reproduction and Development: The male 

deposits his sperm in a special pouch on the 

female’s body and she releases her eggs and 

sticks them together in a mass which she carries 

by her front legs. The embryos hatch in about 

six weeks.


Remarks: Large peacock mantis shrimp 

generate forces powerful enough to crush the 

shell of a large conch, and have been known 

in captivity to break the glass of their tanks! 

The amazingly complex eyes of mantis shrimp 

detect 12 base colors (compared to our 3). 

They also can discern ultraviolet, infrared 

frequencies, and the polarization of light! 

Mantis shrimps are popular ingredients in 

Japanese and Cantonese dishes. 

Divers note that they are very active and 

curious. 

It should be no surprise that, in most aquaria, 

this fellow lives alone! 

ORDER DECAPODA 

(CRABS, SHRIMPS, LOBSTERS, ETC.) 

Pistol Shrimp 

Alpheus sp. (Alpheidae) 

Distribution: Maldive Islands to Great Barrier 

Reef, Australia. 

Habitat: Sand, 5-40 m. 

Appearance: Length to 3 cm. Like all pistol or 

snapping shrimp of the family Alpheidae, have 

asymmetrical claws, with the larger capable of 

producing a remarkably loud snapping sound. 

Diet: Fairly omnivorous; algal and animal 

material. 


shrimp, sexes are separate. After mating the 

female carries the eggs beneath the abdomen 

on modified swimmerets. 

Remarks: Many pistol species in this genus live 

in association with a burrow-guarding goby 

species, as in this tank. The shrimp maintains 

contact with the goby with its antennae, the 

goby alerts the poor-sighted shrimp to danger, 

and both shelter in their shared burrow. 

Shrimp use their snap to ward off trespassers 

and to stun prey, such as small crabs. Claws 

close with incredible speed, generating a 

powerful water stream that travels up to 100 

km/hour creating a low-pressure bubble in its 

wake. As the pressures equilibrate, the bubble 

bursts with a sonic bang. 

One source noted that when many pistol 

shrimp are “shooting” at the same time, the 

sound can be so loud that sonar used to seek 

submarines is useless. 

If a snapping shrimp loses its over-sized claw, 

the small claw grows into the new snapping 

claw while the missing limb regenerates into 

a small claw. 

Wood Shrimp 

Atyopsis moluccensis (Atyidae) 

Basket Shrimps 


Habitat: Freshwater streams in areas with 

driftwood, caves and vegetation for hiding 

places. 

Appearance: Max. size: 12 cm. Most 

individuals are brownish with a lighter strip 

down the back, though color is variable with 

surroundings and mood, Males have larger 

and thicker forelegs than females. The species 

lacks pincers; chelae have evolved instead 

into fan-like appendages tipped with tufts 

of long bristles used for gathering small food 

particles. 

Diet: Suspension feeder; uses specialized 

appendages to filter food and then wipes 

appendages across mouth. 

Reproduction: Difficult to breed in captivity. 

Remarks: Because of it large size, the wood 

shrimp is rarely a prey item for small fish, and 

so an attractive and intriguing addition to our 

tank of Borneo freshwater fishes 

Black and Red Bee Shrimp 

Caridina cf. Cantonensis (Atyidae) 

Distribution: Southern China, still found in 

the wild in South Eastern Asia. It is a popular 

choice for aquarium hobbyists. 

Habitat: A fresh water fish, it prefers soft acidic 

water. 

Appearance: The bee shrimp has bands of 

black and white; the red bee shrimp has red 

and white. Some have been selectively bred 

over time to increase the amount and intensity 

of the white. Adult size: 1 in to 1.2 in. 

Diet: Omnivore. Algae eaters by nature, the 

bee shrimp will eat naturally occurring algae 

in the home aquarium and are happy with 

supplements. 

Reproduction: When the female’s ovaries 

are developed, she will shed her skin and 

pheromones to the water. The sexually mature 

males will overtake her, flipping around and 

furiously whamming her tail. The winner

will copulate the female by sliding along 

side, attaching a slip-covered sperm package 

(spermatophore) on to her genital opening 

located right between her striding legs. The 

female will find a safe place to hide and lay 

the eggs, a process that dissolves the slipcover 

and thus fertilizes the eggs. Gestation is usually 

3-4 weeks, and the newly hatched shrimp then 

fend for themselves. 

Mortality/Longevity: The bee shrimp take a 

little bit longer to mature and longer to hatch 

than many other dwarf shrimp. The shrimp 

may live up to 2 years. 

Copper is toxic to the bee shrimp (and to all 

dwarf shrimp). 

Conservation Status: Not at risk; bred 

successfully around the world for the aquarium 

trade. 

Remarks: Bee shrimp are good overall cleaners 

for tanks, always crawling in search of food 

and algae. They are non-aggressive toward 

other fish. 

California Bay Shrimp 

Crangon franciscorum (Crangonidae) 

Distribution: From southeastern Alaska to San 

Diego. A common species in San Francisco Bay 

and other Pacific Coast estuaries. 

Habitat:. Sand or mud substrate. Euryhaline 

(able to tolerate varying levels of salinity). 

Appearance: The largest of common SF Bay 

shrimp species: females to 4.8 cm, males to 

3.7 cm. 

Diet: Especially mysid shrimp; also amphipods, 

bivalves, foraminifera, isopods, copepods, 

plant material. Their turnover of bottom 

sediments as they search for food may improve 

nutrient recycling. 


females separate; females oviparous, can store 

sperm; move to more saline habitat to spawn; 

young seek low salinity nursery areas. 

Mortality/Longevity: Males live about a year, 

females to two years. 

Remarks: Species abundance correlates to 

increased levels freshwater outflow; numbers 

are relatively low during drought years. 

Once the basis of a commercial fishery in SF 

Bay. Today is fished primarily for bait, with 

some human consumption. 


69 

Anemone Shrimp 

Periclimenes venustus (Palaemonidae) 

Distribution: Indo-Pacific; including Australia. 

Habitat: Commonly associate with anemones 

and certain corals. 

Appearance: About 2.5 cm long. Light purple 

body with white spots; well camouflaged on 

frogspawn coral (Euphyllia spp.) a common host. 

Diet: These cleaners sway and wave their 

antennae, using their motion and bright colors 

to attract fishes in order to feed on their dead 

tissue and parasites. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: about 2 yrs. 

Remarks: Like only a few other animals, able 

to live in association with anemones and corals 

without being stung. 

Humpback Cleaner Shrimp 

Lysmata amboinensis (Hippolytidae) 

Distribution: Red Sea to Australia; Indonesia, 

Society Islands. 

Habitat: Active day and night at cleaning 

stations on coral and rocky reefs, 8–25 m. 

Reside in pairs or groups (to 100 individuals) 

in caves and crevices. 

Appearance: Length to 6 cm. Dorsal redline on 

tan body. Long white antennae. 

Diet: Glean parasites and infected skin from 

large, stationary reef fishes such as morays, 

triggerfishes and groupers. 

Reproduction and Development: (See L. 

californica) 

Remarks: Cleaner shrimp advertise their 

services by their bright coloration and by 

waving their very long antennae, which 

contrast with the dark recess of their station. 

Jacques, a character in Finding Nemo, is a 

humpback cleaner shrimp. 

In aquaria, cleaner shrimp are valued because 

they clean not only the fish, but the tank as well. 

Red Rock Shrimp 

Lysmata californica (Alpheidae) 

Distribution: Eastern Pacific, from Santa 

Barbara to Baja California. 

Habitat: Found in shallow waters among rocky 

crevices 

Appearance: Max length: 7.5 cm. Conspicuously 

colered with longitudinal broken stripes over 

a red transparent body.


Diet: Scavengers on scrapes of decaying tissue 

or, when available, the carcasses of dead fish 

and invertebrates. Opportunistic “cleaner” 

shrimp. 

Reproduction and Development: Studied 

members of the genus Lysmata, including L. 

californica, have been recently shown to be 

protandric simultaneous hermaphrodites, 

a long name that describes a most unusual 

reproductive system. Juveniles first mature and 

reproduce as males (thus the “protandric”), but 

later attain the female sexual function as well 

(thus “hermaphoditic”). Put any two Lysmata 

shrimp in a tank and don’t worry if you have a 

sexual pair: you do! Each is able to inseminate 

the other, and each is able to lay and brood eggs 

(thus “simultaneous”). No self-fertilization has 

been observed. Whatever works! 

Remarks: Red rock shrimp often share 

crevices with and act as cleaners to moray 

eels. According to one source: “They are also 

known to perform cleaning activities on divers’ 

hands when placed in their vicinity, paying 

particular attention to areas around fingernails 

or scratches on the skin.” 

A small commercial fishery exists for these 

shrimp as they are considered choice bait 

for recreational anglers of many fish species, 

such as opaleye, rubberlip surfperch, and 

pile perch. 

The species may be moving northward, 

perhaps due to climate change, as they have 

been found seasonally for more than 20 

years in the open ocean filter housing of the 

Monterey Bay Aquarium. 

Fire Shrimp 

Lysmata debelius (Hippolytidae) 


Habitat: Coral reefs, in or near overhangs or 

caves. 

Appearance: Carapace bright red with white 

spots. Lower legs and antennae white. Max. 

size: 5 cm. 

Diet: In the wild, the fire shrimp is primarily 

a cleaner, setting up cleaning stations on the 

reef. In an aquarium setting, they often feed on 

algae or scavenge and forego their cleaner role. 

Reproduction and Development: Hermaphroditic. 

Any two shrimp make a pair! (See L. 

californica) 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: about 4 years 

in captivity. 

Remarks: Usually live in pairs, aggressively 

defending their territory. 

Commensal Shrimp aka Sexy Shrimp 

Thor amboinensis (Hippolytidae) 

Distribution: Common in tropical seas 

worldwide. 

Habitat: Coral reefs; in association with giant 

anemones. 

Appearance: Length to 2 cm. This distinctively 

colored brown-orange prawn with large white 

spots is a stout shrimp with short legs and 

claws. Eyes are white. 

Diet: Feeds on scraps missed by its commensal 

anemone. 

Remarks: Not observed to be a cleaner shrimp. 

Some Thor anemone shrimp species may gain 

protection by mimicking cleaner shrimps, 

which many fishes avoid eating. 

The distinctive vertical position and movement 

of the abdomen earn this shrimp its common 

name of “sexy.” 

Harlequin Shrimp 

Hymenocera picta (Gnathophyllidae) 

Distribution: Along East Africa, the Red Sea, 

to Indonesia, south to northern Australia and 

as far east as the Galapagos. 

Habitat: Hard rocky or coral substrates, with 

many hiding places. 

Appearance: Pinkish white body color with 

splashes of purple-edged pink spots. Stalked 

eyes and antennae flattened and leaf-shaped. 

Max.size: c. 5 cm. 

Diet: This shrimp feeds solely on the tube feet 

of sea stars. Nocturnal feeder; uses large claws 

to pry sea stars off coral reefs. 

Reproduction and Development: Male and 

female pairs defend their territory. Females 

produce ~1,000 eggs at a time that hatch in 

about 18 days. Larvae planktonic. 

Remarks: Have been bred successfully in 

captivity. 

Advice to aquarists: given known feeding 

habits, don’t keep these aggressive fellows 

close to prized sea stars. 

On the up side, H. picta is known to feed on 

crown-of-thorns sea stars, so perhaps it should 

be considered a reef preservationist!

Banded Coral Shrimp 

Stenopus hispidus (Stenopodidae) 

Distribution: Worldwide tropical distribution. 

Habitat: Coral reefs. 

Appearance: Strikingly colorful with 

contrasting red and white bands on body and 

large pincers. Short spines cover the body 

and are used for defense. Males smaller, more 

slender than females. 

Diet: A cleaner shrimp, it removes dead tissue, 

algae and parasites from fish. Olfactory sensors 

in the tentacles and pincers make it adept at 

finding food. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span in captivity: 

2–2.5 years. 

Remarks: Like most cleaner shrimp species 

on coral reefs, they congregate at cleaning 

stations, waving their extremely long antennae 

to advertise their services. 

These “picky” eaters have been known to clean 

under the fingernails of hands! 

Look for molts in their tanks; all cleaner shrimp 

molt every 3–8 weeks. 

Candy Shrimp 

Rhynchocinetes durbanensis (Rhynchocinetidae) 


Habitat: Lives deep in cracks and crevices of 

coral reefs, often in large numbers. 

Appearance: Transparent, with bold red and 

white stripes. Long rostrum bears spines along 

both the upper and lower edges. Males tend 

to have larger claws than females. Max. size: 

c. 5 cm. 

Diet: Omnivore/scavenger. Mostly nocturnal. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: up to 4 years. 

Remarks: This species is not a cleaner shrimp. 

Also called the “hinge-beak shrimp” as the 

rostrum can be moved up and down independent 

of the head. With these long, flexible beaks, they 

can reach food not available to others. 

Blue Crab 

Callinectes sapidus (Portunidae) 

Swimming Crabs 

Distribution: North American coast, from 

Nova Scotia south to Uruguay. Introduced 

elsewhere. 

Habitat: They live in brackish coastal lagoons 

and estuaries, muddy shores, bays with low 


71 

salinities, and occasionally in freshwater near 

estuaries. 

Appearance: The blue crab has sapphire-tinted 

claws and a mottled brownish shell; females 

have red highlights on their pincer tips. 

Appendages include a pair pincers of large/ 

unequal size, three pairs pointed walking legs. 

and the fifth pair flattened for swimming. The 

carapace (shell) can be up to 10 cm long and 25 

cm wide, and the crab may weigh up to 1 kg. 

Like crabs in general, males and females are 

differentiated by their abdomens—long and 

narrow (male), wide and rounded (female). 

Diet: Primarily molluscs, crustaceans and fish, 

but will feed on almost anything, including 

plants, carrion and smaller blue crabs. 

Reproduction and Development: The female 

mates only once after her final molt. She is 

grasped by a pair of male appendages and 

carried right side up under the crab, mating 

for many hours. Able to store sperm for up to 

a year, the female may spawn several times 

after this single mating. The larvae hatch after 

14-17 days, remain in the plankton, undergoing 

complex molts for many weeks, and eventually 

settle as minute crabs. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span in the wild is 

1–3 years. Causes of mortality are predation, 

disease and exploitation. 

Conservation Status: Blue crabs are sensitive 

to environmental changes, and play a key role 

in managing their prey populations. Constant 

over-harvesting has negatively affected their 

ecosystems. 

Remarks: Blue crabs are the Maryland State 

crustacean, and are very heavily harvested. 

Blue crabs have recently been found in San 

Francisco Bay, where they may be a threat to 

the native crab population. They have a prickly 

disposition and are quick to use their sharp 

front pincers. 

Dungeness Crab 

Cancer magister (Cancridae) 

Distribution: Alaska, south to Pismo Beach or 

perhaps Santa Barbara, California. 

Habitat: Adults commonly on deep sandy 

substrates, subtidal to 230 m; not abundant 

below 90 m. Occasionally on soft bottoms; 

remain buried in mud with only eyes and 

antennae exposed. Juveniles in sandy bays.


Appearance: Carapace to 23 cm across in 

males, to 16.5 cm in females. 

Diet: Adults are rather non-discriminating 

nocturnal carnivores. Diminutive crustaceans 

are favored prey items. Small bivalves are also 

consumed; shells are crushed or opened by 

chipping away the margins with their powerful 

claws. Also consume worms and fishes as well 

as fresh carrion. 

Reproduction and Development: Mating 

occurs from April to September in British 

Columbia and perhaps earlier in California. 

Females able to retain viable sperm for up 

to several months; gravid mostly during 

November to February and spawn between 

September and December. Clutch from 700 

thousand to 2.5 million eggs. Hatching begins 

during December, peaking during March. 

Molting of the adults follows reproduction. 

Mortality/Longevity: Larval stages are eaten 

in enormous numbers by herring, pilchard and 

salmon. Crabs live to eight years or possibly 

longer. 

Remarks: Largest edible crab on the North 

American west coast. Accounts for 99% 

of all crab species taken commercially in 

California. 

Red Rock Crab 

Cancer productus (Cancridae) 


Habitat: Rocky areas of bays and estuaries; 

found on gravel, rock, and sand; often buries 

itself in sandy substrate. 

Appearance: Carapace usually a reddish color 

in adults, juveniles highly variable, often with 

stripes. Large claws with black tips. A large 

crab, up to 18 cm across the carapace. 

Diet: Voracious hunter of live and dead organic 

matter. Most active at night. Uses powerful claws 

to open clams, mussels, snails, barnacles, as well 

as to catch smaller crabs and hold dead fish. 


occurs most often in summer after female 

has molted. Males will often guard a molting 

female until her exoskeleton hardens. Female 

may carry up to ½ million eggs on her pleopods 

(swimming appendages). 

Mortality/Longevity: Preyed upon by fish and 

seabirds, such as gulls. 

Remarks: Large and good eating, but not 

plentiful enough for commercial catch. 

Nasty fighters; known to pinch painfully 

through neoprene gloves of curious SCUBA 

divers. 

Green Shore Crab 

Hemigrapsus oregonensis (Grapsidae) 

Distribution: Alaska to Baja California. The 

common shore crab of San Francisco Bay. 

Habitat: Open mud flats, algal mats, eelgrass 

beds in bays, estuaries, and on open beaches. 

Appearance: Many color variations from 

grayish green to white, often mottled; carapace 

up to 5 cm. 

Diet: Feeds mainly on diatoms and green algae, 

but will scavenge and take meat if available. 

Feeds primarily at night. 


brood up to 4,500 eggs per mating. Larvae 

spend about 5 weeks in the plankton before 

metamorphosis and settling. Females may 

mate twice a year. 

Mortality/Longevity: Preyed upon by various 

shorebirds. These crabs are good diggers, and 

can bury themselves rapidly in sand to escape 

predators. 

Conservation Status: While our native green 

shore crab is still plentiful, their population may 

be seriously compromised by the aggressive 

European green crab (Carcinus maenas), which 

feeds on the smaller H. oregonensis and may 

displace it from its favored habitats. 

Remarks: This small crab tolerates varying 

salinities and temperatures well, and so is 

common in estuaries where salt and fresh 

waters mix. 

Purple Shore Crab 

Hemigrapsus nudus (Grapsidae) 


Habitat: Rocky shore, upper to low intertidal under 

stones and among seaweeds. Less common 

along clay banks in sloughs and estuaries. 

Appearance: Carapace to 5.5 cm wide in males, 

3.5 cm in females; smooth and convex anteriorly, 

flat posteriorly. Usually colored purple, 

occasionally yellow-green or reddish brown. 

Diet: Diatoms and other algae. Also scavenge 

animal material. 

Reproduction and Development: In Central 

California breeding occurs from November

to April. Fertile females ready to molt emit 

a pheromone, which attracts males. Mating 

occurs after the female molts, while she is still 

soft-shelled. Size of brood correlates with the 

size of the female, from 441 eggs in a female 

with a 1.2 cm carapace width, to more than 

36,400 in a female 3.4 cm wide. One brood 

per year is typical, two rarely. Hatched larvae 

enter the plankton and metamorphose 

through several stages before the first juvenile 

crab instar. 

Mortality/Longevity: Preyed upon by shorebirds 

and fishes. 

Striped Shore Crab aka Lined Shore Crab 

Pachygrapsus crassipes (Graspidae) 

Distribution: Oregon to Baja California, also 

the Gulf of California; introduced to Japan and 

Korean coast in the late 1800s. 

Habitat: Intertidal zone in crevices, tide pools, 

mussel beds; or along muddy shores of bays 

and estuaries. Semi-terrestrial, living on land 

at least half the time, but returning regularly 

to water to moisten gills. 

Appearance: Square dark body with green 

cross stripes. 

Diet: Feeds on films of algae and diatoms, 

scraped off with claws. Also scavenges and 

takes live limpets, snails, crabs, and insects. 

Most active at night. 

Reproduction and Development: Reach full 

size in about 3 years, molting some 20 times 

before maturity. Female broods about 50,000 

eggs under her abdomen during each breeding 

cycle. 

Mortality/Longevity: Eaten by sea gulls, rats, 

raccoons, and humans. 

Remarks: These crabs can spend up to 3 days 

out of water, depending on the water stored 

in gill chambers. 

Their eclectic and voracious feeding habits 

make them the clean-up crew of the high 

intertidal. 

Masking Crab aka Decorator Crab 

Loxorhynchus crispatus (Majidae) 

Distribution:: Northern California south to 


Habitat: Common on pilings, kelp beds, and 

subtidal rocks to 183 m depth. 

Appearance: A large crab with carapace to 9 


73 

cm in males, 7 cm in females. Often heavily 

decorated, and during the day, seldom noticed 

until it moves. 

Diet: Algae, sponges, small crustaceans, 

bryozoans. 

Mortality/Longevity: An important food 

source for several fishes, including croakers, 

some rockfishes, and cabezon. 

Remarks: Crabs in this family are known as 

decorator crabs for their habit of attaching 

marine algae or invertebrates to their carapace, 

which has tiny hooks (setae) that hold their 

“riders” securely. Different species tend to 

choose different organisms as decorations. 

Decorator crabs take good care of their living 

symbionts. When the crabs molt, especially 

when they are small and still vulnerable to 

predation, they remove the “decorations” from 

their old shell and apply them to the new! 

The size of decorator crabs varies significantly. 

One study suggests this differential reduces 

competition in the wild for crevice refuges in 

rocky habitats. 

Decorator crab species also seem to partition 

food resources, with some specializing on 

species of kelp and others being more general 

feeders on both plants and a variety of 

animals. 

They are often very destructive in our displays. 

They pick and tear at anything they can. That’s 

why you don’t see very many in the exhibits. 

Graceful Decorator Crab 

Oregonia gracilis (Majidae) 

Distribution: Bering Sea to Monterey, 

California; Japan. 

Habitat: Intertidal to about 425 m. Often on 

wharf piles or in eelgrass beds. In intertidal 

areas, remains below water surface. 

Appearance: Heart-shaped carapace with 

long rostrum. The only decorator (or masking) 

crab with a long, hooked spine behind the 

eye. Long, thin, spider-like legs and pincers. 

Like many of its family, is a camouflage 

artist, usually liberally decorated with 

algae, sponges, bryozoans and/or hydroids. 

Carapace up to 5 cm. 

Diet: Brown algae; also, known to eat carrion. 

Reproduction and Development: Usually 

spawn between May and August during spring 

and summer plankton blooms.


Mortality/Longevity: Pacific halibut is a 

known predator; probably other fishes, 

cephalopods, and sea otters as well. Lives up 

to several years. 

Remarks: Masking or decorator crabs typically 

add camouflaging items to their bodies by 

attaching them to hook-like spines on the 

carapace and legs. This strategy may conceal 

the crabs from predators, prey, or both. 

Northern Kelp Crab 

Pugettia producta (Majidae) 


Habitat: Rocky intertidal in kelp beds and tide 

pools with abundant surfgrass or algae. The 

crab uses the vegetation as protection from sun 

and predators. Subtidal to 70 m. 

Appearance: Mostly dark brown to green. 

Color varies with diet depending on the 

type of algae consumed, providing a natural 

camouflage. Like other members of its family, 

noted for its unique, elongated carapace with 

extended rostrum and four pairs of relatively 

long, slender walking legs. Because of these 

features, the family common name is “spider 

crabs.” 

Diet: Mainly a nocturnal vegetarian feeding 

on bull kelp, sea lettuce, rockweed and other 

kelp. Occasionally will take barnacles, mussels, 

hydroids, and bryozoans in winter when 

vegetation is scarce. 


usually mate June to July, though can mate 

year round. Fertilized eggs develop for several 

months underneath the female’s abdomen. 

Mortality/Longevity: Preyed upon by sculpins, 

gulls, cabezon, and sea otters among others. 

Remarks: Most crabs in this family are called 

masking crabs; they attach fragments of shells 

and algae to their carapace for camouflage. P. 

producta, a large active crab, maintains a clean 

surface, perhaps for ease of movement. 

P. producta is a feisty animal; long legs are 

dextrous, and claws can pinch hard. 

Orange Fiddler Crab 

Uca vocans (Ocypodidae) 

Distribution: Indo-Western Pacific: Madagascar, 

South Africa to Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, 

Philippines. 

Habitat: Adults are semi-terrestrial, like all 

fiddler crabs. Usually in or near mangrove 

sandbanks. Prefer slightly sandier substrates 

to mudbanks, burrows located in the intertidal 

zone of both substrates. 

Appearance: Carapace width to 2.5 cm. Strong 

sexual dimorphism; males have one of their 

chelae very greatly enlarged (the “fiddle”), 

females dull colored with chelae equal and small. 

Diet: Organic matter in the sand. 

Reproduction and Development: Males gain 

the attention of potential mates by waving 

their enormous chela in a semaphore manner; 

each species of Uca has a distinctive huge claw 

movement pattern. The male also attracts a 

female with acoustic signals by rapping the 

propodus (elbow) of his claw against the 

substrate or by rapid flexion of the walking 

legs. The number of pulses (raps) in a series, 

as well as the interval between every series, 

is characteristic to each Uca species. Females 

detect these acoustical signals in special organs 

in their legs. 

Remarks: When disturbed, quickly retreat into 

a burrow, which may not be their own, or dig 

a new one. 

Males use their huge claw to defend their 

burrow turf against other males. Male-to-male 

combat is highly ritualized. The huge chela is 

held like a shield. Combat involves variations 

of pushing and extension. 

Common Hermit Crab 

Dardanus pedunculatus (Diogenidae) 


Habitat: Coral, rock or sand; depth to 40 m. 

Likely the most common species of hermit crab 

in the locations in which it occurs. 

Appearance: To 10 cm. Spiny chelipeds, 

light-colored bristles. Candy-cane white and 

red-striped eyestalks, green eyes. Abdomen 

protected by a recycled mollusk shell. 

Diet: Algae, scavenger. 

Remarks: Adults locate a prospective empty 

home with their eyes and inspect it by inserting 

one of their chelae into its interior. No real 

estate agents are employed. If the shell seems 

like a good fit on their “test drive,” they walk 

away with their find. On the other hand, if the 

fit, weight, or movability doesn’t suit, the crab 

returns to its old, crowded shell with no qualms 

about searching for other choices.

The mollusk shells selected as homes for this 

otherwise naked crustacean are typically coated 

with diminutive sea anemones (Calliactis spp.). 

This symbiotic pairing provides protection 

and camouflage for the hermit, and gives the 

hitchhiking anemones food shared with the crab. 

When disturbed, the anemones aboard for the 

free ride expel acontia (lengthy stinging cells). 

Hermit crabs have been observed transferring 

their hitchhikers to a new shell when they 

outgrow their home! 

Naked or Pacific Mole Crab 

Emerita analoga (Hippidae) 

Distribution: Pacific coast from Alaska to Baja 

California and from Ecuador to Argentina. 

Habitat: The swash zone of the sandy intertidal 

beach, which ranges from the lowest to highest 

reaches of the waves at any given time. The 

swash zone changes with the tides, and so does 

the location of the mole crabs 

Appearance: Gray or sand-colored crab that 

lacks claws or spines. Females are larger than 

males. Swims, crawls, and burrows, always 

moving backwards, using its five pairs of legs. 

Hairs on appendages aid in rapid movement 

through the sand. First pair of antennae reach 

above the sand for respiration, and eyes with 

long stalks often extend above the sand as well. 

Diet: Small organisms, mostly diatoms. When 

the sand is covered by a wave, the second 

pair of antennae are extended above the sand 

to collect these tiny organisms, which are 

brought toward the mouth and scraped off. 

The movement is quick; a mole crab can make 

several passes for food in one receding wave. 


produce about one clutch of eggs per month, 

which she carries, like many crab species, 

attached on her abdomen beneath the 

telson until they hatch. Planktonic larvae 

metamorphose through multiple stage, often 

traveling far offshore until some successfully 

settle onto beaches. 

Mortality/Longevity: A major food source for 

shorebirds and some fish species of the surf 

zone, such as barred surfperch. Also eaten by 

sea otters. 

Remarks: Mole crabs are found on the beach 

in large numbers from spring to fall. In winter, 

storms carry them to offshore sandbars. 


75 

Used as bait by shore fishermen. 

Mole crabs are collected to indicate levels of 

DDT and neurotoxins produced seasonally 

by diatoms, substances that are toxic to birds, 

otters, and fish that eat them. 

Hermit Crab 

Pagurus spp. (Paguridae) 

Distribution: Some species in this genus occur 

in northern Japan, the Bering Strait, and south 

to Baja California. 

Habitat: Tide pools in upper to middle intertidal 

zones. Some species reported to more 

than 110 m depth. 

Appearance: These clever crabs appropriate 

gastropod mollusk shells into defensive homes. 

On our seacoast there are typically 4 species of 

hermits in the intertidal. Their appearance is 

most obviously recognized by their appropriated 

shell (Tegula is a popular choice). 

Diet: Scavenge dead algae and animal matter. 

Reproduction and Development: : Sexes separate, 

fertilization is internal. The male often 

grasps the edge of the female’s shell and drags 

it around with him, waiting for the female to 

molt, after which he deposits sperm on her 

abdomen. Females carry eggs and then release 

planktonic larvae. Once they have outgrown 

their home due to weight gain they select a 

larger, empty shell. 

Mortality/Longevity: Preyed upon by fishes, 

crabs, and sea anemones. 

Remarks: Hermit crabs (Anomura) have 3 pairs 

of walking legs. True crabs (Brachyura) have a 

pair of claws and 4 pairs of walking legs. 

Their abdomens are long, slender, soft and 

usually flexed to the right which allows them 

to fit into old snail shells, which are practically 

all right handed. 

Black-eyed Hermit Crab 

Pagurus armatus (Paguridae) 

Distribution: Coastal areas of the Pacific 

Northwest from Alaska, British Columbia, 

the Puget Sound area of Washington south to 

California. 

Habitat: Found on a variety of substrates, from 

muddy areas to protected sandy bottoms from 

the intertidal zone to depths of 120 m. 

Appearance: One of the largest species of 

hermit crabs. Easily identified by its large, oval,


black compound eyes set on short eyestalks. 

Legs and claws have red and orange bands 

with white spots; the dark brown claws 

have short spines on the dorsal surface. Max 

carapace length: 4 cm. 

Diet: Hermit crabs generally feed on detritus 

but may scavenge on dead animal and plant 

material. 

Reproduction and Development: In October, 

the females carry their brood of eggs under 

the abdominal telson flap. The first brood 

hatches in February and March. Adult 

females can carry up to three broods with the 

last brood hatching in September. The larval 

and advanced developmental stages of these 

hermit crabs lasts a total of 73 days depending 

on temperature. 

Remarks: When hermit crabs outgrow their 

shells they are vulnerable to predation until they 

locate and move into a larger shell. 

A point of interest: the holotype of Pagurus 

armatus was lost in the Great Chicago Fire of 1871. 

Hairy Hermit Crab 

Pagurus hirsutiusculus (Paguridae) 

Distribution: Alaska to southern California; 

Siberia, Japan; common in San Francisco Bay. 

Habitat: Intertidal tidepools, gravelly beaches, 

and under rocks and algae; more abundant in 

protected water. Tolerant of brackish water. 

Appearance: Length to 3 cm, but generally 

smaller. Antennae grayish brown with white 

bands and spots. Walking legs white, often 

with blue bands. Body remarkably hairy. 

Diet: Generally a scavenger feeing on detritus 

and dead animal matter, though also feeds on 

seed weed and occasionally takes live prey. 

Reproduction and Development: LIke other 

crabs, female attaches eggs to her pleopods 

(swimming legs), carrying up to 5 broods 

through spring and summer. Larvae are 

planktonic, metamorphosing through various 

stages before settling to the bottom. 

Mortality/Longevity: Preyed upon by fish, 

primarily sculpins. 

Remarks: Unlike most hermit crabs, this species 

usually chooses a shell so small that the snail cannot 

withdraw its body completely for protection. 

When a predator is encountered, the hairy hermit 

crab may abandon its shell completely, depending 

instead on speed for defense. 

Vampire Crab 

Geosesarma sp.’vampire” (Sesarmidae) 


Habitat: Inhabits forests or near running fresh 

water. On land, usually make burrows for 

hiding and resting. 

Appearance: Carapace length: c. 2.5 cm. Small 

pincers, similar in size. Pincers and other 

appendages tend to be purplish, carapace 

variable in color from reddish to blue. Eyes 

may be a bright neon orange or red. 

Diet: Active during the day; feeds mostly on 

insects, alive or dead. May also take other small 

invertebrates. 

Reproduction and Development: This crab 

genus is quite unusual, the only group known 

to reproduce in a freshwater environment. 

Other crabs, even the few terrestrial species, 

must return to salt or at least brackish water 

to reproduce; the eggs ultimately hatch 

into planktonic larvae that “go to sea” to 

metamorphose through a variety of stages 

before developing into the adult form. The 

mostly terrestrial vampire crab, on the other 

hand, has large eggs. The young go through 

their larval stages within the egg, and hatch 

out as fully developed small crabs. Are being 

bred successfully in captivity. Like all crabs, 

the female has a wide abdomen where eggs 

are cemented and protected until they hatch. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: 2–3 years. 

Remarks: Genus Geosesarma consists of about 

40 members, all small terrestrial crabs. The 

“vampire crab” was described fairly recently. 

The common name seems a reference to the 

glowing eyes, reminiscent of the vampires in 

old movies. 

Another species of Geosesarma from Malaysia 

seems to live symbiotically with several species 

of pitcher plants. The crab uses the plant as a 

safe harbor from predators, and in return drops 

its own insect prey and feces that nourish the 

plant. 

CLASS CIRRIPEDI.A 

(BARNACLES AND THEIR KIN) 

Acorn Barnacle 

Balanus glandula (Balanidae) 

Distribution: Aleutian Islands, Alaska to Baja 

California.

Habitat: On rocks, pier pilings and hardshelled 

invertebrates in the high and middle 

intertidal zones in bays, estuaries and especially 

along the open coast. 

Appearance: Diameter to 2.2 cm. Colored 

white to grayish. 

Diet: Like all barnacles, is a filter feeder. 


Produce 2–6 broods during the winter 

and spring, 1,000–30,000 larvae per brood; 

number correlated with size of the parent. 

Larvae settle in the spring and summer. Typically 

reach a diameter of 1.5 cm after 3 years; 

crowding by conspecifics reduces the rate of 

growth. Larvae that settle in the spring are 

reproductive their first winter. 

Mortality/Longevity: Predatory gastropods 

and sea stars take their toll, as do limpets 

feeding upon or bulldozing off juvenile 

barnacles on their turf. May live to 10 years. 

Remarks: Various barnacle species create 

serious and expensive fouling problems on 

ship hulls and pilings. In two years, 10 tons 

of barnacles may attach to a large tanker, 

causing huge losses in fuel efficiency. 

Giant Acorn Barnacle 

Balanus nubilus (Balanidae) 


Habitat: Found on pier pilings, rocks and 

hard-shelled animals, upper subtidal to depth 

300 feet. Prefers areas of current or waves that 

deliver food. 

Appearance: Sessile; volcano-like shell attached 

to hard substrate. A large barnacle, often 5–8 


Diet: Plankton and detritus; feathery legs protrude 

and filter water to trap particulate matter. 

Reproduction and Development: Each 

animal contains both sexes (hermaphroditic). 

They cross-fertilize, passing sperm to one 

another via internal fertilization. A barnacle 

can fertilize itself if there’s no other barnacle 

within reach. 

Not a bad strategy when you’re glued to one 

spot. And if you’re not going anywhere fast, 

some part of you should be able to make the 

reproductive journey: barnacles have the 

longest penises in relation to adult size than 

any such equipped organism known! 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: Thought to 


77 

be 60 yrs. or more. Prey to some sea stars and 

snails. 

Remarks: Edible; found in the middens of 

coastal Native Americans. 

Empty shells provide refuge to small rock 

crabs and juvenile red octopuses (Octopus 

rubescens). 

Gooseneck Barnacle 

Pollicipes polymerus (Scalpellidae) 



Habitat: High to middle intertidal on waveswept 

rocky shores in clusters, and also among 

California barnacles (Mytilus californianus). 

Appearance: To 8 cm in height. Tough stalk 

(peduncle). Top (capitulum) covered with more 

than 5 plates. 

Diet: Filter feed upon detritus, large zooplankton 

and crustaceans to 1 cm long. 


Reproduction occurs during summer 

in northern California. Fertilized eggs are 

brooded in the mantle cavity of the shell. 

Time from fertilization until release of larvae 

is about one month. A female may produce 

3–7 broods per year; 100,000–240,000 larvae 

are produced per brood. Growth is slow in 

attached juveniles over 1 cm in length. Sexually 

mature at 5 years. 

Mortality/Longevity: Preyed upon by Pisaster 

ochraceus. Fully grown individuals may be 20 

years old. 

Remarks: Exported to Spain and Portugal as 

a food delicacy. 

SUBPHYLUM HEXAPODA 

CLASS INSECTA 

ORDER BLATTODEA 

Giant Cockroach 

Blaberus giganteus (Blaberidae) 

Distribution: Central and South America. 

Habitat: Also called giant cave cockroaches, 

they live in caves, under stones and in dead 

tree branches. 

Appearance: A giant cockroach has a flattened,


oval body, about 9 cm long and 4 cm wide. 

Females are slightly larger than males. They 

commonly run along the ground, although 

the adults have wings that are rarely if ever 

used for flight. They have long, very slender 

antennae and two sensory organs, called cerci, 

at the tip of the abdomen. 

Diet: Cockroaches are omnivores and detritivores. 

They help recycle decaying matter on the ground 

into useful nutrients for plants. 

Reproduction and Development: All species 

of cockroaches are ovoviviparous. After 

mating, the female forms a protective pouch 

to hold the eggs until they hatch. She keeps 

the pouch inside her abdomen, taking it out 

only once to turn it and retracting it until 

gestation is complete. Incubation is about 60 

days. The female expels the pouch when the 

eggs start to hatch. 

Mortality/Longevity: They can live about 20 

months as adults. 

Remarks: Females emit a pheromone that 

induces males to mate. Male courtship rituals 

include raising wings at right angles to 

abdomen and making trembling movements 

with abdomen. 

Happily these huge insects provide services to the 

forest, and are not found in the average kitchen! 

Madagascar Hissing Cockroach 

Gromphadorhina portentosa (Blaberidae) 

Distribution: Madagascar. 

Habitat: Tropical lowland forest floor, hiding 

in leaf litter and rotting logs. 

Appearance: Dark brown exoskeleton, no 

wings, foot pads and hooks to climb smooth 

surfaces. Females have larger, heavier bodies. 

Males sport horns. They are one of the largest 

cockroach species in the world (5–7.5 cm long 

and weighing up to 25 gm). 

Diet: Nocturnal scavengers of decaying plant 

material, small insects and animal carcasses. 


occurs year around. The male hisses during 

courtship by constricting its abdomen to 

expel air through breathing holes (spiracles), 

producing both calling and courtship sounds. 

Females carry 15–40 eggs internally, then bear 

live young. Nymphs molt their exoskeleton 

as they grow, reaching sexual maturity in 

7 months. Parents and offspring stay close 

for extended periods. Males defend mating 

territories, and use their horns in fights with 

rivals, ramming each other and hissing loudly. 

Mortality/Longevity: Likely predators include 

large spiders, tenrecs, and birds. When 

disturbed, both sexes sound an alarm hiss 

to startle predators. Can live up to 5 years. 

Conservation Status: These cockroaches live 

in forest pockets that are dying (degradation 

and fragmentation) so Madagascar is a top 

conservation priority. 

Remarks: Territory sizes are small: a male 

may sit on a rock and defend it for months. 

Dominant males stand on their “toes” to “show 

off.” 

Indigenous people call this species Kofokofoka, 

approximating the hisser’s call. 

Madagascar hissing cockroaches are not pests, 

do not inhabit houses, cannot fly, are not 

aggressive, and do not bite. 

ORDER MANTODEA 

(PRAYING MANTIDS) 

Ghost Praying Mantis 

Phyllocrania paradoxa (Hymenopodidae) 

Distribution: Tropical Africa including 

Madagascar, Mozambique, Namibia, Somalia. 

Habitat: Warm, highly humid tropical forests. 

Appearance: Miniature species of leaf mantis, 

growing to under 5 cm. Sexual dimorphism is 

usual, with females slightly longer, and having 

a wider abdomen than males. Colors can vary 

from grey/green to dark brown or almost 

black. Colors are dependent on humidity and 

light levels. Phyllocrania has leaf-like head and 

shoulder shields, and leaf-like protrusions 

hanging from its limbs. This “dead-leaf” 

appearance makes it very difficult to see. 

Diet: In captivity ghost mantids eat Drosophila, 

houseflies, crickets, flour worms. 

Reproduction and Development: No specific 

information found. In general mantids 

reproductive organs are found at the tip of 

their abdomen. Females usually attract males 

with pheromones, there is a brief courtship 

dance, and the male alights on the female’s 

back. After fertilization the female deposits 

batches of eggs, using an ovipositor at the tip 

of her abdomen. The eggs stick to stems and

leaves, and each batch is housed in an egg 

case made from an abdominal secretion. The 

case hardens to protect the eggs from birds, 

and other predators. After about a month the 

nymphs hatch and then molt several times, 

each time becoming more like the adult form. 

Mortality/Longevity: Generally a long-lived 

species. Molt every 3–5 weeks, until the 4th 

and final molting. Life span: up to 14 months 

in captivity. 

Remarks: The scientific name is probably 

derived from Greek for “leaf “(phyllo) and Latin 

for “head” (crania), thus “leafy head mantis.” 

ORDER COELEOPTERA 

(BEETLES) 

Sunburst Diving Beetle 

Thermonectus marmoratus (Dytiscidae) 

Predaceous Diving Beetles 

Distribution: Arizona, Southern California, 

New Mexico, Western Texas and Mexico. 

Habitat: Freshwater rivers, lakes, intermittent 

streams, and pools. Because they are winged, 

they travel to other areas when their water 

source dries up. 

Appearance: Bodies are oval and flattened with 

smooth contours. Gold markings on the black 

carapace and yellow spots on the abdomen 

give the species its common name. Females 

slightly larger than males. Length: 10–15 mm. 

Diet: Small aquatic animals such as mosquito 

larvae, water mites, and worms. The beetles 

may also eat dead organisms found on the 

surface film or the bottom, engulfing small 

items and chewing large ones. They have 

sometimes been seen swarming a prey item 

and feeding en masse. 

Reproduction and Development: Diving beetles 

undergo complete metamorphosis. Their eggs 

are attached to underwater plants and hatch into 

the larval stage. Larvae later pupate in mud near 

water; and the adult emerges ready to breed a 

few weeks late. 

Mortality/Longevity: Both adults and larvae are 

predators and, with strong sickle-shaped jaws, 

can attack prey larger than themselves. They 

survive dry periods by burrowing into the mud. 

Remarks: With their streamlined body, the 

beetle swims effortlessly by flexing its hind 


79 

legs together simultaneously, and can remain 

underwater for a long time breathing air 

trapped in a chamber under its wing covers. 

Large swarms of these beetles sometimes fly 

to artificial lights at night. 

When disturbed, they eject a milky fluid which 

contains a mixture of steroid compounds, 

presumably as a deterrent to fish predators. 

They benefit humans because they eat other 

invertebrates including mosquito larvae and 

pupae. 

ORDER LEPIDOPTERA 

(BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS) 

Banded Orange 

Dryadula phaetusa (Nymphalidae) 

Brush-footed Butterflies 

Distribution: Native throughout the 

continental Neotropics, from central Mexico 

to Brazil; summer migrant in U.S. north to 

Kansas. 

Habitat: Disturbed lowland areas. 

Appearance: Males: bright brown and orangestriped 

pattern above; striking and quite 

different brown, orange, and white pattern 

below. Females somewhat duller. 

Diet: Caterpillars feed on various host passion 

flower vine species; adults feed primarily on 

nectar and bird droppings. 

Reproduction and Development: Eggs are 

laid singly on stems and leaves of host plants. 

Mortality/Longevity: Long lived for butterflies 

(See Postman). 

Remarks: The Banded Orange is the sole member 

of its genus. The genus is distinguished by having 

shorter, broader wings and shorter antennae than 

others in the heliconiine subfamily. 

Giant Owl Butterfly 

Caligo memnon (Nymphalidae) 


Distribution: Mexico south to Amazonia. 

Habitat: Rainforests and secondary forests. 

Appearance: A very large butterfly: wingspan 

up to 12.5 cm. 

Diet: Adults feed on rotting fruit, sipping 

liquids through their proboscis. 

Remarks: Giant owls not always applauded 

by human cohabitants. Larvae are large and


voracious, and one individual can consume 

an entire banana leaf more than 3 feet long! 

Common name derived from the large 

“eyespots” on the underside of wings, thought 

to be deterrents to bird predators. 

Julia Longwing 

Dryas julia (Nymphalidae) 


Distribution: Resident in Brazil north through 

Central America, Mexico, West Indies, 

peninsular Florida, and South Texas. Strays 

as far north as eastern Nebraska. 

Habitat: Subtropical forest openings and 

edges, and nearby fields. 

Appearance: Elongate forewings, thus the 

common name Males bright orange above 

and below; upperside of hindwing has narrow 

black border on outer margin. Female duller, 

with more black markings above. 

Diet: Caterpillars feed on passion vines; adults 

on nectar from flowers. 

Reproduction: Like all species in the subfamily 

Heliconiinae, also known as heliconians or 

longwings, adults lay eggs only on select host 

plants of the genus Passiflora, commonly called 

passion vines or passion flowers. D. julia eggs 

are laid singly on new growth; caterpillars feed 

on leaves. Larvae of heliconians 

Remarks: The Julia, like many other 

butterflies in the rainforest exhibit, belongs 

to the Longwing or Heliconian subfamily 

(Heliconiinae). 

Isabella’s Longwing 

Eueides isabella (Nymphalidae) 


Distribution: Widely distributed in Central 

America and throughout northern South 

America south through Brazil. Occasional 

migrant to southern U.S., especially Texas. 

Habitat: Occur from sea level to 1,500 m in 

tropical forests. 

Appearance: Upper wing: outer half of forewing 

black with yellow areas, area close to body 

orange with a black stripe. Hindwing orange 

with 2 black stripes. Underwing similar. 

Diet: Caterpillars: host passion vine leaves; 

adults: nectar and pollen. 

Reproduction and Development: Males mate 

with receptive females, which may breed 

more than once. Not a pupal mater. (See Zebra 

Longwing). Eggs laid singly on underside of 

host plant. 

Mortality/Longevity: Like all Heliconians, 

they are long-lived 

Remarks: Adults roost alone on underside of 

leaves. 

Zebra Longwing 

Heliconius charithonia (Nymphalidae) 


Distribution: Tropics and subtropics of Central 

and South America. Also West Indies, Mexico, 

southern Texas, Florida, and occasionally 

as far west as New Mexico and north to the 

Carolinas. 

Habitat: Moist forests, edges, and fields. 

Appearance: Long, narrow wings patterned 

with black and yellow stripes. 

Diet: Adults feed on flower nectar and pollen. 

Larvae feed almost exclusively on the leaves 

of a few host species of passion flowers (genus 

Passiflora). 

Reproduction and Development: Almost half 

of the Heliconian species, including the Zebra 

Longwing, practice a unique mating behavior 

known as pupal mating. The male seeks out 

larval host plants to find female pupae of its 

species, and may fend off other males from one 

or more pupae for up to a week before the female 

butterfly emerges. Mating takes place before the 

female is fully hardened. With the exception 

of one other species, Heliconians are the only 

butterflies known to practice this behavior. 

Mortality/Longevity: From 3–6 months (sources 

vary). Taken by birds and larger insects. 

Remarks: Declared the Florida State Butterfly 

in 1996. 

Species name refers to the Charities, or Graces, 

of Greek mythology, known as the epitome of 

charm and natural beauty. 

The Zebra Longwing, because of its striking 

pattern and long life, is a favorite species for 

butterfly exhibits. 

This species also practices communal roosting 

Doris Longwing 

Heliconius doris (Nymphalidae) 


Distribution: Central America to northwestern 

Amazonia.

Habitat: From sea level to 1,800 m in forest 

clearings. Fly and feed mostly in the mid-story. 

Appearance: Appears in several color morphs; 

hindwing markings may be red-orange, blue, 

or green. Two white markings on forewing. 

Diet: Nectar and pollen. 

Mortality/Longevity: Eaten by birds. 

Remarks: Heliconians are unique. Unlike other 

butterflies, they not only sip nectar, but also 

use their proboscises to collect and absorb the 

protein from pollen. This amino acid-rich diet 

allows them to function and live longer than 

most other butterflies. 

Postman 

Heliconius melpomene (Nymphalidae) 


Distribution: Widespread in the Neotropics of 

Central and South America to southern Brazil. 

Habitat: Open areas, also locally common 

along river edges and streams. 

Appearance: The Postman is famous for the 

geographic diversity of its color pattern, and 

has around 30 named subspecies. These factors, 

in combination with its co-mimicry with 

Heliconius erato, make an individual sometimes 

difficult to identify. 

Diet: A plant specialist on passion vine flowers 

(Passiflora spp.). In Central America, focuses on 

only two species; in other areas, is more of a 

generalist, feeding on several Passiflora species. 

Mortality/Longevity: Heliconius spp. are 

among the Methuselahs of the butterfly 

world. Most butterflies live only days; some 

Heliconians in the adult (butterfly) stage, 

including the Postman, live for as long as 8 

months. 

Remarks: The Postman is reportedly named 

after its habit of flying a route that allows 

visitation of all the nectar plants in a given area 

like a postman delivering the mail. 

In Greek mythology, Mt. Helicon was sacred 

home to the Muses; Melpomene is the Muse 

of Tragedy. 

Sapho Longwing 

Heliconius sapho (Nymphalidae) 


Distribution: Central and northwestern South 

America to the west of the Andes. 

Habitat: Occurs from sea level to 2,000 m in 


81 

dense forest. 

Appearance: Iridescent black wings that exhibit 

blue metallic sheen under right light conditions; 

a variety of white bands on fore- and hindwings. 

H. sapho is often confused with its co-mimic H. 

cydno, but can be distinguished by the small red 

teardrop patterns close to the body. 

Diet: Larvae feed on host passion flower vines 

(Passiflora spp.). In Costa Rica and Belize, H. sapho 

seems to have a complex coevolved relationship 

with only one host plant, Passiflora pitteri. 

Reproduction and Development: Also a 

pupal-mater (see Zebra Longwing). 

Mortality/Longevity: Relatively long lived. 

Remarks: Several distinct geographical races 

are known; remarkably, H. cydno exhibits 

parallel geographic variations. The two species 

are Mullerian mimics. Like most Heliconians, 

both sequester toxins distasteful to predators; 

their similar patterns give would-be predators 

more chances to learn the error of their ways 

and leave both species alone. 

Researchers suggest that Heliconians, perhaps 

due to their long lives, are able to learn to 

recognize specific host plants where the female 

lays her eggs. This specificity allows a variety 

of Heliconian species to live in close proximity, 

efficiently partitioning habitat resources. 

Sara Longwing 

Heliconius sara (Nymphalidae) 


Distribution: Widespread throughout Central 

America and the tropics of South America, 

including the Amazon Basin. 

Habitat: Occurs from sea level to 1,300 m along 

the edges of rainforests. 

Appearance: Upper wing surface is black with 

large patch of metallic blue framed by two 

white bands. Underside is brown-black with 

faded white bars above and small red spots 

near the body. 

Diet: Larvae (caterpillars) feed on select host 

passion flower leaves; adults feed on pollen 

and nectar. 

Reproduction and Development: Pupal 

maters: males sit on female pupae a day before 

emergence, and mating occurs the next day 

before the female has completely hardened 

(see Zebra Longwing for more information). 

Females lay eggs in clusters on new growth of


host passion flower species. 

Mortality/Longevity: Adult life span: 2–3 

months. 

Remarks: Passion flowers contain toxic 

compounds to which caterpillars are immune; 

like monarchs, the caterpillars concentrate the 

toxin in their tissues and pass it along to the 

adult during metamorphosis. 

Research suggests that adult Heliconian 

butterflies may be able to synthesize their 

own toxins with the amino acids they absorb 

through the protein-rich pollen they feed on. 

Blue Morpho 

Morpho peleides (Nymphalidae) 


Distribution: Tropics of Latin America from 

Mexico to Colombia. 

Habitat: Feed and sleep on or near the forest 

floor, but when mating, they fly throughout 

forest layers. 

Appearance: A large butterfly: 12–20 cm. Wing 

tops are an iridescent blue, caused not by a true 

color, such as the dye of blue jeans, but by the 

tiny, overlapping scales that cover their wings. 

Because of the precise angle of the ridges they 

form, the scales reflect blue light back to our 

eyes. The contrasting underside of the wing is 

brown with a confusion of eyespots that blend 

with surroundings and hide the morpho from 

predators. Females less brilliantly colored. 

Diet: Adult drinks juices of rotting plants and 

animals, tree sap, and wet mud, sipping all 

with its straw-like proboscis. 


butterflies, males release pheromones to attract 

females. Fertilized eggs hatch in about 9 days. 

Mortality/Longevity: Total lifespan: egg to 

adult, about 4.5 months; adults (butterflies): 

about 1 month. Predators include birds and 

large insects. 

Conservations Status: Not listed, but under 

some pressure as trophies for collectors. 

Remarks: Blue morphos brilliant reflection is 

so intense that pilots report seeing their flash 

of color as the butterflies warm themselves 

above the treetops. 

Different angles of view (and so different 

angles of reflecting ridges) produce variations 

in the shades of blue perceived. 

Orange Barred Sulfur 

Phoebis philea (Pieridae) 

Whites and Sulfurs 

Distribution: Resident from Brazil, north 

through Central America to peninsular Florida. 

Habitat: Open lowland sites along forest edges. 

Also frequents gardens, parks, and road edges. 

Appearance: Upperside of male bright yelloworange; 

forewing has red-orange bar, hindwing 

with red-orange outer margin. Female much 

larger than male. 

Diet: Caterpillar: Cassia species in the pea 

family; adult: nectar from various flowers. 


lay single eggs on leaves and flowers of host 

plants during the wet season. Caterpillars feed 

preferentially on the flowers. 

Remarks: These swift, high flyers have been 

reported as rare migrants as far north as Canada. 

Malachite 

Siproeta stelenes (Nymphalidae) 


Distribution: Common resident throughout 

Central and northern South America. In U.S., 

found in southern Texas and south Florida. 

Habitat: Subtropical evergreen and 

semideciduous forests. Frequent fruit orchards 

in Florida. 

Appearance: Upperside dark black-brown 

with translucent yellow- to lime–green patches. 

Underside duller. 

Diet: Caterpillars: host plants of the family 

Acanthaceae. Adults: rotting fruit; occasionally 

bird droppings and nectar. 

Reproduction and Development: Eggs 

laid singly on host plant leaves. In warmest 

climates, up to four broods per year. 

Remarks: Named for the mineral malachite, 

reminiscent of the bright green of the wings. 

Adults roost together under the leaves of low 

shrubs. Green and black coloration provides 

excellent camouflage. 

ORDER HYMENOPTERA 

(ANTS) 

Leafcutter Ant 

Atta cephalotes (Formicidae) 

Distribution: Fungus growing ants, or

gardening ants, number about 200 species, 

all in the tribe Attini, and are found only in 

the New World, in every mainland country 

except Canada and Chile. Most leafcutter ant 

species are native to tropical Central and South 

America, though a few species occur in the 

southwestern United States. 

Atta cephalotes ranges from southern Mexico to 

Costa Rica and south to northern Argentina. 

Habitat: Colonies are found throughout 

the tropical rain forest, tropical deciduous 

forest, and tropical scrub forest. Nests are 

underground to a depth of 6 m. Some have 

up to 3000 chambers, hundreds of “gardens,” 

and can cover an area up to an acre. Crescentshaped 

mounds at the entrance of the nests 

contain as much as 350 m 3 of soil. 

Appearance: Rust colored with lighter colored 

legs, members of the genus Atta are among the 

largest, most socially complex leafcutters. The 

huge queen is up to 1.5 cm in length, an egglaying 

machine capable of building a colony 

of several million individuals. Atta cephalotes 

is noted for its especially large head (hence the 

name). Workers take many forms and sizes, 

from large soldiers and major workers with 

their impressive mandibles to the smallest 

workers, sized to move easily through the 

narrow galleries of fungal gardens. A soldier 

may be 10 times longer and weigh several 

hundred times more than the smallest worker. 

The abdomen has a stinger, but it is not used. 

Diet: Leafcutter ants are true gardeners. 

They grow their own food by cutting leaves, 

mostly during the evening and nighttime, and 

carrying them back to the nest, where smaller 

workers then process them further and take 

them to underground “garden” chambers. All 

along the way, the leaves are fertilized by their 

handlers with anal secretions. Fungi then grow 

on the decaying vegetation, and the ants feed 

exclusively on the fungus, not the leaves. Each 

ant species grows a specific fungus. 

Reproduction & Development: Atta cephalotes 

swarm in mating flights at the onset of the rainy 

season. The queen mates with multiple males. 

The founding female has a pocket in her mouth 

cavity for storage of fungus spores to start her 

new nest. After she digs the first chamber for 

the garden, she deposits the spores, gathers 

appropriate leaves, and begins laying about 


83 

1000 eggs each day. The first group of workers 

to develop takes over for the queen in caring 

for eggs, larvae, and pupae. The queen has 

only one job then—to lay the eggs that will 

build the colony. 

Mortality/Longevity: Queen lives up to 10 

years on average, but some have lived up to 

14 years. 

Remarks: Fungus and ants are mutually 

dependent for survival. Obviously, the fungus 

provides the ants with food, but equally 

important, the fungus receives a warm, moist 

home and is supplied with fresh, fertilized 

nutrients. The ant colony also remorselessly 

rids the colony of any competing fungal strains. 

Many ants make noises while they work, 

generating the sound by rasping a file-like 

widget on one segment of the gaster (the 

enlarged part of the abdomen) against a 

specialized rough spot on a neighboring 

segment. The ants pick up the vibrations, called 

stridulations, with sensors on their knees. 

Leafcutter ants are able to set up vibrations 

in their mandibles that helps the ants cut 

smoothly through leaves. These workers also 

seem to communicate via stridulations with a 

smaller worker caste that accompanies them 

on harvesting missions. The vibrations signal 

the small ants to climb onto the leaf for the 

ride home. These hitchhiking minor workers 

protect the leaf carriers from phorid flies that 

try to inject an egg in the braincase or gaster. 

If the fly is successful, its larvae parasitize the 

ant, ultimately killing its victim by digesting 

its body tissues, finishing with the brain and 

leaving a headless corpse! 

Leafcutter ants are responsible for destroying 

more vegetation than any other group of 

animals: they inflict more than a billion dollars 

in crop damage yearly. A large colony harvests 

the same amount of plant material that a cow 

consumes in a single day. Some leafcutter 

species, though not Atta cephalotes, compete 

with cattle for grass and harvested foodstuffs 

stored by humans, such as cereal grains, flour, 

dried beans, and cattle meal. Large colonies of 

leafcutter ants also undermine the foundations 

of buildings, causing structural damage. 

Leafcutters have their benevolent side as well. 

Atta species, like most insects, are a good source 

of protein; they are eaten by people in parts of


Mexico and in many places in South America. 

They also circulate nutrients and aerate huge 

quantities of soil in forests and grasslands as 

they construct their subterranean cities. 

SUBPHYLUM MYRIAPODA 

CLASS CHILOPODA 

(CENTIPEDES) 

Scolopendra Centipede 

Scolopendra subspinipes (Scolopendridae) 

Distribution: Widely distributed in Southeast 

Asia. 

Habitat: Live in humid environments. Usually 

found in soil, leaf litter, or rotten wood. 

Appearance: The name centipede literally 

means “hundred legs,” though some centipede 

species have more and some have as few as 

30. Scolopendra subspinipes has 21 segments, 

with 2 legs on each segment, except for the 

last. These legs attach laterally and are used 

for locomotion. The last pair of legs extends 

backwards from the ultimate segment and is 

used as a sensory organ. The Scolopendra grows 

to 20 cm. Quite variable in color with many 

identified subspecies, but most specimens 

are brown to reddish brown with yellow to 

yellow-orange legs. 

Diet: Like all centipedes, exclusively carnivores. 

Large species feed on bats, mice and other 

small mammals, snakes, frogs and toads, and 

birds, as well as other arthropods. 

Reproduction and Development: A male 

centipede has no copulatory organ: he spins a 

small silk pad and then deposits his sperm on 

it. Guided by the male, the female picks up the 

sperm, fertilizes and lays her eggs. 

Mortality/Longevity: Adult lifespan: 10 years. 

Remarks: All centipedes possess “poison 

claws.” The venom delivery apparatus 

consists of a modified pair of front legs, 

near the mandibles. The venom is formed in 

glands at the base of these legs and injected 

through ducts. Large scolopendromorphs 

can inflict painful bites that may necessitate 

a visit to a doctor. The bite causes intense 

pain, swelling, discoloration, numbness, and 

necrosis. However, unlike scorpions and 

spiders, there are no deadly centipedes and no 

confirmed human fatalities. 

During World War II, Scolopendra subspinipes 

roamed freely around military installations 

in the Pacific theater. Centipedes crawled into 

foxholes, latrines, and shelters, where they hid 

in the bedding. Many soldiers suffered from 

centipede bites. The bites caused instant, fiery 

pain. At least one resourceful medic injected 

a localized dental anesthetic around the bite, 

which numbed the pain. 

PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA 

CLASS ASTEROIDEA 

(SEA STARS) 

Sand-eating Sea Star 

Archaster typicus (Archasteridae) 


Habitat: Shallow sandy or silty areas near 

seagrasses. 

Appearance: Arms tapered to a sharp tip and 

edged with short flat, blunt spines. Diameter 

with arms: c. 12–15 cm. Underside pale with 

large, suckered tube feet. Color of upper side 

may vary from grayish blue, to brown or beige. 

Diet: Detritus, decaying plants, burrowing 

through the substrate in search of food items. 

Like many seas tars, extrudes its ‘”stomach” 

from its mouth on the ventral side, engulfing 

its meal with digestive enzymes. 

Reproduction: The genus Archaster, which 

consists of only three species, engages 

in a peculiar mating behavior known 

as pseudocopulation. The male, usually 

considerably smaller than the female, positions 

himself on top of the female, his arms 

alternating with hers, and releases his sperm as 

she releases her eggs. This practice presumably 

increases the chance of fertilization. This 

behavior has been observed at the Steinhart. 

Remarks: The size differential, with the female 

being significantly larger than the male, is very 

unusual in echinoderms. 

The sand-eater in the Steinhart is provides a 

cleaning service to the upside-down jellies 

with which it lives, eating algae and detritus.

Vermillion Sea Star 

Mediaster aequalis (Goniasteridae) 

Distribution: Alaska south to southern 

California. 

Habitat: Common in subtidal waters; rarely 

exposed to the air. Found especially in rocky 

areas; occasionally on sand and gravel. 

Appearance: Orange to vermillion red. Aboral 

surface covered with oval or hexagonal plates 

(ossicles). Oral side lighter. 

Diet: Opportunistic: sponges, bryozoans, 

tunicates, algae, and detritus. Also known to 

feed on sea pens. 

Remarks: Moves more rapidly than most sea 

stars. 

Elegant Sea Star 

Fromia monilis (Ophidiasteridae) 

Distribution: Andaman Sea to western Pacific 

Ocean. 

Habitat: Various coral reefs substrates at 1–30 

m depth. 

Appearance: Diameter to 12 cm. Body with 

tapering arms. Central disc and ray tips red, 

remainder of body and rays dark creamy yellow. 

Diet: Detritus and small invertebrates. 

Remarks: Distinctive pattern and bright color 

may indicate foul taste. 

Blue Linckia Sea Star 

Linckia laevigata (Ophidiasteridae) 


Habitat: Coral rubble or among seagrasses in 

shallow lagoons and to 60 m depth. 

Appearance: Overall arm radius to 40 cm. Color 

bright blue overall, but olive-brown, pink and 

yellow variants exist. Long, cylindrical, smooth 

arms. 

Diet: Scavenger. Also consumes algae and 

microbes. 

Reproduction and Development: Unlike most 

sea stars that can regenerate missing parts if at 

least part of the central disk remains, linckias are 

able to regenerate into a complete sea star from a 

single cast off ray. Initially four minute arms bud 

from the end of the lone ray; this form is called a 

comet, as it resembles a shooting star. 

Mortality/Longevity: Pufferfishes are known 

to feed on blue linckias, and harlequin shrimp 

nibble on the ends of their rays. 


85 

Red Linckia Sea Star 

Linckia multiflora (Ophidiasteridae) 


Habitat: Shallow reefs to 40 m. 

Appearance: Mottled red, blue or yellow colors. 

Typically has five rays. 

Diet: May be a suspension feeder. It may feed 

on microscopic algae and microbes. 


reproduction. Also asexual: casts off an arm 

at base of the disc; the “comet” regenerates a 

new disc and rays. Thus the new individual is 

a clone of the parent. 

Mortality/Longevity: Remarks: Regeneration 

of an adult from a single arm is very unusual 

for sea stars. 

Remarks: Parasitic snail, Thyca chrystallina, 

often found on the oral side of this sea star. 

Panamic Cushion Sea Star 

Pentaceraster cumingi (Oreasteridae) 

Distribution: Mid- to eastern Pacific: Hawaii, 

Sea of Cortez to Peru and Galapagos. 

Habitat: On rubble and sand from shallows 

to 45 m. 

Appearance: Body colors vary from red, 

orange to greenish blue, with large red spines. 

Max. size across: 45 cm. 

Diet: Micro-fauna in the substrate, benthic 

algae, and other echinoderms. 

Conservation Status: Anecdotally, this species 

seems to be found less frequently at shallow 

depths because, given its large size, handsome 

coloration, and slow movement, it is regularly 

taken by humans. 

Chocolate Chip Sea Star 

Protoreaster nodosus (Oreasteridae) 

Distribution: Red Sea, Indian and western 

Pacific oceans. 

Habitat: Shallow sand and seagrass beds, 

typically in sheltered locations 1-30 m. 

Appearance: Diameter to 30 cm. Ground body 

color is highly variable; may be beige, brown, 

orange, red or other hues, such as green or blue. 

Horn-shaped nodules colored blue, dark green, 

dark chocolate or black, sometimes surrounded 

by milk chocolate-colored margins, are 

distinctive and are responsible for this sea stars 

common name. 

Diet: Sponges, clams and snails, other


invertebrates; also opportunistic carrion 

feeders. 

Reproduction and Development: As in other sea 

stars, fertilization is external. Eggs and sperm are 

stored in the rays and released simultaneously. 

Larvae look nothing like the adults. The form 

that first hatches from the eggs is bilaterally 

symmetrical and planktonic. Larvae eventually 

settle and transform into tiny sea stars. 

Conservation Status: Reportedly common, but 

threatened in some areas of their distribution, 

such as Singapore. Over-harvested for the 

“shell trade” in some localities as a consequence 

of their spectacular appearance (however, 

coloration fades upon death). 

Crown of Thorns Sea Star 

Acanthaster planci (Acanthasteridae) 

Distribution: The Red Sea and throughout 

the Indian and Pacific Oceans, east to Panama. 

Habitat: Tropical reefs. 

Appearance: Up to 50 cm in diameter, 12–19 

arms. Red, with thorn-like spines, which are 

toxic. 

Diet: Feeds on living coral polyps. Feeds by 

extruding its stomach over a coral colony, 

releasing digestive enzymes, and absorbing the 

liquefied tissue. Each individual feeds alone (at 

night), and maintains a constant distance from 

other crown-of-thorns starfish. One sea star can 

consume up to 6 2 m of reef per year. Can live 

without food for over 6 months. 

Reproduction & Development: Sexes separate. 

Eggs and sperm released simultaneously. Up 

to 65 million eggs per spawn. Fertilized eggs 

may drift long distances and result in sudden 

population booms. This is especially likely in 

regions of algae blooms, which may satiate 

predators and reduce feeding on sea star eggs. 

New sea stars can grow from dismembered 

arms, if part of the central body remains. 

Mortality/Longevity: Predators include the 

Giant Triton (Charonia tritonis), a large sea snail. 

Larval or small adults are prey to a species of 

shrimp, a species of worm, and various reef 

fish, especially the humphead wrasse (Cheilinus 

undulatus). 

Remarks: Notorious for its destructive effect 

on coral reefs. Although it may once have 

been a natural force in ecological succession, 

populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have 

increased since the 1970s, and it is now at least 

partly responsible for much loss of coral reefs, 

particularly on the Great Barrier Reef in Australia. 

Bat Star 

Patiria miniata (Asterinidae) 

Distribution: Sitka, Alaska to Baja California. 

Habitat: Low intertidal on rocks overgrown with 

surfgrass, large algae and sponges. Subtidal to 

290 m depth on rocky or sandy substrates. 

Appearance: This bat-webbed five-rayed star 

may be colored red, orange, purple or mottled. 

Arm radius to 10 cm. 

Diet: Typically an omnivore or scavenger: 

surfgrass, algae, colonial tunicates, organic 

films on hard surfaces, as well as other sea 

stars. Like most sea stars, feeds by everting its 

stomach over prey. 


spawns May to June. Embryos and larvae are 

transparent. 

Conservation Status: Collecting by tide pool 

visitors has diminished some populations, for 

example around the Monterey Peninsula. 

Remarks: Behavioral biologists (ethologists) 

have documented “arm wrestling” between 

competing bat stars. 

Blood Sea Star 

Henricia leviuscula (Echinasteridae) 

Distribution: Aleutian Islands to Baja 

California. 

Habitat: On rocky substrates, especially in 

areas encrusted with bryozoans and sponges. 

From the intertidal to 400 m. 

Appearance: Brilliant red above and bright 

yellow below, though may be tan, yellow, or 

purplish. Long slender rays. Diameter to 9 cm. 

Disc small, arms long and tapering, typically 5 

in number, but may be 4–6. 

Diet: Uses cilia to feed on suspended particles 

of bacteria and microscopic bacteria; may also 

feed on bryozoans and sponges. 

Reproduction and Development: Smaller 

females brood young and release tiny juvenile 

sea stars. Larger females broadcast eggs into 

the water. 

Mortality/Longevity: Predators include birds 

and humans. 

Remarks: Like all sea stars, has spots at the tip 

of each arm, sense organs that are able to “see”

only differences in light and dark. 

Blood stars lack pedicellariae (tiny pincers for 

removing ectoparasites and debris, common 

to most sea stars). 

Leather Sea Star 

Dermasterias imbricata (Poraniidae) 

Distribution: Eastern North Pacific: Alaska to 

Northern California. 

Habitat: On rocks and rocky reefs in subtidal 

areas. 

Appearance: Medium size sea star up to 12 

cm in diameter with disproportionately short 

arms. Mottled coloring—bluish-grey with 

brown to orange blotches all over. 

Diet: Mainly sea anemones, but also takes 

sea cucumbers, sea urchins, and other invertebrates. 

Reproduction and Development: Releases 

eggs and sperm; fertilized eggs float in plankton 

and develop into juveniles, which eventually 

settle out. 

Remarks: Is smooth and slimy to the touch; 

smells like garlic. Leather stars, unlike many 

other sea stars, such as the ochre, bat, and 

pink sea stars, swallow their prey whole and 

digest internally. 

Pink Sea Star aka Pink Pisaster 

Pisaster brevispinus (Asteriidae) 

Distribution: Sitka, Alaska to San Diego 

County, California. 

Habitat: Occasional in low intertidal zone, 

more common 0.5–100 m on sand and mud 

substrates, sometimes on rocks and pier pilings 

in calm waters. 

Appearance: Maximum diameter nearly 1 m, 

individuals usually smaller. Pink color diagnostic. 

Robust appearance. Aboral spines much 

shorter than those of other Pisaster species. 

Diet: Preys on live clams, snails, sand dollars, 

barnacles, mussels, tube-dwelling annelid 

worms, and scavenges dead fish and squid. 

Reproduction and Development: Spawns in 

the spring. 

Mortality/Longevity: Likely preyed upon by 

the sunflower sea star Pycnopodia helianthoides. 

Remarks: Can chemosense clams through 

sand. May dig down to the clam for 2 –3 days 

or extend tube feet to the clam a distance equal 

to the arm radius (to 20 cm!) Once contacted, 


87 

the clam is lifted from the substrate or the 

stomach may be everted to 8 cm to digest the 

prey in place. 

Some sand-bottom invertebrates including 

the sand dollar Dendraster excentricus and 

the snail Olivella biplicata chemosense the 

presence of a pink star and attempt to avoid 

contact by burrowing. 

Giant Sea Star 

Pisaster giganteus (Asteriidae) 

Distribution: Eastern Pacific coast from 

British Columbia to Baja California. 

Habitat: Rocky but also sandy substrates from 

middle to lower intertidal zone down to 90 m. 

Appearance: Five arms. Can be colored red, 

orange, brown, or green. Evenly spaced blunt 

spines. Maximum arm span about 60 cm. 

Diet: Typical prey are hard-shelled organisms 

such as mussels, snails, and barnacles. May 

occasionally eat anything slow-moving 

enough to be caught, such as dying fish or 

shellfish, anenomes, or other sea stars. 

Reproduction & Development: Individual 

sea stars are male or female. Both sexes 

release gametes into the water for external 

fertilization. Larvae are planktonic and have 

bilateral symmetry. 

Mortality/Longevity: Sea gulls and sea otters 

are sea star predators. Giant sea stars live about 

20 years. 

Ochre Sea Star aka Pacific Sea Star 

Pisaster ochraceus (Asteriidae) 

Distribution: Prince William Sound, Alaska to 

Santa Barbara County, California. 

Habitat: Low-middle intertidal zones on rocky 

shores, especially on mussel beds. Subtidal to 88 

m depth. Juveniles in crevices and under rocks. 

Appearance: Arm radius to 28 cm (usually half 

that figure). Rays 5–7, typically 5. Colored orange, 

violet, green and mottled; very rarely ochre. 

Diet: California mussels (Mytilus californianus) 

are the favored and locally abundant prey. 

Also consume acorn barnacles, emarginate 

dogwinkles, gooseneck barnacles, owl limpets, 

etc. Can insert stomach into slits as narrow as 

0.1 mm between the valves of bivalves and 

begin digestion. 

Reproduction and Development: Sexual reproduction 

occurs during the spring. Mature


gonads may be 40% by weight in mature Pisaster. 

Fertilization external. Free-swimming 

plankton-feeding larvae. 

Mortality/Longevity: Adults are eaten by sea 

otters and seagulls. 

“Lucky” individuals of this hardy sea star species 

probably live to over 20 years. 

Conservation Status: Locally over-collected as 

a souvenir of a tide pool visit. 

Remarks: Proposed as a “keystone” species 

(i.e., structures its ecological community) by 

Roger Paine in 1966. Many researchers have 

since suggested that Pisaster is “just another 

brick in the wall.” 

One study showed that less than 2% of the 

individuals in three local Northern California 

populations were “ochre” in color. When dead 

and dry become ochre in color. 

Sunflower Sea Star 

Pycnopodia helianthoides (Asteriidae) 

Distribution: Aleutian Islands, Alaska to San 

Diego, California. 

Habitat: Common in subtidal regions rich in 

seaweeds, but rare in the upper intertidal zones 

of rock, sand and mud. 

Appearance: Imposing! Up to 24 arms. 40-65 

cm diameter. Typically purple, some are yelloworange. 

The limbs are soft and flimsy; rough 

handling by humans causes arms to be shed. 

Diet: Carnivorous. Preferences include purple 

sea urchins, mussels, chitons, clams, snails, crabs, 

sea cucumbers, polychaetes as well as other sea 

stars. Tube feet chemosensorilly “taste” objects 

they encounter for edibility. 

Reproduction and Development: Fertilized 

eggs result in pelagic, plankton feeding larvae. 

Mortality/Longevity: The sea star Solaster dawsoni 

and the Alaskan king crab eat this sea star. 

Remarks: Fastest moving of the stars in our 

area, clocking over 50 cm/min. 

Largest and heaviest sea star on the eastern 

Pacific coast. 

CLASS ECHINOIDEA 

(URCHINS AND SAND DOLLARS) 

Pencil Sea Urchin 

Eucidaris tribuloides (Cidaridae) 

Distribution: Caribbean, Bahamas, Florida. 

Habitat: Coral reef in small crevices, in turtle 

grass beds, or under rocks and rubble in back 

reef lagoon areas, usually found at less than 

50 m. 

Appearance: Brown body with thick spines in 

all directions. 

Diet: Omnivore: algae and small invertebrates 

such as sea squirts and sponges. Feeds 

nocturnally. 


Sexual reproduction; eggs and sperm are 

synchronously shed into the water column 

where fertilized eggs develop into free-living 

larvae that, after several stages, settle out of 

the plankton. 


Remarks: Pencil sea urchins belong to a 

primitive sea urchin order, the Cidaroids, the 

only kind of sea urchin to survive the Permian 

extinction some 245 million years ago. All 

modern sea urchins descend from this group. 

The spines of pencil urchins, unlike other urchin 

groups, are not covered with epidermis. They 

are, however, often covered with algae and 

epizoans that provide excellent camouflage. 

Spines are also covered with barbs that can 

inflict serious pain to a predator. 

Seek shelter in rocky crevices by day, using the 

thick spines to maintain a protected position. 

Fire Urchin 

Astropyga radiata (Diadematidae) 

Distribution: Tropical Indo-Pacific from east 

coast of Africa to Hawaiian Islands. 

Habitat: Rubble and sand in bays and lagoons. 

Appearance: Radially symmetrical with long, 

mobile spines usually banded in orange and 

white. Five areas free of spines carry striking 

red V-shapes with blue spots. 

Diet: Herbivore, mostly algae. Active diurnally. 

Reproduction and Development: Indirect 

reproduction through the release and fusion 

of eggs and sperm in the water. 

Remarks: This urchin delivers a potent sting 

with its spines. Bright colors warn predators 

to give it wide berth. 

It has a symbiotic relationship with the large 

decorator crab Dorippe frascone, which is 

known to carry this urchin species on its back. 

Commensal shrimp and juvenile cardinalfishes

may seek protection in the urchin’s spines. 

Long-spined Sea Urchin 

Diadema setosum (Diadematidae) 

Distribution: Red Sea, east Africa to western 

Pacific (Philippines). 

Habitat: Low tide to 20 m. On rubble and 

seagrasses. Often abundant in shallow water 

areas that have been recently disturbed. Also 

in lagoons and on coral and rocky reefs. 

Appearance: Adult test to 9 cm diameter. Very 

long, black spines to 30 cm. Orange-red ring 

around anal cone at the center of its dorsal 

surface is distinctive. 

Diet: Herbivore. Hides during the day, and 

emerges at night to feed on algae, plankton, 

and waste material. Its feeding habits help 

keep the reef free from coral-smothering 

algae; however, too many of these algal-eating 

machines can actually threaten a reef, scraping 

away living coral as they devour algae and 

leaving little food for other herbivores. 

Reproduction and Development: During 

spawning, many males and females release 

eggs and sperm synchronously. 

Remarks: Spines contain toxins. Tiny barbs, 

requiring surgical removal, secure spines 

painfully in the skin of the careless or 

unsuspecting diver. 

Commensal with a number of species, including 

various shrimps and fishes. The dark, elongated 

body of the urchin shrimp Stegopontonia 

commensalis camouflages it among the spines 

of its host. Cardinalfishes, shrimpfishes such as 

Aeoliscus strigatus, and others are also found in 

association with this urchin. 

Pincushion Tuxedo Urchin 

Mespilia globulus (Temnopleuridae) 

Distribution: Coastal waters of Asia from India 

to Southern Japan. 

Habitat: Coral reefs. During daylight hides 

among rocks, in crevices, or under plants in a 

sandy substrate. 

Appearance: Diameter to 8 cm. Red to brown 

short, sharp spines are separated by ten bluevelvet 

regions where spines are absent. 

Diet: Primarily a nocturnal feeder on coralline 

algae, also green filamentous algae. Grazes by 

scraping with its Aristotle’s lantern apparatus, 

as do all sea urchins. 


89 


echinoids, this species has a planktonic larval 

form which swims and feeds. In later larval 

life the exterior skeleton begins to form and 

the maturing larvae sink to the substrate but 

do not attach as in sea stars. Metamorphosis 

is remarkably speedy; larvae to adult in ~an 

hour! Young urchins are no larger than 1 mm. 

Remarks: Usually hidden diurnally. 

Camouflages itself with various items such as 

rubble and detritus 

Urchins have structures called “pedicellariae.” 

Pedicellariae are constructed of several small 

spines which have become modified to 

articulate with one another and function as 

snapping jaws. Each pedicalliria is typically 

found on an elongate and extensible stalk, and 

they reach out to pinch any small animals or 

body parts, such as the adhesive tube feet of a 

predatory sea star, that threaten the sea urchin. 

Green-spined Salmacis 

Salmacis sphaeooides (Temnopleuridae) 

Distribution: Western Pacific Ocean. 

Habitat: Rock and rubble areas covered in 

algae and in seagrass beds. 

Appearance: Test diameter: 5–8 cm. Bears 

short, sharp spines, either maroon or green, or 

with bands of one of these colors. 

Diet: A mostly nocturnal feeder on seagrass 

fronds, seaweed and other algae, detritus. 


separate; sperm and eggs released 

synchronously. 

Remarks: A tank cleaner, this engaging urchin 

helps control algal growth. 

This urchin uses the spade-shaped tube feet 

on its underside to move over the substrate 

seeking food. The much longer tube feet on its 

aboral side are often used to pick up scraps of 

wood, shells, and other debris and hold them 

firmly on its surface, probably a camouflage 

strategy. 

Red Sea Urchin 

Strongylocentrotus franciscanus 

(Strongylocentrotidae) 

Distribution: N. Japan and Alaska to Isla Cedros, 


Habitat: Very low intertidal on open, coastal 

rocky substrates; more abundant subtidally to


90 m deep. Juveniles often shelter among the 

rigid outer spines of adults. 

Appearance: Large red, red-brown or purple 

test to 10 cm or more diameter; primary spines 

5 cm or more in length. 

Diet: Herbivorous upon red and brown algae; 

preference is for the giant brown kelp Macrocystis. 


the spring. Free-swimming larval period lasts 

62–131 days. 

Mortality/Longevity: A favored treat of sea otters. 

Red sea urchins can live at least 20 years. 

Conservation status: Gonad trade may be affecting 

some populations. 

Remarks: Raw gonads (uni) are considered 

gastronomic delicacies by some people. 

Removal of sea urchins promotes growth of 

kelp and thus improves habitat for many other 

species, including rockfish juveniles. 

Purple Sea Urchin 

Strongylocentrotus purpuratus 

(Strongylocentrotidae) 

Distribution: Vancouver Island, Canada south 

to Isla Cedros, Baja California. 

Habitat: Rounded burrows in rock that have 

been scoured out by the present or previous 

urchin using its teeth (Aristotle’s lantern) and 

spines, a strategy that protects from predators 

and surge. 

Appearance: Test commonly 5 cm in diameter, 

rarely to 10 cm. Test and spines green 

to purple. 

Diet: Brown and red algae. These urchins prefer 

the giant brown kelp Macrocystis. 

Reproduction and Development: Sexually 

mature during their second year. Sexes are 

separate, although hermaphrodites occur. 

Most spawning occurs from January to March. 

Pluteus larvae hatch, drift and settle. Growth 

after metamorphosis is slow. 


such as the sunflower star and cancer crab 

species as well as fish such as the California 

sheephead and shorebirds. Can live to more 

than 30 years. 

Remarks: Purple pigments from this urchin 

lodge in the bones and teeth of sea otters, 

turning the otter’s skeleton and teeth purple. 

Eccentric Sand Dollar aka Western Sand 

Dollar 

Dendraster excentricus (Dendrasteridae) 

Distribution: Southeastern Alaska to Baja 

California. 

Habitat: Subtidal to low intertidal zone on 

sandy or sandy/muddy substrates, subtidal 

to 40 m (rarely to 90 m). 

Appearance: Both scientific and common 

names come from the fact that the star design 

is off center and somewhat lopsided, a pattern 

most notable on an exposed test. The body 

of the living sand dollar is covered with tiny, 

closely packed purple spines. May grow to 7.5 


Diet: Feeds on detritus, diatoms, and plankton 

such as crab larvae and amphipods, captured 

by mucous-covered spines and pincers 

(pedicellariae). Particles and mucus are then 

moved along groves to the mouth in the center 

of the lower surface by cilia that cover the 

spines. Specialized tube feet also aid in feeding 

and gas exchange. 


separate; females may produce over 350,000 

eggs per year; spawning spring to summer. 

Planktonic larvae that travel considerable 

distances with currents settle within or near 

an existing sand dollar bed, usually not near 

the parent group. 

Mortality/Longevity: The pink sea star 

(Pisaster brevispinus), starry flounders, and 

California sheephead feed on this species. Sand 

dollars often bury themselves in the sand to 

escape predators. Can live 6–10 years. 

Remarks: This species and other sand dollars 

may live in concentrated fields with up to 625 

animals per m 2 . . 

In calm water, eccentric sand dollars burrow 

into the sand at an angle to catch nutrients. In 

rougher water, they lie flat at the surface of the 

sand or partly buried. 

Tests of individuals living in colder waters and 

more turbulent environments tend to have 

thicker shells and internal buttressing. 

Unlike sea stars that use tube feet for 

locomotion, sand dollars use their spines. 

Young sand dollars ingest large sand grains 

that act like a diver’s weight belt to help them 

maintain position.

CLASS HOLOTHUROIDEA 

(SEA CUCUMBERS) 

Yellow Sea Cucumber 

Colochirus robustus (Cucumariidae) 

Distribution: Indo-Pacific area, including 

Indonesia and Philippines. 

Habitat: It lives with its ventral surface in 

contact with or buried in the sandy or rocky 

substrate. 

Appearance: A soft-bodied, bright yellow, 7 cm 

elongated echinoderm with tube feet that cling 

to the substrate. Like all echinoderms, it has 

pentameral (five-rayed) symmetry. Five rows 

of tube feet run from the mouth along the body. 

Diet: A suspension feeder; on phytoplankton 

and zooplankton; specialized mucouscovered 

tube feet surround the mouth and 

capture phytoplankton and zooplankton. 

The animal then brings each foot to its mouth 

systematically, essentially “licking its fingers.” 

While other sea cucumbers are considered a 

“sea floor janitors” because they “sweep” the 

sand of food, the yellow is, by contrast, a filter 

feeder. 

Reproduction and Development: It spawns 

annually in spring or summer. Its development 

is either direct (lacks a larval stage) or 

indirect (with a larval stage that undergoes a 

metamorphic transition into a juvenile). 

Mortality/Longevity: 5 to 10 years. 

Remarks: An ability to release toxins keeps 

away some predators. 

The yellow sea cucumber is used in Chinese 

and other Asian cuisines, most often as an 

ingredient in soups or stews. 

Several countries have imposed fishing 

restrictions and have developed management 

programs in the harvesting of these sea 

creatures. 

Philippine Sea Apple 

Pseudocolochirus violaceus (Cucumariidae) 

Distribution: Indian and west Pacific oceans; 

India, Philippines and northern Australia. 

Habitat: Relatively shallow reef flats. 

Appearance: To 18 cm. Body and tentacles 

can be various colors (violet, blue, red, yellow, 

white) yet it always has yellow-red tube feet. 

The most common body color is dark inky blue; 

the tentacles are usually white. 


91 

Diet: Filter feeds on plankton by extending 

its oral tentacles into the current; as food is 

trapped, it draws the tentacle into its mouth. 


separate, fertilization external. 

Mortality/Longevity: To 35 years. 

Remarks: Venomous and considered to be 

among the most toxic sea cucumbers in the 

world: about 1 g of tissue from any of these 

particularly toxic species could poison the fish 

in a 95-liter tank. Toxins are released when the 

animal is stressed or dies. 

Creeping Pedal Sea Cucumber 

Psolus chitinoides (Psolidae) 

Distribution: North American Pacific coast 

from the Aleutian Islands south to central Baja 

California. 

Habitat: Abundant in deeper water up to 245 m 

on hard surfaces swept by currents. Somewhat 

common in shallow subtidal areas preferring 

clean, vertical rocks that are free of sediment. 

Appearance: Beautifully colored bright orange, 

oval in shape with 8–10 vividly colored red 

branched tentacles extending out of the domed 

dorsal surface. Upper body is covered with 

large overlapping calcareous plates. Ventrally 

the sole is flat and flexible with tube feet 

extending around the perimeter and under the 

length of the body, which are used to attach 

firmly to the substrate. The mouth and anus are 

located at opposite ends of the dorsal surface. 

Typical size: 12 cm long/ 7.5 cm wide. 

Diet: A suspension feeder, trapping particles of 

food from currents with its tentacles. Feeding 

occurs by extending the tentacles, bending 

them inward to form a cage-like structure; 

the mouth and lips extend toward the food as 

the nearest tentacle pushes the food into the 

mouth. 


separate with spawning occurring annually 

from mid-March to late May. Males disperse 

sperm into the water column and fertilize the 

eggs by waving a tentacle across the gonopore 

of the females. Females release long strands 

of red eggs. The fertilized eggs develop into 

larvae nourished by stored lipids until the 

juvenile stage when they settle on the substrate. 

Mortality/Longevity: Preyed upon by several 

species of sea stars, especially the leather sea


star (Demasterias imbricata), some fish, and red 

rock crabs. 

Remarks: Looking more like a cross between 

a chiton and a nudibranch, the creeping pedal 

sea cucumber looks nothing like the typical 

cigar-shaped sea cucumber. 

Uses toxic chemicals to discourage predators 

from preying on its tentacles. 

California Sea Cucumber 

Parastichopus californicus (Stichopodidae) 

Distribution: British Columbia, Canada to Isla 

Cedro, Baja California. 

Habitat: Low intertidal in areas protected from 

strong wave action; also on pilings in open 

bays, and subtidally to 90 m deep. 

Appearance: California’s largest sea cucumber 

is 25–40 cm long; dark red, brown or yellow. 

Diet: Deposit feeder; organic detritus and small 

organisms ingested in bottom sediments. 

Reproduction and Development: Breeding 

occurs during the summer. Development is 

indirect; fertilized eggs develop into several 

different larval forms before settling. 

Mortality/Longevity: Eaten by sea stars 

including the sunflower star. Sea otters and 

humans are also predators. 

Warty Sea Cucumber 

Parastichopus parvimensis (Stichopodidae) 

Distribution: Monterey Bay to Baja California. 

Habitat: Sandy or muddy-sandy soft bottoms 

between rocks or in eelgrass beds, subtidal to 

27 m depth. 

Appearance: Length to 25 cm. Colored brown 

above, lighter below. Conical black-tipped 

papillae on the dorsal side provide the common 

name. 

Diet: Digests organic detritus and small 

organisms in soft sediments. 

Remarks: Sea cucumbers breathe through 

special “respiratory trees” that branch 

internally from the anus. Rhythmic muscle 

contraction and relaxation forces water out, 

then brings oxygenated water in 

Certain species of pea crabs and scale worms 

live as commensals within the respiratory 

tree of our local cukes, taking advantage of a 

protected space and small particles of food also 

delivered by water exchange. 

PHYLUM CHORDATA. 

SUBPHYLUM VERTEBRATA 

(VERTEBRATES) 

CLASS ELASMOBRANCHII 

(CARTILAGINOUS FISHES: 

SKATES, RAYS AND SHARKS) 

ORDER HETERODONTIFORMES 

(BULLHEAD SHARKS) 

California Horn Shark 

Heterodontus francisci (Heterodontidae) 

Bullhead and Horn Sharks 

Distribution: Monterey Bay, California to the 

Gulf of California. 

Habitat: Solitary bottom dweller from intertidal 

to 150 m deep. Inhabits rocky bottoms, kelp 

forests, sandy draws between rocks, sand 

flats, deep crevices and small caves as well as 

large underwater caverns. Active nocturnally. 

Sluggish during the day, often rests among rocks 

with its head in a crevice. Adults tend to return 

to the same resting place every day. 

Appearance: Horn sharks have a short blunt 

head with high ridges above the eyes and two 

dorsal fins, each with a strong spine at the 

origin. Color is light to dark brown above, with 

small, scattered dark spots on the body and 

fins. Spots may be faded or absent on adults. 

Length to 1.2 m. 

Diet: Nocturnal predator of benthic invertebrates, 

especially sea urchins, crabs and probably 

abalone, also fishes. Horned sharks have 2 

different types of teeth (heterodontus = “different 

teeth”); front teeth have sharp cusps for seizing 

prey, rear teeth are molariform for crushing 

crab shells. Juveniles may eat worms, and have 

been observed eating club-tipped anemones 

(Corynactis californica). One author noted that 

the horn shark’s predilection for red sea urchins 

may result in the shark’s teeth being stained a 

reddish brown. 


sharks, fertilization is internal. The male horn 

shark holds the female by grasping one of her 

pectoral fins with his mouth and then maneuvers 

his tail around her so he can insert one 

of his pair of claspers. Horned sharks mate

during December and January; egg cases are 

laid from February to April. The large (length 

12 cm) brown egg case is screw-shaped with 

a broad flange spirally twisted around it. 

Egg cases are scattered among rocks and in 

crevices. The pup emerges 7–9 months later 

as a miniature (16 cm) shark. 

Mortality/Longevity: Long-lived, up to 25 

years. 

Conservation Status: Not on IUCN Red List. 

Commercial catch is used to produce fish meal; 

fin spines used in production of jewelry. 

Remarks: Can clamber on substrate with 

flexible pectoral and pelvic fins. 

Horn sharks typically spend daylight hours in 

one spot, usually a cave or crevice. True to their 

nocturnal habit, our specimens are often out of 

view during Aquarium hours. 

ORDER CARCHARINIFORMES 

(GROUND SHARKS) 

Swell Shark 

Cephaloscyllium ventriosum (Scyliorhinidae) 

Catsharks 

Distribution: Central California to southern 

Mexico; also reported near central Chile. 

Habitat: Rocky reefs and kelp forests, from 

surface to 460 m, in temperate and subtropical 

waters. 

Appearance: Stout body with flat, broad head; 

snout short; mouth huge, proportionally 

larger that the great white shark (Carcharodon 

carcharias). 

Diet: Active at night; feeds on crustaceans and 

fishes, often blacksmith. Lie-in-wait predator 

that sits on the bottom with wide-open mouth, 

ready to ambush unsuspecting prey. 


lays amber-colored egg cases that hatch in 

8–10 months. Young have enlarged toothlike 

denticles on the back that help them break 

through egg cases. 

Mortality/Longevity: Embryos may be eaten 

by snails that bore through egg cases. 

Conservation Status: Numbers declining 

along the California coast, perhaps due to 

changes in sea temperature. 

Remarks: Hides in caves and crevices during 

the day, and so is often not to be seen during 


93 

normal aquarium hours. 

Common and specific (ventriosum = “large belly”) 

names come from its ability to take in water that 

makes it appear up to twice as large as its normal 

size, a difficult meal for predators to bite or to 

remove from a crevice. If caught and brought to 

the surface, it can swell its body with air. 

Leopard Shark 

Triakis semifasciata (Triakidae) 

Houndsharks 

Distribution: Oregon state to Baja California 

and northern Gulf of California. 

Habitat: Prefers sandy and rock-strewn substrate 

near rocky reefs. Most commonly in 

enclosed muddy bays, including estuaries and 

lagoons, typically at less than 3.7 m depth, but 

ranges to 91 m. 

Appearance: Grayish with bronze tinge above, 

white below. Broad black bars, saddles and 

spots on dorsal surface; saddles solid in young, 

with light centers in adults. Adults have more 

spots. Males to 2 m; females slightly larger. 

Diet: Fishes (especially northern midshipman, 

sanddab, shiner perch, bat rays and smoothhounds), 

siphons of clams, crustaceans such as 

crabs and shrimp. Feeds heavily on fish eggs 

(herring, jacksmelt and topsmelt) attached to 

rocks and plants. 

Reproduction and Development: Ovoviviparous. 

Litters 4–29. Young average 21 cm at birth. 

Mortality/Longevity: Can live to at least 30 

years. Part of the commercial shark fishery and 

very popular as a sport “fish.” Preyed upon by 

other sharks. 

Conservation Status: This mid-sized coastal 

shark is fairly common in bays and estuaries 

of the eastern North Pacific from California to 

the northern Gulf of California, Mexico. 

Remarks: Often in schools with other houndsharks 

Nomadic; schools may visit an area 

briefly, then depart. 

Most research on this species has been conducted 

in the SF Bay; thus there is a tie-in with 

the Academy’s Bay2K project. 

In SF Bay, leopard sharks tend to remain in the 

Bay throughout the year, with some emigration 

during fall and winter. 

Fossils of leopard sharks have been discovered 

in deposits dated to more than 1,000,000 years 

old in southern California.


Blacktip Reef Shark 

Carcharhinus melanopterus (Carcharhinidae) 

Requiem Sharks 

Distribution: Subtropical from Red Sea and East 

Africa to the Hawaiian Islands and the Tuamoto 

Archipelago. Also enters the Mediterranean from 

the Red Sea (via the Suez Canal). 

Habitat: Prefers inshore coral reefs and 

the intertidal zone. Has been observed in 

mangrove areas and fresh water, traveling in 

and out with the tide. 

Appearance: Up to 2 m long and weight up 

to 13.6 kg. All fins tipped with black, the large 

dorsal fin with a white band beneath the black 

tip, conspicuous white bands along flanks, 

sometimes edged with black. Otherwise, 

yellowish-tan above, white below. 

Diet: Mostly bony fish and cephalopods, also 

other mollusks, shrimp. 

Reproduction and Development: Viviparous, 

incubate young for up to 16 months, 3– 4 pups 

per litter. In a fashion not uncommon in sharks, 

the male takes the female’s pectoral fin in his 

teeth and the two mate belly to belly. 

Mortality/Longevity: Preyed upon by other 

sharks as well as large groupers. Average 

lifespan c. 12 years. 

Conservation Status: Listed as Near Threatened 

by the IUCN, due to small litter size and long 

gestation period. 

Remarks: Often hunt in packs, driving prey 

into a tight ball and then attacking the ball 

in a feeding frenzy, even leaping out of the 

water. Its distinctive appearance and active 

swimming habit make it a favorite specimen 

for aquariums. It has been known to bite people 

wading in shallow water and is aggressive 

towards spear fishers. 

When foraging, may enter water so shallow that 

both back and fins are exposed, a potentially 

shocking sight to a wader. 

Fortunately, there are very few reports of black 

tips biting humans. Rare occurrences are most 

likely a case of mistaken identity on the part of a 

normally shy but easily frightened shark species. 

Nearly all shark species are under heavy 

pressure from an ever-more efficient fishing 

industry. Blacktip populations are declining: 

the flesh is eaten, the liver is prized for yielding 

a valuable oil, and the fins are used for sharkfin 

soup, especially in the Far East. 

ORDER RAJIFORMES 

(SKATES AND RAYS) 

Bowmouth Guitarfish 

Rhina ancylostoma (Rhinobatidae) 

Guitarfishes 

Distribution: Indo-West Pacific: Red Sea and 

East Africa to Papua, New Guinea, north to 

Japan, south to New South Wales, Australia. 

Habitat: Sand and mud bottoms in coastal 

areas, coral reefs close inshore. Sometimes 

found in the water column. Found at depths 

from 3–90 m. 

Appearance: Length to 2.7 m, weight to 135 kg. 

Broad, rounded snout, clearly demarcated from 

the pectoral fin. Long tail. Gray or brownish 

above, white below, white spots dorsally on fins, 

body and tail, black spots on head and shoulders. 

No venomous sting. Heavily ridged crushing 

teeth. A large row of spines along the head, nape 

and shoulders is a distinctive characteristic. 

Reproduction and development: Ovoviviparous. 

Diet: Primarily bottom-dwelling crustaceans 

and mollusks. 

Conservation Status: Vulnerable; not common, 

population declining due to overfishing and 

heavy pressure on habitat. A low reproductive 

rate exacerbates its vulnerability. 

Remarks: Although classified as a ray, 

guitarfish do not have their pectoral fins fused 

to their head as do other rays. In appearance 

they look like a cross between a ray and a shark 

and are often known as shovelnose sharks. In 

most rays the caudal fins are separate from the 

tail, but in guitarfish, again like sharks, the tail 

is the caudal fin, though lacks a lower lobe. 

They are caught for the Asian food market and 

their pectoral fins are highly valued. When 

caught in a net they are very difficult to handle 

and can cause severe damage to other fish 

caught at the same time. 

The use for the spines is unknown; they may 

be used for butting. 

Big Skate 

Raja binoculata (Rajidae) 

Skates 

Distribution: Bering Sea and southeastern 

Alaska to central Baja California. 

Habitat: Bottom dwellers on soft substrates, 

usually from shallow water to 300 m. Found

along the coast in estuaries, bays, and over the 

continental shelf. 

Appearance: Flat, diamond-shaped body with 

long, pointed snout; lacks the prominent notch 

on the rear edge of their pectoral fins common 

to all other Pacific Coast skates. Color: ranges 

from brown, gray, olive, and muddy black. 

Large eyespots, one on each upper pectoral fin, 

as well as bright dots and mottlings. Average 

length: 1.3 m; largest known: 2.4 m. 

Diet: Benthic shrimps, worms, clams, some 

fishes. 

Reproduction and Development: Oviparous. 

Lays distinctively large (up to 30 cm) egg 

capsules in pairs on substrate; sometimes on 

display in the sand dollar exhibit. Capsules 

contain up to 8 embryos. Eggs hatch in about 

9 months and produce a small, but perfectly 

formed skate. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: c. 15 years. 

Conservation Status: Because they attain 

sexual maturity late and produce fewer 

offspring that most fishes, sharks, skates, and 

rays are especially vulnerable to overfishing. 

Remarks: Usually seen hiding motionless, 

buried in sediments, with only the eyes 

protruding. 

Like all skates, swimming occurs by the 

undulations of the pectoral fins. 

A small fishery for this species exists in California; 

its smaller “cousin” species are even more 

popular as the source of the skate “wings” (the 

pectoral fins) served in fine restaurants. 

Bluespotted Stingray 

Dasyatis kuhlii (Dasyatidae) 

Whiptail Stingrays 

Distribution: Throughout the tropical Indo- 

West Pacific from the Red Sea east to the 

Philippines, Japan, and south to Australia. 

Habitat: Sandy bottoms near coral and rocky 

reefs, from intertidal zone to 50 m. Moves onto 

reef flats and into shallow lagoon waters at 

high tide. 

Appearance: Angular disc. Dorsal color 

reddish-brown to olive drab with blue spots 

and smaller black spots, ventral side white. Tail 

with black and white bands is about as long as 

the body and usually has one stinging spine. 

Maximum disc width: 50 cm. 

Diet: Crabs and shrimp, also small fishes. 


95 


Ovoviviparous; eggs retained in the female’s 

body; embryos receive nourishment from a 

yolk sac. 

Mortality/Longevity: Killer whales are known 

predators; probably also taken by other marine 

mammals and sharks. 

Remarks: Venomous tail can deliver a painful 

wound. Like many other rays that wound 

humans, it most often stings only when 

inadvertently stepped on: it is difficult to see 

in turbid waters, especially when covered by 

sand with only the eyes visible. 

Caught commercially, but its meat is of limited 

value due to its small size. 

Javanese Cownose Ray 

Rhinoptera javanica (Myliobatidae) 

Eagle, Cownose and Manta Rays 

Distribution: Tropical, Indo-West Pacific from 

South Africa north to India and possibly Thailand, 

Indonesia and southern China. Also in Okinawa, 

Ryukyu Islands and possibly Australia. 

Habitat: Tropical bays, estuaries, among 

mangroves, and near coral reefs over sand 

and mud bottoms. Can tolerate brackish water. 

Description: Bat-like, swept back pectoral fins. 

Double-lobed snout and indented forehead. 

Long, slender tail. Brown above, white below. 

Width up to 1.5 m, weight up to 45 kg. 

Diet: Feeds on clams, oysters and crustaceans. 

The ray sucks in sand and expels it out of its 

gills, blowing off sand covering its prey. 

Reproduction and Development: Ovoviviparous, 

1–2 pups per litter. Females have been 

known to leap out of the water and slam into the 

surface; this action seems to be an aid in birthing. 

Conservation Status: IUCN listed: Vulnerable. 

A declining population is inferred from the 

unregulated nature of inshore fisheries as well 

as small litter size. 

Remarks: The stinger is located at base of the tail 

rather than half way or more down the tail as in 

the whiptail rays. Does well in captivity and has 

been known to survive for 2 years. Like its pelagic 

relatives the manta and devil rays, it swims by 

flapping its pectoral fins like wings, enabling 

it to swim at greater speeds than most bottomdwelling 

stingrays. Sometimes these “wings” 

protrude above the water, bearing a frightening 

resemblance to a shark.


Ocellated Freshwater Stingray 

Potamotrygon motoro (Potamotrygonidae) 

River stingrays 

Distribution: South America: Uruguay, Paraná- 

Paraguay, Orinoco, and Amazon Basins. 

Habitat: Freshwater, able to tolerate only a 

narrow range of salinities. 

Appearance: Length to 1 m, weight to 15 kg. 

Body greatly flattened and circular, composed 

principally of expanded pectoral fins. Tail is 

slender and longer than body with venomous 

spine. Ventral color muddy brown inset with 

darker brown circular markings. 

Diet: Mostly benthic hard-shelled invertebrates, 

such as clams, mussels, and crustaceans. 

Also worms, insect larvae, and small fishes. 

Like most rays, flat teeth are used to grip 

and crush prey that is sucked into the ventral 

mouth. Like all river stingrays, it has exceptionally 

good eyesight and its jelly-filled sensory 

pores (Ampullae of Lorenzini) detect prey buried 

in the substrate or hidden in murky water. 

Reproduction and Development: Sexes separate. 

Fertilization internal. Livebearers. 

Conservation Status: IUCN Data deficient. This 

brackish water ray is poorly known and life history 

and population data are lacking. Further 

studies and a new assessment in the near future 

have been highly recommended, due to the 

limited geographic range and the major impacts 

affecting river habitat of this species. 

Remarks: River Stingrays (Family Potamotrygonidae) 

spend much of the time buried in 

sand or mud with only their relatively large 

eyes protruding. 

This family is the only group of rays adapted 

exclusively to freshwater and is found only in 

Neotropical river basins. 

Potent venomous spine, used defensively, 

makes this a dangerous species. Like all 

stingrays, sheds spine periodically as the 

individual grows. 

White-blotched River Stingray 

River Stingrays 

Potamotrygon leopoldi (Potamotrygonidae) 

Distribution: South America: Tocantins River 

basin. 

Habitat: Freshwater, able to tolerate only a 

narrow range of salinities. 

Appearance: Width to 45 cm. Body greatly 

flattened and circular, composed principally 

of expanded pectoral fins. Tail is slender and 

longer than body, has venomous spine. Color 

black, white polka dots. 

Diet: See Ocellated Freshwater Ray above. 


Like all in the family, fetuses developing in 

the mother’s uterus first feed on their yolk sacs, 

after which filaments develop from the uterine 

wall and carry nutrients and remove wastes from 

the fetuses until they are fully developed. 

Conservation Status: A rare, poorly known 

river ray, possibly endemic to river drainages in 

Brazil where freshwater habitat degradation is 

occurring. Although this attractive freshwater 

ray enters the ornamental fish trade, life history 

and population data are lacking. Further study 

and a new assessment in the near future is 

highly recommended for this species. 

Smooth Back River Stingray 

Potamotrygon orbignyi (Potamotrygonidae) 

River Stingrays 

Distribution: Amazon and Orinoco basins; 

rivers of Guyana. 

Habitat: Riverine sandy substrate into which 

they burrow. 

Appearance: Mottled, grayish-brown, smooth 

skinned; rough, flat teeth; At maturity, this 

species can reach one meter in overall length. 

Diet: Crustaceans, isopods, insects and their 

larvae. 


as in all elasmobranchs, sperm transferred 

by clasper to female for egg fertilization. 

Copulate in rainy season; young are born in 

next rainy season. 

Remarks: Shed and regenerate stings regularly. 

CLASS ACTINOPTERYGII 

(RAY-FINNED OR BONY FISHES) 

ORDER ACIPENSERIFORMES 

(STURGEONS) 

Pallid Sturgeon 

Scaphirhynchus albus (Acipenseridae) 

Sturgeons 

Distribution: Missouri and Mississippi

Rivers and their large tributaries, especially 

the Kansas River, from Montana to the Gulf 

of Mexico. 

Habitat: Bottom dwellers in turbid, deep, fast 

flowing rivers over sand and gravel bars. 

Appearance: Shark-like with heterocercal tale 

and scutes instead of scales; gray above, white 

below. Flat, upturned head. Four long barbels. 

One of the rarest and largest freshwater fishes 

in North America; length to over 2 m, weight 

over 75 lbs. 

Diet: Mollusks, insects, and small fishes. The 

pallid sturgeon is a bottom feeder. In addition 

to taste buds on the tips of the barbels it has 

sensory organs on the ventral surface of the 

snout that pick up electrical fields emanating 

from prey. The sturgeon stirs up the muck 

with its snout, then the mouth, which is folded 

in like a telescope, shoots out to suck up prey. 

Reproduction and Development: In the wild, 

fertilization is external; eggs scattered and not 

guarded. However, natural reproduction is 

almost non-existent. Since 1990 over 150,000 

pallid sturgeon have been raised in hatcheries 

and released. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: up to 50 years 

or more. 

Conservation Status: ESA, federally listed 1990: 

Endangered. Not enough is known about the 

biology of this fish to determine exactly why 

it has almost disappeared, but destruction of 

habitat, alterations in its forage base, pollution 

and overfishing for both meat and eggs (caviar) 

are contributing factors. Additionally, the high 

water of spring seems to trigger mating but now 

river flows are so controlled by dams, especially 

along the Missouri, that this stimulus has mostly 

disappeared. Federal and state hatcheries are 

working to improve spawning techniques and 

habitat. 

Our juvenile pallids came from Gavin’s 

Point National Fish Hatchery in Montana. 

The Steinhart is permitted to display these 

endangered species as long as an educational 

message is presented about their distribution, 

endangered status, and threats facing them. 

Remarks: Pallid and shovelnose sturgeon are 

known to hybridize, another potential threat to 

the pallid’s survival in the southern portion of 

its range where shovelnose sturgeon dominate. 

Often referred to as the “Dinosaur of the 


97 

Missouri,” the pallid sturgeon is known from 

70 million years ago and at one time was the 

top freshwater carnivore. 

Like all sturgeon, has a cartilaginous skeleton. 

Shovelnose Sturgeon 

Scaphirhynchus platorynchus (Acipenseridae) 

Sturgeons 

Distribution: Ohio, Mississippi, Missouri rivers; 

Mobile Bay drainage, Alabama; Rio Grande 

in Texas and New Mexico. 

Habitat: Bottom of channels of large, turbid 

rivers with moderate current over firm sand or 

gravel mixed with mud. Also in embayments. 

Appearance: Length to 1 m, weight to 4.8 kg. 

Snout shovel-shaped. Elongate, bony plates 

sharply keeled. Olive to yellowish-brown above, 

sides lighter, white below. Tail heterocercal; skeleton 

cartilaginous. 

Diet: A bottom feeder. Primarily eats aquatic 

insect larvae; also feeds on crustaceans, worms, 

and small fish. 

Reproduction and Development: Sturgeon 

typically migrate from feeding grounds to particular 

breeding grounds in large rivers during 

spawning season. Fertilization external. Spawn 

over gravel in fairly swift water. Non-guarders. 

Eggs hatch and larvae drift down stream to 

suitable areas. 

Mortality/Longevity: Likely very long-lived; 

data lacking. 

Conservation Status: IUCN listing: Vulnerable. 

Species of concern (USFWS). 

Today this sturgeon’s roe has become 

commercially important as imported sources 

far less available Also, poaching is a problem 

as the species is not sexually mature until about 

8–10 years old, and females reproduce only 

once every 3 years or so. 

Remarks: As with many riverine fish species, 

the shovelnose sturgeon does not have a 

restricted home range and may travel long 

distances. 

Was once an important game and commercial 

fish. Sturgeon flesh, especially smoked, is 

considered a delicacy by many. 

Mississippi Paddlefish 

Polyodon spathula (Polyodontidae) 

Paddlefishes 

Distribution: Rivers of central United States,


especially Mississippi River and its tributaries. 

Habitat: Prefers deep pools in large rivers where 

the current is slow; is highly mobile and has been 

known to travel more than 2,000 miles. 

Appearance: Grey above, white below. Extended 

upper jaw (rostrum) flattened into paddleshape, 

accounts for 1/3 of total body length. Fins 

stiffer than those of teleost fishes. Heterocercal 

tail. Skeleton cartilaginous, skin tough, scales 

lacking. Max length 221 cm; max weight 90.7 

kg, average weight considerably less. 


swims upriver to spawn, lays 2 eggs at a time. 

Egg cases rounded. Eggs hatch in 7 days; young 

are swept downstream to permanent home. 

Diet: Zooplankton, the majority being water 

fleas; also tiny crustaceans and larvae. 

Predators: Only man. 

Conservation Status: IUCN: Vulnerable. 

Threatened by overfishing throughout much of 

its range, particularly for its eggs since the ban 

on imported caviar. Dams prevent fish from 

reaching spawning grounds, sedimentation 

and river modifications destroy habitat. 

Remarks: To feed, the fish swims with its huge 

mouth wide open. As the water passes over its 

gills food is filtered out by special filaments 

called gill rakers. 

What is the paddle used for? Its broad, 

flat shape acts as a rudder keeping the fish 

stabilized and provides lift as the animal 

moves slowly through the water filtering out 

its planktonic diet. 

Also, the paddle is covered with pores that 

extend over the head and along the gill covers. 

These pores are electroreceptors capable of 

detecting as little as 1/100 of 1-millionth 

volt per cm, enough to sense the presence of 

plankton, a valuable tool especially as vision, 

hearing and smell are poor. 

ORDER LEPISOSTEIFORMES 

(GARS) 

Alligator Gar 

Atractosteus spatula (Lepisosteidae) 

Gars 

Distribution: Rivers draining to the Gulf of 

Mexico. 

Habitat: Freshwater streams and rivers. Also 

found in brackish water. 

Appearance: Alligator-like. Large size and 

broad, short, wide, blunt snout. Light dorsal 

stripe. Dark olivaceous brown above and white 

to yellowish beneath. Dark brown blotches 

on all fins. Body is covered with armor-like 

ganoid scales, diamond-shaped, interlocking, 

and extremely hard. Head protected by bony 

plates. Conspicuous teeth. Length to more than 

3 m, weight to 137 kg. 

Diet: Depending on which source you consult, 

alligator gars are either passive, superb 

lie-in-wait predators or aggressive voracious 

carnivores of fish, notorious for destroying 

fishnets and gulping their contents. They are 

all of the above! Adult gars feed primarily on 

fish, but have been found also to consume blue 

crabs, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and small 

mammals. Also known to scavenge. 

Reproduction: Eggs laid on aquatic vegetation, 

to which they adhere. Young cling to the 

stems with an adhesive disc on their head until 

yolk sac is absorbed, and then swim actively. 

Juveniles feed on plankton, invertebrates, amphibians, 

and fish before transitioning to fish 

almost exclusively. 

Mortality/Longevity: Females generally larger 

and longer lived than males. Some may live to 

50 years or more in the wild, 80 years in captivity. 

Our oldest gars are 60. 


Pollution and degradation of habitat threaten 

this species. 

Remarks: One of the largest freshwater fish in 

North America. 

Alligator gars have two rows of teeth, a longer 

one on the palate, and an outer row in the jaw, 

enabling them to pierce and hold prey. Take a 

look when one of these big fish “yawn.” 

Gars also have a highly vascularized swim 

bladder that enables them to breathe in air, an 

adaptation to life in water with low oxygen 

levels. 

Fished intensively by professional and sports 

fisherman and marketed as a food fish. 

Fish eggs are poisonous to humans. 

Native Americans used armor-like ganoid 

scales as arrowheads and jewelry. Early 

American farmers used the scales on the blades 

of their plows.

Spotted Gar 

Lepisosteus oculatus ( Lepisosteidae) 

Gars 

Distribution: Lake Erie and south Lake Michigan 

drainages; Mississippi River drainage from 

Illinois south to East Oklahoma, East Tennessee; 

Gulf Coast streams from West Florida to 

Central Texas. 

Habitat: Clear pools with aquatic plants in 

streams, swamps and lakes; may enter brackish 

water on the Gulf Coast. 

Appearance: Length to 1.1 m, weight to 4.4 kg. 

Body cylindrical, colored dark olive to brown 

above. All fins with dark spots; belly whitish; 

snout short. 

Diet: Voracious predator on fishes and benthic 

crustaceans. 

Reproduction and Development: Spawn during 

the spring in shallow water over vegetation. 

Like all gars, the larvae have an adhesive 

pad on their heads, by which they affix themselves 

to plants. 

Mortality/Longevity: Live to at least 18 years. 

Remarks: Minor commercial fishery. Also 

taken as a gamefish. 

Longnose Gar 

Lepisosteus osseus (Lepisosteidae) 

Gars 

Distribution: Saint Lawrence River drainage; 

freshwater systems along Atlantic coast from 

south of New Jersey to Orlando, Florida; Southern 

Great Lakes and Mississippi River system, 

south to Rio Grande in Texas. 

Habitat: Backwaters, large creeks, lakes; may 

enter brackish water; live near aquatic vegetation 

when young. 

Appearance: Length to 2 m. Weight to 22 kg. 

Snout more than twice as long as head. Body 

cylindrical; dark olive-green to brown above, 

lighter on sides with dark spots, usually on 

posterior; belly whitish. 

Diet: Voracious predators. Piscivorous; also 

feeds on crabs and other crustaceans. Catches 

prey by swinging jaws back and forth, impaling 

fish on its sharp teeth. 

Reproduction and Development: Non-guarding 

egg scatterers. Eggs demersal and adhesive. 

Eggs are protected from potential predators by 

being poisonous. 



99 

Parasitized by the sea lamprey Petromyzon 

marinus. 

Remarks: Considered a nuisance by fishermen 

because it damages gill nets and feeds on 

game fishes. The longnose gar is caught but 

rarely eaten. 

ORDER OSTEOGLOSSIFORMES 

(BONY TONGUES AND ARAPAIMAS) 

Pirarucu aka Arapaima 

Arapaima gigas (Osteoglossidae) 

Bonytongues 

Distribution: Amazon River and its tributaries. 

Habitat: Freshwater, enters flooded areas dense 

with aquatic vegetation and shore plants, avoids 

the acidic waters of the “black water” zones. 

Appearance: Length to 2.3 m, weight to 133 

kg. In the 1800s specimens 4.5 m long and 200 

kg were reported. Heavy, elongate body has 

very large scales. 

Diet: Specialized for surface feeding with their 

upturned mouths. Adults prey on fish at the 

surface; suck smaller fish into the mouth, then 

crush prey against the roof of its mouth with 

its tooth-covered bony tongue. Juveniles consume 

smaller organisms, especially shrimp. 

Like its close relative the arawana, it can leap 

from the water to snatch a bird or even a monkey 

from an overhanging branch. 

Reproduction: Spawning occurs in April 

and May in shallow lakes of flooded regions. 

Builds a nest of about 15 cm depth and 50 cm 

width in sandy bottoms. Male guards the eggs 

and the young. Once hatched, young fish follow 

their father. 

Mortality/Longevity: Preyed upon by humans. 

Conservation status: CITES Appendix II. Heavily 

exploited as a commercial fish throughout 

the Amazon. Populations have been greatly 

reduced during the past 200 years. 

Remarks: Obligate air breather, well adapted 

to oxygen-deficient waters. Gulps air into its 

gas bladder every 10–15 minutes when oxygen 

levels are low. 

Indigenous people utilize the scales and bones. 

The tongue was once used as a seed grater 

to make drink powders. Scales were used as 

scrappers. 

Often referred to as the largest freshwater fish;


some freshwater catfishes and sturgeon may 

challenge this “record.” 

One of the arapaimas is the largest fish in the 

Steinhart by length. 

Silver Arawana 

Osteoglossum bicirrhosum (Osteoglossidae) 

Bonytongues 

Distribution: Northern South America: Amazon 

River system. 

Habitat: Benthopelagic, freshwater tropical, 

24–30 °C. Especially prevalent in flooded areas 

or swamps. 

Appearance: Length to 1.2 m. Weight to 4.6 kg. 

Body covered with very big scales; dorsal and 

anal fins almost fused with the caudal fin. 2 

barbels at the extremity of the lower jaw; adult 

silvery. Juvenile with blue glints and a yelloworange 

bar. 

Diet: Feeds mainly on crustaceans, insects, 

smaller fishes, and other animals that float on 

the water, its upturned mouth an adaptation 

for surface feeding. Arawana are also excellent 

jumpers, and have been known to leap some 

2 m out of the water to pluck a surprised and 

often doomed insect or bird from overhanging 

branches. Bats and snakes have also been occasionally 

found as stomach contents. 

Reproduction and Development: External 

fertilization. Male carries eggs, larvae, and 

young juveniles in mouth for about 2 months. 

Elephant Nose 

Gnathonemus petersi (Mormyridae) 

Elephantfishes 

Distribution: African Niger and Congo River 

basins, mainly in the countries of Cameroon, 

Nigeria and Congo. 

Habitat: Turbid, muddy, bottom areas of fresh 

tropical waters; prefers areas with submerged 

wood for hiding places. 

Appearance: Blackish/brown in color with a pair 

of yellow-white vertical bands that extend from 

the back of the dorsal fin to the anal fin. Elongated, 

laterally compressed body with a round mouth 

located at eye level and an extensible lower jaw, 

hence the nickname, “Elephant Nose.” 

This snout is its most unique feature. It is not 

actually a nose, but an extension of the mouth 

that is covered in electroreceptors that capture 

information from the weak electric field the 

fish generates. Receptors, which cover much 

of the body as well, are used to navigate, 

avoid predators, and find food and mates in 

the turbid waters of its habitat. The caudal fin 

is forked. Length to c. 30 cm. 

Diet: This fish is a scavenger and uses its long 

snout to dig and find worms and insects. The 

elephantnose has poor eyesight, and depends 

on the nose’s sensory receptors to find food. 

Reproduction and Development: No external 

differences between males and females. 

Electroreceptors are also used to find a mate. 

These fish are territorial and aggressive. 

Remarks: Elephantnose fish have the largest 

brain of any fish their size with a brain size 

to body weight ratio higher than a human’s. 

They have been used by water departments 

in the U.S. and Germany to test the quality 

of drinking water. When the quality of the 

water declines, the amount of electrical pulses 

released increases. 

These fish are depicted in ancient Egyptian 

tombs dating from 2500 BC. 

ORDER ELOPIFORMES 

(TARPONS) 

Atlantic Tarpon 

Megalops atlanticus (Megalopidae) 

Tarpons 

Distribution: Nova Scotia south to Brazil, Gulf 

of Mexico, Caribbean. West coast of Africa. 

Habitat: Inhabits coastal waters, bays, estuaries, 

mangrove-lined lagoons, and rivers. Often 

found in river mouths and bays. 

Appearance: Length to 2.5 m. Weight to 160 

kg. Large, elongate, moderately deep and 

compressed body. Sides and belly silvery, back 

blue-gray. Caudal fin deeply forked. 

Diet: Sardines, anchovies, and other fishes; 

shrimp, crabs, and other crustaceans. 

Reproduction and Development: Spawn offshore. 

High fecundity, a 2.3 m female estimated 

to produce over 12 million eggs. Spawn in waters 

which can be temporarily isolated from the open 

sea. Larvae develop inshore and are leptocephalic 

in shape (flattened, tansparent, and eel-like). 

Mortality/Longevity: Individuals caught and 

released by gamefishers are subject to injury. 

Natural predators are sharks. Juveniles taken

y other fishes. Live to at least 55 years. 

Remarks: Have a habit of “rolling” at the surface. 

This behavior helps them take air into 

their lunglike swimbladder. This swim bladder, 

attached to the esophagus, can be filled 

directly with air and permits the fish to live in 

oxygen-poor waters. 

Tarpon are among the most “primitive” extant 

bony fish. 

A popular gamefish of sportfishers, due to its 

dynamic reaction once hooked. Since the flesh 

is of poor quality, they are usually released. 

Another source states “The flesh is highly appreciated 

despite its being bony.” Marketed 

fresh or salted. 

Their large (5–8 cm diameter), silvery scales 

are fashioned into jewelry. 

Pacific Tarpon 

Megalops cyprinoids (Megalopidae) 

Tarpons 

Distribution: Red Sea to Society Islands, north 

to Korea, south to SE Australia. 

Habitat: Young inhabit river mouths, lakes, 

lagoons and swampy blackwaters. 

Adults are found in inner coastal bays, mouths 

of rivers, and mangroves in marine and fresh 

waters, but generally at sea. 

Appearance: Very large, silver-sided with bluegreen 

dorsal fin and deeply forked tail. Large 

mouth with prominent lower jaw. Large scales. 

Length to 150 cm. Weight to at least 18 kg. 

Diet: Primarily a diurnal predator of fishes 

and crustaceans. 

Reproduction and Development: Breed 

offshore, perhaps all year long. Like true eels, 

undergo a leptocephalus larval stage. Unlike 

eels, the larvae have forked tails. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: at least 44 yrs. 

Conservation: Though the species is not 

rated, 2005 article in the journal Biological 

Conservation indicated that tarpon are at 

present highly vulnerable. 

Remarks: A popular sport fish, edible but not 

prized (too bony); a minor commercial fishery 

target. 

Tolerate oxygen-poor water by inhaling air into 

a lung-like air bladder. 

Systematically, this oddball species is 

considered a “primitive” teleost. 


ORDER ANGUILLIFORMES 

(EELS) 

101 

Snowflake Moray 

Echidna nebulosa (Muraenidae) 

Moray Eels 

Distribution: Red Sea and E. Africa to 

southwest Japan and Australia, east to Hawaii 

and Panama. 

Habitat: Shallow lagoons, reef flats and rocky 

shorelines in 1–18 m depth, often in open water. 

Appearance: Body whitish with pattern of 

large black blotches containing yellow spots 

and numerous small blackish spots and 

scribbly markings between. Length to 75 cm. 

Diet: Primarily crustaceans. 

Reproduction and Development: Distinctive 

leptocephalus larvae. 

Mortality/Longevity: There is a minor 

commercial fishery. 

Conservation Status: IUCN: Not Evaluated. 

A 2005 article in the journal Biological 

Conservation indicated this fish is presently 

highly vulnerable to extinction. 

Remarks: Solitary. 

Zebra Moray 

Gymnomuraena zebra (Muraenidae) 

Moray Eels 


Habitat: Sandy and rocky substrates. In reef 

crevices and beneath ledges of exposed seaward 

reef flats and seaward slopes from 2–40 m. 

Appearance: Length to 1.5 m. Easily recognized 

by its zebra striping; usually dark brown 

to black with numerous narrow white bars 

encircling head, body and fins. Snout very 

blunt. 

Diet: Primarily crabs. Also preys on other 

crustaceans, mollusks, and sea urchins. This 

species’ close-set, pebble-like teeth are used to 

crush its hard-shelled prey. 


fertilization. Eggs not guarded. Like most 

eels, morays undergo a lengthy pelagic 

leptocephalus larval stage. Are protogynous 

hermaphrodites. 

Mortality/Longevity: There is a minor 

commercial fishery, but large individuals may 

be ciguatoxic. 

Remarks: One source remarks that this moray,


like other species in its family, has a great sense 

of smell coupled with poor vision. Bottom line: 

watch your fingers and do not hand feed! 

Honeycomb Moray 

Gymnothorax favagineus (Muraenidae) 

Moray Eels 

Distribution: S. Red Sea, East. Africa to Papua 

New Guinea, and Great Barrier Reef. 

Habitat: Reef flats and outer reef slopes of 

continental reefs, 1–45 m. 

Appearance: Length reported to 3 m, thus 

one of the two largest of Indo-Pacific moray 

eels. Covered with dark spots the size of their 

eye that form a honeycomb pattern. Some 

individuals colored almost totally black. 

Diet: Predator upon cephalopods, crustaceans 

and small fishes. 

Reproduction and Development: Distinctive 

leptocephalus larvae. 

Remarks: Spots variable between individuals 

and size, often in relation to habitat: those in 

clear coral reefs usually have proportionally 

less black than those found in turbid waters. 

Often rest in crevasses with cleaner wrasses or 

cleaner shrimps. 

Whitemouth Moray 

Gymnothorax meleagris (Muraenidae) 

Morays 

Distribution: Red Sea and East Africa to 

the Marquesas and Mangaréva, north to the 

Ryukyu and Hawaiian islands, south to Lord 

Howe Island, west to Galapagos. 

Habitat: Coral-rich lagoon and outer reefs 

among rocky, boulder strewn areas and 

walls. Depth to 1–51 m. Juveniles often in the 

intertidal zone. 

Appearance: Dark brown to reddish brown 

with numerous close-set white spots. Length 

to 1.2 m. The inside of the mouth is white, thus 

the common name. 

Diet: Primarily fish, also crustaceans. 

Reproduction and Development: Like many 

true eels, has a lengthy leptocephalus larval 

stage. 

Remarks: Constantly open and close mouth, 

an action required for respiration; not a 

threatening behavior. 

When not feeding, rests in a hole or crack with 

head and forebody exposed. 

The extended larval phase has resulted in this 

species’ broad distribution. 

Hunts diurnally during low tide, and likely 

also seeks prey nocturnally. 

The comet (Calloplesiops altivelis) has a color 

pattern that mimics the whitemouth moray. 

This small fish is known to take cover in coral 

crevices when alarmed, displaying only its tail, 

which looks very much like the head of the 

moray, even including an eyespot! 

California Moray Eel 

Gymnothorax mordax (Muraenidae) 

Morays 

Distribution: Point Conception to south Baja 

California. 

Habitat: Rocky subtidal. Diurnally rests in 

crevices or holes, head usually protruding. 

Depth 6–40 m, typically 0.6–20 m. 

Appearance: Length to 1.5 m. No pectoral fins 

(all eels lack pelvic fins). Dark brown to green, 

mottled. 

Diet: Feeds nocturnally upon crustaceans, 

octopuses and fishes. Prey detected by smell. 


Waters off southern California probably too cold 

for reproduction of this species, thus recruitment 

(there) is by larvae that drift north from Baja. 30 

cm individuals about 2 years old. 

Mortality/Longevity: Live to more than 30 years. 

Remarks: Constantly open and close mouth. 

Moray eels do this to aid respiration. The behavior 

is not a threat display. 

Octopuses have a chemical in their ink that 

temporarily disables the moray’s sense of 

smell. 

Ribbon Eel 

Rhinomuraena quaesita (Muraenidae) 

Morays 

Distribution: Indo-Pacific from East Africa to 

the Tuamota Archipelago (French Polynesia). 

Habitat: Lagoons and associated reefs at 

depths up to 57 m. 

Appearance: Long thin body and high dorsal 

fins. Juveniles are black with a yellow dorsal 

fin, males are mostly blue, and females are 

mostly yellow. Length up to 130 cm. 

Diet: Mostly small fishes, some invertebrates. 

Reproduction and Development: Protandrous

hermaphrodite. As the ribbon eel grows and 

matures, it changes sex from male to female and 

its color changes from blue to yellow. This is 

the only moray known to undergo such abrupt 

changes in sex and color. 

Mortality/Longevity: May have lifespan up to 

20 years in the wild. 

Remarks: The ribbon eel buries itself in sand 

or hides in rocks or reefs, sometimes with 

head protruding, lying in wait or emerging 

to hunt for small fish. Like all morays, it rests 

with mouth open, displaying sharp teeth that 

appear ready for use. Actually, ribbon eels 

are among the least aggressive of morays, the 

gaping mouth simply aiding breathing by 

allowing oxygenated water to enter and pass 

over the gills. 

Spotted Garden Eel 

Heteroconger hassi (Congridae) 

Conger and Garden Eels 

Distribution: Indo-Pacific: Red Sea and East 

Africa to the Society Islands; tropical, between 

30 degrees N to 23 degrees S. 

Habitat: Usually found on sandy bottoms near 

a reef at depths of 7–45 m with some current. 

Appearance: Up to 40 cm in length with a body 

diameter of about 14 mm. Color is variable with 

tiny spots covering the body including three 

large black spots, two of which are usually 

visible. The third spot is on the anus, which 

is usually in the burrow. Like all members of 

the family, they lack scales. Lack pelvic fins 

and pectoral fins reduced. Males larger than 

females. 

Diet: Microscopic animals in the water column. 

Reproduction and Development: During 

mating season, males and females move their 

burrows closer together. With tails remaining 

in their burrows, they meet and entwine 

bodies. Males defend the females they have 

chosen. After mating the fertilized eggs are 

released into the current and float near the 

surface in the open ocean. The eggs hatch and 

the larvae float until the eels are large enough 

to swim down and make a burrow. 

Remarks: Garden eels are usually found in 

colonies containing up to several hundred, 

even thousands of individuals. 

The garden eel drives its pointy tail into the 

sand to create a burrow. The skeletal features 


103 

of the tail have been reduced and fortified 

to create a firm, pointed burrowing tool. 

Movement of the dorsal fin ejects sand and 

secretions from the skin harden and stabilize 

burrow sides. 

Part of the eel’s body remains in the burrow 

as it faces the current to feed., using its large 

eyes to find tiny animals floating by. When 

approached, the animal withdraws quickly 

into its burrow for protection. Anyone popping 

up in our “pop-up” should experience this 

reaction. 

Garden eels, because they do not take bait from 

hooks and were not netted because they rarely 

leave their burrows, were discovered only with 

the advent of SCUBA. 

ORDER CLUPEIFORMES 

Pacific Herring 

Clupea pallasii (Clupeidae) 

Herrings, Shads, Sardines, Menhadens 

Distribution: Found along the Pacific coast 

of North America and northeast Asia. Most 

common along the California coast from Baja 

California north to Alaska and the Bering Sea. 

Habitat: Typically a coastal, schooling species, 

found at depths from the surface to 250 m at 

various times of the year. 

Appearance: Dark blue to olive above, silvery 

below. Pacific herring look similar to Pacific 

sardines, but lack the dark spots usually seen 

on the sides of sardines. 

Diet: Juveniles: mainly crustaceans, but also 

decapod and mollusk larvae; adults: larger 

crustaceans and small fishes. 

Reproduction and Development: Move 

nearshore into bays and estuaries to spawn in 

large aggregations. San Francisco, Richardson, 

and Tomales Bays are among important local 

spawning areas, most often between January 

and February. Sticky eggs are attached to 

marine plants, rocks, or pilings, usually in rows 

1–2 eggs deep. However, spawning can be so 

intense that egg masses may be as thick as 5 

cm. Young stay in shallow waters until the next 

fall, when they head to sea. 

Mortality/Longevity: Important prey for 

many other fish species, seabirds, and marine 

mammals, especially during spring spawning 

aggregations. Eggs are consumed by benthic


animals and seabirds. Larvae and juveniles 

also an important key to the marine food web. 

Maximum reported age: 19 years, Alaska. 

California populations typically to 11 years. 

Conservation Status: Though the herring 

fishery has collapsed in various areas during 

the past 75 years, the species is not listed by 

the ESA or IUCN. 

Remarks: An extremely important commercial 

fish. Pacific herring is smoked, dried, and 

canned, as well as used to produce oil and 

meal. The most profitable market is for 

herring roe (eggs), a popular food item in Asia, 

especially in Japan, where the eggs, slightly 

salted and still attached to edible algae, are 

considered a delicacy. 

Pacific Sardine 

Sardinops sagax (Clupeidae) 

Herrings, Shads, Sardines, Menhadens 

Distribution: Southeast Alaska to California; 

Peru to Chile. 

Habitat: Pelagic: 0 to 200 m. 

Appearance: Length to 38 cm. Blue green on 

back, white on flanks. 

Diet: Zooplankton. 

Reproduction and Development: Traveling 

in large schools insures plenty of mates. Eggs 

and larvae are pelagic. 

Mortality/Longevity: To 25 years. Eaten by 

many fishes, birds, and marine mammals as 

well as humans. 

Conservation Status: The most important 

California fishery from the 1920s thru the 

1940s and made famous in the writings of John 

Steinbeck. Overfishing and a natural cycle of 

oceanic conditions led to a population collapse 

in the 1950s and for a time doomed Monterey’s 

Cannery Row. The fishery showed signs of 

recovery in the 1980s and fully recovered by 

the late 1990s. 

Northern Anchovy 

Engraulis mordax (Engrauladidae) 

Anchovies 

Distribution: Northern British Columbia to 

Cabo San Lucas, Baja California. 

Habitat: Mainly California coastal waters, 

usually near shore but may be found to 200 m. 

Pelagic; travels in large schools. 

Appearance: Body is metallic blue to greenish 

above, silver below; round in cross-section. 

Max. length: 23 cm. 

Diet: Filter feeder on plankton, fish larvae 

and eggs. 

Reproduction and Development: Spawns 

in winter; eggs hatch in 2–4 days, and larvae 

enter plankton. 


Remarks: Provides food for other fish, birds 

and sea mammals. Also used as bait and 

processed for oil and fish meal. 

Schools move up and down the coast over 

fairly long distances. 

ORDER CYPRINIFORMES 

Tricolor Sharkminnow 

Balantiocheilos melanopterus (Cyprinidae) 

Minnows or Carps 


Habitat: Midwater depth in large and medium- 

sized rivers and lakes. 

Appearance: Elongated silver body up to 35 

cm in length; black margins on dorsal, caudal, 

anal and pelvic fins; large, prominent eyes. 

Diet: Phytoplankton, small crustaceans, rotifers, 

insects and their larvae. 


fertilization. 

Conservation Status: IUCN listed: Endangered: 

becoming rare or extinct in many river 

basins. 

Java Barb 

Barbonymus gonionotus (Cyprinidae) 

Minnows or Carp 

Distribution: Southeast Asia: Mekong and 

Chao Phraya basins, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra 

and Java. 

Habitat: Found midwater to bottom of rivers, 

streams, and floodplains, especially in quiet water. 

Moves into flooded forest during high water. 

Appearance: Compressed body with small 

head and pointed snout. 

Diet: Plant matter, invertebrates. 


scatter eggs on the substrate. No parental care. 

Remarks: A market fish; aquacultured in some 

areas.

Tinfoil Barb 

Barbonymus schwanenfeldii (Cyprinidae) 


Distribution: Mekong and Chao Phraya basins, 

Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Borneo. 

Habitat: Rivers, streams, canals and ditches. 

Also enters flooded fields. 

Appearance: Large individuals silvery or golden 

yellow, dorsal fin red with a black blotch at 

the tip; red pectoral, pelvic and anal fins; red 

or orange caudal fin with white margin and 

a black submarginal stripe along each lobe. 

Length to 35 cm. 

Diet: Largely herbivorous, consumes aquatic 

plants and submerged land plants as well 

as filamentous algae. Occasionally feeds on 

insects, worms, crustaceans and small fishes. 


seasonally in winter. Fertilization external. Do 

not guard eggs. 

Remarks: Caught by subsistence and 

commercial fishers; raised in aquaculture. 

Usually marketed fresh. Also marketed live 

for the aquarium trade. 

Celestial Pearl Danio 

Celestichthys margaritatus (Cyprinidae) 


Distribution: Asia: Myanmar. Also reported 

from Thailand. 

Habitat: Inhabits small, shallow seepage and 

spring-fed ponds with luxuriant vegetation. 

Appearance: Body is covered with small, 

pearly dots. Gill covers are transparent and 

reveal the blood-red gills. Fins are patterned 

with black and red lines. Males more brightly 

colored than females. Max. length: 2.1 cm 

Diet: Omnivorous. 

Reproduction and Development: After a 

courtship ritual, spawning takes place with 

eggs laid in vegetation. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: 3 years. 

Conservation Status: Because travel in 

Myanmar is restricted by the government, 

IUCN has not evaluated this fish’s status. In 

2007, Myanmar’s Department of Fisheries 

identified a number of new locations where 

populations have been found, and some 

involved with the export trade reported that 

people in rural areas were making significant 

income from the sale of C. margaritatus. 


105 

Hopefully, captive breeding by aquaria and 

hobbyists, which has been successful, will take 

pressure off of wild population. 

Remarks: This handsome small species was 

first discovered in 2006, and has since become 

quite popular in the aquarium trade. 

Siamese Algae-eater 

Crossocheilus siamensis (Cyprinidae) 


Distribution: Mekong, Chao Phraya and Xe 

Bangfai basins; Malay Peninsula. 

Habitat: Found at bottom depths in streams 

and rivers. Moves into flooded forests during 

periods of high water. 

Appearance: Dorsal side brown, ventral white; 

black, wide longitudinal stripe on the side. 


Diet: Algae, phytoplankton and periphyton 

(layer of small plants and animals attached to 

surfaces projecting above the substrate). 

Reproduction and Development: Likely 

spawns in flooded forests. 

Koi aka Common Carp 

Cyprinus carpio (Cyprinidae) 


Distribution: Probably native to the Danube 

River; has been introduced world wide. 

Habitat: Favor large freshwater bodies with 

slow-flowing or standing water and soft 

bottom sediments. Koi thrive in large turbid 

rivers. 

Appearance: Length to 1.2 m. Weight to 37.3 

kg. Coloration ranges from grey to bronze; 

the back is dark, the sides lighter, ventral side 

even lighter. Paired fins are slightly red during 

the spawning period. That said, individuals 

are highly variable in form, proportions, 

development of fins, and color. Coloration 

is reportedly brighter in koi from rivers and 

darker in those that inhabit muddy pools. 

Wild carp usually have a less stocky build than 

aquafarmed individuals. 

Diet: Omnivorous. Feed primarily on aquatic 

insects, crustaceans, annelids, mollusks, seeds 

of weeds and trees, wild rice, aquatic plants 

and algae. Gather food mostly by grubbing in 

sediments. 


during spring and summer in temperate


regions, throughout the year in the tropics. 

Polygamous: a spawning female is typically 

followed by several males. Fertilization is 

external. Female deposits sticky eggs in 

shallow vegetation. An average-sized female 

can produce about 300,000 eggs in a season. 

A larger female can deposit more than one 

million eggs per season. Eggs are not guarded, 

and hatch after four days. 

Mortality/Longevity: Live to 20 years. 

Remarks: A highly popular fish in the 

commercial trade, also a gamefish. 

Romans introduced carp into various locations 

in northern and western Europe as a food 

fish. Monks in medieval times continued this 

“Johnny Appleseed” manner. Thus the native 

and introduced habitats of the koi are presently 

impossible to tease out. 

Koi are a plastic species with a marked 

tendency to produce differing varieties 

and races in response to selective breeding 

and environmental factors. They have been 

selectively bred in many areas, especially Japan, 

for over 200 years. 

Zebra Danio 

Danio rerio (Cyprinidae) 



Habitat: Streams, canals, ditches, and ponds 

as well as rice fields. 

Appearance: Named for its five horizontal blue 

stripes extending along on the sides of the body 

as well as the anal and caudal fins. Grows to 6 

cm. Males have gold stripes between the blue 

and females have silver. 

Diet: Omnivorous. Small aquatic insects, crustaceans, 

worms, and plankton. 

Reproduction and Development: Egg-scatterers; 

produce about 100 eggs in a single spawning. 

Breed readily in captivity. 

Remarks: Typically a schooling fish. This species 

is useful for studies of vertebrate development 

and gene function as they reproduce 

easily and quickly, developing from egg to 

larva in less than 3 days. Zebra danios have 

the distinction of being one of the few fishes 

to have flown in space. In June, 1976, Salut 

5 carried tortoises and a zebra danio (not to 

mention cosmonauts)! 

Redtail Black Shark 

Epalzeorhynchos bicolor (Cyprinidae) 


Distribution: Originally from the Mae Klong 

River in Thailand. 

Habitat: Middle and bottom levels of freshwater 

streams and rivers, especially areas with rocks 

and/or plants for resting and hiding. 

Appearance: A striking fish with deep velvetblack 

body and bright red caudal fin. Max. 

length: 15 cm. 

Diet: Omnivorous, primarily a bottom-feeding 

scavenger. (Note the downward facing mouth 

with barbels for locating food items and 

feeding on soft substrate.) 

Reproduction and Development: Spawner, 

egg layer. 


Conservation Status: Currently extinct in the 

wild, probably due to construction of dams and 

draining of swamps rather than overcollecting, 

as some suggest. All red-tails available in fish 

stores today are commercially raised by the 

aquarium trade industry. 

Remarks: This fish is aggressive and territorial. 

In spite of its common name, most likely 

a reference to its streamlined, torpedo shape, 

it is not a shark. 

Cherry Barb 

Puntius titteya (Cyprinidae) 


Distribution: Native to Sri Lanka with 

introduced populations established in Mexico 

and Colombia. 

Habitat: Heavily shaded streams and rivulets, 

preferring shallow, slow-moving water with 

silt substrate and leaf cover. 

Appearance: An elongated fish with a 

compressed body, fawn-colored on top with 

a slight greenish sheen. Sides and belly have 

silver highlights with a horizontal stripe 

extending from the tip of the snout through 

the eye to the base of the caudal fin, with an 

iridescent, metallic line above it. Males are 

redder than females and attain a deeper red 

color at breeding time; females lighter with 

yellowish fins. Max. length: 5 cm. 


Reproduction and Development: Open water,

substrate egg-scattering fish. Males swim just 

behind females and chase away rival males. 

Adults spawn 200–300 eggs and scatter them 

on plants and on the substrate and eat as many 

eggs as possible when finished. The successful 

ones hatch in 1 or 2 days and become free 

swimming within 48 hours. 

Conservation Status: Commercially important 

in the aquarium trade, and the more colorful 

varieties are in danger of being over-fished. 

IUCN listed: lower rjsk/conservation 

dependent. 

Remarks: Cherry refers to the fish’s red color. 

Redstripe Rasbora 

Rasbora pauciperforata (Cyprinidae) 


Distribution: Southeast Asia: Thailand, 

Cambodia, Malaysia, Sumatra. 

Habitat: Sluggish forest streams, marshes, and 

swamps with overhanging and overgrown 

vegetation. 

Appearance: Max. size: 7 cm. Back olive brown, 

body brownish gray, belly white. A bright 

stripe runs from the tip of the snout to the 

caudal fin. Stripe may be red, deep orange, or 

golden depending on diet, condition, or mood. 

Diet: Micropredator on small worms, 

crustaceans, insects and zooplankton. 

Reproduction: Eggs are scattered among 

plants, and hatch in about one day. Fry are 

free-swimming in 3–5 days. No parental care. 


Conservation Status: Not evaluated, but its 

habitat is under threat from rubber/palm oil 

plantations, building developments, and other 

human activities. 

White Cloud Minnow 

Tanichthys albonubes (Cyprinidae) 


Carps and Minnows 

Distribution: Asia: Southern China and 

Vietnam. 

Habitat: Clear freshwater streams with 

vegetation. 

Appearance:. Length: c. 2 cm. Elongated 

body with upturned mouth; slender, gold 

stripe extending from eye to the caudal fin, 

with blue/black parallel stripe below. Spot 

on caudal peduncle. Males slimmer and more 


107 

intensely colored. 

Diet: Zooplankton, detritus. 


takes place when male curls the rear of his 

body around the female. Eggs are attached 

to plants, and not guarded by parents. Easily 

bred in captivity. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: 3– years. 

Remarks: The species was supposedly first 

known from the White Cloud Mountains 

near Canton, China. Albonubes means “white 

cloud”. 

Today the white cloud minnow is nearly extinct 

in its native habitat, but because they are easily 

are captive bred, they are readily available in 

the aquarium trade 

Harlequin Rasbora 

Trigonostigma heteromorpha (Cyprinidae) 


Distribution: Thailand to Sumatra, Indonesia. 

Habitat: Forest streams. 

Appearance: Length to 5 cm. Color pattern 

reddish, pinkish or orange body with a 

conspicuous black stripe from below dorsal-fin 

origin to middle of caudal fin base and usually 

broadened anteriorly so as to have a triangular 

or hatchet shape. No barbels. 

Diet: Feeds on worms, crustaceans and insects. 


spawned at the underside of broad leaves or 

similar structures. Parents do not guard eggs. 

Hampala Barb 

Hampala macrolepidota (Cyprinidae) 


Distribution: Asia: Mekong and Chao Phraya 

basins, Malay Peninsula and Indonesia. 

Habitat: Occurs mainly in clear rivers or 

streams with running water and sandy to 

muddy bottoms. Found in most water bodies, 

except small creeks, torrents, and shallow 

swamps. A migratory species which enters 

flooded forests. Abundant in the Mekong. 

Appearance: Length to more than 70 cm. Black 

bar between the dorsal and pelvic fins in adults; 

orange to red caudal fin with a black longitudinal, 

marginal stripe along each lobe. Scales 

silvery-pink with dark trailing scale margins 

in adults. Juveniles usually with an additional


vertical bar on the caudal peduncle. Juveniles 

with black teardrop-shaped marking on cheek; 

barbel always longer than eye width. Eyes 

located on upper-side of head. 

Diet: Predatory. Adults mainly piscivorous, 

but in Saguling Reservoir, West Java, 74% of 

the diet consists of aquatic insects. 

Reproduction and Development: Breeds 

throughout the winter rainy season. 

Remarks: Good food fish, although bony. 

Marketed fresh. 

Golden Shiner 

Notemigonus crysoleucas (Cyprinidae) 


Distribution: East Coast of U.S. from Nova Scotia 

south to Florida, inland to Mississippi River 

drainage, and throughout most of the Midwest. 

Introduced to parts of Arizona and California. 

Habitat: Clear, weedy, shallows of lakes, 

ponds, and rivers. Most often found in clear, 

vegetated areas, especially in quiet waters. 

Appearance: Adults c. 15 cm long; females 

larger than males. Dark green above, olive 

sides, golden belly; large, loosely attached 

gold scales. 

Diet: Young feed primarily on plankton; adults 

are also filter feeders on plankton, but also take 

aquatic insects, mollusks, and plant material, 

which makes up about half of the diet. 


May to July; female deposits adhesive eggs 

over filamentous algae and other submerged 

plants. Non-guarders. 

Mortality/Longevity: Mature at 2–3 years; 

lifespan up to 9 years. Fed upon by larger 

fishes, including game fishes such as pike, 

trout and bass. 

Remarks: A popular baitfish because of its 

bright, flashing coloration. Because baitfish are 

often dumped after a day of fishing, they may 

be introduced to new habitats, sometimes outcompeting 

native species. Today, some areas have 

banned the use of live baitfish. 

Common name comes from the adult’s characteristic 

golden sheen. 

T-Barb 

Puntius lateristriga (Cyprinidae) 


Distribution: Southeast Asia: Malaysia, 

Thailand, Singapore, Indonesia. 

Habitat: Clear forest streams and rivers. 

Appearance: Size to 18 cm. Noted for the black 

bars on the body, usually two vertical and 

one horizontal. Their pattern gives the fish its 

common name, “T-barb.” 

Diet: Feeds on insects, worms, and plant matter. 

Reproduction and Development: Open water/ 

substratum egg scatterers; non-guarders. 

Black Ruby Barb 

Puntius nigrofasciatus (Cyprinidae) 



Habitat: Clear, cool, shady streams in forested 

areas to 300 m elevation, over gravel or sand 

substrate. Sometimes found in pools of quiet 

water in the margins of clear streams and 

rivers. 

Appearance: Length to 6.7 cm. Head red, flanks 

marked with 3–4 black bars. Breeding colors 

more dramatic. 

Diet: Primarily filamentous algae and detritus. 


shallow water among marginal weeds. Parents 

do not guard eggs. Eggs (>100) hatch in one to 

two days; fry are free-swimming after 24 hours. 


Clown Loach 

Botia macracanthus (Cobitidae) 

Loaches 

Distribution: Indonesia (Sumatra and Borneo). 

Habitat: Demersal, tropical freshwater streams 

and rivers. 

Appearance: Length to 30 cm. Body orange 

with 3 very broad black bars. 

Diet: Feeds on annelid worms, benthic crustaceans 

and plant matter. 


fertilization. Mate at the beginning of the rainy 

season in fast flowing rivers. Batch spawners. 

Nonguarders. Brood hiders. 

Remarks: Minor commercial fishery; also taken 


Dwarf Loach 

Botia sidthimunki (Cobitidae) 

Loaches 

Distribution: Cambodia, Laos, Thailand.

Habitat: Various tropical stream habitats, 

including flowing and standing water. Prefer 

areas of with bogwood, caves, and aquatic plants. 

Appearance: Max. size: 6 cm. The smallest 

loach species. Males and females similar. 

The back is light brownish to light yellow 

with longitudinal bands that are connected 

by smaller bands across the back. Underside 

is white with a silvery sheen. Adapted to 

a bottom-dwelling lifestyle typical of most 

loaches, this species has a downward facing 

mouth and fleshy barbels for searching bottom 

gravels and mud for food. 

Diet: Small aquatic invertebrates and insect 

larvae; algae. 

Reproduction: Breeding habits in the wild 

unknown. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: ~10 years. 

Conservation Status: IUCN: Critically 

Endangered. Once thought to be extinct in the 

wild in Thailand, but recently rediscovered. 

Success in captive breeding in fish farms and 

aquaria has taken some pressure off wild stocks. 

Remarks: The dwarf loach is a schooling fish, 

often found in large shoals. 

Redtail Loach 

Yasuhikotakia modesta (Cobitidae) 

Loaches 


Chao Phraya basins. 

Habitat: Most often found in large rives over 

muddy substrate. Also flooded fields. 

Appearance: Body bluish to grayish, 

occasionally with hint of green. Fins are a 

bright orange to red color. Mature males 

smaller and more slender than mature females. 

Max length: 30 cm. 

Diet: Avid burrower for its preferred diet of 

worms, crustaceans, and insects. Nocturnal 

feeder. 

Reproduction and Development: Migratory; 

moves to tributaries and small streams to 

spawn during the flood season. 

Remarks: This species has a unique intestine 

that can act as a respiratory organ, allowing 

the fish to absorb oxygen at the surface directly 

from the atmosphere. 

Tend to be territorial, with an established 

hierarchy with a group. 


109 

These Academy café residents are known as 

jumpers – hopefully they will stay in the tank 

and off plates! 

Smallmouth Buffalofish 

Ictiobus bubalus (Catostomidae) 

Suckers 

Distribution: Lake Michigan drainage and 

Mississippi River basin from Pennsylvania and 

Michigan to Montana, and south to the Gulf of 

Mexico. Also in Mexico. 

Habitat: Inhabits pools, backwaters and main 

channels of small to large rivers. Also in lakes 

and reservoirs. 

Appearance: Deep, moderately compressed 

body. Back arched. Back colored gray to dark 

olive, sides bronze to gray. Pelvic fins charcoal, 

other fins dusky. Length to 112 cm; weight to 

37.3 kg. 

Diet: Feeds on benthic crustaceans, mollusks; 

also algae. Grinds prey with the bony plates 

in its throat. 

Reproduction and Development: Fertilization 

external. Scatter eggs and do not guard. One 

seasonal spawning peak per year. 

Mortality/Longevity: Lives to at least 15 years. 

Remarks: Common name refers to its large size 

and humped back. 

Not a popular sportfish. There is a commercial 

fishery in the Mississippi River and some 

large lakes. 

ORDER CHARACIFORMES 

Flagtail Prochilodus 

Semaprochilodus insignis (Prochilodontidae) 

Flannel-mouthed Characins 

Distribution: Central and western portions 

of the Amazon and Orinoco River Basins, 

Ecuador, Peru, Colombia, Guyana and Brazil. 

Habitat: Tropical rivers, especially areas with 

aquatic plants. 

Appearance: Sexes similar. Oval shaped and 

compressed laterally. Silver body, with orange 

and black striped tail and anal fin; orange/red 

dorsal fin and area above the head. Length: 

27–40 cm. 

Diet: Sifts through mud preferentially 

in floodplains for organic material and 

occasionally feeds on algae.



members of their family, they undertake 

dramatic mass migrations associated with both 

feeding and reproduction. 

Mortality/Longevity: Eaten by some predatory 

fishes, such as the peacock bass (Cichla 

temensis), often found in the Flooded Amazon 

exhibit. Life span: c. 4 years. 

Banded Leporinus 

Leporinus fasciatus (Anostomidae) 

Headstanders 

Distribution: South America: Amazon and 

Tocantins River basins. Also Guyana. 

Habitat: Rivers with sandy bottoms. 

Appearance: Light tan with two distinct black 

spots (one before the tail and another on the 

flank). Length about 12 cm. 

Diet: Small invertebrates, other fish, and 

plants. Will eat scales of larger fish. 


open water above substrate. Doesn’t guard eggs. 

Remarks: Leporinus (L =”rabbit”) relates to this 

fish’s large protruding teeth The species is also 

known to leap out of the water, so perhaps its 

name has more than one reference point! 

Like all members of its family, it very often 

position itself head down in rocky crevices. 

Golden Pencilfish 

Nannostomus beckfordi (Lebiasinidae) 

Pencilfishes 

Distribution: Amazon River basin in Guyana, 

Suriname, French Guiana and northern Brazil. 

Habitat: Sluggish small rivers and swampy 

areas. 

Appearance: Max. size: 6.5 cm. Elongate 

cylindrical body gives them their common 

name. Dark horizontal band extends through 

the midline from head to tail. The male is more 

colorful than female. The anal fin of the male 

has a curved posterior edge; the female’s fin 

edge is straight 

Diet: Small worms, crustaceans, insects. 

Reproduction: Fertilized eggs hatch in 2–3 

days; fry are free swimming 3–4 days later. 

Readily reproduce in captivity. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: 5 or more 

years. 

Remarks: A schooling fish. 

Like many species of pencilfishes, has a duller 

nocturnal pattern and coloration that helps 

camouflage it from would-be predators while 

it sleeps. 

Blind Cave Fish 

Astyanax mexicanus (Characidae) 

Characins 

Distribution: Texas, New Mexico, and eastern 

and central Mexico. 

Habitat: Freshwater pools within dark caves. 

Appearance: Head is notable for the absence 

of eyes. Young born with functioning eyes 

which become completely enclosed in tissue 

as fish grows. Lack of sight is compensated 

by a highly developed lateral line that detects 

vibrations and changes in the water. The fish is 

without pigmentation and is plain pink with a 

silver sheen. They live in schools and grow to 

about 12 cm in length. 

Diet: A keen sense of smell and electrolocation 

aid in finding food. Blind cave fish are 

omnivores and feed on animal and plant 

remains that wash into the caves and on bat 

droppings from cave ceilings. Much of their 

time is spent searching for food; they are able 

to store four times more energy as fat than their 

surface-dwelling relatives, allowing them to 

deal with irregular food supplies. 

Reproduction and Development: Egg layers. 

Life span is approximately ten years. 

Remarks: Both sighted, non-cave dwelling and 

blind cave forms of A. mexicanus exist. These 

fish are popular subjects for scientists studying 

evolution—did the cave fish lose their eyes 

because the lack of light and predators in dark 

caves selected against vision? 

When lenses from sighted fish were 

transplanted to blind cave fish, eyes began to 

develop. This research may eventually prove 

useful in treating blindness in humans. 

Blind cave fish have chemoreceptors all over 

the head. 

Sweepline Brycon 

Brycon melanopterus (Characidae) 

Characins 

Distribution: Amazon basin. 

Habitat: Freshwater streams and Florida ivers. 

Appearance: Length to over 30 cm, weight to 

4.3 kg.

Diet: Consume terrestrial and aquatic plants 

and terrestrial and aquatic invertebrates. 

Reproduction and Development: Migrate 

during the rainy season to formerly dry 

grassland to spawn. The eggs are broadcast 

among the submerged grasses. 

Remarks: Highly esteemed as a a food fish; 

called the South American “trout.” 

Tambaqui aka Black Pacu 

Colossoma macropomum (Characidae) 

Characins 


Orinoco basins as wild form; aquacultured 

form is widely distributed in South America. 

Habitat: Adults: open water of large rivers and 

seasonally flooded forests. Young stay in black 

waters of flood plains until maturity. 

Appearance: Body laterally compressed 

with large eyes and an arched back. Color is 

basically gray to olive above, dark below often 

with spots and blemishes in the middle. All fins 

black, pectoral fins small. Size: to 100 cm long 

and up to 30 kg. 

Diet: Adults: consume fruits and grain during 

seasonal flooding. Also feeds on zooplankton, 

insects, snails and decaying plants. 


spawn once per year. Open water, substratum 

egg scatterers. Non-guarders. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: 20 yrs. or 

more. 

Remarks: Used in aquaculture because it can 

live in mineral poor waters and is very resistant 

to diseases. Marketed fresh and frozen. 

Fossils of the living species have been found 

in the Miocene. 

Silver Tetra 

Ctenobrycon spilurus (Characidae) 

Characins 

Distribution: South America: Orinoco River 

basin. 

Habitat: Areas of calm water. 

Appearance: Deep bodied, laterally 

compressed, silvery color with black spot on 

caudal peduncle. 

Diet: Zooplankton, plants, worms, insects, 

crustaceans. 


111 

Bucktooth Tetra 

Exodon paradoxus (Characidae) 

Characins 


Tocantins River basins. Also Guyana. 

Habitat: Rivers with sandy bottoms. 

Appearance: Light tan with two distinct black 

spots (one before the tail and another on the 

flank.) Common name comes from the large 

protruding teeth. Length about 12 cm. 

Diet: Small invertebrates, other fish, and 

plants. Will eat scales of larger fish. 

Reproduction & Development: Spawns in 

open water above substrate. Doesn’t guard 

eggs 

Remarks: Eating scales of other fishes is a 

behavior common to a variety of species. 

Scales are nutritional, offering a source of 

calcium carbonate and other minerals, as well 

as a layer of protein-rich mucus. A reliable 

resource, scales are plentiful, available year 

round, and readily regrown. 

Rummy-nose Tetra 

Hemigrammus bleheri (Characidae) 

Characins 

Distribution: South America, forest streams of 

the Rio Negro floodplain. 

Habitat: Areas with dense plants and roots. 

Appearance: Common name derives from the 

distinctive red area around its “nose” and over 

the eyes. The body is a silver/gold color with 

bold black and white stripes on the caudal fin. 

Males and females similar, though males tend 

to be slimmer. 


Reproduction and Development: Egg 

scatterers in open water or on substrate.. 


Remarks: A popular fish in the aquarium 

trade as it is peaceful and moves in colorful 

shoals. One source reported that this species 

is an important part of an ornamental fishery 

that provides some 60% of the income of the 

riverine people from middle Rio Negro. The 

rummynose is difficult, though not impossible 

to breed and raise in aquaria. 

AM12


Rummy-nose Tetra 

Hemigrammus rhodostomus (Characidae) 

Characins 

Distribution: Lower Amazon River basin and 

Orinoco River basin. 

Habitat: Tropical freshwater. 

Appearance: Reddish-orange body, black 

margins on tail. Length to 5 cm. 

Diet: Primarily insects and insect larvae, also 

consume plant matter. 

Remarks: A popular aquarium fish. Shares its 

common name with H. bleheri. 

Silver Dollar 

Metynnis hypsauchen (Characidae) 

Characins 

Distribution: Tropical South America primarily 

Amazon and Orinoco basins. 

Habitat: Calm river reaches overhung by 

foliage. 

Appearance: Almost circular in profile; 

juveniles may be spotted or striped; adults 

solidly silver with anal and caudal fins edged 

in red or orange; grows to length of 30 cm in 

wild. 

Diet: Generally herbivorous, eating leaves 

of river plants; occasionally eats worms and 

small insects. 


release up to 2000 eggs; juveniles hatch in a 

few days. 

Remarks: A schooling species related to 

piranhas. 

Redhook Silver Dollar 

Myleus rubripinnis (Characidae) 

Characins 


Orinoco River basins; north and eastern Guiana 

Shield rivers. 

Habitat: Prefers calm zones of main rivers 

where vegetation hangs over the river banks. 

Gregarious and non-aggressive. 

Appearance: Laterally compressed, “silver 

dollar” disc shape with brightly reflective small 

scales. The common name “red hook” refers to 

the mostly red large anal fin, bilobed in males 

and single in females. Mature adults often sport 

orange spots on the body. Max. length: 39 cm. 

Diet: Feeds on the leaves of river plants. Has 

powerful jaws well adapted for the seeds and 

nuts it prefers. 


broadcasts eggs in water column that are then 

fertilized by the male. No parental care. 

Mortality/Longevity: Preyed upon by larger 

fish, caimans, river otters, river dolphins, birds 

and humans. 

Remarks: Can inflict serious bites. 

Cardinal Tetra aka Neon Tetra 

Paracheirodon axelrodi (Characidae) 

Characins 

Distribution: South America: Upper Rio Orinoco 

and Rio Negro. 

Habitat: Mainly in schools of 12–30 over shoals 

in the middle water column; nonmigratory. 

Appearance: Length to 3 cm. Dark above, red 

below with silvery blue horizontal stripe on 

sides. 

Diet: Small crustaceans and worms. 

Reproduction and Development: Move to 

floodplain during spring floods to spawn. External 

fertilization. Open water egg scatterers, 

broadcast 300–500 large eggs. Eggs hatch in 

24–30 hours and fry are free-swimming after 

3–4 days. 

Mortality/Longevity: Adults often perish due 

to starvation after spring floods when foraging 

habitats retract during the low water season. 

Preyed upon by other fishes including piranha. 

Remarks: Popular fish in the aquarium trade. 

Breeding in captivity is possible but difficult, 

thus most specimens in the aquarium trade 

are caught in the tributaries of the Rio Negro 

and Orinoco. 

Pirapitinga aka Red-bellied Pacu 

Piaractus brachypomus (Characidae) 

Characins 


Orinoco River basins. 

Habitat: Open water of large rivers and 

seasonally flooded forests. 

Appearance: When young, pirapitinga look 

like red-bellied piranha, distinguished from its 

more aggressive look-a-like by the lack of the 

piranha’s bulldog-like underbite on the lower 

jaw. As it grows older, its size protects it from 

predation, and mimicry is replaced by a black 

coloration, similar to the tambaqui, but less 

dark below.

Diet: Insects and decaying fruits and vegetation 

that fall into the water. (Do these fish celebrate 

the inevitable last flight of a bola butterfly?) 


external, one seasonal spawning peak per 

year. Open water/substratum egg scatterers. 

Nonguarders. 

Mortality/Longevity: Known to live to 28 

years. 

Remarks: Because pacu are closely related to 

piranha, sharing their coloration and shape, 

Hollywood producers have been known to 

use the pacu as a stand-in for piranha. Actors 

are appreciative of the pacu’s preference for 

vegetable matter. 

Like the tambaqui, an important aquacultured 

food fish in South America. 

Red-bellied Piranha 

Pygocentrus nattereri (Characidae) 

Characins 

Distribution: Amazon, Paraguay-Paraná and 

Essequibo basins. 

Habitat: Freshwater creeks and interconnected 

pools. 

Appearance: Length to 33 cm. Weight to 3.8 kg. 

Laterally compressed. Primarily dark scales with 

silvery glitter highlights. Chin and belly reddish. 

Diet: Prey primarily on wounded and diseased 

fish. Feed communally in groups of 20–30 individuals 

who wait in vegetation for the opportunity 

to ambush prey. Once prey is attacked 

a feeding frenzy ensues. Adults forage at dusk 

and dawn, medium-sized fish most active at 

dawn, late afternoon and at night; small fish 

feed by day. Also scavenge on waste dumped 

into rivers from slaughterhouses. Former CAS 

Steinhart Aquarium director Earl Herald used 

to feed piranhas the hearts of horses! 

Reproduction: Spawn after an elaborate 

courtship ritual where the mating pair swims 

in circles. Female deposits layers of eggs on 

aquatic plants; male fertilizes. Male defends 

and turns eggs. Masses hatch in 9–10 days. 


fishes including large catfishes, crocodilians, 

birds and larger mammals including jaguar. 

Remarks: The piranha’s reputation as a voraciously 

attacking humans is highly exaggerated. 

The red-bellied piranha is primarily a 

scavenger. Stories of cows and humans striped 


113 

clean of flesh may be true, but the “meal” in 

question was not alive when the attack took 

place. 

Even so, piranha’s can inflict a serious wound. 

Jaw muscles are incredibly strong, and the 

razor-sharp teeth on top and bottom fit in 

an interlocking pattern. These two features 

make the red-bellied piranha an efficient and 

formidable feeder. 

Of the 20 or so species of piranha, 12 do not 

attack in schools. Rather they take a quick bites 

of the fins or scales of passing fish, causing little 

damage as these parts grow back. 

Amazonian Indians use the sharp teeth as 

knives. They also coat the teeth with curare and 

attach them to the end of blow darts. 

ORDER SILURIFORMES 

(CATFISHES) 

Channel Catfish 

Ictalurus punctatus (Ictaluridae) 

North American Freshwater Catfishes 

Distribution: North America: Central 

drainages of the United States to southern 

Canada and northern Mexico. 

Habitat: Rivers and streams, ponds and 

reservoirs, especially on sand or gravel bottom 

near rocks or logs where they hide during the 

day. 

Appearance: Color varies from blue, black, 

olive; speckled above, lighter below, with 

males generally darker than females. Like all 

catfish, are scaleless. Two barbels in upper jaw, 

and four below. Max. length: 130 cm; common 


Diet: Opportunistic omnivores. Active at 

night, in search of fishes such as yellow perch 

and sunfish. Also snails, algae, snakes, frogs, 

insects, aquatic plants, and an occasional bird 

or small mammal. 

Reproduction and Development: The channel 

catfish is monogamous at least for a single 

mating season and displays a complex 

courtship behavior. Mating takes place in the 

summer. The male and female wrap their tails 

around each other’s head; when the male 

shivers, the female is stimulated and eggs 

and milt are released. Eggs are laid in a nest 

prepared by the male or both parents, often 

under overhangs or in deep holes. The male


guards and aerates the eggs. Both parents are 

known to provide food for the juveniles, the 

male by thrashing in the mud to stir up food 

particles and the female by releasing eggs over 

the nest for juveniles to eat. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: usually about 

15 years, some as long as 25 years. Not many 

predators take on a mature channel catfish. 

Dorsal and pectoral spines make them a nasty 

mouthful. Juveniles are prey to birds and 

carnivorous fishes. 

Remarks: Farming of catfish for food is a 

multi-million dollar business. Introduced for 

aquaculture and recreational fishing in many 

areas worldwide. 

Glass Catfish 

Kryptopterus minor (Siluridae) 

Sheat Catfishes 

Distribution: South East Asia: Indonesia, 

Borneo, Malaysia. 

Habitat: Among the vegetation of slow moving 

rivers with murky, often acidic water. 

Appearance: Has two thin lateral stripes 

from head to tail and a body that is virtually 

transparent, which gives it the common name 

of “glass catfish.” The swim bladder and other 

internal organs are visible. It can disappear 

from predators when the number of blackcolored 

cells are reduced and platelets of 

guanine act as a mirror that reflect the habitat 

and camouflage the fish. Average length: 8 cm. 

Diet: Omnivore: feeds on other fishes and 

small invertebrates. Using barbels, senses 

presence of food in river currents. Active in 

the daytime; feeds from middle to bottom of 

water column. 

Reproduction and Development: An egg layer 

or scatterer; sexes are indistinguishable. 

Remarks: Because of its transparency, is also 

known as “ghost “ or “phantom” catfish. 

Fish turns white at death. 

African Glass Catfish 

Eutropiellus debauwi aka Pareutropius debauwi 

(Schilbeidae) 

Schilbeid Catfishes 

Distribution: Africa: Ogowe River in Gabon, 

Congo system and Chiloango River. 

Habitat: Freshwater schooling fish. 

Appearance: Length to 11 cm. Translucent 

with a silvery throat and belly and three 

distinct stripes on each side that become more 

prominent with age. Female with paler stripes 

and more robust body. 

Diet: Carnivore. 


deposits adhesive eggs on aquatic plants. Do 


Remarks: In captivity single and paired 

individuals are sluggish, hide, refuse food and 

quickly die. Apparently they have a biological 

need to be in a small group. 

Gluttonous, will feed to bursting if overfed in 

captivity. 

Walking Catfish 

Clarias batrachus (Clariidae) 

Airbreathing Catfishes 


Chao Phraya basins, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, 

Java, Borneo. Reported from Sri Lanka. 

Habitat: Inhabits swamps, ponds, ditches, rice 

paddies, and pools left in low spots after rivers 

have been in flood. Usually confined to stagnant, 

muddy water, 1 m or less. Found in medium- to 

large-sized rivers, flooded fields and stagnant 

bodies of water including sluggish flowing 

canals. Undertakes lateral migrations from the 

Mekong mainstream, or other permanent water 

bodies, to flooded areas during the rainy season 

and returns to the permanent water bodies at the 

onset of the dry season. 

Appearance: Length to 47 cm. Weight to 1.2 

kg. Body compressed posteriorly. Upper jaw a 

little projecting. Extensive dorsal and anal fins. 

Spine of pectoral fins rough on its outer edge 

and serrated on its inner edge. 

Diet: Feeds on insect larvae, earthworms, shells, 

shrimps, small fish, aquatic plants and debris. 


externally in southeast Asia during the rainy 

season, when rivers rise and fish are able to 

excavate nests in submerged mud banks and 

dikes of flooded rice fields. The mating pair 

manifests the ‘spawning embrace’ which is 

widely observed in other catfish species. The 

pair gently nudge each other in the genital 

region and flick their dorsal fins; male wraps 

his body around the female, then the female 

releases a stream of adhesive eggs into the nest. 

Guards nest.

Remarks: Can live out of water for quite some 

time and move short distances over land, 

sometimes migrating to other water bodies 

while using its auxiliary breathing organs. 

A potential pest in areas other than its natural 

distribution. In the United States it is a nonindigenous 

invasive species, now established in 

Florida and reported in California, Connecticut, 

Georgia, Massachusetts, and Nevada. 

In Florida, catfish have invaded aquaculture 

farms, and eaten stock fish. Aquafarmers have 

erected fences to protect their ponds. 

An important food fish that is marketed live, 

fresh and frozen. 

Upsidedown Catfish 

Synodontis nigriventris (Mochokidae) 

Squeakers or Upsidedown Catfishes 

Distribution: Central Congo basin of Africa. 

Habitat: Freshwater streams in schools of 

hundreds to thousands. Prefer rock caves or 

hollow logs for hiding during the day. 

Appearance: Length to 10 cm. Ground color 

khaki, small reddish to black dots cover entire 

body. Body scaleless, head flattened, sides of 

body slightly compressed. 

Diet: Omnivorous scavenger: Feeds mainly at 

night on insects, crustaceans and filamentous 

algae, plant debris, bowels of dead fishes. Grazes 

algae from undersides of cave ceilings or leaves 

with its little rasp-like teeth while in the inverted 

position, a posture also used while gleaning food 

from the water’s surface. Also locates food on the 

substrate among debris such as rotting plants. 

Reproduction and Development: Oviparous; 

parents tend their clutch. 

Remarks: Swimming “upside-down” (ventral 

toward surface) is normal for adults of this species, 

which often breathe and feed at the surface. 

One common name for the family refer to the 

group’s propensity to make squeaking noises, 

especially when netted and taken from the water. 

Armored Catfish aka Ripsaw Catfish 

Oxydoras niger (Doradidae) 

Thorny Catfishes 

Distribution: South America: most river basins, 

especially Amazon and Orinoco River 

basins. 

Habitat: Occurs over mud in streams and lakes. 


115 

Form schools. 

Appearance: Length to 1 m. Weight to 14 

kg. Like all catfish, they lack scales. Like all 

members of their family, have bony plates 

that protect the head and hooklike scutes that 

run along the lateral line. Possess three pairs 

of barbels. A stocky brown cat. Sexes similar. 

Diet: Feeds on detritus, insect larvae, crustaceans, 

and occasional plant material. 

Reproduction and Development: Sexes separate. 

Fertilization external, seasonal spawning 

peak January to February. Adults non-guarders. 

Remarks: Members of the family Doradidae 

are known as “talking catfishes” as they make a 

strange, creaking noise when removed from the 

water., a sound produced by movement of the 

pectoral spine within its socket and amplified 

by the swim bladder. 

Most catfishes are not in this family. There are 

more than 30 families of “catfishes” comprising 

more than 2500 species; about 80 are doradids). 

Perruno Catfish aka Leopard Catfish 

Perrunichthys perruno (Pimelodidae) 

Long-whiskered Catfishes 

Distribution: South America: Lake Maracaibo 

basin, Colombia and Venezuela. 

Habitat: Surrounding freshwater streams of 

Lake Maracaibo. Prefers areas with submerged 

tree roots and other refuges where it hides 

during the day. 

Appearance: Max. size: 62 cm Sexes similar. 

The species is noted for the very long pair of 

barbels that extend from the upper jaw and two 

smaller pairs on the lower jaw. All can move 

independently. Dark brown, round splotches 

with thin, light brown markings cover the 

body. Dorsal fins stands tall when erect. 

Diet: Mainly other fishes. A nocturnal predator. 


Remarks: Because it grows to large size 

quickly, this cat is best kept in the large tanks 

of public aquariums. 

The leopard cat is the single species of its 

genus. 

Redtail Catfish 

Phractocephalus hemioliopterus (Pimelodidae) 



Orinoco basins.


Habitat: Large freshwater rivers, streams and 

lakes. 

Appearance: Length to 1.4 m. Weight to 44 kg. 

Body black with huge horizontal white band 

on sides. Caudal fin red. 

Diet: Fish, crabs and fruit. 


fertilization. Non-guarders. 


Remarks:Because of its size, this cat is a 

popular game fish. 

Has been introduced, but is not established in 

Florida, perhaps a good thing as the redtail is 

a voracious predator on smaller fishes. 

Tiger Shovelnose Catfish 

Pseudoplatystoma fasciatum (Pimelodidae) 



Orinoco basins. 

Habitat: Riverbeds, shady streams, flooded 

forest areas. 

Appearance: Elongated, streamlined body 

with long snout; large mouth with three pairs 

of long barbels. Black spots and stripes on 

body and fins in irregular pattern; the pattern 

is banded, thus the common name. Usually 

silver to brown above; white to silver below. 

Can grow to 90 cm or more in captivity. 

Diet: Nocturnal hunter; feeds on fish and crabs. 


sexes, external fertilization. Does not guard 

eggs. 

Remarks: Prized as food and game fish, and 

often found in South American food markets. 

Flesh is succulent. 

Suckermouth Catfish 

Hypostomus plecostomus (Loricariidae) 

Armored Catfishes 

Distribution: South America: Guianas. Has 

been introduced to several Asian countries for 

the aquarium trade. 

Habitat: Freshwater coastal drainages. 

Appearance: Body robust; caudal peduncle 

not depressed. Upper parts of head and body 

encased in longitudinal rows of scutes; lower 

surface of head and abdomen naked. Sucker 

mouth distinctive. Color is polymorphic; dark 

charcoal or light beige. Length to over 50 cm. 

Diet: Algae and small crustaceans. 


is external. Female deposits eggs on smooth 

rocks. Clutches of eggs are guarded by one or 

both parents. May deposit eggs in depressions. 

Remarks: Cultured in ponds in Singapore and 

Hong Kong for the aquarium trade, where it 

is very popular. An excellent “housekeeper” of 

algae-prone tanks. 

Midget Sucker 

Macrotocinclus affinis, formerly Otocinclus 

affinis (Loricariidae) 


Distribution: South America: Brazil and other 

areas of the Amazon watershed. 

Habitat: Heavily vegetated riverine areas. 

Appearance: Max size: 5 cm. Elongated fish 

with a flat belly. Body is grey-green above, white 

below; brown, horizontal stripe runs midline. 

Down-facing mouth typical of bottom feeders. 

Lacks barbels and adipose fin. Tail fin is striped; 

other fins clear. Females are more robust. 

Diet: Algae; mainly nocturnal feeders. 

Reproduction: Eggs laid on plants, and hatch 

in about 2 days. No parental care. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: 4–6 years 

Sailfin Plecostomus 

Pterygoplichthys gibbiceps (Loricariidae) 


Distribution: South America: Middle and 

upper Amazon and Orinoco basins. 

Habitat: Demersal in freshwater streams, either 

fast-flowing or sluggish. Like most catfishes, 

they are active at twilight or nocturnally. 

Prefer concealed locations when resting near 

riverbanks or behind rocks. 

Appearance: Length to 50 cm. Body attenuated. 

Dimorphic coloration: either dark brown or 

pale beige. Dorsal fin is higher than the body 

and forms an impressive sail when erect. 

Mouth has powerful lips which form a sucking 

apparatus (see Remarks below). 

Diet: Feeds primarily on benthic algae and 

detritus; may also consume worms, insect 

larvae, fish eggs. 


construct horizonal burrows some 120–150 cm 

long that are used as nesting tunnels where 

eggs are laid and guarded by the male until

free-swimming larvae hatch and leave. 

Remarks: Mouth and gill openings are ventral; 

despite this apparent “handicap” (always in 

contact with mud or gravel) Loricariid cats can 

feed and respire simultaneously. 

Sucking mouth is used for propulsion, 

adhering to the substrate in fast flowing areas 

such as waterfalls, and moving forward cm by 

cm with short jerky movements. 

Dorsal fin (when erected) is the reason for the 

common name “sailfin.” 

Sailfin Catfish aka Sailfin Plecostomus 

Pterygoplichthys sp.(Loricariidae) 


Distribution: Native to South America: the 

Orinoco, Amazon, Parana and other river 

systems. Also established in Florida, Hawaii, 

Nevada, and Texas. 

Habitat: Sluggish streams, floodplain lakes, 

swamps and marshes. 

Appearance: Members of the genus are distinct 

from other members of the family due to their 

large dorsal fins with 9 or more long fin rays, 

the feature that gives them their common name 

“sailfin catfish.” Rows of armor plating cover 

the body. Color usually dark brown with spots 

or wavy lines. 

Diet: Primarily plant matter, may also scavenge. 

Often helpful in aquariums as algae eaters. 

Reproduction and Development: See entry 

above. 

Remarks: One of the most successful exotic 

species in Florida. 

Because of their burrowing habitats, feeding 

habits, and fecundity, potential effects 

of Pterygoplichthys invasion include bank 

alteration and erosion, competition with native 

species, and disruption of aquatic food chains. 

ORDER GYMNOTIFORMES 

(KNIFEFISHES) 

Electric Eel 

Electrophorus electricus (Electrophoridae) 

Electric Eels 

Distribution: Amazon Basin: Orinoco, and 

related areas in northern South America. 

Habitat: Lowland backwaters and muddy 

river bottoms, never fast-flowing waters. Dur- 


117 

ing daylight, retreats to recessed hiding places 

shared with conspecifics. 

Appearance: Large, long (to 2.5 m), round 

body. Very long anal fin. Weight to 20 kg. 

Diet: Juveniles eat invertebrates such as shrimp; 

adults prey on fish and small mammals. 

Reproduction: Males construct foam nests and 

guard the growing larvae until mid-January 

when the first seasonal rains flood the breeding 

area, causing the about 10 cm long young eels to 

disperse. Males outnumber females (3:1) and are 

considerably larger than females. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: in captivity males 

to 15 years, females to 20+. 

Remarks: Active nocturnally. 

Unlike “true” eels in the Order Anguilliformes, 

they are obligate air breathers, taking up to 80% 

of their oxygen directly from the air, an adaptation 

for survival in poorly oxygenated water. 

The long undulating anal fin allows the electric 

eel to move backwards or forwards. 

About half the musculature has been converted 

into electric organs which produce up to 650 V. 

These eels use their electricity to stun the fish 

they prey upon, as well as for defense. 

Though not an aggressive fish, can produce 

enough voltage to severely injure humans. 

If an electric eel fires a series of charges, each 

successive charge is less powerful. Aquarists 

stimulate several discharges before attempting 

to handle the animal safely. 

These eels also have two other, much smaller 

sets of electric organs, used for orientation, 

finding prey, and identification of foreign 

objects. 

ORDER BATRACHOIDIFORMES 

Humming Toadfish aka Plainfin Midshipman 

Porichthys notatus (Batrachoididae) 

Toadfishes 

Distribution: Eastern Pacific Ocean along the 

West Coast of North America. 

Habitat: Ranges from intertidal areas where 

they may remain out of water under rocks or 

seaweed to deeper water over sand and mud 

bottoms. Return to shallow intertidal waters 

to reproduce. Seasonally common in San 

Francisco, Suisun, and San Pablo Bays.


Appearance: Scaleless with eyes high on 

a large head, large mouth and small gills. 

Pelvic fins are forward of the pectoral fins; 

two separate dorsal fins. Olive brown to 

bronze or dark iridescent purple color on 

top and paler underneath. Up to 30 cm long. 

The dorsal fin holds a mild poison. Possesses 

photophores, which are arranged on the 

underside of the head in a U-shape and used 

to attract prey. 

Diet: Omnivore: eats worms, crustaceans, 

mollusks and other fishes. Hides in rock 

crevices among bottom vegetation, or 

digs dens in bottom sediments to ambush 

prey. Diet provides the ingredients for 

fluorescence. 


building and guarding a nest of rocks, the 

male entices females by humming his “love 

song,” a loud sound produced by vibrating 

a set of sonic muscles on its air bladder sixthousand 

times a minute for more than an 

hour at a time. The female chooses her mate 

(we can only speculate about her preference 

for humming volume, length, or tone!), 

deposits her eggs in the nest and the male 

fertilizes and guards them. Males try to attract 

several females to the same nest. 

Mortality/Longevity: Not endangered but are 

taken by local fishermen as a food fish and by 

trawlers as a source of fish meal and oil. They 

are prey for seals and sea lions. 

Remarks: An Academy connection: For many 

years Sausalito residents complained of an 

annoying noise that kept them awake at 

night during the summer months. The cause 

was uncertain, but theories were rampant: 

underwater surveillance equipment, secret 

weapons testing, extraterrestrial intrusions 

were all put forth. Then in the early 90s 

the Academy’s Senior Curator and then 

Director of Steinhart Aquarium John McCosker 

investigated and ultimately reassured irritated 

residents that the sound had no destructive 

intent, only a reproductive one. 

Study of the fish’s remarkable muscle endurance 

may lead to clues on fighting human muscle 

disease. 

ORDER OPHIDIIFORMES 

Red Brotula 

Brosmophycis marginata (Bythitidae) 

Livebearing Brotulas 

Distribution: Eastern Pacific coast; Alaska to 


Habitat: Substrate of rocky areas at depths of 

3¬–250 m, usually found at 50 m or more. 

Appearance: Elongate fish. Red to reddish 

brown, often darker above, lighter below. 

Fins typically reddish with dorsal and anal fin 

margins bright red. Four threadlike pelvic fins 

extend from below the gill cavity. Lips pink. 


Diet: Polychaete worms, small crustaceans and 

clams, and other invertebrates. 


Ovoviviparous; sexes separate. Males of the 

family Bythitidae have a copulatory organ 

(penis). 

Remarks: This secretive little fish, usually 

hidden among rocks at considerable depth, is 

seldom seen by humans. 

Flesh is reported to be sweet and fine-textured 

though rarely available from this hard-to-find 

species. One source noted the red brotula has 

never been caught by hook and line. 

ORDER LOPHIFORMES 

Frogfish 

Antennarius sp (Antennariidae) 

Frogfishes 

Distribution: Tropical oceans worldwide. 

Habitat: Rocky bottoms, coral reefs, and 

lagoons between 5–70 m. 

Appearance: Color can be yellow, red, orange, 

brown, grey or black and spotted or mottled; 

up to 35 cm. Can change color over a few days 

to match its surroundings. 

Diet: Small fishes, shrimps and crabs. 


external fertilization. Eggs are bound in a 

ribbon-like sheath of gelatinous mucus called 

an “egg raft” or “veil.” No parental care. 

Remarks: The frogfish, like anglerfishes in 

general, has a long filament attached to the 

head. The modified first spine of the anterior 

dorsal fin, this filament is decorated with an

irregular patch of flesh that dangles above the 

eyes and acts as a lure to attract prey for this 

lie-in-wait predator. 

Closure of the wide mouth is triggered by 

contact with the lure when a fish or other food 

item ventures too close. Back-facing teeth that 

can be depressed to facilitate passage of large 

objects and the fish’s ability to stretch both 

the already-huge jaws and the stomach to 

enormous size allow ingestion of prey up to 

twice as large as this angler’s body! 

Clingfish Family 

(Gobiesocidae) 

Clingfishes 

The family totals about 150 species worldwide; 

only 2 - the northern kelpfish (Gobiesox 

maeandricus) and the kelp clingfish (Rimicola 

muscarum) are found in northern California. 

Distribution: Mostly inshore fishes found in 

tropical and temperate oceans. 

Habitat: Bottom-dwelling fishes, typicallt 

found on or under rocks or high up in the 

kelp. They possess an adhesive disc, partially 

formed by the pelvic fins, to cling tightly to 

rocks or blades of kelp even in strong currents 

or crashing waves. 

Appearance: Most species are small, less than 

10 cm length. The tapering body has a single, 

posteriorly located dorsal fin, fanlike caudal 

fin, no spines, and flattened head. Skin is 

smooth and scaleless, with a thick layer of 

protective mucus. Cryptic coloration. 

Diet: Worms, small crabs, other crustaceans. 

Reproduction and Development: In mating 

the male nudges the female’s belly. If the female 

accepts him, the male moves parallel to her and 

quivers. Eggs are deposited on stones, algae, 

or other bottom material, and usually guarded 

by the male. Larvae are planktonic. 

Mortality/Longevity: Usually, early maturity 

and short life span (about 2 years). 

Conservation Status: All rocky shore creatures 

are at risk from coastal development and 

pollution such as oil spills and agricultural 

runoff, as well as careless visitors who can 

trample tide pool animals underfoot. 

Remarks: Like a number of other bottomdwelling 

fishes, clingfish lack swim bladders, 

an internal sac used by other fishes to control 

their position in the water. 


119 

Clingfish can adhere so tightly to a surface that 

a rock might be moved some distance by strong 

currents with the fish still attached! 

ORDER ATHERINIFORMES 

Madagascar Rainbowfish 

Bedotia madagascariensis (Bedotiidae) 

Madagascar Rainbowfishes 

Distribution: Madagascar. 

Habitat: It lives in shoals of 50–100 individuals 

among waterlogged wood in very strongly 

flowing water. 

Appearance: Maximum size: 9 cm. Metallic 

blue and gold base color with small scattered 

black spots on the flanks. 

Diet: Stomach content analysis reveals diet of 

mostly terrestrial insects. Thus dependent on overhead 

forest canopy for its insect food supply. 

Reproduction and Development: In courtship, 

males, display their fins and colors; then male 

swims close to female above spawning site, 

and the pair propels eggs and sperm onto the 

substrate, to which fertilized eggs attach by 

adhesive threads. Spawn on rocks and roots as 

habitats are often devoid of aquatic vegetation. 

Do not guard nest. Depending on temperature, 

eggs hatch in about 10 days. 

Conservation Status: IUCN: Near threatened. 

Threat is mainly from habitat loss and 

degradation. 

Banded Rainbowfish 

Melanotaenia trifasciata (Melanotaeniidae) 

Rainbowfishes 

Distribution: Northern Territories and 

Queensland, Australia. 

Habitat: Mainly in small streams and 

waterholes in clear to moderately turbid water. 

Occurs over rocky or gravel bottoms or in wellvegetated 

areas, frequently around submerged 

logs and branches. 

Appearance: Compressed body; small head. 

Males tend to be larger, deeper bodied, and 

more intensely colored. A conspicuous blueblack 

stripe runs from the snout, through the 

eye, and to the caudal fin. Red dorsal and anal 

fins edged in black. Length to 11 cm. 

Diet: Crustaceans, worms, insects and insect 

larvae.


Reproduction and Development: When 

female produces eggs, male displays intense 

colors before fertilization takes place. Eggs are 

laid and develop among plants. 


Topsmelt 

Atherinops affinis (Atherinidae) 

Silversides 

Distribution: Southern British Columbia to 


Habitat: Usually, these fish are found at about 

9 m around piers, rocky reefs, and kelp beds. 

In an ocean environment they may be found 

at depths up to 26 m. Also found in brackish 

bays and estuaries. Juveniles are better able to 

tolerate fresh water. 

Appearance: Blue-grey to green above, silvery 

below with a blue-edged, silver line that runs 

the full length of the body. Lateral line lacking. 

Their pelvic fins are longer than those of other 

smelt in the San Francisco Bay and Delta. 

Average length: about 37 cm. Juveniles are 

translucent. 

Diet: In the ocean, adults eat zooplankton and 

small crustaceans. In estuaries, they feed on 

plant material. Juveniles feed on algae and 

kelp fly larvae. They are diurnal feeders. 

Reproduction and Development: Egg clusters 

are attached to a macroalgae and eel grass. 

Larvae are planktonic. 

Mortality/Longevity: Maximum age: 6 to 9 

years. 

Remarks: They are called topsmelt for their 

habit of swimming near the surface where 

they form schools, often of thousands of 

individuals. 

Topsmelt are able to tolerate saline levels 2 to 

3 times that of the ocean, and are often found 

in salt evaporating ponds in San Francisco Bay. 

Jacksmelt 

Atherinopsis californiensis (Atherinidae) 

Silversides 

Distribution: Central Oregon to Gulf of California. 

Habitat: Schooling fish that prefers shallow 

inshore waters, bays, piers, kelp beds; surface 

to 29 m. 

Appearance: Length 33–38 cm. Greenish blue 

on back, silver shading below. Metallic stripe 

with blue border runs the length of the body. 

Diet: Small crustaceans. 

Reproduction and Development: Mature 

at 2 years and/or 15 cm long. Reproductive 

females spawn multiple times from October 

through March. Peak activity January through 

March. Spawning activity probably dependent 

on water temperature. Eggs the size of small 

BB’s. Adhesive filaments attach large egg mass 

to shallow-water seaweeds. 

Mortality/Longevity: Nine to 10 years, 

maximum: 11 years. Eaten by other fishes, 

marine mammals, and seabirds. 

Remarks: One of the most common fish caught 

by pier anglers. 

ORDER CYPRINODONTIFORMES 

Redtail Killifish 

Nothobranchius guentheri (Aplocheilidae) 

Rivulines 

Distribution: Africa: endemic to the island of 

Zanzibar. eastern Tanzania. 

Habitat: Tropical freshwater, especially 

seasonal pools and streams. 

Appearance: Males: gold face and underside, 

pale blue scales on sides outlined in red. 

Females: more subdued coloration. 

Diet: Carnivorous, especially insect larvae and 

small crustaceans. 

Reproduction and Development: Lay eggs 

in moist mud or sand before seasonal water 

evaporates. Adults die; however, eggs and 

embryos are able to withstand extended periods 

of drought and hatch whenever rains arrive. 

Remarks: The lateral line of the killifish is able 

to sense ripples made insects struggling at the 

water’s surface. 

These and other “mosquito” fish have been 

studied for introduction to areas needing 

mosquito control. Possible adverse effects of 

introducing an exotic species are also being 

considered. 

Patriciae Killifish 

Pachypanchax patriciae (Aplocheilidae) 

Killifishes 

Distribution: Endemic to Madagascar: the 

monsoon forests of the northwest and the 

deciduous forests of the extreme north.

Habitat: Small tropical rivers and streams. 

Tolerates conditions from water deficient 

in dissolved substances to water with high 

concentrations of dissolved minerals, pH 

values from acidic to slightly alkaline. Bottom 

dweller. 

Appearance: Max. size: 5.2 cm. Males display 

two color morphs: red and blue. Red males 

become less common and disappear completely 

as one moves from north to south. P. patriciae 

has a distinctly pointed snout and dorsal and 

anal fins that come to a sharp point in contrast 

to the dorsal and anal fins P. arnoulti, which 

are rounded. 

Diet: Terrestrial and aquatic insects. 

Mortality/Longevity: Preyed upon mostly by 

birds, dragonfly nymphs and other predatory 

insects as well as piscivorous fishes. 

Conservation Status: Because of its wide 

distribution, this species presently faces 

no threats from competitors or introduced 

predators. Habitat loss threatens northern 

population. Classified as Vulnerable by IUCN. 

Remarks: Named after Patricia Yazgi, 

recognizing her support of ongoing efforts to 

document and conserve Malagasy freshwater 

fishes. 

The genus Pachypanchax, which currently has 6 

described species, is endemic to Madagascar. 

Golden Topminnow 

Fundulus chrysotus (Fundulidae) 

Topminnows and Killifishes 

Distribution: River systems in the Gulf 

drainage of southeastern U.S. 

Habitat: Warm freshwater; also river mouths 

and tidal rivers. Found in creeks, pools, 

small to medium rivers, forested wetlands, 

usually in areas of heavy submerged aquatic 

vegetation. 

Appearance: Small fish to 7.5 cm. Has flattened 

head and back, upturned mouth, large eyes, 

and no lateral line. Sides flecked with gold. 

Diet: Insects or other aquatic invertebrates 

captured near or at the surface. 

Reproduction and Development: Eggs laid 

sporadically over a period of a week or more 

among the roots or stems of aquatic plants. 

Spawning late spring through summer. 

Remarks: Chrysotus means “golden ear,” 

a reference to the golden color of the gill 

covers. 


121 

Butterfly Splitfin aka Butterfly Goodeid 

Ameca splendens (Goodeidae) 

Goodeids 

Distribution: Formerly in Central America. 

Habitat: Was in freshwater to 2 m. 

Appearance: Length: male to 8 cm, female to 12 

cm. Males: silvery body, yellow vertical band 

on edge of caudal fin; females more drab, with 

small black dots on the sides: 

Diet: Omnivorous, but require plant matter. 

Reproduction and Development: Livebearers. 

Fertilization internal. Part of the anal 

fin of males is separate and used in mating. Fry 

born with a primitive umbilical cord attached 

that provided nourishment from the mother 

during gestation. Cord drops off about 24 

hours after birth. 

Conservation Status: Probably extinct in 

the wild (IUCN). The Steinhart maintains a 

breeding colony. 

Golden Topminnow 

Fundulus chrysotus (Poeciliidae) 

Poeciliids 

Distribution: Found throughout Florida, along 

the coasts of Georgia, South Carolina and the 

Gulf Coast to Texas. 

Habitat: Freshwater ponds, swamps, sluggish 

creeks and backwaters with extensive aquatic 

vegetation. 

Appearance: The male caudal peduncle has 

brown-orange blotches and stipples which 

become more numerous at the caudal fin base. 

The back has a dark, narrow pre-dorsal stripe. 

Males have vertical bars and a scattering of red 

dots on the sides and flecks of iridescent blue 

or gold along the sides of the head and body. 

The fins have brown spots and the caudal fin 

is a faint tangerine color. Female bodies are 

a greenish olive color with translucent fins. 

Length: 2.5–5 cm. 

Diet: A surface feeder on water beetles, insects 

and aquatic invertebrates. 


occurs in late spring through summer, with 

pairs depositing their eggs on roots or stems 

of floating plants. Eggs are extruded and 

fertilized singly with 10 –20 eggs produced 

over a period of a week or more.



Remarks: The name describes this fish. 

Fundulus means “bottom” and chrysotus 

means “golden ear,” referring to the color of 

its gill covers. 

Endler’s Livebearer 

Scientific name yet to be designated; Poecilia 

endleri has been suggested (Poeciliidae) 

Livebearers 

Distribution: Northeastern Venezuela; may be 

extinct in the wild 

Habitat: Formerly in a freshwater lagoon. 

Appearance: A tiny, guppy-sized fish. The anal 

fin of the male, along with its internal supports 

of bone, muscle and cartilage, is highly 

modified into a copulatory organ. Female is 

less colorful.than the many-hued male. 

Diet: Eat whatever food is available. 

Reproduction and Development: Viviparous. 

Attain maturity quickly, allowing them to 

reproduce rapidly given favorable conditions. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: probably up 

to 3 years. 

Conservation Status: Apparently extinct in their 

natural habitat. Now live only in captivity. 

Remarks: Dr. John Endler discovered this species 

in 1975 but died before his paper describing the 

species’ provisional name was published. 

This species appears to be “weedy” (has high 

reproductive rate at early age). Since it is 

apparently extinct in the wild, it illustrates that 

a “weed” is vulnerable to extinction, too. 

Desert Pupfish 

Cyprinodon macularius (Cyprinodontidae) 

Killifishes and Pupfishes 

Distribution: North America: originally described 

from the lower Colorado River drainage, 

including Gila River system and south 

through Southern Arizona and California, USA 

(including Salton Sea) into Northern Mexico. 

Now occurs only at two protected locations: 

Quitobaquito Springs at Organ Pipe Cactus 

National Monument, Arizona, and a wildlife 

refuge at Anza-Borrego State Park, California, 

on the western side of the Salton Sea. 

Habitat: Usually occurs over mud or sand in 

springs, marshes, lakes and pools of creeks; 

also in hot springs with temperatures up to 45° 

C and salinities up to 20.0 %. Able to tolerate 

the lowest oxygen levels of any fish species that 

has been studied. 

Appearance: Length to 7 cm. Small, stout, 

deep-bodied; back silver to olive; sides silver 

with 6–9 dusky bars. 

Diet: Primarily algae, supplemented with 

small invertebrates. 


males iridescent blue. Fertilization external. 

Females scatter eggs over substrate. Nonguarders. 

Hatchlings grow quickly; can reach 

5 cm length in one year. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: about 2 yrs. 

Conservation Status: Listed as Endangered 

due to desert development and the introduction 

of exotic fish. 

Remarks: Isolation, very small population 

size per breeding group, and short lifetime 

contribute to rapid speciation in pupfish.. 

ORDER BERYCIFORMES 

Splitfin Flashlight Fish 

Anomalops katoptron (Anomalopidae) 

Flashlightfishes 

Distribution: East coast of Africa to the Philippines 

and Indonesia, north to southern Japan, 

south to the Great Barrier Reef. 

Habitat: Steep drop offs near caves to 400 m. 

Appearance: Length to 35 cm. Black with luminous 

organ under the eyes. 


Reproduction and Development: Little 

known. Probably not an egg guarder. 

Remarks: Light organ operates by rotation 

into a sac when not needed (vs. Photoblepheron 

palpebratus below); thus this fish can elect when 

to turn off its “lights.” 

Function of the glowing green light (provided 

by endosymbiotic bacteria) is reportedly used 

to communicate with conspecifics of the host. 

Anomalops was discovered by the Academy’s 

Senior Scientist and former Steinhart Aquarium 

Director John McCosker. On a trip to the 

Comoros Islands in 1977, Dr. McCosker was 

unable to collect his primary target, a living 

coelacanth; however, on a deep dive, he 

discovered, collected, and returned these 

flashlight fish to the Steinhart, the first 

aquarium in the world to display them.

Flashlight Fish aka Eyelight Fish 

Photoblepharon palpebratus (Anomalopidae) 

Flashlightfishes 

Distribution: Philippines to Society Islands, 

north to Marshall Islands, south to Great Barrier 

Reef. 

Habitat: Only observed on “moonless” nights 

on seaward reefs near or along steep drop offs 

with caves. 7 to more than 30 m. Hide in caverns 

during the day. 

Appearance: Length to 12 cm. Black with 

blunt snout, large mouth and a forked tail. 

Luminous lime-green light organ under the 

eyes is diagnostic. 

Diet: Zooplankton; small fish, crabs, and 

shrimp. Usually feeds in large groups away 

from the reefs at night. 

Reproduction and Development: The bacteria 

shine only in the light organs of adults. 

Remarks: A lime-green light is produced 

biochemically by symbiotic bacteria that live 

within the light organs below the fish’s eyes. 

The light attracts prey. The light may also allow 

this fish to observe prey, confuse predators 

and be a means of conspecific communication. 

(The function of bioluminescence is very much 

a hot topic). 

A flap of skin moves over the light organ to 

“turn it off or on.” 

Soldierfish 

Myripristis sp. (Holocentridae) Squirrelfishes 

and Soldierfishes 

Distribution: Indonesia and the Philippines 

to the Hawaiian Islands, north to the Ryukyu 

Islands, south to New Caledonia. 

Habitat: Reef flats and seaward slopes, 2–52 

m. By day often school in large aggregations 

inside caves or under ledges and boulders. 

Non-migratory. 

Appearance: Red with dark scale margins, red 

dorsal, anal and caudal fins; dark margin on 

posterior of gill cover. Length to 32 cm. Large 

eyes. 

Diet: Feed mainly on polychaete worms; also 

on crabs, hermit crabs, and shrimp larvae. 


external. Parents do not guard eggs. 


ORDER INCERTAE SEDIS 

123 

Everglades Pygmy Sunfish 

Elassoma evergladei (Elassomatidae) 

Pygmy Sunfishes 

Distribution: Southeastern U.S. 

Habitat: Mostly temperate to subtropical 

freshwater swamps, marshes, and other 

shallow, slow-moving and densely vegetated 

waters. 

Appearance: Females, young, and nonbreeding 

males are a drab yellowish color with 

dark mottling, easily mistaken for dead leaves 

or the vegetation they use for cover. Breeding 

males are more colorful, turning almost black 

with iridescent blue spots. 

Diet: Worms, crustaceans, and aquatic 

insects. 

Reproduction and Development: To attract 

mates, males make elaborate courtship 

displays that include walking on their fins and 

dancing a fishy version of the twist. Females 

lay eggs on or in dense vegetation; the male 

guards the nest area until the fry hatch and 

scatter. Mature into young adults at about 

three months and begin spawning in about six 

months, usually in March and April. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: ~ 1 year. 

Remarks: The pygmy sunfishes are not true 

sunfishes (Centrachidae). 

ORDER SYNGATHIFORMES 

Shrimpfish aka Razorfish 

Aeoliscus strigatus (Centriscidae) 

Snipefishes and Shrimpfishes 

Distribution: Indian and western Pacific 

oceans; Aldabra Atoll and Seychelles Islands 

to New Caledonia, north to southern Japan ; 

south to Great Barrier Reef, Australia. 

Habitat: In small groups, swim and rest with 

head down near long-spined sea urchins, 

branching corals or other hiding places to 42 m. 

Appearance: Length to 15 cm. Very thin body, 

ventral keel surrounded with contorted bony 

plates, long tubular snout. Coloration is silvery 

with brown mid-lateral stripe. In adults the 

trunk forms a long, powerful, flexible spine. 

Diet: Minute planktonic crustaceans. 

Remarks: The vertical resting posture of


this species is, anecdotally, an anti-predator 

adaptive response. Like many “just-so” stories 

pitched by biologists, this is likely the correct 

explanation. 

Swim horizontally only when hunting. 

Otherwise, swim with head down and back 

facing the direction of travel. 

If a rival enters their territory, they aim the 

sharp edge of the belly toward the adversary. 

Janss’ Pipefish 

Doryrhamphus janssi (Syngnathidae) 

Pipefishes, Seahorses, and Seadragons 

Distribution: Indo-Australian tropical marine: 

Gulf of Thailand to the Solomons, north to the 

Philippines, south to Australia and parts of 

Micronesia. 

Habitat: Tropical reefs: tide pools and rock 

crevices, also sheltered inner reefs, depth to 35 m. 

Appearance: Elongate body with tube-like 

snout. Dark blue-brown shading on head 

and tail, orange-brown central body. Max. 

size: 14 cm. 

Diet: An active cleaner, most often serving 

cardinal and damselfishes. 


The male carries eggs in a brood pouch 

under the tail.. 

Remarks: Uncommon in its range. 

Ribboned Pipefish 

Haliichthys taeniophorus (Syngnathidae) 


Distribution: Indo-Pacific: Indonesia south to 

Australia. 

Habitat: Protected coastal shallows over or 

among algae, sea grasses, or floating weeds. 

Appearance: Elongate body with bony knobs 

above the eyes and spines on body ridges. 

Max. size: 30 cm 

Diet: Minute invertebrates and fish larvae. 


male carries eggs in brood pouch under 

the tail. 

Conservations Status: Not listed, but like 

other pipefishes and seahorses, their situation 

probably continues to decline. 

Remarks: In spite of its name, this fish is not 

a true seadragon, but rather a member of the 

pipefish group; seadragons lack the brood 

pouch and prehensile tail characteristic of 

seahorses and pipefishes. 

H. taeniophorus is the only member of its genus. 

Seahorses 

Hippocampus spp. (Syngnathidae) 


Comments apply to all species of the genus. 

Distribution: Indo-Pacific, Atlantic Ocean and 

Mediterranean Sea. 

Habitat: Shallow tropical marine waters. 

Appearance: Long and thin body enclosed 

in bony rings. Tubelike snout with terminal 

mouth. Lack pelvic fins. Length to over 16 

cm. Colored brown, may have lighter spots. 

Prehensile tail. 

Diet: Suck tiny planktonic prey, especially 

crustaceans, into their tubelike mouth. Locate 

prey with binocular vision. 

Reproduction and Development: Female lays 

her eggs in the male’s brood pouch, where they 

are incubated and hatched. Young expelled 

once capable of swimming. 

Conservation Status: Many populations of 

seahorses are very endangered due to collection 

as an ingredient in the traditional Asian, 

especially Chinese, pharmacopeia. Also collected 

for the souvenir and aquarium trades. 

Remarks: Evolutionarily, seahorses have sacrificed 

streamlining and speed for heavy armor. 

Locomote with dorsal and pectoral fins; swim 

slowly in an upright posture. 

The caudal peduncle has evolved into a 

prehensile “tail” for grasping plants. 

Like most other syngnathids, seahorses may 

undergo color changes to blend with their 

surroundings, to indicate breeding readiness, 

or to indicate mood or stress. 

Over 95% of the seahorses caught per year are 

used for traditional Chinese medicines used to 

treat a variety of ailments from impotence and 

infertility to asthma and skin diseases. 

The present rate of harvest is unsustainable. 

Possible remedies that preserve both seahorses 

and useful medicines may be the synthetic 

production of these potions or an increase in 

farmed seahorse populations. 

Potbelly Seahorse 

Hippocampus abdominalis (Syngnathidae) 


Distribution: Southwest Pacific around

Australia and New Zealand. 

Habitat: Harbors and sheltered coastal bays 

among algae, seagrasses and rocky reefs. 

Appearance: One of the largest seahorses 

(grows of up to 35 cm). As the common name 

suggests, the species is marked by a large, 

swollen belly. Individuals may be brown, 

yellow, grey, white, orange or mottled with 

dark spots on head and trunk. Males differ 

from females by having longer tails, shorter 

snouts, and darker markings as well as a 

yellow mark near the top of the brood pouch, 

which is extremely prominent (usually white). 

Diet: Tiny crustaceans, such as amphipods and 

shrimp, sucked into the tube-like snouts and 

ingested whole. 

Reproduction and Development: This species 

breeds in the austral spring and summer. 

Females seem to be attracted to males with the 

largest pouches, so to win the mating game, 

males create “potbellies” by pumping them 

full of water. The impressed female lays eggs 

in the selected pouch where they are fertilized 

by the male. As is the case with seahorse 

species in general, the eggs become embedded 

in the wall of the pouch; a placenta-like fluid 

removes waste products and supplies eggs 

with nutrients and oxygen. 

Conservation Status: Threats include habitat 

loss, incidental by-catch in commercial 

fisheries, and collection for the aquarium and 

oriental medicine trades. Australia strictly 

controls catch and export. Like all seahorse 

species, listed Appendix II by CITES. 

Remarks: The potbelly seahorse is one of the 

strongest swimming seahorse species. 

Lined Seahorse 

Hippocampus erectus (Syngnathidae) 


Distribution: North and South American 

coastline from Nova Scotia to as far south as 

Argentina. 

Habitat: Commonly found in sea grasses along 

coastal areas and in bays and salt marshes at 

depths of 0.5 –30 m. 

Appearance: A deep-chested, hardy seahorse. 

Colors range from black-brown, gray, green, 

yellow, orange, and red. These colors are may 

change with surroundings, diet, stress, mood, 

or possibly other factors. 


125 


Reproduction and Development: As with all 

seahorses, male broods and cares for the young. 

H. erectus females spray several hundred eggs 

into the male brood pocket. Eggs hatch within 

about 20 days, and embryos continue to be 

carried within the pouch until they are capable 

of free swimming. 

Like most seahorses, H. erectus is monogamous; 

a seahorse will mate exclusively with the 

same partner for life. Partners reaffirm their 

relationships with a ritual morning dance. 

Conservation Status: Listed as “Vulnerable” 

by IUCN. This species is taken as bycatch in 

shrimp trawls ad is also affected by habitat 

degradation caused by pollution and coastal 

development, 

Remarks: H. erectus is a weak swimmer. One 

estimate: crossing a bath tub would take an 

individual about 5 minutes! 

The lined seahorse is traded for use as 

aquarium fishes, curios and traditional Chinese 

medicine. 

Spotted Seahorse 

Hippocampus kuda (Syngnathidae) 


Distribution: Maldives to southwest Japan and 

northern Australia, east to Hawaii. 

Habitat: To 68 m. Inhabit seagrass and marine 

algae areas of estuaries and seaward reefs; also 

on steep mud slopes in mangroves. Found 

pelagically attached to drifting Sargassum up 

to 20 km from shore. 

Appearance: To 30 cm. Drab brown to black 

with sprinkling of small dark spots. Like all 

seahorses, its elongate body is enclosed with 

bony plates covered by scaleless skin, and a 

prehensile tail used to tether to plants, etc. 

Diet: Minute invertebrates are sucked into the 

tubular snout. 


deposits eggs into male’s brood pouch in 

which the eggs are fertilized and incubated. 

The orange-amber, pear-shaped eggs are 

embedded in the epithelial tissue lining of the 

pouch wall, and the surrounding capillaries 

supply oxygen to the 20–1000 larvae in 

incubating sacs; length of development is 

20–28 days.


Mortality/Longevity: This species is being 

harvested at an alarming rate for use in 

traditional Chinese medicine, as it is highly 

valued. 

Conservation Status: Vulnerable, CITES II. 

Trade is regulated by CITES with a minimum 

size of 10 cm allowed for this species in 

commerce. 

Remarks: The seahorse has no caudal or 

ventral fins. Rapid oscillation of small 

dorsal fin propels the animal forward in 

the characteristic upright position. Small 

pectorals are used for steering. Defense 

is achieved by camouflage, stillness, and 

maneuverability, not by speed. 

Longsnout Seahorse 

Hippocampus reidi (Syngnathidae) 


Distribution: Western Atlantic Ocean, North 

Carolina to Brazil. 

Habitat: Usually or near coral reefs, in 

association with gorgonian corals, seagrass 

beds, mangroves, and Sargassum. 

Appearance: Males often bright orange and 

females yellow; both may be covered in brown 

or white spots. Max. size: 



species in their family, pairs generally mate for 

life. Highly ritualistic courtship may include 

dramatic color changes to pink or white and 

intricate dances leading up to the female’s 

depositing up to 1,000 eggs in the male’s brood 

pouch. 

Conservation Status: Collected as aquarium 

fishes, folk medicine, and curiosities. Also 

taken a bycatch in shrimp trawl fisheries. 

Degradation of seagrass habitats, especially 

along the U.S. may be reducing their numbers 

locally. The entire genus Hippocampus is listed 

in Appendix II of CITES in 2002. 

Leafy Seadragon 

Phycodurus eques (Syngnathidae) 


Distribution: Endemic to southern Australia. 

Habitat: Among brown algae (kelp) in shallow, 

temperate water, associated with seagrass beds 

and rocky reefs. 

Description: Yellow-brown to green with stripes 

around the body. Single dorsal fin; paired 

pectoral fins along sides of neck. Body laterally 

flattened, covered with armor-like plates instead 

of scales and with rows of long, sharp spines 

along the sides. Long, tubular snout. Most 

distinguishing feature is the elaborate leaf-like 

appendages of skin that hang off the head, body 

and tail. Up to 45 cm, 120 g. 

Diet: Mysid shrimp, zooplankton and fish 

larvae. 

Reproduction and Development: Like the 

seahorse, the male seadragon carries the eggs. 

He develops about 120 shallow depressions in a 

spongy section of the ventral surface of his tail. 

The female deposits her eggs in the depressions 

where they are fertilized and incubated until 

they hatch, in about 4 weeks. The hatching is 

staggered to assist with dispersal and avoid 

competition for food among the young. The 

hatchlings are vulnerable to predation by fish, 

crustaceans and anemones, but they are fastgrowing, 

reaching a length of 20 cm in one 

year. It is speculated that while one female will 

approach only one male for mating, more than 

one female may use the egg storage capacity 

of a single male. 

Conservation Status: IUCN: Listed as near 

threatened. Major threats of habitat loss, 

pollution, and over-collection are at least 

slightly mitigated by the number of offspring 

produced. Today, seadragons are protected 

under Australian law, and their export, even 

for educational exhibits in aquaria, is strictly 

regulated. 

Remarks: With its extraordinary leaflike 

appendages the leafy seadragon is one of 

the best camouflaged animals on the planet. 

Almost indistinguishable from the surrounding 

kelp, it is invisible to predator and prey alike. 

Even its tubular snout looks like a kelp stem. 

It can change color due to age, habitat, diet or 

stress. 

Unlike its seahorse relative that swims 

vertically, the seadragon swims horizontally. It 

is a very slow swimmer, as might be expected 

from its tiny fins, but is protected not only by 

its camouflage but by sharp spines that deter 

predators. 

The leafy seadragon has the honor of being the 

official emblem of Australia.

Weedy Seadragon 

Phyllopteryx taeniolatus (Syngnathidae) 

Seahorses, Pipefishes, and Seadragons 

Distribution: Endemic to waters off southern 

Australia. 

Habitat: Kelp-covered rocky reefs. 

Description: Orange-yellow to brownishyellow, 

small pale dots on body with stripes, 

often brilliant blue, on neck. Leafy projections, 

purple with black edges, in varying numbers, 

along the body. Long, tubular snout. Dorsal fin 

near the tail, two tiny pectoral fins on neck. 

Diet: Mysid shrimp and other small 

crustaceans, fish larvae. Like all syngnathids, 

seadragons lack teeth and a true stomach and 

to compensate must hunt and feed almost 

continually. 

Reproduction and Development: Prior to 

mating the area of the male’s tail where he 

will keep the eggs becomes slightly swollen, 

soft and spongy. The female actually pushes 

the eggs onto this area of the male’s tail where 

they are fertilized. He carries the eggs for about 

2 months. The young are born with a yolk sac 

still attached that sustains them for about two 

days, until their snout grows enough to feed. 

Conservation Status: Threatened by habitat 

destruction, protected by federal and local 

legislation. 

Remarks: The appendages of weedy seadragons 

are not as elaborate as those of leafy seadragons; 

however, their camouflage is also effective as 

they look like pieces of sea weed floating in 

the water. 

Weedy and leafy seadragons share the same 

range and habitat and have the same conservation 

status. Both swim horizontally and 

reproduce and develop in the same way. 

All syngnathids lack teeth; instead, they suck 

in their prey, similar to drinking through a 

straw. 

Alligator Pipefish 

Syngnathoides biaculeatus (Syngnathidae) 


Distribution: Red Sea; South Africa to Samoa, 

north to southern Japan, south to eastern 

Australia. 

Habitat: Protected coastal shallows over 

or among algae, seagrasses, or floating 


127 

weeds. Juveniles occasionally found near the 

surface. 

Appearance: Slender body; variably colored 

green to brown or grey, reportedly depending 

on habitat. Bony plates on skin form a series of 

protective rings. Distinct tubular snout. Shape 

and color provide excellent camouflage. 

Diet: Minute invertebrates and fish larvae. 


The male carries the eggs in a brood 

pouch and protectively located under his 

prehensile tail. 

Mortality/Longevity: Utilized in the traditional 

and legal Chinese drug trade to extract 

Hailong, apparently an important ingredient 

within the traditional Chinese pharmaceutical 

cornucopia. 

Conservation Status: IUCN: “Data Deficient.” 

Remarks: The conservation status above, 

courtesy the IUCN, is based on data collected 

more than 14 years ago. Like other pipefishes 

and seahorses, their situation probably 

continues to decline. 

Bay Pipefish 

Syngnathus leptorhynchus (Syngnathidae) 



Habitat: Eel grass in bays and estuaries, 

including San Francisco and Monterey Bays. 

Appearance: Slender elongated form 

resembling a tube that ends in a toothless 

mouth. Instead of scales, their bodies are 

covered with bony plates that form ridges. The 

female is larger than the male and may be 33 

cm. long. The male’s brood pouch is located 

beneath the tail. 

Diet: Small invertebrates, especially crustaceans. 

Reproduction and Development: Elaborate 

mating rituals occur between May and August 

culminating in the female depositing eggs in 

the male’s brood pouch. Up to 225 eggs have 

been found in a pouch, in different stages of 

development indicating multiple deposits 

possibly by different females. Incubation period 

is 8–21 days depending on temperature. Young 

resemble small adults when they emerge. They 

must hide to avoid being eaten by the adults. 

Mortality/Longevity: Known to be taken by 

striped bass.


Remarks: While feeding, they remain in 

constant motion to create the water currents 

that convey plankton to their small tubular 

mouths. They move by using dorsal fins, and 

steer by moving heads from side to side. 

Used in Chinese medicine. 

ORDER SCORPAENIFORMES 

(SCORPIONFISHES) 

Rockfishes aka Rockcods 

Sebastes spp. (Sebastidae/Scorpaenidae) 

Rockfishes and Scorpionfishes 

This is a very large complex of species. Comments 

below apply to the entire genus, unless 

otherwise indicated. 

Distribution: Central California to Baja California. 

Habitat: In our area, common in clean bays, 

along shore, in kelp forests, and offshore to 

depths to 450 m, (some deeper). Rocky areas, 

others on offshore soft substrates. 

Appearance: Basslike shape, compressed body, 

large mouth. Size varies by species. Most adults 

15–30 cm, some species to at least 96 cm. Red 

and brown are the predominant colors. Most 

have spines on the head. 

Diet: Carnivorous predators. 


internal. Although rockfish are sometimes 

reported as being ovoviviparous (bearing 

live young without maternal nutrition), many 

recent studies have confirmed that they are 

a primitive viviparous group and supply 

nutrients to developing embryos. Female 

typically gives birth to many live larval stage 

fry, each about the size of an eyelash. Most, 

of course, are food for others with only a few 

reaching reproductive maturity. 

Mortality/Longevity: Rockfish are among the 

longest-lived fishes, with most species living 

between 20–50 years. A number of species live 

to be well over 100 years old, and the oldest 

rockfish known was aged at 205 years, a rougheye 

caught off the coast of Alaska. 

Conservation Status: Until recently, an important 

food fish taken commercially and by sportfishers. 

However, rockfish stocks, especially 

among certain species, are in steep decline. 

New regulations are now in place, in order to 

allow populations to recover. Since many rockfish 

species do not breed until 20 years or more 

and also have relatively few young, a recovery 

for many species may not happen during the 

lifetime of the reader of this text. 

Remarks: The Scorpaenidae (scorpionfishes 

and rockfishes) is the largest family of fishes in 

our area, the Eastern Pacific coast, with more 

than 60 species (Sebastes spp.) 

Dorsal, pelvic, and anal spines are slightly 

venomous. Level of toxicity varies by species. 

Eschmeyer (CAS curator emeritus) and others 

recognize Sebastidae as a separate family that 

includes only the rockfishes. Others place 

rockfish together with scorpionfish in the 

single family Scorpaenidae. 

Copper Rockfish 

Sebastes caurinus (Sebastidae/Scorpaenidae) 


Distribution: Gulf of Alaska to central Baja 

California. 

Habitat: Rocky or rock-sand bottoms, 10–180 

m. Solitary, bottom-dwelling reef fish which 

frequently live near pinnacles and wrecks. 

Particularly abundant in shallow, protected 

bays and inlets, among rocks and kelp beds; 

also found around pilings and jetties or under 

floats. Juveniles found in loose aggregations 

in shallow weedy bays, around wharfs, or 

among floating drift associated with summer 

tidelines. Adults avoid warm water; thus live 

deeper in southern California than farther 

north. Juveniles tend to live in shallow (< 7 

m) water. 

Appearance: Length to 60 cm. Deep, stout 

body. Color highly variable; dark brown or 

olive to pink or orange-red above, with patches 

of pink-copper and occasionally yellow; bright 

white below. Fins primarily copper, often 

dusky. Juveniles are often more intensely colored 

than adults. 

Diet: Juveniles consume plankton. Adults 

are mainly benthic feeders and prey upon 

fishes, crabs, mysid shrimp, prawns, amphipods, 

octopuses, polychaete worms and 

fish eggs. 


internal. Viviparous. Larvae planktonic. Sexually 

mature at around five years. 

Mortality/Longevity: Live to at least 55 years.

Starry Rockfish 

Sebastes constellatus (Sebastidae/Scorpaenidae) 


Distribution: San Francisco south to Baja. 

Habitat: Coastal waters; usually on deep reefs 

at 24–275 m. 

Appearance: Red-orange above, with 3–4 large 

whitish blotches on back; paler below. Small 

white dots cover most of the body. Max. length: 

46 cm. 

Reproduction and Development: Viviparous 

with planktonic larvae and pelagic juveniles. 

Remarks: Occasionally caught by sport fishers; 

considered highly flavorful. 

Splitnose Rockfish 

Sebastes diploproa (Sebastidae/Scorpaenidae) 


Distribution: Southeastern Alaska to central 


Habitat: Common on sandy bottoms offshore. 

Juveniles in shallow water, adults deeper. 

Appearance: Toothed knobs in front of the 

upper jaw with a deep notch between (thus 

the common name). 

Diet: Krill, copepods, and squids. 


with planktonic larvae and pelagic juveniles 

that congregate around drifting kelp. Males 

mature at 7–10 years; females at 6–8. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: up to 84 yrs. 

Remarks: Diploproa is formed from two Greek 

words that together mean “double prow,” a 

reference to this fish’s distinctive facial feature. 

From central California to Washington, deep- 

living adults are part of a major fishery, taken 

mostly by trawls. 

Black Rockfish 

Sebastes melanops (Sebastidae/Scorpaenidae) 



Habitat: Found in schools near rocky reefs in 

shallow water and in open water above deep 

banks.Nearshore to 360 m. May live above or 

on the bottom 

Appearance: Black to blue black mottled with 

gray. Some individuals have lighter patches 

on back and a gray lateral stripe from head 

to tail. Lacks the dark head bands of the blue 


129 

rockfish; also has more gray, a smaller mouth, 

and a longer jaw than the blue. 

Diet: Fishes. 


Young are important prey species for various 

fishes, marine mammals, and birds. Prized by 

humans as a food fish. 

Blue Rockfish 

Sebastes mystinus (Sebastidae/Scorpaenidae) 


Distribution: Vancouver Island to northern 


Habitat: Inhabit kelp forests, shallow reefs and 

open water over deep reefs. They are found at 

depths of up to 550 m but are most abundant 

from 5–60 m. They are often seen schooling 

with other species of rockfish. 

Appearance: Mottled blue-black to bright 

blue with two to four dark bands which curve 

around the front of the head. Sloping band 

from the eye toward the pectoral fin with a 

smaller band below. Rear edge of the anal fin is 

straight and slanted. Can reach 50 cm in length 

and live to 24 years. 

Diet: Blue rockfish eat jellyfish, krill, copepods, 

fishes, hydroids and kelp. Larger blues eat 

relatively more fishes. Adults are preyed upon 

by other rockfish, lingcod, sharks, dolphins 

and sea lions. 

Reproduction and Development: Fish mature 

between 6–9 years. Blues mate in October 

(internal fertilization) but the embryos do 

not begin to develop until December when 

the eggs are fertilized by the stored sperm. 

Embryos develop within the female and 

larvae are released into the water; usually 

in January. Larvae are planktonic for four to 

five months. 

A reason for the decline in general rockfish 

numbers may be that the plankton on which 

the larvae feed have declined due to warming 

ocean temperatures, causing larvae to 

starve. 

Remarks: Coppers are the most abundant 

rockfish in central California. 

China Rockfish 

Sebastes nebulosus (Sebastidae/Scorpaenidae) 


Distribution: Southeast Alaska to Redondo


Beach and San Miguel Island, Southern California. 

Habitat: Rocky shores along exposed coasts, 

depth 3–138+ m. Lurk solitarily in caverns 

and among crevices, rest benthically on their 

fins. Often remain on their “homesite” for 

many years. 

Appearance: Length to 45 cm, weight to 1.7 

kg. Yellow speckles on head, yellow stripe 

extends from foredorsal fin to the length of 

lateral line. 

Diet: Prey upon fishes, crustaceans (including 

amphipods, crabs and shrimps), brittle stars 

and mollusks (including gastropods, squid 

and octopuses). 


internal.. 


Conservation status: See Rockfishes above. 

Remarks: One of the tastiest rockfishes, but infrequently 

in markets because rarely caught. 

All rockfishes have venomous spines on dorsal, 

pectoral and anal fins. Not so toxic as scorpionfishes 

venom, but still capable of inflicting 

a painful sting. 

Sebastes is Greek for “magnificent.” Nebulosus 

is Latin for “clouded.” 

Tiger Rockfish 

Sebastes nigrocinctus (Sebastidae/Scorpaenidae) 


Distribution: Southeast Alaska to Southern 

California. 

Habitat: Among rocky reefs to depths of 10 

to 275 m; solitary; defend a home crevice or 

cave. 

Appearance: Length to 60 cm. Weight to 2.2 

kg. Colored red or pink, with five or six black 

or dark red bars on body. Pelvic and anal fins 

are black-tipped on juveniles. 

Diet: Prey upon other fishes including rockfish 

and herring. Also eat shrimp, crabs, amphipods, 

polychaete worms and brittle stars. 


internal. Viviparous. Juveniles pelagic. 

Mortality/Longevity: Reported to live to 116 

years. 

Remarks: Rapidly change color when disturbed 

or when lighting changes. 

Bocaccio 

Sebastes paucispinis (Sebastidae/Scorpaenidae) 



Habitat: Deep rocky 40 – 300 m (130 – 980 ft) 

preferred, but are found in almost all habitats. 

Oil platforms are now a somewhat important 

artificial habitat for the species. 

Appearance: World record: 90 cm, 9.5 kg. 

Long jaw which extends to the eye socket 

is distinctive. Adults’ backs range in color 

from olive- to burnt-orange with pink & red 

stomachs. Juveniles are light bronze with small 

brown spots on their sides. Coloring darkens 

and spots disappear as they mature. 

Diet: Other rockfish is preferred diet, but they 

will eat other fish and squid. Larvae feed on 

diatoms, dinoflagellates. 

Reproduction and Development: Fish from 

age 1 – 3 years are relatively pelagic, become 

more demersal (bottom oriented) as they age. 

Maturity at 4–5 years of age. Like all rockfishes, 

bocaccio have internal fertilization, embryo 

development is internal, and the female gives 

birth to live larval young. Larvae are found 

in surface waters and may be distributed over 

a wide area extending several hundred miles 

offshore. The female produces from 20,000 to 

over 2 million eggs. 

Mortality/Longevity: Seabirds feed on 

juveniles. Marine mammals are common 

predators of adults. Life span: 45 to 50 years. 

Conservation Status: Thought to consist of 

three partially isolated populations: southern 

population off California (species of concern), 

northern off Washington & British Columbia, 

and a Puget Sound/Strait of Georgia population 

that has been proposed for listing under the 

Endangered Species Act. 

Remarks: Current decline due to overfishing, 

which was curtailed in 1998. Because the 

species is slow-growing and late maturing, 

recovery will take many years, but if fishery 

management plans continue to be followed, 

long-term risk of further decline in the 

population is low. These fish are still being 

caught as bycatch in other fisheries. 

Rosy Rockfish 

Sebastes rosaceus (Sebastidae/Scorpaenidae) 

Rockfishes and Scorpionfishes

Distribution: Puget Sound to central Baja, but 

rare north of California. 

Habitat: Bottom-dweller, usually between 

30–45 m, though occasionally deeper. 

Appearance: 4–5 whitish blotches bordered by 

purple on the back; reddish to purple mottling 

on back, sides red, whitish below. Unlike the 

Starry Rockfish, is not covered with white 

dots. A relatively small rockfish; max. length: 

36 cm. 

Reproduction and Development: Livebearer. 

Yelloweye Rockfish 

Sebastes ruberrimus (Sebastidae/Scorpaenidae) 

Rockfishes 

Distribution: Eastern Pacific: Gulf of Alaska 

to northern Baja California. 

Habitat: Rocky reefs and boulder fields from 

15–475 m. 

Appearance: Color: orange red to orange 

yellow, eye bright yellow; fins often with black 

tips; adults with light to white stripe on lateral 

line, juveniles (as in our exhibit) with 2 light 

stripes, one on the lateral line and a shorter one 

below. Max. length: 1 m; weight: 18 kg. 

Diet: Fishes and crustaceans. 


like all rockfishes, 

Mortality/Longevity: Yelloweyes are among 

the longest lived of rockfishes, living up to 118 

years old! 

Conservation Status: Survey data is not up 

to date, but today few yelloweye rockfish are 

being caught, suggesting a low population 

level. 

Yelloweye is now given the highest priority for 

tracking catches, and is a federally-designated 

“overfished species” of special concern because 

of its slow growth, late maturation and long 

life. Federal studies suggest that yelloweye 

rockfish stocks will not recover to former levels 

for over 70 years. 

Flag Rockfish 

Sebastes rubrivinctus (Sebastidae/Scorpaenidae) 


Distribution: Eastern Pacific: San Francisco, 

California, USA to Cape San Quentin, Baja 

California. 

Habitat: Depth to 300 m. Juveniles shallower. 


131 

Adults typically solitary and shelter in and 

around rocks, large sea anemones, ledge overhangs 

and in kelp. 

Appearance: Length to 64 cm. Deep, fusiform, 

compressed. Adult colored white-pinkish with 

4 dark red-orange to reddish-brown bars across 

back and base of tail. Bars darker on juveniles. 

Diet: Benthic predators of crabs and hermit 

crabs, shrimps, fishes, octopuses. 


internal. Livebearer. 

Mortality/Longevity: Live to at least 18 

years. 

Remarks: A popular sportfish. 

Sebastes is Greek for “magnificent.” Rubrivinctus 

is formed from 2 Latin words that translate as 

“red banded.” 

Treefish 

Sebastes serriceps (Sebastidae/Scorpaenidae) 


Distribution: San Francisco to central Baja 

California. 

Habitat: Inhabits areas with numerous caves, 

crevices and other protective recesses. Solitary 

and territorial; usually found between 6–40 m 

with a maximum depth of 45 m. 

Appearance: One of the most striking, unusually 

marked rockfishes, with black stripes over 

a yellow body and red lips and chin. Compact 

body with large head spines. Spines are venomous. 

Maximum size is 40 cm. 

Diet: Most probably either crepuscular (feeding 

at dawn and dusk) or nighttime ambush predator, 

feeding on shrimp, crabs and small fishes. 


Red Lionfish 

Pterois volitans (Scorpaenidae) 

Scorpionfishes and Their Allies 

Distribution: West-central Pacific; introduced 

in the Atlantic. 

Habitat: Lagoon and seaward reefs from turbid 

inshore areas to depths greater than 50 m. Typically 

rests during the day under ledges. 

Appearance: Length to 38 cm. Compressed 

body with a large head. Greatly enlarged pectoral 

fins and elongate dorsal fins. Vertically 

colored brownish bars interspersed with fine 

white lines.


Diet: A voracious nocturnal predator of small 

fishes, shrimp and crabs. Corners and traps 

prey with its widespread pectoral fins. 

Reproduction and Development: Courtship 

in this species begins at twilight, initiated by 

the male. Usually solitary males congregate 

and often compete, sometimes intimitating 

competitors by charging with spines erect 

and forward facing. The female extrudes her 

2,000–15,000 her eggs in tubes of mucus in 

a gelatinous mass. Shortly after her eggs are 

released, the tubes are engorged with seawater 

and penetrated by sperm. Eggs float on 

the surface and hatch to larvae 36–48 hours 

after fertilization. 

Mortality/Longevity: Despite their venomous 

spines, lionfish are caught by humans for 

food. 

Remarks: Venomous dorsal, anal and pelvic 

fin spines are capable of inflicting severe and 

painful wounds. Doctors suggest soaking the 

afflicted area in very hot water to denature 

the venom’s proteins. 

Some years ago, a red lionfish consumed its 

close relative, a zebra turkeyfish (Dendrochris 

zebra), in captivity at the Steinhart Aquarium. 

Eschmeyer’s Scorpionfish 

Rhinopias eschmeyeri (Scorpaenidae) 

Scorpionfishes and Rockfishes 

Distribution: Indonesia and Western Pacific 

Ocean. 

Habitat: Sheltered areas with a moderate 

current either in a bay or along external or deep 

reefs. Is a bottom dweller and lives in caves or 

under overhangs in brackish water. 

Appearance: Deep, compressed body, concave 

snout, high eyes. Dorsal fin is sail-like with one 

or two small black spots. Very brightly colored 

in yellow, pink, brown, or red with skin flaps 

over eyes that aid in camouflage. Dorsal, anal, 

and pelvic fin spines bear venom glands. Not 

aggressive, but when threatened will erect 

dorsal spines. 

Diet: Feeds on crustaceans and fishes. Remains 

stationary and snaps at prey, rapidly sucking 

both water and its intended meal into its large 

mouth. 

Reproduction and Development: Internal 

fertilization; produces a floating gelatinous 

mass with imbedded eggs. 

Conservation Status: A rare fish but 

conservation status unknown. 

Remarks: This fish is named after the 

Academy’s own William Eschmeyer, Senior 

Curator of Ichthyology, a world-renown expert 

in stonefishes and other scorpionfishes, and 

author of the Field Guide to Pacific Coast Fishes 

in the Peterson guidebook series and The 

Catalogue of Fishes, a database of the world’s 

28,000+ known fish species and a work of 

immense value to systematists and to those 

evaluating fish diversity worldwide. 

It’s possible our specimen is a different 

Rhinopias sp, but why not tell the good story. 

California Scorpionfish 

Scorpaena guttata (Scorpaenidae) 


Distribution: Santa Cruz, California to the Gulf 

of California. 

Habitat: Tide pools to 183 m, usually at depth 

less than 30 m. Typically in rocky areas of bays 

and along shore, especially in crevices and 

caves. Most active at night. 

Appearance: Stocky, large mouth; spiny head 

and large fan-shaped pectoral fin. Red to 

brown, pale mottled brown spots on body and 

fins. Length to 43 cm. 

Diet: Small crabs, also shrimp, octopuses and 

small fishes. 

Reproduction and Development: Migrate extensively 

during summer in order to form large 

spawning aggregations. Mature at two years 

old. Fertilization is internal. Females produce 

eggs imbedded in gelatinous walls of hollow 

pear-shaped structures, which are transparent 

or green. The “balloons” float near the surface 

and the eggs hatch in around five days. 

Mortality/Longevity: Live to at least 21 

years. 

Conservation Status: Not on IUCN Red List but 

very likely being overexploited as a food fish. 

Remarks: Individuals in very deep waters are 

darker red. 

Dorsal, anal and pelvic fin spines are venomous. 

Prized as a food fish. 

Pink and Yellow Scorpionfish 

Sebastapistes cyanostigma (Scorpaenidae) 


Distribution: Indo-Pacific.

Habitat: Coral reefs. 

Appearance: Spotted, usually yellow and 

white on a pinkish red background. 

Diet: Crustaceans and small fishes. 

Remarks: A master of camouflage, this small 

fish hide among corals, changing colors to 

match its background. A viewer of the Fire 

Coral Tank where this little fish resides may 

look directly at the fish and still not see it. 

A true scorpionfish, it uses the sharp venomous 

spines on its back for protection. 

Deadly Stonefish 

Synanceia verrucosa (Synanceiidae) 

Stonefishes 

Distribution: Tropical marine waters of the 

Pacific and Indian oceans, ranging from the 

Red Sea to the Great Barrier Reef. 

Habitat: Shallow water on sandy or rubblestrewn 

areas near reefs. 

Appearance: Mottled greenish to mostly brown. 

Looking like a rock or lump of coral, they exhibit 

excellent camouflage; length to 40 cm. 

Diet: Lie-in-wait predator; mainly eats small 

fish, shrimp and other crustaceans, striking 

with such incredible speed that only highspeed 

film can capture the event. 

Mortality/Longevity: Predators include sharks 

and rays. 

Remarks: Widely distributed in tropical waters, 

this stonefish is the world’s most venomous 

fish. It has 12–14 grooved dorsal spines, each 

with a venom sack at its base. 

Not aggressive, the stonefish uses its toxins 

in self-defense, most often when an overly 

curious, predatory, or non-observant victim 

ventures too close. Humans are usually 

envemomated because of inadvertently 

stepping on the well-concealed fish. 

The venom is a potent cocktail of hemolytic, 

neurotoxic, and cardioactive proteins that 

can cause shock, paralysis, tissue death, and 

occasional human fatality, depending on the 

penetration depth of the spine. The pain is 

so severe, victims supposedly want to cut off 

afflicted body parts! Fortunately, a serum now 

exists that is effective if applied within a few 

hours after envenomation. 

In Japan, the delicate flesh of stonefish is served 


133 

as okoze, an expensive sashimi. Hopefully, no 

wayward venom sacs on the plate! 

Kelp Greenling 

Hexagrammos decagrammus (Hexagrammidae) 

Greenlings 

Distribution: East Northern Pacific: Alaska to 

San Diego. 

Habitat: Offshore kelp and inshore eel grass 

beds to 45 m. 

Appearance: Length to 55 cm. Body color 

variable from light gray to brown. Dimorphic; 

males have irregular blue patches on head and 

to mid-section; females have small dark sports all 

over and are larger than males. Males and females 

originally thought to be separate species. 

Diet: Diurnal predator on shrimp, crabs, 

worms, octopuses, snails, brittle stars, and 

small fishes. 


sexually mature by age 2; females by age 4. 

Spawn in fall and winter subtidally; males 

guard pale blue egg masses, often 4 or more 

at a time. Larvae pelagic. Rapid growth from 

juveniles to adults. 

Mortality/Longevity: Can live at least 12 yrs. 

Remarks: Territorial, especially during 

spawning. Primary predators: lingcod and 

harbor seals. 

In Greek, decagrammus means “10 lines,” a 

reference to the total number of lateral lines 

(5 on each side). 

Rock Greenling 

Hexagrammos lagocephalus (Hexagrammidae) 

Greenlings 

Distribution: North Pacific from Bering Sea to 

Point Conception, infrequently observed south of 

San Francisco; western Pacific south to Japan. 

Habitat: Shallow rocky coastal waters. 

Appearance: To 60 cm. Reddish brown with 

darker mottling, often with red blotches on 

the sides. 

Reproduction and Development: Females are 

oviparous (egg-laying). Sexually mature at 3–4 

years and/or 29–35 cm. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: to 8 years for 

males, 11 years for females. 

Remarks: Like kelp greenling, adults are 

territorial.


Lingcod 

Ophiodon elongatus (Hexagrammidae) 

Greenlings and Lingcod 

Distribution: Kodiak Island, Alaska to 

northern Baja California. 

Habitat: Adults near rocks, mostly inshore 

between 10–100 m, but some much deeper. 

Young on sand or mud inshore. 

Appearance: Large, elongate. Characterized 

by large mouth, long canine teeth, and long 

dorsal fin with notch. Cirrus above eye. Max 

length: 150 cm though usually 120 cm or less. 

Females larger. 

Diet: Voracious predator on various invertebrates 

such as small octopuses and crabs as well as a 

variety of fishes, including herring, rockfishes, 

and bottom dwellers such as flounder. 


establish nesting sites in rock crevices or 

on ledges in nearshore spawning grounds. 

Females lay eggs and depart, leaving males 

to defend the nest. Larvae pelagic, until 

settlement as juveniles in nearshore areas. 

Mortality/Longevity: Vulnerable to marine 

mammals, such as sea lions and harbor seals. 

Life span: males about 14 years; females up to 

20 years. 

Remarks: The lingcod is an adept color 

changer, transforming from light to dark or 

vice-versa in a flash. 

A popular sport and commercial species, valued 

as a fine-tasting food fish. Flesh of lingcod, like 

greenlings, is often greenish; however, this color 

disappears with cooking. 

Painted Greenling aka Convictfish 

Oxylebius pictus (Hexagrammidae) 

Greenlings 

Distribution: Kodiak Island, Alaska to central 


Habitat: Shallow rocky areas, especially in tidal 

channels, also deep rocky areas to 50 m. Hover 

in water column, or may move from perch to 

perch. Adults territorial. 

Appearance: Length to 25 cm, usually less. 

Colored with 5–7 broad, vertical reddish bars 

alternating with pinkish-brown undercolor. 

Prominent black pectoral fins with white spots. 

Two bands radiate back from eye, another forward. 

Females grow larger than males. 

Diet: Solitary benthic feeders upon inverte- 

brates such as crabs, shrimps and amphipods. 


mature at 3 years, most males mature at 2. 

Mate in winter. Female lays egg masses containing 

up to 2,200 eggs in nests on exposed 

rock surfaces which are aggressively guarded 

by male. 

Mortality/Longevity: Males live to at least 8 

years. Females live longer. Caught by sportfishers. 

Remarks: Sometimes rest on Telia spp. 

anemones, apparently immune to their 

nematocysts. 

Grunt Sculpin 

Rhamphocottus richardsoni (Rhamphocottidae) 

Grunt Sculpins 

Distribution: Pacific Ocean, Japan north 

to Alaska, south to Santa Monica Bay, 

California. 

Habitat: Rocky and sandy substrates, tide 

pools. Intertidal to 165 m. 

Appearance: Short stocky body. Most of body 

covered with prickles. Head and body colored 

yellowish-beige, streaked with dark brown; 

ventral surface creamy yellow to pale red. 

Base of caudal fin is bright red. Fin rays mostly 

reddish. Length to 9 cm. 

Diet: Crustaceans. Young consume zooplankton, 

invertebrate and fish larvae. 

Reproduction and Development: Observations 

in captivity show that during spawning 

season the female chases the male until he 

is trapped in a rocky cavern. She keeps him 

captive until her eggs are laid; fertilization 

is external. 

Remarks: Produces gruntlike sounds when 

removed from water, thus the common name. 

Eyes operate independently. 

Like most sculpins, rarely swims freely in the 

water column; instead usually “walks” with a 

hopping motion over the substrate by use of its 

large, fanlike pectoral fins. Frequently observed 

taking shelter in empty shells, including those 

of the giant barnacle, Balanus nubilis, as well as 

in cans and bottles. 

Red Irish Lord 

Hemilepidotus hemilepidotus (Cottidae) 

Sculpins 

Distribution: North Pacific: Kamchatka to the

Aleutian Islands, and south along the North 

American coast to Monterey Bay. 

Habitat: Usually nearshore rocky areas, from 

intertidal to depth of 50 m. 

Appearance: Variable color: usually reds, 

pinks, purples, browns, and whites. Can 

change coloration to some degree to match 

surroundings. Among the largest of the 

sculpins; max. length: ~ 50 cm. 

Diet: Crabs, barnacles, mussels, occasional 

small fishes. Lie-in-wait predator that depends 

almost entirely on its camouflage. 

Reproduction and Development: Gather in 

spawning areas each season; thought that the 

same pair frequent the same areas year after 

year. Pinkish eggs are laid, fertilized, and 

guarded by both parents. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: ~ about 6 

yrs. 

Remarks: The genus is noted and named 

for its two distinct bands of scales, one on 

the back and a second below the lateral line 

(Hemilepidotus = “half scaled”). 

Prized for its excellent tasting flesh. 

Spotfin Sculpin 

Icelinus tenuis (Cottidae) 

Sculpins 

Distribution: Queen Charlotte Island, British 

Columbia to central Baja California. 

Habitat: Sand bottoms, 33–375 m below the 

surface. 

Appearance: 1st 2 spines of dorsal fin elongated, 

rounded caudal fin, small pelvic fins. Body 

light brown with orangish blotches above, 

white below. Dark saddles on back; dusky 

blotches on lower sides. Max. size: 14 cm. 

Diet: Shrimps. 

Scalyhead Sculpin 

Artedius harringtoni (Cottidae) 

Sculpins 


Kodiak Island, Alaska to southern California. 

Habitat: Intertidal and especially subtidal 

rocky areas, often around pilings to depths 

of 21 m. 

Appearance: Underside of the adult head 

is orange with red bars radiating from the 

eye and a red spot near the tip of the first 2 


135 

dorsal fin spines. Scales appear on the head, 

sometimes on the cheek but not on the snout, 

a broad band of scales covers the back. Small 

cirrus (a thin flap of skin) above the front of 

the eye as well as head cirri more developed 

in males. 

Diet: Small invertebrates. 


fertilization; mature males have a slender 

tapered retractable penis. Male gives the 

parental care, becoming very territorial and 

guarding the eggs that are laid on rocks in the 

winter and spring. 

Conservation Status: A common species 

within its area, but rarely seen because of its 

cryptic coloration. 

Tidepool Sculpin 

Oligocottus maculosus (Cottidae) 

Sculpins 

Distribution: Sea of Okhotsk and the Bering 

Sea to Los Angeles County, California. 

Habitat: Sheltered areas and tide pools located in 

areas near rough surf; occurs in higher, more sheltered 

places. Can leave tide pools when aquatic 

conditions become inhospitable. Shows a strong 

tendency to return to its home pool if displaced. 

Appearance: Length to 8.9 cm. Green to red 

above, with irregular dark saddles on the 

back; white or off-white tinged with green to 

blue below. 

Diet: Preys on pelagic fish larvae, benthic 

arthropods including amphipods, copepods, 

isopods, as well as polychaete worms. 


external. Male clasps female with his pectoral 

fins and fertilizes the eggs as they are being 

deposited onto substrate. 

Remarks: Able to breathe air when out of 

water. 

Fluffy Sculpin 

Oligocottus snyderi (Cottidae) 

Sculpins 

Distribution: Endemic to the Pacific Coast 

from Alaska to Baja California. 

Habitat: Temperate rocky intertidal pools, 

especially those with algae or eelgrass and a 

sandy substrate. They don’t migrate but do 

move between pools. In Central California, 

dominant in sub- to mid-intertidal pools.


Usually found in depths less than 1 m. 

Appearance: Coloration varies greatly from 

green to reddish brown to pink, depending 

on the color of the surrounding algae; sides 

spotted and mottled. Like many sculpins, they 

have no scales. Cirri line the base of the dorsal 

fin and the lateral line. The common name 

refers to a “fluffy” fleshy area behind the dorsal 

fin. Max. length: 9 cm; average weight: 8 g. 

Diet: Worms, crustaceans, and other marine 

invertebrates. Larger males also prey on 

shrimp and crabs, and eat a greater diversity 

of food than do the females. 


fertilization. Males have a prehensile first anal 

ray used to clasp females during copulation. 

Eggs are deposited on rocks and guarded by 

the male. They develop through larval, post 

larval, juvenile and adult stages. Reproduction 

occurs during periods of upwelling, when food 

is plentiful. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: 1 to 2+ years. 

Remarks: Fluffies display homing behavior 

in moving from one pool to another, and are 

often able to find their familiar pools from 

some distance. 

Can breathe air for hours at a time, often in 

response to reduction in the tide pool’s oxygen 

at night when plants respire. 

Cabezon 

Scorpaenichthys marmoratus (Cottidae) 

Sculpins 

Distribution: Southeast Alaska to Baja 

California. 

Habitat: Inhabits rocky bottoms, especially 

near kelp beds and often along exposed coasts 

and in tidal passages. Found from the intertidal 

to depths of 90+ m. 

Appearance: Cabezon (Spanish for “stubborn”) 

have a bulbous head and a stout body. Color 

is marbled earthtones; males generally display 

red shades while females are usually greenish. 

Can change color, lighten or darken to blend 

in with the background. They are the largest 

members of the sculpin family. The largest 

recorded size is 100 cm in length and over 11 

kg. 

Diet: Lie and wait predator. With pectoral fins 

set low on the body and with a powerful tail, 

it quickly lunges after crabs, small lobsters, 

mollusks, small fish and fish eggs. Can swallow 

abalone whole and later regurgitate the 

indigestible shell. 

Reproduction and Development: In central 

California males mature by age 4 and 

females by age 6. Cabezon gather in groups 

for spawning, which occurs off the California 

coast from October through April. Females 

lay 50,000 to 100,000 red, purple, amber or 

green eggs in large masses attached to rocks 

or logs in shallow water. Males aggressively 

guard the fertilized egg masses until they 

hatch in 2–3 weeks. The eggs are highly toxic 

to humans, other mammals and birds. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: more than 13 

years. 

Remarks: Cabezon are popular with sport 

fishermen on the water and spear fisherman 

in the water. 

Sailfin Sculpin 

Nautichthys oculofasciatus (Hemitripteridae) 

Sea Ravens or Sailfin Sculpins 

Distribution: Alaska to San Miguel Island, 

southern California. 

Appearance: Color varies, grayish on top with 

variously hued markings and occasionally red 

markings on dorsal fin. A dark streak runs 

across the head through the eyes. To 20 cm. 

Habitat: Found at about 90 m, most often on 

rocky bottoms with algae; occasionally seen 

hanging upside down in rock crevices. 

Diet: Small shrimps and other crustaceans. 

Typically moves and hunts by rippling the 

second dorsal fin and sculling with pectoral 

fins in a hopping motion toward prey. 


spawns in winter and spring, when eggs are 

laid on rocks and often among mussel beds. 

The male guards the eggs. 

Remarks: The anterior dorsal fin is extended 

in front of the head when the fish swims and 

resembles a sail, hence the common name. 

Often the sailfin moves back and forth in the 

same rhythm as the movement of nearby 

seaweeds. Coupled with its cryptic coloration, 

this remarkable behavior disguises the fish 

from predators and prey. 

A popular aquarium fish.

Northern Spearnose Poacher 

Agonopsis vulsa (Agonidae) 

Poachers 

Distribution: Eastern Pacific: southeastern 

Alaska to southern California. 

Habitat: On bottom, 18–200 m. 

Appearance: Snout pointed with 2 forward 

pointing spines at tip. Brown above, white 

below with dark bars along side; pelvic fin 

brown with white tip. Max. size: 20 cm. 

Diet: Small crustaceans and worms. 

Remarks: Like most poachers, shape is 

elongate, and scales are modified into large 

fused bony plates. Uses large pectoral fins to 

move in bursts; pelvic fins nearly vestigial. 

Like many bottom dwellers, lacks a swim 

bladder. 

Pacific Spiny Lumpsucker 

Eumicrotremus orbis (Cyclopteridae) 

Lumpfishes 

Distribution: North Pacific: from Japan to 

Alaska south to Puget Sound, Washington. 

Habitat: Bottom-dwelling from inshore 

shallows to 145 m. Sometimes seen at low 

tide attached to rocks with its disc-like 

pelvic fins. 

Appearance: Small globose body to 18 cm. 

Weight to 100 gm. Caudal fin slightly rounded. 

Body light to dark green or brown dorsally; 

light brown or plum ventrally; lips lavender. 

Tubercles in males dull orange or reddish 

brown; tubercles in females are larger and more 

numerous and pale green. 

Diet: Small invertebrates including polychaete 

worms, crustaceans, mollusks. 

Reproduction and Development: Females lay 

spongy masses of eggs that adhere to rocks 

and seaweeds. Males guard eggs following 

spawning. 

Remarks: The large adhesive sucking disc 

with thickened fringed margin is composed 

of modified and ossified pelvic rays. 

The family name Cyclopteridae translates from 

Greek as “circle wing,” a reference to their 

circle-shaped pectoral fins. 

Their roe is used as a substitute for expensive 

and/or unavailable caviar. 


ORDER PERCIFORMES 

SUBORDER PERCOIDEI 

(PERCHES) 

137 

Glassfish 

Parambassis ranga (Ambassidae) 

Asiatic Glassfishes 

Distribution: South Asia from Pakistan to 

Malaysia. 

Habitat: Freshwater rivers and streams in 

sluggish and standing water, also in brackish 

water. 

Appearance: Transparent body that reveals 

bones and internal organs; the male develops a 

dark edge to the dorsal fin. Max. length: 8.0 cm. 

Diet: Crustaceans, annelid worms, and other 



is external. The female lays up to 500 eggs, 

and then the males fertilizes them. Fish breed 

prolifically during the rainy season. Thereafter, 

they build a nest and guard their young. 

Mortality/Longevity: Prey for larger fishes, 

including snakeheads. Life span: 3–4 yrs. 

Remarks: The Indian glassy fish is very 

common in the aquarium trade. Caught in 

subsistence fishing, but they rare in markets. 

Indian glassy fish sold to hobbyists and known 

as “disco fish” have often been “painted,” 

which involves injecting colored dye into the 

fish’s transparent tissue to make them more 

attractive. Fish thus treated are traumatized 

and susceptible to disease. 

Giant Sea Bass 

Stereolepis gigas (Polyprionidae) 

Wreckfishes 

Distribution: Humboldt Bay, California to Baja 

California. 

Habitat: Rocky areas and kelp beds 7–50 m. 


Young colored red with black spots. Adults robust, 

slightly compressed, dark gray typically 

with large gray, brown or black spots on sides. 

Diet: Carnivorous opportunist: spiny lobsters, 

rock crabs, squid, stingrays, small sharks, and 

various other fish species.. Most food items 

are organisms on or buried just below the 

substrate, drawn into the sea bass’ mouth by


the suction created when the mouth is opened 

rapidly. Capable of only brief bursts rather 

than sustained speeds, the sea bass ambushes 

mid-water fishes from cover in rocks or kelp. 

Reproduction and Development: Adults not 

reproductively active until about 12 years old. 

Single annual spawn. Eggs released into the 

plankton. 

Mortality/Longevity: Very young are prey to 

a variety of marine mammals and other fishes. 

Mature individuals are preyed upon only by 

large sharks and humans. Life span: live to at 

least 100 years. 

Conservation Status: IUCN Red Listed: 

Critically Endangered. Once a favorite of 

commercial and sport fisheries as well as 

spear fishers, giant sea basses, which are 

found in all-too-accessible nearshore habitats, 

were seriously overharvested. Protections 

in California went into effect in 1982, but 

the sea bass has remained scarce along the 

California coast, and was classified as critically 

endangered by the IUCN in 1996. Banning the 

use of inshore gill nets has probably reduced 

incidental catch, but because of the species’ 

slow growth and reproduction rate, the 

California population, while showing signs 

of recovery, is still well below historic norms. 

Remarks: “Bocalo,” the Academy’s giant sea 

bass, is the largest fish by weight in the Steinhart 

Aquarium. In September 2008, it weighed 75 

kg (165 lbs) and was 1.2 m (4 ft) in length. As 

a truly giant sea bass, Bocalo has a way to go. 

The largest sea bass caught in California waters 

weighed 563.4 pounds (255 kg), and others have 

reached lengths of almost 7.5 feet (2.3 m). But 

then Bocalo is still young, probably about 28. 

Check the scales in 50 years! 

Indigo Hamlet 

Hypoplectrus indigo (Serranidae) 

Sea Basses: Groupers, and Fairy Basslets 

Distribution: Western Central Atlantic and 

Caribbean. 

Habitat: Depth 3-45 m. Solitary over coral reefs 

near bottom. 

Appearance: Length to 14 cm. About five deep 

blue bars of uneven width; second bar, below 

dorsal fin, much wider than others. Bright 

blue ventral fins, pectoral fins with alternating 

white bars. 

Diet: Diurnal predator on small fishes and 


Reproduction and Development: Simultaneous 

hermaphrodite. Form pairs at dusk to spawn. 

Pacific Candy Basslet 

Liopropoma swalesi (Serranidae) 

Sea Basses: Groupers and Fairy Basslets 

Distribution: Western Pacific. 

Habitat: Caves, crevices, and rubble of coral 

reefs to depths of 25 m. Rarely seen in open 

water. 

Appearance: White, covered with brilliant 

orange stripes. The second dorsal and anal fins 

have white-edged black eyespots. 

Diet: Crustaceans and small fishes. 

Reproduction and Development: Little is 

known about the life history of members of this 

genus because of their secretive nature. 

Remarks: The genus is among the smallest of 

the serranid family,. 

Kelp Bass 

Paralabrax clathratus (Serranidae) 



southern Washington to southern Baja 

California. Most abundant south of Pt. 

Conception. 

Habitat: Most often found near or in kelp 

beds or structures of any kind; shallow water 

usually from about 2.5 to 20 m. 

Appearance: Brown to olive on back and sides 

with pale spots along sides. 

Diet: Juveniles: plankton and small invertebrates, 

especially crustaceans. Adults: small 

fishes, octopuses, squid, crabs, shrimps, and 

algae. Known to form groups to prey on schooling 

fishes. 

Reproduction and Development: Pelagic 

spawners. Spawning peaks during summer. 

Eggs hatch into larvae in 1–2 days; larvae 

metamorphose into juveniles in about a month. 


Mortality/Longevity: Life span: to at least 33 

years. 

Remarks: The kelp bass is a fine food fish, and 

among the most important recreational game 

fishes in southern California. 

Kelp bass were eaten by Native Americans

in southern California; their bones have been 

found in Indian middens. 

Peach Fairy Basslet 

Pseudanthias dispar (Serranidae) 


Distribution: East Indo-Pacific. 

Habitat: Upper edge of steep reef slopes. 

Appearance: Sexes dichromatic. Male: orange 

to yellow body, lavender to pink head and 

bright red dorsal fin. Female: orange to peach 

upper head, body, and fins; 2 narrow lavenderyellowish 

bars extend from eye to pectoral fin. 

Max. size: 9.5 cm. 

Diet: Zooplankton. Occur in large feeding 

aggregations of mixed sexes, usually more 

females than males, 1–3 m above the substrate, 

picking plankton from currents that sweep 

the reef. 

Reproduction and Development: Protogynous 

hermaphrodites. If a dominant male dies, the 

largest female of the group will change sex to 

take its place. 

Mortality/Longevity: These small fish are 

snack food for many larger predators. 

Remarks: Males erect dorsal fin as courtship 

display. 

Anthias gather in huge schools of hundreds. 

Schools are made up of smaller “harems” 

consisting of a single dominant male, a few 

non-dominant males, and many females. 

Red-cheeked Fairy Basslet 

Pseudanthias huchtii (Serranidae) 


Distribution: Western Central Pacific: common 

in the Philippines and Indonesia. 

Habitat: Coral outcrops of clear outer reef 

slopes, where the species may be found in large 

aggregations. 

Appearance: Males have prominent orange 

stripe from the eye to the middle of the pectoral 

fin; wide maroon band on the outer margin 

of the pelvic fin. Females and juveniles are 

greenish-yellow. Max. length: 12 cm. 


Reproduction and Development: All 

Pseudanthias spp. are thought to be protogynous 

hermaphrodites. Broadcast spawners; fertilized 


139 

eggs remain part of the zooplankton until they 

hatch, metamorphose, and settle. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: 5 years or 

more. 

Remarks: Pseudanthias spp. often congregate 

near or just above the reef wall for feeding, 

where strong currents deliver food to both 

corals and fish. Typically these little fish face 

into the current and swim at a stay-in-place 

speed. If the current changes, the shoal turns 

as well. 

Lori’s Anthias 

Pseudanthias lori (Serranidae) 


Distribution: West-Central Pacific. 

Habitat: Near caves or ledges of steep outer 

reefs, 7-70 m. Typically in small groups. 

Appearance: Length to 12 cm. Laterally 

compressed body. Orange-pink body, usually 

with 4 reddish semi-bands below the posterior 

segment of the dorsal fin. 



change sex into males for their terminal phase. 

Squarespot Anthias aka Squarespot Fairy 

Basslet 

Pseudanthias pleurotaenia (Serranidae) 


Distribution: Indonesia to Samoa, north 

to Ryukyus, Japan and south to New 

Caledonia. 

Habitat: Steep, current-swept seaward drop 

offs, 10–180 m, but typically below 25 m 

depth. 

Appearance: Length to 20 cm. Sexually 

dichromatic. Male is orange-red to magenta, 

one large violet square on each side of its 

body (thus the common name), elongate third 

dorsal spine. Coloration and size of “square” 

highly variable among individuals; female 

less colorful. 

Diet: Small crustaceans and fish eggs. 

Reproduction and Development: All begin 

life as females. Males are sexually reversed 

females. Sex reversal is socially controlled. 

Remarks: Usually in small (6–30 individuals)


aggregations of conspecifics; females far 

outnumber males in the groups. 

Juveniles are solitary and remain close to 

shelter. 

On many individuals, the magenta square spot 

appears to glow like a neon light. 

Active diurnally. Nocturnally shelter within 

the reef. 

Jewel Fairy Basslet aka Lyretail Anthias 

Pseudanthias squamipinnis (Serranidae) 


Distribution: Indo-West Pacific: Red Sea, South 

Africa, south to Australia, north to Japan. 

Habitat: Shallows to 55 m; coral outcrops of 

clear lagoons, channels, and outer reef slopes. 

Often found in large groups. 

Appearance: Various color patterns, including 

red, pink, orange, yellow, even purple. Males 

are typically more colorful, and have a larger 

dorsal fin spike than females. 

Diet: Zooplantkton. 


territorial, haremic; like all Anthias species, are 

sequential, protogynous hermaphrodites. If 

male perishes, largest female will develop male 

reproductive organs and take its place. 

Yellowstriped Fairy Basslet aka Purple Anthias 

Pseudanthias tuka (Serranidae) 


Distribution: Indo-Pacific: Philippines, Bali, 

Solomon Islands, Great Barrier Reef, southern 

Japan. 

Habitat: Favors strong currents along the 

edge of drop-offs and steep outer reef slopes 

at depths of 30 m or more. 

Appearance: Sexes dichromatic. Both sexes are 

a deep pink to purple; however, females have a 

bright yellow stripe on the back extending onto 

the caudal fin. Males have a purple blotch on 

the base of the dorsal fin, elongated fin rays, 

and a pointed snout Max. size: 12 cm. 

Diet: Planktonic crustaceans and fish eggs. 

Reproduction and Development: As in all 

Anthias species, if a dominant male dies, the 

largest female will usually change into a male 

and take his place. 

Remarks: Usually found in large aggregations 

with many more females than males. 

Fathead Anthias 

Serranocirrhitus latus (Serranidae) 

Sea Basses: Groupers, and Fairy Basslets 

Distribution: Western Pacific, from the 

Moluccan Islands to Fiji, north to Japan and 

south to the Great Barrier Reef. 

Habitat: Near coral reefs usually at depths 

of 18 m or more, either solitarily or in small 

haremic groups; also found near caves, ledges, 

and drop-offs, usually close to crevices where 

they retreat if threatened. 

Appearance: Unlike its cousins the Pseudanthias 

species, the fathead anthias has a deep body 

and elongate pectoral fins. Predominantly pink, 

with heavy yellow-to-orange scale margins and 

facial markings. Max.length: 10 cm. 

Diet: Zooplankton, small invertebrates, 

floating filamentous algae. 


Anthias spp., is hermaphroditic. If a dominant 

male dies, the largest female will usually 

morph to take its place. 

Remarks: This little fish is secretive and often 

seen swimming upside-down along the roofs 

of overhangs and caves. Their dimly lit tank 

in the Steinhart fits their common deep-water 

preference. 

Unlike most Pseudanthias spp., which often live 

in large shoals, S. latus is usually found either 

solitary or in a small haremic group. 

Harlequin Bass 

Serranus tigrinus (Serranidae) 


Distribution: Tropical western Atlantic and 

throughout the Caribbean: Bermuda and 

southern Florida, to northern South America. 

Habitat: Most common in areas with rock or 

scattered coral, depth to 40 m. 

Appearance: Snout long and pointed. Elongate 

body; stripes and bars on light background form 

irregular rectangles on body. Sometimes yellowish 

below. Colors and patterns, coupled with 

spotted dorsal and caudal fins, are the source of 

its common name. Max. length: 30 cm. 

Diet: Mainly crustaceans and small fishes. 

Reproduction and Development: Synchronous 

hermaphrodite. Territorial egg layer. Lives 

solitary or in pairs. 

Remarks: Said to have an aggressive nature. 

The Harlequin Bass is the most common

member of the genus Serranus, commonly 

known as “dwarf sea basses.” The pointed 

snout and distinct color pattern make it easy 

to identify. 

Chalk Bass 

Serranus tortugarum (Serranidae) 


Distribution: Tropical western Atlantic: 

southern Florida, Bahamas, Honduras and 

Virgin Islands; throughout the Caribbean. 

Habitat: Found over rubble, silty, or sandy 

bottoms. Often congregate in small groups 

hovering over a patch of coral rubble or an old 

conch shell. Will often hide in the substrate. 

Appearance: Body color a light purple with 

bright blue to orange saddle bands along the 

back. Different specimens of this species can 

look very different from each other. Upper 

side is darker than the ventral side. Max. 

length: 8 cm. 

Diet: Feeds on zooplankton. 


members of the genus Serranus, the chalk bass 

is a synchronous hermaphrodite (has both male 

and female organs). The mated pair takes turns 

in which one acts as the male and the other the 

female through multiple matings, usually over 

the course of several nights. 

Remarks: A non-aggressive species that adapts 

to aquarium life well. 

Orchid Dottyback 

Pseudochromis fridmani (Pseudochromidae) 

Dottybacks 

Distribution: Western Indian Ocean: known 

only from the Red Sea. 

Habitat: Usually on vertical rock faces or 

beneath overhangs, taking refuge in small 

holes. Found at depths from 1–30 m. 

Appearance: Rich lavender-red color with 

scales trimmed in blue. A black stripe extends 

from the mouth though the eye. Max. length: 

c. 6 cm. 

Diet: Small planktonic or rock-dwelling 

crustaceans. The large mouth enables ingestion 

of food items larger than most taken by fish 

its size. 

Reproduction and Development: Like 

the rest of their family, this dottyback is 

hermaphroditic, changing to either male or 


141 

female. Fully adult super males have a pointed 

filament on their tails. Pairs have been known 

to breed in captivity. 

Conservation Status: The orchid dottyback 

was greatly reduced in the wild, almost to 

the point of extinction until successful captive 

breeding. 

Remarks: A shy fish that needs suitable hiding 

places. 

Royal Dottyback 

Pseudochromis paccagnellae (Pseudochromidae) 

Dottybacks 

Distribution: Indo-Pacific and western Pacific. 

Habitat: Shallow coastal reefs to steep coral 

and sponge-covered drop-offs, especially areas 

with coral or rocky hiding places. 

Appearance: Color: magenta and yellow with 

a sharp delineation between the two colors. 

Sexes similar; males may have brighter color. 

Max size: 12 cm. 

Diet: Mostly small invertebrates, including 

worms, crustaceans, zooplankton. 


produce a spherical mass of eggs that adhere 

to a rocky substrate. After fertilization, the male 

guards and fans the eggs to provide oxygen 

until they hatch in about four days. Some 

dottybacks have bred in captivity, including 

the royal dottyback. 

Remarks: Dottybacks often dive in and out of 

crevices. Watch our royal dottyback zip about 

its tank, appearing and disappearing. 

With their sharp canines and feisty nature, 

dottybacks are excellent hunters and staunch 

defenders of their territory. 

Royal Gramma 

Gramma loreto (Grammatidae) 

Basslets 

Distribution: Caribbean, Bahamas, Bermuda. 

Habitat: Small groups in caves, crevasses and 

under ledges, 1–60 m. 

Appearance: Length to 8 cm. Bicolored: magenta 

anterior, brilliant orange posterior. 

Diet: Feed on ectoparasites of other fishes. 


fertilization. Prior to spawning, some males 

establish nest sites, using small holes and 

crevices in the substratum. Females travel to 

male nests for egg deposition around dawn.


Males guard and maintain nest. 

Remarks: Often rests or retreats when alarmed 

to a stereotypic “upside down” posture near 

cave roofs. 

Southern Blue Devil 

Paraplesiops meleagris (Plesiopidae) 

Roundheads 

Distribution: Temperate Indian Ocean along 

the southern Australian coastline, from eastern 

Victoria to southwestern Australia. 

Habitat: Rocky reefs and caves, in relatively 

shallow water from 15–25 m. They prefer 

deep cave systems, under projections and on 

ledges where a number of fish, ranging from 

small juveniles to mature adults, may inhabit 

the space. 

Appearance: Large mouths and very large 

eyes, vivid light blue spots cover its dark blue/ 

brown body, and elongated pelvic, anal and 

dorsal fins. Unlike many fish whose colors 

mute with age, these spots become a more 

vivid blue. Max length: 33–35 cm. 

Diet: Other fishes and crustaceans. The blue 

devil is an ambush predator that is secretive 

and spends much of its time hiding. With its 

slow-moving manner, however, it can be both 

predator and prey. 

Reproduction and Development: Members 

of the Paraplesiops genus lay eggs on the 

substrate where they are guarded until 

hatching by the male. 

Remarks: The species tends to be shy. In 

an aquarium setting, it needs a space with 

numerous nooks and crannies to hide in. Look 

carefully in the rockwork to find our blue devil. 

Human uses include commercial fisheries and 

commercial aquariums. Aborigines have long 

considered this fish a delicacy. 

Redbreast Sunfish 

Lepomis auritus (Centrarchidae) 

Sunfishes 

Distribution: North America: Eastern rivers of 

USA and Canada. Introduced to eastern and 

southern parts of Texas. 

Habitat: Rocky and sandy pools of creeks and 

small to medium rivers. 

Appearance: Olive to brownish gray along 

the back; belly ranges in color from yellow 

to orange and rust. Common length: 20 cm; 

max: 30 cm. 

Diet: Terrestrial and aquatic insects, such as 

dragonflies and mayflies, as well as snails, 

crayfish, and small fish. Juveniles eat small 

benthic organisms, such as fly larvae. 

Reproduction and Development: Typical of 

sunfishes, the redbreast male selects an area of 

sand and gravel in shallow water, and scrapes 

out a depression where the female lays her 

eggs. The male guards eggs and fry. 


Remarks: A popular gamefish throughout its 

range. 

This species should be called the “longear 

sunfish” as its ear (the opercle flap) is noticeably 

longer than the ear of the species so named. 

In some areas where it has been introduced, 

the redbreast is displacing its longear cousin. 

Longear Sunfish 

Lepomis megalotis (Centrarchidae) 

Sunfishes 

Distribution: North America. Widely introduced 

as a game fish. 

Habitat: Pools of sluggish streams over sand, 

gravel or rocks. Also warm freshwater lakes 

and reservoirs, almost always in shallow water 

with dense vegetation. 

Appearance: Shape is perchlike. In direct 

sunlight sunfish have a brilliant sheen. A black 

extension of the upper gill cover is the “ear.” 

Spinous dorsal fins. Length to 24 cm. 

Diet: Carnivorous, tend to be generalists: aquatic 

insects, snails, crustaceans and small fishes. 


during the summer. Nest side by side arranged 

in dense colonies near shore. Male 

digs nest in gravel and defends territory during 

prespawning period. Female approaches 

nesting colony when nest completed. Mating 

pairs swim in circles over nest, stop for short 

intervals to release sperm and egg. Male 

may chase mate away from the nest, female 

may come back to the same nest or move on 

to mate with another male. After hatching, 

young are pelagic and drift at the surface for 

weeks before settling and moving inshore. 

Juveniles school in large numbers in shallow 

weedy areas and protected locations. 

Mortality/Longevity: Preyed upon by the 

bowfin (Amia calva) and other fishes.

Remarks: A popular game fish with anglers. 

Largemouth Bass 

Micropterus salmoides (Centrarchidae) 

Sunfishes 

Distribution: Native to eastern North America 

and historically ranged from southern Canada 

to northern Mexico, and from the Atlantic coast 

to the central United States. 

Habitat: Prefer quiet, shallow, clear water with 

lots of vegetation. 

Appearance: Has large mouth, a notch between 

the two dorsal fins, and a dark stripe along the 

side of the body. Color variable, but usually a 

darkish green on the back and sides, fading 

to off-white on the belly. Sexually dimorphic 

(female is larger). Average weight: 1 kg. Max: 

weight: 10 kg. Max. length: ~95 cm. 

Diet: Juveniles: zooplankton and aquatic 

insects. Adults: crayfish and other fish species, 

especially other sunfish species. 


prepare and build a crude nest in shallow 

water. Following an act of courtship, female 

lays eggs in the nest. The male guard the eggs 

until they hatch. The schooling fry remain close 

to their father for about a month. 

Mortality/Longevity: The expected lifespan in 

the wild is 15 years (longest 25 yrs). 

Remarks: M. salmoides is the most popular 

game fish in the United States. 

This fish is a potential pest as it can eradicate 

indigenous species. 

The generic name for the bass, Micropterus, 

means “small fin” and is a misnomer. The 

specimen from which the genus was named 

had a damaged fin, which gave the appearance 

of a small fin behind the dorsal fin! 

Since the beginning of the twentieth century 

largemouth bass have been introduced 

successfully all over the world. 

Black Crappie 

Pomoxis nigromaculatus (Centrarchidae) 

Sunfishes 

Distribution: North America: native to 

freshwaters of central and eastern North 

America, today widely introduced throughout 

the U.S. 

Habitat: Lakes, ponds, sloughs, and backwaters 


143 

and pools of streams. Prefers clear water and 

sites with vegetation over mud or sand. 

Appearance: Mottled black on light surface, 

wavy light/dark pattern on non-paired fins. 

Sexes similar. Max. size: ~ 50 cm. 

Diet: Juveniles and small individuals feed 

on planktonic crustaceans and insect larvae. 

Large adults take small fishes. Feed mostly at 

dawn and dusk; hang around vegetation or 

submerged objects during the day. 

Reproduction and Development: Prolific 

breeders. Like other sunfishes, black crappie 

are nest builders. Male sweeps out nest and 

attracts female, who may spawn several times 

with more than one male, laying 10,000–200,000 

eggs. Male guards the nest until young can 

swim and feed. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: up to 15 years, 

average closer to 7 years. Important food 

source for larger fishes. Turtles and birds feed 

on young. 

Remarks: The species name, nigromaculatus, 

means “black spotted” (L.), an accurate 

description. 

A highly regarded game fish prized for its 

flavor, it is stocked in lakes and streams in all 

the lower 48 states. 

Yellow Perch 

Perca flavescens (Percidae) 

Perches 

Distribution: West central Canada and the 

Hudson Bay area east to New Brunswick, south 

to South Carolina, and west to Kansas. Also 

found in the Atlantic, Arctic, and Great Lakes. 

Habitat: Freshwater lakes as well as 

impoundments of larger rivers, also smaller 

ponds and rivers. Known in both brackish 

water and salt lakes. Prefers clear water, though 

can tolerate low oxygen levels. 

Appearance: Background color yellowish 

overlaid by 6–8 dark vertical bars on the sides. 

Sexual dimorphism: females grow faster and 

become larger than males. Max. size: ~50 cm. 

Diet: Insects, larger invertebrates, fishes and 

fish eggs. Diurnal feeder. 


females congregate in shallow spawning 

grounds over sand, gravel, and vegetation. 

Female releases a gelatinous egg strand that 

may be up to 2 m long! One or two males


release milt over the eggs, which may number 

more than 100,000. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: ~ 7 years. An 

important food source for top predators such 

as walleye, northern pike, and lake trout. Gulls 

and diving ducks take juveniles. 

Remarks: Overwinters in deep water (often 

with a protective covering of ice as suggested 

in the Water Planet exhibit), then moves to 

shallower water in spring to spawn. 

A popular game fish prized for its flavor. 

The spread of lampreys into the Great Lakes 

and beyond during the first half of the 20th 

century severely impacted yellow perch 

populations as well as those of many other 

important game and commercial fish species. 

Yellowstriped Cardinalfish 

Apogon cyanosoma (Apogonidae) 

Cardinalfishes 

Distribution: Indo-West Pacific. Common from 

Australia to the Red Sea. 

Habitat: Inhabits sheltered clear water areas of 

lagoon and seaward reefs. Associates in small 

to large aggregations under ledges, in holes, or 

even among long spines of sea urchins. 

Appearance: Silver body highlighted with 

6 orange-gold horizontal stripes. Pinkish to 

orange spot on base of caudal fin. Max. length: 

8 cm. 

Diet: Planktonic crustaceans and small 



cardinalfishes, a paternal mouthbrooder. Has 

reproduced in captivity. 

Remarks: Like all cardinalfishes, active at 

night, with large eyes adapted to gathering 

low light. 

Threadfin Cardinalfish 

Apogon leptacanthus (Apogonidae) 


Distribution: Red Sea to Samoa, north to 

Ryukyu, Japan, south to New Caledonia and 

east to Tonga. 

Habitat: Assemble in huge groups at 1–20 m 

depth in sheltered lagoons, protected reefs and 

embayments among branching corals. 

Appearance: Length to 6 cm. Whitish, 

translucent with frosty iridescence on back; 

iris is luminous blue. Yellow-edged blue bands 

and bars on rear of head and front of body. 

Long first dorsal fin tip. 

Diet: Nocturnally feeds on benthic crustaceans. 

Reproduction and Development: Mouth 

brooders; pair for courtship and spawning. 

Flame Cardinalfish 

Apogon maculatus (Apogonidae) 


Distribution: Western Atlantic: Canada to 

Massachusetts, Bermuda, Bahamas, Gulf of 

Mexico to Brazil. 

Habitat: Coral reefs: also in other areas with 

protective cracks and crevices. Often hovers 

near and in holes. 

Appearance: Aptly named for notable 

orangish/red color. Black spot under second 

dorsal fin. Black eyes bordered top and bottom 

with white stripes. Length to 11 cm. 

Diet: Nocturnal predator on small benthic and 

planktonic invertebrates. 


may occur throughout the year with pairs 

forming and exhibiting complex courtship 

behaviors. Mouthbrooders, like all cardinalfish. 

Male does not eat for several weeks while 

carrying eggs and fry. 

Remarks: Popular in the aquarium trade, but 

rarely seen during the day at the Steinhart. Check 

the darker crevices or come after 5:00 p.m.! 

Redspot Cardinalfish 

Apogon parvulus (Apogonidae) 


Distribution: Western Pacific: Japan to 

Indonesia. 

Habitat: Around rocky reefs, especially in 

current-prone areas. 

Appearance: Semi-transparent with distinctive 

large, red peduncular spot when adult. Max. 

length: 4 cm. 

Diet: Microplantkton. 

Reproduction and Development: Distinct 

paring during courtship and spawning; males 

are mouthbrooders. 

Remarks: This species commonly forms large 

mid-water aggregations. 

Seale’s Cardinalfish 

Apogon sealei (Apogonidae) 

Cardinalfishes

Distribution: Western Pacific: Malaysia north 

to southern Japan, south to Australia; Palau. 

Habitat: Found under ledges and among 

branching corals of sheltered reef lagoons; 

mostly to depths less than 10 m. 

Appearance: Tan with thin mid-lateral stripe and 

small dark spot on tail. Max. length: 10 cm. 

Diet: Small fishes and zoobenthos, 

including benthic crustaceans and mobile 


Reproduction and Development: Males are 

mouth-brooders. 

Dog-toothed Cardinalfish 

Cheilodipterus isostigmus (Apogonidae) 


Distribution: Western Pacific: patchy 

distribution including South China Sea, 

Philippines, Borneo, Papua New Guinea. 

Habitat: Occurs in lagoon reefs to depths of 

12 m, usually in small groups among staghorn 

corals. 

Appearance: Silvery body with black lateral 

stripes. Caudal peduncal yellow with black 

spot. Canine teeth at front of lower jaw. Max. 


Diet: Small benthic organisms, invertebrates, 

and fishes. Like all apogonids, are paternal 

mouthbrooders; distinct pairing takes place 

during courtship and spawning. 

Banggai Cardinalfish 

Pterapogon kauderni (Apogonidae) 


Distribution: Apparently endemic to Banggai 

Islands, east of Sulawesi Island, Indonesia. 

Habitat: Silty sand bottoms with seagrass. 

Often associated with Diadema setosum, the 

long-spined sea urchin. Adult banggais 

hover directly above the urchins, younger 

cardinalfish stay even closer to the urchins. 

All retreat among the spines when threatened. 

Appearance: Length to 8 cm. Tasseled first 

dorsal fin, elongate anal and second dorsal 

fin rays, deeply forked caudal fin and striking 

color pattern. Light brown to off-white body 

with three bold vertical, black bands, including 

one that transverses the eyes. Tiny white flecks 

on fins and posterior of body. 

Diet: Probably small benthic and planktonic 


145 

crustaceans preyed upon nocturnally. 

Reproduction and Development: The large eggs 

are about 2.5 mm in diameter. Males mouth brood 

up to 40 eggs. Retain the fry in the mouth after 

hatching. Tiny, fully formed juveniles are released 

after a month of mouth brooding. 

Conservation status: The fragmentation of 

their habitat, their limited distribution, and 

over-collecting by the aquarium trade have 

put this fish at risk, and in 2007 it was listed as 

Endangered by CITES. The species is not yet 

on the IUCN Red List. 

Various aquaria, including the Steinhart, are 

monitoring the trade impact upon Banggai cardinalfish. 

Captive breeding programs are in place 

to curtail the need for wild caught individuals. 

Remarks: Mouth brooding is very unusual in 

marine fish. 

Pajama Cardinalfish 

Sphaeramia nematoptera (Apogonidae) 


Distribution: Indian and western Pacific 

oceans. 

Habitat: Often found in reef areas of bays and 

lagoons along with other members of their species, 

sheltered among branches of Porites spp. 

Appearance: Head yellow; wide black band 

encircling central body, and spots on the back 

half of the body. Eyes large and red. 

Diet: Small fish and crustaceans. At night, 

leaves the protection of coral shelter to feed 

along the bottom at about 15 m. 

Reproduction and Development: Sexes separate; 

exhibit distinct pairing during courtship and 

spawning. The male incubates eggs in his mouth, 

protecting them from predators. 

Remarks: Note the large eyes, a common 

feature of nocturnal fishes that allows them to 

gather low light images. 

Ocean Whitefish 

Caulolatilus princeps (Malacanthidae) 

Tilefishes 

Distribution: British Columbia to Peru, 

including the Galapagos Islands. 

Appearance: Yellowish brown above and 

lighter below with a yellow tail. Dorsal and 

anal fins are long with blue and yellow stripes. 

Length: 55–102 cm; weight: to 3.2 g. 

Habitat: Offshore rocky reefs, depths to 10–90


m. Found on muddy bottoms, soft sand as well 

as rocky bottoms. 

Diet: Worms, shrimp, octopus, squid, small 

fishes. 


may occur 2–3 times from November through 

March; eggs and larvae are pelagic. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: up to 13 

years. 

Remarks: A large commercial fishery existed 

in the 1920s &’30s. 

Malacanthid species live in burrows or mounds 

which they construct. 

Purple Sand Tilefish 

Hoplolatilus purpureus (Malacanthidae) 

Tilefishes 

Distribution: Western Central Pacific: 

Philippines and Solomon Islands. 

Habitat: Sand and rubble patches of steep 

seaward slopes, usually between 35–70 m. 

Appearance: Slender, tubular, purple body 

with red-edged forked tail; long, continuous 

dorsal and anal fins. Max. length: 13 cm. 


Reproduction and Development: Egg layers. 

Have spawned in captivity. 

Remarks: Their popular name “sand” tilefish 

comes from their lightning-quick ability to 

diving into burrows they fashion in rubble 

substrates. 

Solitary or form small groups. 

Yellow and Blueback Fusilier 

Caesio teres (Caesionidae) 

Fusiliers 

Distribution: Indo-Pacific: East Africa to Micronesia, 

Samoa and Line Islands; southwestern 

Japan to Great Barrier Reef, Australia. 

Habitat: Active diurnally over upper edges of 

steep slopes, coastal seaward and patch reefs 

to 5–50 m; primarily around coral reefs, with 

a preference for coralline lagoons. 

Appearance: Length to 40 cm. Slender, torpedoshaped 

body; silvery-blue, yellow from back to 

lower tail base and tail, pectoral fin base black. 

Tail deeply forked. 



occurs near the surface, typically in deep 

channels during an outgoing tide at sunset or a 

full moon. Oviparous; buoyant, spherical eggs 

are pelagic, thus non-guarded. 

Remarks: Congregate in large aggregations, 

often with other species of fusiliers. 

Bluestreak Fusilier 

Pterocaesio tile (Caesionidae) 

Fusiliers 

Distribution: Indo-Pacific: East Africa to the 

Marquesas, north to southern Japan, south to 

New Caledonia, and throughout Micronesia. 

Habitat: Outer reef slopes and in clear, deep 

lagoons, to 60 m depth. 

Appearance: Elongate body. Broad iridescent 

blue mid-lateral band; dark olive above. Turns 

bright red along lower half of body at night. 

Max. size: 30 cm. 

Diet: Zooplankton taken from midwater. 


small pelagic eggs. 

Remarks: Usually form dense schools along 

outer reef slopes and in clear deep lagoons, 

to 60 m. 

Caught commercially, primarily as tuna 

baitfish. 

Siamese Tigerfish 

Coius (Datnioides) microlepis (Coiidae) 

Tiger Perches 

Distribution: Southeast Asia: Thailand, Borneo, 

Sumatra 

Habitat: A bottom dweller in brackish waters. 

Appearance: An arrowhead-shaped fish with 

a silvery brown body and vertical jet black 

bars on its body. The number of black bars 

depends on geographic location. Fish from the 

Asiatic mainland have 6 bars, and those from 

the Indo-Australian archipelago have 7. Max. 


Diet: A predatory carnivore. As it approaches 

a potential meal, the tigerfish slowly sways 

from side to side, as if sighting the prey and 

then strikes using its large mouth. 

Reproduction: Egg layer. 

Remarks: In Thailand, the fish is sought after for 

its flavorful flesh. Highly regarded by aquarists. 

Striped Large-eye Bream 

Gnathodentex aurolineatus (Lethrinidae) 

Distribution: Widespread in the Indo-Pacific

and Central Pacific. 

Habitat: Subtidal coral reef flats, lagoons, and 

seaward reefs at depths over 30 m. 

Appearance: Dorsal area brown with narrow 

silver stripes; head and upper sides mainly 

silver to gray, brownish-orange on lower 

sides. Prominent golden yellow blotch below 

posterior of dorsal fin. Max. length: 30 cm. 

Diet: Nocturnal feeder on benthic invertebrates, 

including crabs, snails, and small fishes. 

Reproduction and Development: Often form 

large aggregations for pelagic spawning. 

Remarks: During the day, up to several hundred 

individuals aggregate between coral heads or in 

gullies, hovering motionless in compact mass. 

Opaleye 

Girella nigricans (Kyphosidae) 

Sea Chubs 

Distribution: Oregon to southern Baja California. 

Habitat: A resident intertidal species with 

strong homing behavior. Can leave tide pools 

if aquatic conditions become inhospitable. 

Also found near or over rocky reefs and in kelp 

beds up to about 30 m depth. Dense schools 

form in the spring season in kelp forests. 

Young are pelagic. 

Appearance: Ovally rounded football-shaped 

profile. Olive-green, frequently shaded with 

blue or gray; often the snout has a white-colored 

area. Can display a silvery-white spotted 

pattern over the entire body; one to three white 

spots on back. Bright blue to blue-green eyes. 

Young are blue dorsally, silver ventrally. Max 

length: to 66 cm. 

Diet: Feeds diurnally, mainly on seaweeds; 

occasionally take invertebrates (shrimps, amphipods, 

jellyfish, etc.) 


April to June; female sheds eggs into the 

water column. Young-of-the-year move into 

tide pools from June until winter season, the 

smallest in the most elevated pools. After 1–2 

years the juveniles migrate to subtidal reefs 

and kelp forests. 

Mortality/Longevity: A popular sportfish, also 

a mild, good-eating fish, sold commercially as 

“perch.” 


147 

Halfmoon 

Medialuna californiensis (Kyphosidae) 

Sea Chubs 

Distribution: Vancouver Island, British 

Columbia to Gulf of California. Most common 

south of Point Conception, California. 

Habitat: Common on nearshore rocky reefs 

and in kelp beds. Most abundant from 

3–20 m. 

Appearance: Slate blue to blue black, silvery 

belly; dusky area above gill cover. Medialuna 

and common name refers to the half-moon 

shape of the tail. Scales extend over part of 

dorsal fin. Max. length: 20 cm. 

Diet: Seaweed, sponges, small invertebrates. 

Diurnal feeders. 


oviparous. 

Mortality/Longevity: Taken by California sea 

lions, northern fur seals, loons, cormorants, 

and bald eagles among others. 

Remarks: A popular sport fish, especially from 

Santa Monica south. Also a small commercial 

fishery, as flesh is of excellent quality. Typically 

found in schools or loose aggregations. 

Mono 

Monodactylus argenteus (Monodactylidae) 

Moonyfishes 

Distribution: Indo-West Pacific: Red Sea and 

East Africa to Samoa, north to southern Japan, 

south to New Caledonia and Australia. 

Habitat: Bays, mangrove estuaries, tidal creeks, 

and lower reaches of freshwater streams. 

Appearance: Adults bright silver with 

yellowish dorsal and tail fins. Round to 

triangular-shaped, laterally compressed body. 

Small juveniles more colorful with yellow over 

most of the dorsal fin and two vertical black 

bands over the head. Max. size: 27 cm. 

Diet: Planktonic and benthic invertebrates. 

Reproduction: Batch spawner. 

Remarks: Territorial; adults form schools; 

juveniles solitary or in small groups. 

Bank Butterflyfish 

Chaetodon aya (Chaetodontidae) 

Butterflyfishes 

Distribution: Western Central Atlantic: North 

Carolina and northeastern Gulf of Mexico to


Yucatan in Mexico; unknown in Bahamas and 

Antilles. 

Habitat: Deep, offshore banks. Depth range: 

20- 170 meters. 

Appearance: Deep, compressed body, with 

yellow on all fins except the pectoral fins. 

Vertical dark bars on the eyes and near the 

caudal fin. Prominent dorsal spines make 

these fish unappetizing to most fish-eating 

predators. 

Diet: Algae, plankton, coral polyps, small 

crustaceans and worms. 

Reproduction: Broadcast spawner; forms pairs 

during breeding. 



trade. 

Remarks: Typically found in pairs and active 

during the day. At night they may sleep inside 

large sponges. 

Is shaped to hover and navigate holes and 

crevices in the reef. It has a small protruding 

mouth and many small teeth in both jaws to 

reach and eat food items unavailable to many 

other fishes. 

Saddle Butterflyfish 

Chaetodon ephippium (Chaetodontidae) 



Habitat: Lagoons and seaward reefs to 30 m in 

coral rich, clear waters. 

Appearance: Yellowish grey with a large black 

spot on the upper rear sides bordered below by 

a broad white band; orange area from snout to 

ventral fins, wavy blue lines on the lower sides. 

Adults have a filament extending posteriorly 

from the dorsal fin. Max length: 30 cm. 

Diet: Filamentous algae, small invertebrates, 

sponges, coral polyps, and fish eggs. 


separate; form pairs during breeding. Scatter 

eggs in the open water or on the substrate. Do 


Klein’s Butterflyfish 

Chaetodon kleinii (Chaetodontidae) 



Habitat: Deeper lagoons, channels and seaward 

reefs 4–61 m, usually below 10 m. Soli- 

tary, pairs, occasionally in groups. 

Appearance: Length to 15 cm. Compressed 

body. White band on caudal peduncle. Adult 

posterior body brown to yellow. Head white, 

eye transversed with a black vertical stripe. 

Colors highly variable among populations. 

Diet: Primarily octocorals (esp. Sarcophyton 

spp.), also algae and zooplankton. 


Nonguarders 

PR24 

Raccoon Butterflyfish 

Chaetodon lunula (Chaetodontidae) 


Distribution: From East Africa throughout the 

Indo-Pacific, south to Australia, east to Hawaii. 

Habitat: Shallow reef flats of lagoon and 

seaward reefs, to depth of 30 m. 

Appearance: A large butterflyfish (up to 20 

cm), oval shape. Most have oblique stripes 

on the flanks, and large black bar over the 

nose and eyes that makes the eyes difficult 

for a predator to see and is reminiscent of a 

raccoon’s mask. 

Diet: Omnivore. Feeds on coral polyps, worms, 

crustaceans, plankton, algae. 


Pairs form during breeding period. 


fish, invertebrates, and humans. Life span: 

5–7 years. 

Remarks: Chaetodon means “bristletooth,” and 

has a dental array well-suited to its diet. 

Has a great fondness for coral polyps, which 

makes our Steinhart denizen a better fit for 

the Color Cluster’s “Hiding the Eye” tank, 

which contains no corals. There it feeds on 

other invertebrates rather than the Main Tank’s 

prized corals! 

Reef Butterflyfish 

Chaetodon senentarius (Chaetodontidae) 


Distribution: Tropical western Atlantic Ocean: 

North Carolina to Brazil, including Gulf of 

Mexico and Caribbean Sea. 

Habitat: Coral reefs, usually from shallows 

to 40 m. 

Appearance: Silver body, yellow and black

dorsal fin, and yellow tail; two vertical black 

bars, one on the head through the eye and a 

black bar across the caudal peduncle. Max 

length: c. 15 cm. 

Diet: Coral polyps, polychaete worms, 

shrimps, amphipods and hydroids. 


spawners. Form pairs during breeding. The 

female releases 3,000–4,000 eggs. The fertilized 

eggs are small, transparent, and hatch within 

a day into minute, translucent silvery-grey 

larvae. 


fish, such as moray eels, snappers, and 

groupers. If it can’t find cover, will defend 

itself by facing its predator with dorsal spines 

erected, suggesting a sharply distasteful meal. 

Remarks: Typical of butterflyfishes, its mouth 

is adapted to feeding in crevices. The teeth are 

curved at the tips and designed for scraping 

and nipping at the small invertebrates. Teeth 

are in several rows in each jaw, giving the 

appearance of a brush. Origin of name: chaeto 

= “bristle” and donte = “tooth.” 

Vagabond Butterflyfish 

Chaetodon vagabundus (Chaetodontidae) 



Habitat: Reef flats, lagoon, and seaward reefs 

to depths of 30 m. 

Appearance: Black bands over head, rear body 

and tail. The soft dorsal, anal and caudal fins 

are yellow. Max length: 23 cm. 

Diet: Omnivorous; feed on algae, coral polyps, 

sea anemones, crustaceans and polychaete 

worms. Both male and female defend a feeding 

territory against other pairs of their species, 

but are not particularly aggressive toward 

other species. 

Reproduction and Development: Oviparous, 

monogamous. Open water egg scatterers. 

Pelagic larvae settle in shallow back reef 

habitats. 

Remarks: Vertical line going through the eye 

disguises the eye and makes it harder for a 

predator to figure out which is the front of the 

fish and which is the back, perhaps giving the 

butterflyfish a brief chance to escape while the 

predator hesitates. 


149 

Copperband Butterflyfish 

Chelmon rostratus (Chaetodontidae) 


Distribution: Andaman Sea to Papua New 

Guinea, north to Ryukyu Island, south to 

Northwest Australia and Great Barrier Reef. 

Habitat: Estuaries, coastal reefs, silty inner 

reefs, 1–30 m. Solitary or in pairs. 

Appearance: Length to 19 cm. Deep, highly 

compressed body. Beak-like mouth. Body whitish 

with 4 vertical orange bands. Black false 

eyespot on terminal orange band. 

Reproduction and Development: Planktonic 

eggs hatch after a couple days. Larval stage 

lasts several weeks to perhaps 2 months. During 

a distinctive late larval stage the head and 

body are covered with bony plates. 

Remarks: Distinctive snout used for prying 

into the crevices of coral. 

A food fish marketed locally. Reported to be 

“not good” from a culinary standpoint. 

Western Talma 

Chelmonops curiosus (Chaetodontidae) 


Distribution: Southern and Central Western 

Australia. 

Habitat: Coastal rocky reefs. 

Appearance: Deep bodied, compressed fish 

with long pointed snout. Silvery gray with five 

vertical brown bars. Max. size: 26 cm. 

Diet: Invertebrates and algae. 

Longnose Butterflyfish 

Forcipiger longirostris (Chaetodontidae) 


Distribution: Indo-Pacific from East Africa 

to Indonesia, Philippines, Hawaii and French 

Polynesia; southwest Japan to Great Barrier 

Reef. 

Habitat: Non-migratory; usually found, alone 

or in pairs, in the outer reefs from 3–70 m. 

Appearance: Yellow with black upper head and 

silvery white below; extremely elongated snout; 

black spots on breast, spot on anal fin below tail 

base. Individuals occasionally turn dark brown, 

a color phase that does not seem to be related to 

sex or reproduction. Maximum size: 22 cm. 

Diet: Mainly small crustaceans. 

Reproduction and Development: Monogamous; 

form breeding pairs. Ovoviviparous,


broadcast spawners, with eggs and larvae 

passing through an extended planktonic stage. 

Remarks: Sometimes confused with the 

common longnose butterflyfish (Forcipiger 

flavissimus), which is similar in size and color 

but has a shorter snout. 

Pyramid Butterflyfish 

Hemitaurichthys polylepis (Chaetodontidae) 


Distribution: Eastern Indian Ocean and the 

Western and Central Pacific Ocean. 

Habitat: Outer coral reef usually close to dropoffs, 

at depths 3–60 m. 

Appearance: Brown to black head and a large 

white pyramid-shaped area on its side. Scales 

pearlescent. The dorsal and anal fins are 

yellow; caudal fin white. Max. length: 18 cm. 

Diet: Plankton. 


Ovoviviparous. Form pairs during breeding. 

Remarks: Occur in large schools that feed 

several meters above the edges of steep outer 

reef slopes. 

Unlike many other butterflyfishes, this species 

does not feed on coral polyps, so is considered 

a good choice for aquaria with live corals. 

Bannerfish aka False Moorish Idol 

Heniochus diphreutes (Chaetodontidae) 


Distribution: Indo-Pacific; widely distributed 

from the Red Sea and the east coast of Africa 

to Hawaii. 

Habitat: Outer reef slopes, 15–210 m; in the 

tropics typically found in cool upwelling 

water. 

Appearance: White with pair of black bands, 

second band terminating at end of anal fin. 

Elongate dorsal fin filament. Length to 21 cm. 



form pairs during breeding. 

Remarks: Form large schools, and also occur 

in small groups or solitary. Elongate dorsal 

fin filament, which gives this group of fishes 

their “bannerfish” moniker; is the fourth dorsal 

spine. 

Often called the “false” Moorish Idol for its 

markings similar to the Steinhart’s iconic 

species; however, the flowing dorsal fin 

and larger size of the Idol are distinctive 

differentiations. 

Cherubfish 

Centropyge argi (Pomacanthidae) 

Angelfishes 

Distribution: Bermuda, Florida, Bahamas, Yucatan 

and Central American coast to Guianas. 

Habitat: Nocturnally active in pairs or small 

groups in rubble areas near rocky or coral reefs, 

occasionally walls. Depth 9–105 m, commonly 

deeper than 30 m. 

Appearance: Length to 8 cm. Small, oval angelfish. 

Dark blue body, yellow-orange face, 

blue ring around eye. 

Diet: Algae. 

Mortality/Longevity: Preyed on by other fish 

such as yellow-finned tuna 

Remarks: This small angelfsh darts into 

crevices when frightened or pursued by 

predators. 

Coral Beauty aka Dusky Angelfish 

Centropyge bispinosus (Pomacanthidae) 

Angelfishes 


Habitat: Coral lagoons and seaward reef slopes 

at about 9 m. 

Appearance: A dwarf angelfish that rarely 

exceeds 10 cm. Color variable, though most 

often light orange or purple with vertical bars 

on the sides of the body. 

Diet: Mostly algae, but also some small 


Reproduction and Development: Thought to 

be a protogynous hermaphrodite. 

Remarks: A shy species found in lagoons and 

seaward reef slopes. Note the Steinhart’s Coral 

Beauty is often found peering warily from 

behind coral protection. 

The smallest of the marine angelfishes. 

Flame Angelfish 

Centropyge loricula (Pomacanthidae) 

Angelfishes 

Distribution: Tropical lagoons and reefs of the 

Indian and Pacific Ocean. 

Habitat: Marine coral reefs; shy, stays near 

shelter; depth from 15–60 m.

Appearance: Typically bright orange-red color; 

black blotch near the head and 4–5 black bars 

across the body; flaring caudal fin about half 

the body height. Orange-red dorsal and anal 

fins tipped in alternating purple-blue and 

black bands. Males are brighter and larger than 

females. Max. length: 15 cm. 

Diet: Algae and marine invertebrates on the 

reefs. 

Reproduction/Development: Like angelfish in 

general, this species begins life undifferentiated 

sexually, matures to female, and may subsequently 

develop as a male with one or more females in a 

territorial harem. After a short mating ritual, both 

sexes rise in the water column to shed and fertilize 

gametes that develop within the plankton. 

Mortality/Longevity: Preyed upon by many 

reef fishes. 

Remarks: Members of the genus Centropyge are 

the dwarf or pygmy angelfishes. 

Territorial males may determine dominance 

by grappling with interlocked jaws, a 

behavior humans sometimes mistake for a 

fishy kiss. 

Lemonpeel Angelfish 

Centropyge flavissima (Pomacanthidae) 

Angelfishes 

Distribution: West-central Pacific. 

Appearance: Yellow dwarf angelfish with blue 

eye ring, blue margin to opercular cover and 

to dorsal, anal, and caudal fins. Max. size: 14 

cm. 

Habitat: Coral reefs in shallow lagoons. 

Diet: Algae and corals. 

Reproduction and Development: As with 

other dwarf angels, they are sequential 

protogynous hermaphrodites. They start 

out sexually undifferentiated, develop into 

females, and with environmental influences, 

may develop into males. Males are typically 

larger. 

Mortality/Longevity: Reported 11 years in 

captivity. 

Remarks: C. flavissima is the model for the juvenile 

Lemonpeel Mimic Tang (Acanthurus pyroferus). 

Mimicry is presumably an advantage as the adult 

angelfish has a sharp spine, while the young 

mimic has a small, still ineffective weapon. 


151 

Lamarck’s Angelfish aka Blackstriped 

Angelfish 

Genicanthus lamarck (Pomacanthidae) 

Angelfishes 

Distribution: Indo-Pacific: ranging eastward to 

Vanuatu, from the Solomon Islands and New 

Hebrides north and westward to southern 

Japan, and southward to the Great Barrier 

Reef. 

Habitat: A tropical reef dweller; at depths from 

10–35 m. 

Appearance: Sexually dimorphic; white or 

silver body with horizontal black stripes from 

eye to speckled lyre tails. Females have bolder 

stripes, one extending into the tail. Males have 

a yellow spot on the forehead, longer more 

pointed caudal fin and jet black pelvic fins; 

females’ pelvic fins are white. Max. length: 

25 cm. 


Reproduction/Development: Males maintain 

harems, scatter pelagic eggs after mid-water 

mating rituals. The eggs and larvae drift, then 

settle onto the reef at the time of metamorphosis 

to the juvenile stage. 

Remarks: They prefer the top to middle of their 

depth range unlike most other angelfishes. 

Males and females are so distinct that sexes 

were once considered separate species. 

One of the few angelfish to display sexual 

dimorphism. 

Their genus, Genicanthus, is distinctive among 

angelfish for their lyre tails, an adaptation to 

open water, fast swimming. They are also the 

only group of angelfish that feed on plankton. 

Swallowtail Angelfish aka Blackspot 

Angelfish 

Genicanthus melanospilos (Pomacanthidae) 

Angelfishes 


Habitat: Outer reef slopes rich in coral growth 

interspersed with sand, also in caves or along 

the bases of boulders, 20–45 m. Typically in 

male/female pairs or small groups of females 

with one male, 1–2 m above the bottom at the 

base of drop offs. 

Appearance: To 18 cm. Sexes are dimorphic. 

Male: white with about 15 narrow, black bars, 

gold spots on tail and dorsal fins. Female: upper 

body and head yellow, lower body light


blue; no bars; two prominent black, forking 

stripes in caudal fin. 

Diet: Primarily zooplankton, supplemented 

with benthic invertebrates and algae. 

Reproduction and Development: Spawn at 

sunset. Mating activity is less if there are no 

currents to disperse the spawn. 

Remarks: Genicanthus spp. are the only angelfishes 

in which the sexes are distinctly colored. 

Elongated tail that ends in two filaments bequeaths 

the swallowtail its name. 

Queen Angelfish 

Holacanthus ciliaris (Pomacanthidae) 

Angelfishes 

Distribution: Bermuda, Florida, Bahamas, 

Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico to Brazil. 

Habitat: Offshore reefs, 2–70+ m. Travel solitarily 

or in pairs among sea fans, sea whips and 

corals. 

Appearance: Deep-bodied and strongly 

compressed. Length to 45 cm, weight to 1.6 kg. 

Dorsal and anal fins trail. Adults have blue to 

greenish-blue ground color, yellow edges on 

scales. Tail and pectoral fins bordered in yellow. 

Dark blue lips. 

Diet: Adults feed primarily on sponges; also 

algae, tunicates, hydroids and bryozoans. Juveniles 

glean ectoparasites from other fishes. 

Reproduction and Development: Juveniles 

have vertical blue bands on an orange-red 

body. As the fish grows, the bars increase in 

number before gradually disappearing. 

King Angelfish 

Holacanthus passer (Pomacanthidae) 

Angelfishes 

Distribution: Tropical reefs of the eastern 

Pacific from the coast of Peru north to the Gulf 

of California and as far west as the Galapagos 

Islands. 

Habitat: Commonly found around shallow 

rocky and coral reefs at depths of 3 to 27 m. 

Juveniles are generally found in shallower 

water 

Appearance: Bodies of both males and females 

are a dark blue with a vertical band of white 

behind the pectoral fins, and yellow tails. The 

pelvic fins of the male are white while the 

females are yellow. Juveniles are primarily 

yellow with iridescent blue edged fins, blue 

stripes toward the posterior of the body with 

orange around the eyes. Rays of the dorsal and 

anal fins taper down and end in long filaments. 

Max size: 30–35 cm. 

Like all angelfish, have a blunt snout and a 

large strong spike at the anterior most bone of 

the operculum. 

Diet: Sponges, tunicates, sessile invertebrates, 

zooplankton and graze on benthic microalgae. 

Feed during the day, are lethargic at night. 

Reproduction and Development: Form 

monogamous pairs. During the late summer 

spawning cycle the females become more 

territorial and the pair will mate daily. A pair 

can produce millions of fertilized eggs which 

will drift in the water column for about 20 

hours at which time those that survive hatch 

as finless fry living off their yolk sac until it is 

completely absorbed. The fry then eat small 

zooplankton until their size requires larger 

prey. Some juveniles display cleaning behavior. 

Conservation Status: One of the most abundant 

fish in the Sea of Cortez and not considered to 

be threatened. 

Remarks: King Angelfish are popular aquarium 

fish but are difficult to keep. 

Emperor Angelfish 

Pomacanthus imperator (Pomacanthidae) 

Angelfishes 


Habitat: Juveniles solitary under ledges and 

holes of outer lagoon patch reefs or semiprotected 

areas of exposed channels and outer 

reef flats. Subadults occupy reef front holes or 

surge channels. Adults occur near ledges and 

caves in regions of robust coral growth on clear 

lagoon, channel or seaward reefs 3–70 m. Adults 

typically in male/female pair or solitary. 

Appearance: Length to 40 cm. Juvenile with 

concentric white circles, also distinguished 

by a white dorsal fin margin; adult pattern 

emerges at about 10 cm: vivid, alternating 

yellow and blue stripes and yellow tail; blueedged 

eye mask, broad blue-edged black bar 

behind head. 

Diet: Sponges and other encrusting organisms 

such as tunicates. Young and adults may 

clean much larger fishes such as sunfish. 

Reproduction and Development: Haremic. 

Form pairs.

Mortality/Longevity: More than 5 years in 

captivity. 

Remarks: When alarmed, can produce lowfrequency 

drumlike noises that are loud 

enough to startle divers. 

Frequently exported through the aquarium 

trade. 

Bluegirdled Angelfish 

Pomacanthus navarchus (Pomacanthidae) 

Angelfishes 

Distribution: Indo-Pacific from Indonesia to 

Papua New Guinea, up to the Philippines and 

south to the lower Great Barrier Reef, and parts 

of Micronesia. 

Habitat: Coral abundant areas in clear lagoons, 

channels and sheltered outer reef slopes at 

depths of 3– 40 m. 

Appearance: Adults are bright yellow on the 

sides and back and the dorsal and caudal fins. 

The head, ventral side, pectoral and pelvic fins 

are a bright blue with light blue spots. Narrow 

light blue bands run across the face and a broad 

dark blue band extends around the caudal 

peduncle. The fins are edged in light blue. Max 


Diet: Sponges and tunicates. 

Reproduction and Development: Generally 

solitary except when spawning, they form 

small groups with a dominant male and several 

females. The dominant female can change sex 

should the dominant male die. 


Conservation Status: This species is a highly 

prized aquarium fish, but not listed as 

threatened or endangered. 

Amazon Leaf Fish 

Monocirrhus polyacanthus (Nandidae) 

Leaffishes 

Distribution: Amazon River basin of Peru, 

Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, and Venezuela. 

Habitat: Shallow, nearshore areas with dense 

vegetation and slow-moving or still water. 

Appearance: Can change colors to blend more 

completely into its surroundings. Body shape, 

coloration and fin rays mimic leaf shape. 

Diet: Carnivore, mainly feeding on other 

fish. Lie-in-wait predator, using camouflage 

to capture unsuspecting prey that ventures 

too close. Also can move toward prey using 


153 

its transparent pectoral fins, making it almost 

impossible to see. Prey, some almost as large 

as the leaf fish itself, are sucked in as the large 

mouth opens. 


guard eggs, which are laid on leaves or other 

flat surfaces. 

Redspotted Hawkfish 

Amblycirrhitus pinos (Cirrhitidae) 

Hawkfishes 

Distribution: Western Atlantic. 

Habitat: Moderately common in rocky areas 

and among rubble, often in crevices and 

shallow caves. 

Appearance: Pale body bisected by broad 

brownish vertical bars with lighter, narrow 

stripes between. Head covered with bright red 

spots. Max. length: 9.5 cm. 

Diet: Feeds primarily on small crustaceans, 

particularly copepods, shrimps and shrimp 

larvae, crabs and crab larvae as well as 

polychaetes. Like other members of its family, 

has short, conical teeth, effective in grasping 

small prey items. 

Remarks: Like all hawkfishes, perches on 

rocks and corals waiting for food to come by, 

often hopping from spot to spot using its large 

pectoral fins as landing pads. 

Falco’s Hawkfish 

Cirrhitichthys falco (Cirrhitidae) 

Hawkfishes 

Distribution: Western Pacific, from the 

Philippines to Japan, Samoa, the Barrier Reef, 

and New Caledonia; as far east as Hawaii and 

the Galapagos. 

Habitat: Shallow coastal to outer reef flats and 

slopes at depths up to 45 meters. Typically 

rest at the bases of coral heads, perched high 

enough to see prey and predators. 

Appearance: Whitish body with red spots that 

form diagonal bands. Two thin red lines extend 

downward from the eye. Yellow tufts of cirri 

are present near the tips of dorsal spines. The 

male is larger than the female. Max. length: 

7 cm. 

Diet: Shrimp, worms, and other small prey, 

located by excellent eyesight. 

Reproduction and Development: Haremic, 

usually found with one male presiding over


a territory of 2–7 females. Hawkfish are 

protogynous hermaphrodites; if the male 

is killed or missing, a female will change to 

male and adopt his role. Male regularly visits 

females in his territory. If she is receptive to 

his courtship, which may last an entire day, 

they swim together, eventually upwards in an 

arc, releasing eggs and sperm simultaneously. 

Eggs and larvae remain in the plankton for 

about 3 weeks, a fairly long time and perhaps 

the reason for this species wide distribution. 


Longnose Hawkfish 

Oxycirrhites typus (Cirrhitidae) 

Hawkfishes 

Distribution: Widely distributed throughout 

the Indo-Pacific and Red Sea, from South 

Africa to the Hawaiian Islands, north to 

southern Japan and south to New Caledonia. 

Also found in the eastern Pacific from the Gulf 

of California to northern Colombia and the 

Galapagos Islands. 

Habitat: Non-migratory tropical marine fish, 

found at depths from 10–100 m. Inhabit the 

steep outer reef slopes that are exposed to 

strong currents. Hide in large gorgonians 

and corals. 

Appearance: White body with red striping 

that runs both horizontally and vertically. 

Very long snout and a tuft of cirri, (small, thin 

appendages, often subdivided into branches) 

near the tip of each dorsal fin spine. Max. 




spawning has been observed from the field. 

Remarks: Members of this family (Cirrhitidae) 

seem to be monogamous. However, in reality they 

probably practice facultative monogamy. In this 

mating system, males are limited in their ability to 

acquire and maintain females, and thus have only 

a single mate, but may acquire additional females 

if conditions for doing so are favorable. 

Flame Hawkfish 

Neocirrhites armatus (Cirrhitidae) 

Hawkfishes 

Distribution: Tropical Pacific Ocean, from 

southern Japan to the Great Barrier Reef, and 

through Micronesia. 

Habitat: Inhabits surge swept reef fronts and 

underwater terraces to a depth of 11 m. Hides 

in the branches of live corals. 

Appearance: Flame red body with a black field 

under the dorsal fin and a dark ring around 

their eye. Mature adults have higher, more 

rounded body than young individuals. Max. 

length: 9 cm. 

Diet: Carnivorous, feeds mostly on small 

crustaceans and other invertebrates. 


hermaphrodite. One of the females will become 

a male if dominant male dies or leaves the 

group. Oviparous; pelagic spawners. Haremic; 

male stakes out a territory where he lives with 

2–7 females. 

SUBORDER LABROIDEI 

Midas Cichlid 

Amphilophus citrinellus (Cichlidae) 

Cichlids 

Distribution: Central America: Atlantic slope 

of Nicaragua and Costa Rica. Also established 

in Florida. 

Habitat: Max. length: 30 cm. 

Appearance: Though coloration is variable, the 

species is typically grey to olive brown with 

some that are bright orange to orange-red as 

adults. Mature males are larger, and sport longer 

fins and a distinct hump on the head, especially 

pronounced during breeding season. 

Diet: Small animals and plants that encrust hard 

substrates, as well as snails, small fishes, insect 

larvae and other bottom-dwelling invertebrates. 


spawn on the ceiling of caves or deposit 

eggs on other hard surfaces. Both parents 

aggressively guard eggs and fry. Active fry 

feed on mucus secretions produced by the skin 

of the parents. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: 15+ years. 

Remarks: This species is closely related to 

Amphilophus laibatus, which can hybridize with 

A. citrinellus. 

Red Devil Cichlid 

Amphilophus labiatus (Cichlidae) 

Cichlids 

Distribution: Atlantic slope of Mexico and Ni-

caragua; in Lakes Nicaragua and Managua. 

Habitat: Lakes; rarely enters streams or rivers. 

Appearance: Body pinkish-red. Very long, reddish 

pectoral fin. Length to 24 cm. 

Diet: Small fishes, snails, insect larvae, worms 

and other bottom-dwelling organisms. 


is external. Female lays 600–700 eggs and 

guards the clutch. 

Convict Cichlid 

Archocentrus nigrofasciatus (Cichlidae) 

Cichlids 

Distribution: El Salvador to Guatemala. 

Habitat: Adults inhabit flowing water from small 

creeks and streams to the shallows of large and 

fast flowing rivers; prefer rocky habitats and in 

the various cracks and crevices or among roots 

and debris in warm pools of springs. 


compressed silvery body with eight black bands. 

Dorsal midsection of body burnt orange. 

Diet: Worms, crustaceans, insects, fish and 

plant material. 

Reproduction and Development: 100–150 

eggs deposited and vigorously guarded and 

cared for by both male and female. 

Macmaster’s Dwarf Cichlid 

Apistogramma macmasteri (Cichlidae) 

Cichlids 

Distribution: Colombia’s Meta and Orinoco 

rivers. 

Habitat: Slow-moving or still water, usually 

with vegetation and caves, rocks, and/or trees 

for hiding places. 

Appearance: Deep bodied and laterally 

compressed. Males are strikingly colored and 

ornamented, with long filaments on their 

dorsal and anal fins. Males are 2–3 times as 

long as the females and up to 10 times as heavy. 

Length: 2.5 cm to 11 cm. 

Diet: Carnivorous. 


haremic, the male visits females in turn, since 

each female is out of phase with the others. 

Females set up individual cavities where they 

deposit their eggs. Each changes her color to 

bright canary yellow with black markings 

when breeding. Both males and females are 

very aggressive toward others of their gender 


155 

during the breeding season. Female normally 

guards the fry; male defends a wider territory. 


Remarks: At the larval stage, the higher the 

water temperature, the higher the proportion 

of males develop in the group. 

A shy, cautious fish. Often difficult to find in 

the Piranha tank as it frequently hides within 

the rockwork along the tank’s edges. 

Red Oscar 

Astronotus ocellatus (Cichlidae) 

Cichlids 

Distribution: Amazon basin; introduced to 

Florida. 

Habitat: Shallow, slow-moving water with 

mud or sandy bottom; seeks cover in grasses, 

sunken branches or logs. 

Appearance: Length 33–40 cm. Olive green 

to gray or brown mottled body overlaid with 

random sized and shaped red blotches; dark 

eyespot on peduncle ringed in orange. Males 

slightly larger and brighter in coloration than 

females; juveniles marked distinctively with 

white or orange bars on body and randomly 

placed white spots on head. 

Diet: Smaller fishes, crustaceans, gastropods, 

aquatic insects and their larvae. 


pair will clear spawning site before eggs are 

laid and defend nest as eggs mature; hatching 

(typically three to four days after eggs are 

deposited) depends on temperature. Young 

guarded by adult pair as long as possible. 

Remarks: May have 2000 eggs in a clutch. 

Oscars generally sluggish by temperament, 

but may have short bursts of great speed. A 

popular food fish in South America. 

Peacock Bass 

Cichla ocellaris (Cichlidae) 

Cichlids 

Distribution: Amazon, Orinoco, and La Plata 

basins in South America. Currently established 

in southern Florida. 

Habitat: Warm freshwater. 

Appearance: Elongate body with deeply 

notched dorsal fin, large mouth with projecting 

lower jaw. Color: olive-green fading ventrally 

to yellow-white, with three dark vertical bars


on sides and series of dark spots in between. 

A large black spot encircled by silver adorns 

the caudal fin. Max. length: 60 cm. 

Diet: Diurnal feeders on other fishes. Highspeed 

pursuit predators. 

Reproduction and Development: Substrate 

spawner. Both parents guard their clutch for 

about 9 weeks. Like most cichlids, breeding 

pairs are highly territorial and aggressive. 

Remarks: Legally introduced to Florida. Are 

considered a prized sport and food fish. 

Speckled Pavon 

Cichla temensis (Cichlidae) 

Cichlids 


Orinoco basins. Introduced to Florida and 

Texas. 

Habitat: Occupies deeper littoral areas in lagoons 

and sandy and rocky banks of the main 

river channel. 

Appearance: Length to 99 cm. Weight to 12.2 kg. 

Ventral surface usually white. Three, wide, dark 

horizontal bars on body. Body typically covered 

with a series of white longitudinal dots. Dark 

false eyespot on emarginated caudal fin. 

Diet: Adults feed mainly on small fish (especially 

characids less than 10 cm). 


fertilization. Build and guard nests. Very high 

reproductive rate; females produce 9000–15,000 

eggs per kg and spawn every other month. 

Remarks: Commercial gamefish, also collected 


Pike Cichlid 

Crenicichla lepidota (Cichlidae) 

Cichlids 

Distribution: South America: extreme southern 

Amazonia in Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay and 

northern Argentina 

Habitat: Riverine. 

Appearance: Dorsal surface dark, ventral 

surface whitish, prominent horizontal blackish 

stripe from head to tail. Length to 18 cm. 

Diet: Insects, worms, and other fishes. Ambush 

predators. 


reach sexual maturity at 14 cm, males at 18 

cm. Fertilization is external. Nests are guarded. 

Ringtail Pike Cichlid 

Crenicichla saxatilis (Cichlidae) 

Cichlids 

Distribution: South America: coastal drainage 

of Suriname, French Guiana, Guyana, 

Venezuela, and Trinidad. 

Habitat: Freshwater streams; sometimes 

captured in rivers during the dry season. 

Appearance: Max. length: 25 cm. Sometimes 

referred to as “spangled pikes” due to the 

sparkling white specks that decorate their 

bodies. 

Diet: Aquatic insects, fish, and plant material. 

Reproduction: 300-400 eggs are laid and 

fertilized, often in a large cave. After 4–6 days 

the eggs hatch; another 5 days later the young 

fish are swimming free. 


Remarks: A formidable predator, this species 

is kept only with larger fish for obvious 

reasons. 

Earth-eater Cichlid 

Geophagus altifrons (Cichlidae) 

Cichlids 

Distribution: South America: Amazon basin. 

Habitat: Freshwater. 

Appearance: Length to 22 cm. Protruding mouth. 

Head has red weblike markings. Spiky fins. 

Diet: Common name derived from this fish’s 

almost constant digging in the sand for prey. 

Reproduction and Development: Fish in 

this genus are mouth brooders. The parents 

take turns brooding and spit the fry into the 

partner’s mouth when their shift is over. 

Remarks: Genus name translates as “eartheater.” 

This common name applies to many 

species. 

A small, but popular food fish. 

Texas Cichlid 

Herichthys cyanoguttatus (Cichlidae) 

Cichlids 

Distribution: Originally restricted to the lower 

Rio Grande drainage in Texas and south to 

northeastern Mexico. Introduced to central 

Texas and central Florida. 

Habitat: Pools and open runs of rivers; prefers 

warm water and areas with vegetation. 

Appearance: Light grey with many small

turquoise to white dots over the body. A single 

black spot on central side and second spot on 

the caudal peduncle; three black bars behind 

central spot. Max. length: 30 cm. 

Diet: Worms, crustaceans, insects, and plant 

matter. Sorts through mouthfuls of gravel, eats 

the small animals, and spits out the rest. 


pairs. Female cleans off space, often on a flat 

rock, to lay eggs which male then fertilizes. 

Both parents protect eggs and fry. Female 

assists hatching by helping young out of 

egg sacs. 

Cichlids in the gar tank often reproduce and 

pairs can be seen aggressively guarding their 

young. 


Remarks: Considered a game fish in Texas 

and Mexico. 

This species is the only cichlid native to the U.S. 

Turquoise Severum 

Heros severus (Cichlidae) 

Cichlids 

Distribution: Amazon River basin to Upper 

Orinoco River drainage in Colombia and 

Venezuela. 

Habitat: Lakes, standing water, or slow moving 

water with copious vegetation. 

Appearance: Compressed body is silvery; five 

black vertical bars punctuate the lower half 

of its flanks, a sixth extends to its dorsal fin. 


Diet: Fruits, seeds, green algae and detritus. 


is external. Female deposits up to 200 eggs on 

stones or roots. Both parents guard the eggs. 

Larvae are taken into the mouth for safekeeping. 

Paternal care can last up to six weeks. 

Chocolate Cichlid 

Hypselecara temporalis (Cichlidae) 

Cichlids 

Distribution: South America: Amazon River 

basin. 

Habitat: Slow-flowing, freshwater. 

Appearance: Length to 30 cm. Pinkish body. 

Diet: Algae, supplemented with planktonic 

and terrestrial invertebrates. 


separate. Fertilization external. Eggs are 


157 

deposited upon vertical substrates and 

guarded by both parents. 

Remarks: Minor commercial fishery. 

Katria 

Katria katria (Cichlidae) 

Cichlids 

Distribution: One of 17 cichlid species 

indigenous to Madagascar. 

Habitat: Freshwater pools, slow flowing runs 

and rapids with predominantly sand and 

gravel substrate, with a few very large rocks. 

Appearance: Unique pigmentation and 

coloration pattern consisting of two prominent 

black vertical bars on an iridescent golden 

background. Max length: 5.5 cm. 

Diet: Invertebrates, plants. 


spawner. Pairs of Katria have been observed 

guarding either eggs or small juveniles close 

to the top of the rocks in the Nosivolo River in 

November, 2005. 

Conservation Status: IUCN Listed: 

Vulnerable. This species has a restricted 

distribution within the Nosivolo and Mangoro 

rivers, but its habitat is in very good condition 

and it does not have to deal with either exotic 

predators or competitors. Given the lack of 

evidence for decline in quality of habitat or 

population size (it is a very common species 

within its range), this species is assessed as 

vulnerable on account of its restriction to a 

single location. 

Marakely 

Paratilapia polleni (Cichlidae) 

Cichlids 

Distribution: Endemic to Madagascar. 

Habitat: Freshwater; occurs on both slopes 

of Madagascar at altitudes up to 1500 m and 

exhibits tolerance for a broad temperature 

range (15–40° C). 

Appearance: Mid-sized cichlid, growing to 30 

cm in length; males grow up to a third again as 

large as females; black velvet basic coloration 

with pattern of blue and gold spangling. Distinct 

spot present in dorsal fin of juveniles and 

sexually quiescent adults. 

Diet: Carnivorous; juveniles feed chiefly on 

planktonic crustaceans and insect larvae; larger 

fish are crepuscular predators with a preference


for small fish but also take invertebrates as opportunity 

presents. 

Reproduction and Development: (The 

following extended narrative is intended 

as a sampling of the complex reproductive 

behavior of cichlids, a distinctive feature of the 

family that has promoted their evolutionary 

success.) 

Marakely are monogamous, biparentally 

custodial substratum spawners. Pairs defend a 

territory and overt courtship begins a few days 

before spawning. Both sexes assume velvety 

black base coloration as spawning approaches; 

both also excavate gravel pit and increasingly 

exclude other fish from area. Pair spawns on 

bottom of excavated pit, placing eggs directly 

upon the gravel; each ovoid egg has a long 

adhesive fiber that adheres to other egg fibers, 

forming a rope of eggs (up to a thousand) rolled 

into an egg mass. Male patrols perimeter of 

territory. Fry become fully mobile four days 

post-hatching. Both parents are actively involved 

in their defense, following the school of fry, 

retrieving stragglers by mouth and spitting them 

back into the school. Parental care continues for 

about three weeks. 

Remarks: A Marakeley captive breeding program 

is supported by many aquariums and zoos. 

Mtoto Zebra 

Lamprologus brevis zebra (Cichlidae) 

Cichlids 

Distribution: Africa: endemic to Lake 

Tanganyika. 

Habitat: Sandy bottom areas with shells. 

Appearance: Golden tan with darker 

verticalstripes on the sides, yellow and white 

accents on fins, and pale yellow markings 

on the face. Males longer than females and 

somewhat more robust. Max. length: c. 6 cm. 

Diet: Tiny brine shrimp, other zooplankton 

and organic bits. 

Reproduction and Development: Bonded 

male and female spawn and protect eggs and 

fry in a carefully chosen and stoutly defended 

shell. Fry stay close to the shell for the first 3 

weeks. Breed readily in captivity. 

Remarks: See Black Calvus for more information 

on Lake Tanganyika. 

Jaguar Cichlid 

Parachromis (Nandopsis) managuensis 

(Cichlidae) 

Cichlids 

Distribution: Central America: Honduras to 

Costa Rica. 

Habitat: Lakes, with preference for turbid 

water and mud bottoms; also found in springs 

and ponds over detritus and sand bottoms. 

Appearance: Body has a light background with 

black markings all over; series of large black 

spots on along the sides. Males tend to be larger 

and have pointed anal and dorsal fins. Length: 

males to 40 cm; females to 30 cm. 

Diet: Small fishes and invertebrates; a voracious 

predator that makes a meal of any fish small 

enough to fit into its unusually large mouth! 


spawns in batches. Female lays eggs on an open, 

flat surface such as slate. After fertilization, the 

female fans the eggs and the male guards the 

site. Both are aggressive defenders of young. 


Remarks: Highly regarded as a food fish. 

Like all cichlids, have well-developed 

pharyngeal teeth. 

Popular in the aquarium market, probably their 

route to Florida introduction through pet release. 

Common Kribensis 

Pelvicachromis pulcher (Cichlidae) 

Cichlids 

Distribution: Africa: Endemic to southeastern 

Nigeria and the coastal zone of southern 

Cameroon. 

Habitat: Warm brackish or freshwater, both 

slow and fast moving. Prefers areas with gravel 

or sandy substrate and dense vegetation. 

Appearance: A small (dwarf) cichlid with 

several color morphs such as yellow, red, 

green, blue and even an albino variety. Both 

sexes have dark longitudinal stripe running 

from the mouth to the caudal fin and pink 

to red abdomens. Gold-rimmed eyespots are 

common on dorsal and caudal fins. Male is 

larger, with more elongate and pointed pelvic, 

anal and caudal fins. Max. size: males, 11 cm; 

females, 7 cm. 

Diet: Diatoms, green algae and other plants; 

also small worms, crustaceans and insects. 

Reproduction and Development: In the

wild, breeds in holes excavated under aquatic 

vegetation. Female protects eggs, male defends 

territory. During the spawning season the 

female sports a brilliant red belly. The species 

breeds readily in aquaria; today virtually all 

Kribensis available in the pet trade are captive 

bred. 


fishes. Life span: c. 5 years. 

Remarks: This shy fish digs and hides in 

burrows or shelters in vegetation. 

Orinoco Angelfish aka Altum Angelfish 

Pterophyllum altum (Cichlidae) 

Cichlids 

Distribution: South America: Amazon basin, 

in the upper Rio Negro drainage; Orinoco 

River basin. 

Habitat: Rivers. 

Appearance: Extremely compressed silvery 

body with two broad dark vertical bands. Remarkably 

long trailing pelvic fins. Altum refers 

to the dramatic height of their dorsal and anal 



fertilization. Monogamous; pairs persist until 

partner dies or is separated. Clutch-tending 

guarders. 


fishes. Subject to bacterial diseases and protozoan, 

fungal and worm infestations. 

Remarks: Popular in the pet aquarium trade 

due to its unique appearance. 

Rarely spawn in captivity. 

Their narrow profile allows altums to hide 

between tree roots in water along riverbanks. 

Freshwater Angelfish 

Pterophyllum scalare (Cichlidae) 

Cichlids 


River basin. 

Habitat: Swamps and flooded forests in dense 

riverine vegetation. 

Appearance: Disc-shaped, laterally compressed 

body with vertical dark stripes. Long training 

pelvic fins, and elongate dorsal and anal fins. 


Diet: Benthic crustaceans and small fish. 

Remarks: Same as Altum Angelfish above. 


159 

East Coast Saroy 

Ptychochromis grandidieri (Cichlidae) 

Cichlids 

Distribution: Eastern drainages of Madagascar. 

Habitat: Fresh water in areas of high forest as 

well as brackish water. 

Appearance: Up to 21 cm long. Goldenyellowish 

or greenish. 

Reproduction & Development: Egg layers; 

both male and female care for fry. Rate of 

breeding would allow population to double 

in less than 15 months. 

Conservation Status: Not endangered. 

However, environmental degradation is widespread 

throughout their range, and in some 

localities numbers are greatly reduced. 

Lionhead Cichlid 

Steatocranus casuarius (Cichlidae) 

Cichlids 

Distribution: Africa: Malebo Pool (Stanley 

Pool) and the Lower Congo River basin. 

Habitat: Freshwater, in still water zones of fast 

flowing streams; demersal. 

Appearance: Length to 10 cm. Males have a 

bump on head. Blotchy coloration. 

Diet: Small invertebrates and minimal amount 

of algae. 

Reproduction and Development: Pairs bond 

for life. Fertilization is external. The female 

produces 20–150 eggs, which are typically 

laid in caves; eggs and young are guarded by 

both parents. 

Remarks: An under-developed swim bladder 

and its habit of swimming with a sudden, 

jerky movement adapt this species to live 

in fast current. The lionhead cichlids, now 

found in the large Cafe tank, typically hide 

out under the wood and vegetation in the 

center of the tank. 

Golden Tilapia 

Tilapia brevimanus (Cichlidae) 

Cichlids 

Distribution: Native to western Africa. 

Aquacultured in southeastern U.S. 

Habitat: Fresh to brackish water. 

Appearance: Yellowish-grey, with 8–9 dark 

bars on back and sides. Upper side of head 

dark brown; dark band running from eye to 

corner of mouth. Pectoral fins transparent;


dorsal and caudal marked with light spots. 


Diet: Mostly vegetation, also detritus, insects 

and insect larvae. Fry feed on zooplankton. 


spawner. Eggs laid and hatched in a nest dug 

by the male and female. Parents guard the 

eggs and fry. 

Remarks: Tilapia species have been introduced 

around the world as important food fishes for 

humans. They are disease-resistant, reproduce 

easily, eat a wide variety of foods and tolerate poor 

water quality with low dissolved oxygen levels. 

In some cases, they have become problematic 

invasive species that have wiped out whole 

populations of other species by outcompeting 

them for food or feeding on fish larvae. 

Hornet Tilapia 

Tilapia buttikoferi (Cichlidae) 

Cichlids 

Distribution: Native from Guinea-Bissau 

to West Liberia in Africa. Introduced widely 

throughout the world, primarily as a food fish. 

Habitat: Tropical rivers and streams. 

Appearance: A robust fish with deep, oval 

body of yellowish-grey color, with brownishblack 

bars. The head is yellow and the throat 

black. It has transparent pectoral fins and black 

pelvic fins. Color may change with mood. 

Males are larger than females. Max length: c. 

40 cm. 

Diet: A voracious, aggressive predator on other 

fishes, even larger individuals, (perhaps the 

reason only a single Hornet Tilapia resides in 

the Swamp tank). Also eats plant matter. An 

omnivorous and voracious eater; feeds on fish 

and crustaceans and vegetable matter. 

Reproduction and Development: Mouth 

brooders. Female carries the eggs in her 

mouth for several weeks before releasing and 

continuing to guard fry. 

Remarks: A territorial, belligerent, hardy, 

pugnacious and fierce fighter, it takes on all 

competitors for food. 

After salmonids and carps, tilapia and their 

close relatives—all fast growing, easily bred, 

and mostly herbivorous species—are the most 

important fishes in a aquaculture by the gross 

weight of production. 

Black Belt Cichlid 

Vieja maculicauda (Cichlidae) 

Cichlids 

Distribution: Atlantic slope of Central 

America, Guatemala to Panama. 

Habitat: Inhabits stagnant water of rivers, 

lakes, or slow-flowing streams with roots 

and branches that provide shelter. Tolerates 

brackish water at the mouth of rivers, a 

characteristic that may account for the wide 

dispersal of the species. 

Appearance: Up to 30 cm in length. Oval and 

laterally compressed, the male is white with 

a black band around the pectoral area (thus 

the common name) and red caudal fins with 

blotches of red from the head to the pelvic fin. 

In contrast, the female is grey with a red tail. 

Fins have spiny rays that serve to discourage 

predators. 

Diet: Vegetarian: benthic detritus, aquatic and 

terrestrial vegetable matter. 

Reproduction and Development: After the 

couple performs some ritualistic circling, the 

female, who has turned a dark color, will lay up 

to 1,000 eggs in a cavity she has prepared. The 

eggs are often attached in the tiny hair roots 

of trees along the shore. The fry, guarded by 

both parents, are free-swimming after a week. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: 7-8 years. 

Barred Surfperch 

Amphistichus argenteus (Embiotocidae) 

Surfperches 

Distribution: Bodega Bay, California to 

northern central Baja California. 

Habitat: Sandy beaches in surf; found in trawl 

catches up to 73 m. 

Appearance: Length to 43 cm. Travels in small 

groups. Silvery or white; 8–10 rust-colored 

vertical bars on side with spots in between. 

Diet: Crabs; clams, and other invertebrates. 

Reproduction and Development: Live bearer. 

Males make “figure-eights” around females 

before mating. Five-month gestation period; 

females can produce 4–110 young. Juveniles 

are born in spring and summer and are about 

4.5 cm at birth. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: to 9 years.

Redtail Surfperch 

Amphistichus rhodoterus (Embiotocidae) 

Surfperches 

Distribution: Vancouver Island to Monterey Bay. 

Habitat: Sand beaches and rocky shores in surf. 

Appearance: All fins reddish. Faded brown bars 

on the side. Silvery overall with pale olive shading 

above. Caudal fin broadly forked; dorsal fin 

distinctive for the long dorsal spines that contrast 

with shorter soft rays. Max. size: 41 cm. 

Diet: Worms, crabs, other small crustaceans, 

and fishes. 


viviparous and reproductively mature at 3–4 

years; males mature at 2 years. Females enter 

bays and estuaries to spawn. 


Remarks: This shallow water schooling fish 

is an important sport fish, the surfperch 

most often caught from central California 

northward. Comprises 10–30% of the total 

recreational catch in this area. 

Redtails also support a sizable commercial 

fishery, and comprise almost 75% of the 

commercial surfperch catch. 

Shiner Surfperch 

Cymatogaster aggregata (Embiotocidae) 

Surfperches 

Distribution: Wrangell, Alaska to Baja California. 

Habitat: Usually in shallow water around 

eelgrass beds, piers, pilings and oil platforms. 

Also in calm waters along exposed coast. Enters 

brackish and fresh waters. Lives in loose 

schools to depths of 146 m. 

Appearance: Length to 18 cm. Thin-bodied. 

Colored silvery, with rows of dark spots on 

scales forming vague black stripes on sides, 

crossed by 3 vertical yellow bars. 

Diet: Small crustaceans, crab larvae, polychaete 

worms, as well as planktonic copepods, 

amphipods, fish eggs, algae and diatoms. 


mate during the summer; young born the following 

spring or summer. Internal fertilization. 

Viviparous; young embryos are nourished 

internally and are quite large as newborns. 

Litter size varies from 4–25. Some males are 

sexually active immediately after their birth. 

Females grow faster than males. 


161 

Mortality/Longevity: Preyed upon by kelp 

bass, sand bass, halibut, harbor seals and humans. 

Live to at least 6 years. 

Remarks: Little commercial value, but often 

used as baitfish. 

Kelp Surfperch 

Brachyistius frenatus (Embiotocidae) 

Surfperches 


central Baja California. 

Habitat: Among giant kelp, usually in kelp 

canopy to 30 m. 

Appearance: Upturned snout, oblique mouth, 

and head profile concave at the eye. Brassy or 

golden brown, nearly matching the color of 

kelp. Darker above, often with blue spots or 

streaks. Among the smaller surfperches; max. 


Diet: Juveniles and small individuals: 

zooplankton. Larger adults: small crustaceans, 

usually those that live on kelp as well as parasites 

from other fishes, particularly blacksmith. 

Reproduction and Development: Livebearer. 

Breed in fall and early winter, spawn in spring. 

Black Surfperch 

Embiotoca jacksoni (Embiotocidae) 

Surfperches 

Distribution: Fort Bragg, California to Punta 

Abreojos, Baja California. 

Habitat: Nearshore reefs and kelp forests. Also 

over sand, and in estuaries near algae. Usually 

within 1 m of the substrate. 

Appearance: Almost never black. Length to 

39 cm. Deep, very compressed body. Colored 

various shades of brown, red, green above, 

yellowish below, darker bars on sides, blue bar 

on base of anal fin. Often sports a mustache-like 

black bar on upper lip. 

Diet: Worms, crustaceans and mollusks. Also 

are cleaner fish of conspecifics as well as other 

species. 

Reproduction and Development: Summer 

is the peak breeding season. Fertilization 

is internal. Viviparous; young embryos are 

nourished internally and are quite large as 

newborns. 

Mortality/Longevity: Prey of leopard sharks. 

Remarks: Species name jacksoni, is after A.C. 

Jackson, who, in the 19th century, first noted


that surfperches gave birth to live young. 

Striped Surfperch 

Embiotoca lateralis (Embiotocidae) 

Surfperches 

Distribution: Wrangell, Alaska to northern 


Habitat: Rocky coasts and kelp forests, estuarine 

eelgrass beds, occasionally in sandy surf 

near rocks. Depth to 21 m. 

Appearance: Length to 38 cm. Reddish orange 

with brilliant neon blue stripes. Iridescent blue 

streaks and spots on head and gill cover. 

Diet: Amphipods, shrimps, crabs, worms, 

other small benthic invertebrates, fish eggs 

and larvae. 


internal. Viviparous. Mature at 2–3 years (~25 

cm). Females produce 11–92 young per litter. 

Mortality/Longevity: Preyed upon by rockfish. 

Remarks: Fished commercially, also by 

sportfishers and speared by divers. 

Walleye Surfperch 

Hyperprosopon argenteum (Embiotocidae) 

Surfperches 

Distribution: Vancouver Island, British 

Columbia, Canada to central Baja California. 

Habitat: In surf on sand beaches and over sand 

near rocks, to 18 m. Often in dense rapidly 

swimming schools. 

Appearance: Length to 30 cm. Thin-bodied, 

football-shaped profile. Silver, often with 

bluish or greenish tints; may display dusky 

bars and black edges on caudal and anal fins. 



internal. Viviparous; bear 5–12 young; 

newborns about 3.8 cm long. 

Remarks: Taken commercially and as a sport 

fish. 

Rainbow Surfperch 

Hypsurus caryi (Embiotocidae) 

Surfperches 

Distribution: Cape Mendocino to northern 


Habitat: Rocky shores, often at the edges of 

kelp beds; occasionally over sand but not found 

in the surf zone. 

Appearance: Orange and blue horizontal 

stripes on body; larger orangish bars on back. 

Fins tinged with orange with black blotch on 

soft dorsal and anal fins. Belly flat and long. 


Diet: Isopods, amphipods and other 

crustaceans; also snails and brittle stars. 


viviparous and give birth to as many as 22 

young, each about 5 cm at birth. 

Conservation Status: Not particularly 

abundant, but not protected. 

Remarks: Divers in Monterey Bay report 

rainbow surfperch cleaning ocean sunfish 

(Mola mola). 

Dwarf Surfperch 

Micrometrus minimus (Embiotocidae) 

Surfperches 

Distribution: Bodega Bay, California to Central 


Habitat: Rocky tide pools to 9 m, often among 

seaweeds. 

Appearance: Length to 16 cm, typically much 

smaller (thus the common name). Silvery blue 

or greenish on back, greenish to silver shading 

below. Black triangle at base of pectoral fin. 

Irregular dark stripe along side, crossed by 

bar-like dark blotches. 

Diet: Algae and small crustaceans. 


surfperches, fertilization is internal, aided by 

the thickened front part of the male’s anal fin. 

Embryos are nourished by the mother prior to 

delivery. Litters are very small in number. Like 

all surfperches, offspring are born as juveniles, 

not larvae. 

Mortality/Longevity: Occasionally taken by 

fishers using baited hooks. 

Rubberlip Surfperch 

Rhacochilus toxotes (Embiotocidae) 

Surfperches 

Distribution: Eastern North Pacific: Cape Mendocino, 

California to Central Baja California. 

Habitat: Generally favor inshore waters with 

rocky shelves and extensive kelp beds. 

Appearance: Silvery blue to purplish on dorsal 

surface; pectoral fins yellowish; pelvic fins 

black or dusky fringed with black; prominent 

lips thick, pink or white. The largest of the 

surfperches, up to 47 cm long.

Diet: Oral “winnowers” sifting out thin-shelled 

invertebrates from the substrate; occasionally 

eat mollusks and algae. 


surfperches, are viviparous with young highly 

developed and free-swimming at birth. 

Remarks: Overall population decline. Small 

commercial fishery in Southern California; 

most caught by sport fishermen who seek out 

the larger, mature females. 

Pile Surfperch 

Rhacochilus vacca (Embiotocidae) 

Surfperches 

Distribution: Southeastern Alaska to north 


Habitat: Rocky shores, pilings, kelp beds, 

underwater structures to 46 m. 

Appearance: Length 25–30 cm; maximum 42 

cm. Silvery sides; deeply forked caudal fin. 

Diet: Hard-shelled mollusks, crabs and 

barnacles. 

Reproduction and Development: Live bearer. 

Fecundity increases with age, averaging from 

11–60 young. 

Mortality/Longevity: 7–10 years. 

Remarks: Specialized pharyngeal dentition 

that enable pile perch to crush hard shells 

persuades some ichthyologists to place the 

species in its own genus (Damalichthys). 

Clark’s Anemonefish 

Amphiprion clarkii (Pomacentridae) 

Damselfishes 

Distribution: Indo-Pacific: Persian Gulf to 

Micronesia, New Caledonia and Fiji. Also 

Southwest Japan to northern Australia. 

Habitat: Depth 1–55 meters in outer reef slopes, 

less typically inhabit lagoons. Symbiotic with 

10 species of sea anemones. Non-migratory. 

Appearance: To 12 cm. Black to entirely 

orange with pair of white or pale blue bars. 

Second bar wide; tail white or yellowish; 

other fins variably black to yellow-orange. 

There is also an orange variation: some are 

entirely pale orange, other than the two white 

bands; others have a dark patch on rear body. 

(See remarks) 

Diet: Primarily planktonic copepods and 

benthic algae. 

Reproduction and Development: Members of 


163 

the genus are monogamous; oviparous, benthic 

spawners. Parents create a nest and male 

guards eggs. All are protandrous hermaphrodites 

with one sexually active pair dominant 

over a group of juveniles. If the female dies, 

her male partner develops into a female to 

take her place, and the largest juvenile grows 

rapidly and sexually matures into the breeding 

male. The maturation of the smaller juveniles 

is stunted by the adult pair’s presence. 

Remarks: Coloration is apparently influenced 

by the host sea anemone species. 

Symbiotic with several anemones found in 

the Steinhart including Entacmaea quadricolor, 

Heteractis crispa, H. magnifica. 

False Clownfish aka Nemo 

Amphiprion ocellaris (Pomacentridae) 

Damselfishes 

Distribution: Tropical Pacific Ocean. 

Habitat: Coral reefs. Sleep and feed among the 

tentacles of their host anemone. 

Appearance: Length to 9 cm. Adults are orange 

with three broad vertical white bands, thin black 

margins on fins. Female larger than male. 

Diet: Primarily zooplankton, especially copepods, 

also filamentous algae. 

Reproduction and development: Breeds continuously 

at the Steinhart. Adhesive eggs are laid on 

a patch of cleared rock near the host anemone’s 

base and guarded by the male. Eggs hatch after 

10 days. The tiny transparent planktonic larvae 

swim away from the anemone. Two weeks later 

the larvae metamorphose into small fish. Protandrous 

hermaphrodites; some individuals mature 

as males, and all females are sex-reversed males. 

In the absence of a female the breeding male will 

turn into a female. 

.Remarks: Often confused with Amphiprion 

percula, A, ocellaris is the true Nemo of Finding 

Nemo fame. 

That said, Marlin, Nemo’s father, under natural 

conditions, would have changed into a female 

following the death of Nemo’s mother and 

remained near his host anemone, rather than 

swimming to Sydney. But then the film makers 

wouldn’t have had a heart-rending narrative 

for the film. 

The name “Nemo” has found its way into 

FishBase (www.fishbase.org) as a common 

name for this species in the USA!


Common Clownfish 

Amphiprion percula (Pomacentridae) 

Damselfishes 

Distribution: Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New 

Guinea and Great Barrier Reef, Australia. 

Habitat: Lagoon and seaward reefs, including 

turbid coastal locations at depths 1–15 m. 

Symbiotic groups of this clown occur with 

three anemone species (Heteractis magnifica, H. 

crispa and Stichodactyla gigantea). Each group of 

orange clownfish consists of a breeding pair 

and up to 4 non-breeders. 

Appearance: Orange with three horizontal 

white bars, middle bar sideways T-shaped, 

variable amount of black edging on bars and 


Diet: Primarily zooplankton. 

Reproduction and Development: Each group 

of clown anemonefish consists of a breeding 

pair and 0 –4 non-breeders. Within each group 

there is a size-based hierarchy: the female is 

largest, the male is second largest, and the 

non-breeders get progressively smaller as 

the hierarchy descends. If the female dies, the 

male changes sex and becomes the breeding 

female, while the largest non-breeder becomes 

the breeding male. The maintenance of size 

differences may avoid conflicts, because 

subordinates do not become a threat to the 

dominant breeders. 

Remarks: Clownfishes and anemones display a 

classic case of mutualism. Clownfish gradually 

(matter of minutes to days) acquires a covering 

of mucus by brushing against the tentacles of 

its host. The mucus provides a blanket of chemosensory 

camouflage that prevents firing of 

the host anemone’s nematocysts. 

The symbiotic trade off: The clownfish actively 

discourages other anemone-nibbling fishes 

from approaching and also provides the 

anemone with bits of food from its sloppy 

eating habits. The clownfish gains protection 

among the anemone’s nematocysts. 

Pink Anemonefish 

Amphiprion perideraion (Pomacentridae) 

Damselfishes 

Distribution: Eastern Indian Ocean to western 

Pacific Ocean; Indonesia to Marshall Is. In 

eastern Micronesia. Southwest Japan to 

northwest Australia, New Caledonia. 

Habitat: Reefs from 3–30 m. Pursue a symbiotic 

life with at least 4 anemone species, but most 

commonly with the typically large (to 1 m 

diameter) mature magnificent sea anemone, 

Heteractis magnifica. Also associates with 

Heteractis crispa, Macrodactyla doreensis and 

Stichodactyla gigantea. 

Appearance: Pinkish-orange coloration varies 

in saturation of color by individual. Distinctive 

narrow white head bar, narrow white dorsal 

stripe from eyes to tail. To 10 cm length. 

Diet: Zooplankton, primarily copepods, as 

well as filamentous algae. 


hermaphrodites. Like all anemonefishes, sex 

and growth are controlled by the dominant 

female. Elliptical eggs are laid on rocks close 

under the host anemone’s mantle. The male 

fish guards the eggs. Upon hatching the larvae 

drift in the plankton. 

Blue Chromis 

Chromis cyanea (Pomacentridae) 

Damselfishes 

Distribution: Florida, Bahamas, Bermuda, 

Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico. 

Habitat: Outer reef slopes and exposed patch 

reefs from 3–60 m. 

Appearance: Length to 15 cm. Body is brilliant 

blue, nape and back often dark. Slender tail is 

deeply forked and has dark borders. 

Diet: Zooplankton, primarily copepods. 


demersal eggs, which are guarded by the male. 


fishes such as groupers and trumpetfishes. 

Remarks: Often found in large aggregations. 

Bicolor Chromis 

Chromis dimidiata (Pomacentridae) 

Damselfishes 

Distribution: Indian Ocean: Red Sea, Kenya, 

Tanzania, South Africa, Mauritius, Réunion, 

Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Christmas Island. 

Habitat: Lagoon and seaward reefs, 1–36 m 

depth. Occur in large aggregations near shore, 

over reef tops and upper edges of slopes. 

Appearance: Length to 9 cm. Brown or black 

head and forebody; white rear body and tail. 

Diet: Zooplankton, plants.

Mortality/Longevity: Eaten by bigger fish. 

Bicolor Chromis 

Chromis margaritifer (Pomacentridae) 

Damselfishes and Anemonefishes 

Distribution: Indian and Pacific oceans: 

Christmas Island and northwestern Australia 

in the eastern Indian Ocean to the Line and 

Tuamoto Islands. 

Habitat: Coastal reefs, among mixed algae-coral 

reef or rocky reefs. Found on exposed seaward 

reefs; less abundant in lagoons and channels. 

Appearance: Dark brown, almost black, 

with white rear body including tail and rear 

dorsal and anal fins. Caudal fin lobes end in 

two filaments. Black spot at base of pectoral 

fin. Spine tips of the dorsal fin are blue. Max 

length: 9 cm. 

Diet: Zooplankton, algae. Feeds in large 

groups. 

Blacksmith 

Chromis punctipinnis (Pomacentridae) 

Damselfishes and Anemonefishes 

Distribution: Monterey Bay to central Baja 

California. 

Habitat: Large schools of hundreds of 

individuals are common during the day above 

nearshore rocky reefs to 45 m. Shelter at night 

on or near crevices, again often in groups. 

Appearance: Gray-blue or gray on sides with 

black spots on rear of body. Length about 30 

cm. 

Diet: Zooplankton (copepods and other 

crustacean larvae and eggs). 


prepare nest sites in overhangs or small caves 

of reefs, and guard eggs. Females oviparous. 

Spawn summer or fall. 

Mortality/Longevity: Predators include other 

fishes (including kelp bass, moray eels, and 

lingcod), marine mammals (harbor seals, 

California sea lions), and birds. 

Ternate Chromis 

Chromis ternatensis (Pomacentridae) 

Damselfishes 

Distribution: Red Sea, East Africa to Samoa, 

Japan south to New Caledonia and the Great 

Barrier Reef. 

Habitat: Over Acropora coral in upper margins 


165 

of clear lagoon and outer reef slopes at depths 

of 2–36 m. 

Appearance: Colored brown with silvery white 

to bluish lower parts, black borders on forked 

tail. Length to 10 cm. 

Diet: Plankton. Feed in huge aggregations 

above reefs. 


lay elliptical, demersal eggs that are guarded 

by the male. 


fishes, for example groupers. 

Green Chromis aka Blue Green Chromis 

Chromis viridis (Pomacentridae) 

Damselfishes 


Habitat: Reef flats, shallow lagoons, sheltered 

seaward reefs to 12 m. Huge aggregations 

above branching corals, often well above the 

bottom. Swarms of juveniles occur above 

smaller isolated coral heads. 

Appearance: Length to 9 cm. Adults sea-foam 

green in color. Courting males develop blackish 

dorsal rays and upper pectoral rays. Caudal 

fin deeply forked with very long, trailing tips. 


Reproduction and Development: Elliptical 

demersal eggs are guarded by the male. 

Sapphire Devil 

Chrysiptera cyanea (Pomacentridae) 

Damselfishes 

Distribution: Indo-West Pacific: eastern edge 

of Indian Ocean and Western Australia to New 

Guinea, Indonesia, Philippines, Taiwan and 

Ryukyu Islands. 

Habitat: Rubble and coral of clear sheltered 

lagoons and subtidal reef flats. 

Appearance: Brilliant light-blue color. Exhibits 

marked sexual dichromatism: juveniles and 

females usually have small black spot at rear 

base of dorsal fin and in some areas (e.g., Micronesia) 

lack yellow; males have bright yellow 

snout and tail, orange in some regions, and lack 

black spot. Size up to 8.5 cm. 

Diet: Omnivore. Feeds on algae, pelagic tunicates 

and copepods. In the wild, stakes out a 

territory and “farms” the algae that grow in 

the area. 

Reproduction and Development: Damsels


pair off and the breeding pair establishes a territory, 

which they defend vigorously. Female 

damselfish releases eggs, which the male fertilizes 

by releasing sperm over them. Yolk-sac 

larvae have planktonic development. 

Remarks: Damselfishes are laterally compressed 

and, like their cichlid relatives, are 

characterized by single nostril on each side of 

the snout rather than the usual two. 

Damselfishes often occur in high population 

densities, and as a group are known to be aggressive 

and territorial. 

Yellowtail Blue Damselfish 

Chrysiptera parasema (Pomacentridae) 

Damselfishes 


Habitat: Coral-rich areas of sheltered lagoon 

and inshore coral reefs. Inhabits rubble beds 

on lagoon reefs. Occurs in small groups on 

Acropora patches. 

Appearance: Small, blue-bodied fish with a 

yellow tail; 7–9 cm in length. Colors become 

less contrasting with age. 

Diet: Omnivore. 

Reproduction and Development: Damsels pair 

off and the breeding pair establishes a territory, 

which they defend vigorously. Female damselfish 

releases eggs, which the male fertilizes 

by releasing sperm over them. Yolk-sac larvae 

have planktonic development. 

Remarks: Have been bred in captivity. 

Southseas Devil 

Chrysiptera taupou (Pomacentridae) 

Damselfishes 

Distribution: Great Barrier Reef to Samoa, east 

to Northern California. 

Habitat: Lagoon and offshore reefs, 1–10 m. 

Appearance: Length to 8 cm. Deep, compressed 

body. Small terminal mouth. Continuous dorsal 

fin. Body primarily blue. Belly, pelvic, anal, 

posterior dorsal and caudal fins yellow. Spinous 

dorsal fin yellow on mature males, blue 

on mature females. 

Diet: Benthic algae, zooplankton. 

Blacktail Damselfish 

Dascyllus melanurus (Pomacentridae) 

Damselfishes 

Distribution: Western Pacific: Indonesia, Phil- 

ippines to northern Great Barrier Reef and 

Coral Sea; also eastern Caroline Islands. 

Habitat: Among branching corals in inshore 

and lagoon reefs to 68 m. Form groups, typically 

in shallow water. 

Appearance: Deep and compressed body; white 

with three black bars, rear two-thirds of tail is 

black; large white spot between eyes extends to 

lips. Pectoral fins transparent. Length to 8 cm. 

Diet: Plankton, including larval shrimps and 

crabs; algae, ostracods, amphipods, pelagic 

tunicates, copepods, and fish eggs. 

Reproduction and Development: Lay demersal 

eggs that are guarded by the male. After 

hatching, larval stage lasts 22–24 days. Recent 

research suggests this species is a protogynous 

hermaphrodite. 

Remarks: Hide among Acropora branching 

corals when threatened, though adults have 

an aggressive temperament. 

Garibaldi 

Hypsypops rubicundus (Pomacentridae) 

Damselfishes 

Distribution: Monterey Bay, California to 

southern Baja California. 

Habitat: Rocky bottom reefs and kelp beds, 

intertidal to more than 30 m. Often near crevices 

and caves. 

Appearance: Length to 36 cm. Adults are 

perched-shaped and brilliant orange. Juveniles 

have iridescent blue markings. 

Diet: Sponges, bryozoans, anemones and 

worms. 

Reproduction and Development: Female produces 

15,000-88,000 eggs, depending on their 

size. Male clears a sheltered nest, removing all 

but red algae, and aggressively guards the nest. 


Conservation Status: California law protects 

the garibaldi from sport or commercial fishing. 

If inadvertently caught, the fish must be 

released alive. 

Remarks: This species is the official fish of the 

State of California. 

Adults patrol their territories. The distinctive 

markings of the juveniles may alert aggressive 

adults to their status and negate an attack. 

Common name is a reference to the redshirts 

worn by the armies of Giuseppe Garibaldi, a 

fighter for Italian unification.

Neon Damselfish 

Neoglyphidodon oxyodon (Pomacentridae) 

Damselfishes 

Distribution: Indo-Pacific, the Indo-Australian 

Archipelago, including the Philippines, Indonesia 

and the Ashmore Reef in the Timor Sea. 

Habitat: Mature reefs with abundant populations 

of branching corals. Commonly found 

in the current-swept reef flats up to depths of 

about 3 m. 

Appearance: Easily identified by its velvety 

dark blue body and brilliant electric-blue 

horizontal stripes on its face and upper body. 

A vertical yellowish-white stripe divides the 

body just in front of the dorsal fin. As the neon 

damselfish ages the body stripes fade becoming 

an overall grayish blue to black in color. 


Diet: A wide variety of foods including zooplankton 

and algae. 

Reproduction and Development: Characteristic 

of the Family Pomacentridae, the males 

assume the parental care of the eggs. 

Conservation Status: This species is listed as 

low to moderate vulnerability. Its popularity 

as an aquarium trade fish may be a reason for 

its low populations. 

Remarks: These damselfish can be found 

sleeping in the shelter of coral heads at night. 

Goldbelly Damselfish 

Pomacentrus auriventris (Pomacentridae) 

Damselfishes 

Distribution: Western Central Pacific from 

Micronesia to Indonesia. 

Habitat: Mainly around inner reef slopes at 

depth of 2–15 m. Congregate in small groups, 

close to the bottom, in areas of mixed rubble, 

coral, and algae. 

Appearance: Electric-blue back with a golden 

yellow belly. Max length: 5.5 cm. 

Diet: Algae and some zooplankton. 

Reproduction and Development: Damselfish 

are substrate spawners. In most species, the male 

establishes a territory, selects and prepares a site, 

such as a piece of rubble with a smoothed wall 

crevice, a coral surface, or a rocky ledge. Once 

a spawning site has been prepared, the male 

attracts a female into his territory with excited 

swimming and distinct movements The female 

will lay her adhesive eggs onto the prepared site, 


167 

and the male will fertilize them. The male may 

continue to mate with several different females. 

Depending on the species some damselfish 

males guard the eggs, while others do not. 

Remarks: Because they are hardy and 

inexpensive, damselfish are often used to 

condition new aquariums and establish the 

nitrification cycle. 

Spine-cheek Anemonefish 

Premnas biaculeatus (Pomacentridae) 

Damselfishes 

Distribution: Indo-West Pacific: Indo- 

Australian Archipelago including India, Burma, 

Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, 

New Guinea, New Britain, Solomon Islands, 

Vanuatu, and northern Queensland, Australia. 

Habitat: Lagoon and seaward reefs, 1–16 m. 

Exclusively with the sea anemone Entacmaea 

quadricolor. Usually in pairs. 

Appearance: Length to 17 cm. Juveniles 

orange-colored; color deepens with age. Male 

smaller, bright red with three brilliant white 

bars, sometimes barely visible. Female becomes 

maroon or almost black with subdued bars. 

Conspicuous spine on cheek. 

Diet: Zooplankton and algae. 


hermaphrodite. Like Amphiprion species, are 

monogamous. Female is to about 2–3 times 

the size of her male partner. 

Remarks: This fish has been successfully bred 

and reared in captivity. 

Beaugregory 

Stegastes leucostictus(Pomacentridae) 

Damselfishes 

Distribution: The genus Stegastes is composed 

of nearly 33 species with a wide tropical 

distribution. Several, such as the Beaugregroy, 

are known in the Caribbean. 

Habitat: Shallow rock and coral reefs. 

Appearance: Even within a particular species, 

individuals and populations may display 

marked color ranges, making it difficult to 

identify an exact Stegastes species. 

Diet: Members of the genus are exclusively 

herbivores. Their grazing on algal beds, both 

in the wild and in aquaria, helps control algal 

growth. 

Reproduction and Development: Damselfishes


lay elliptical eggs, which are normally guarded 

by the male. 

Remarks: Like many damselfishes, Stegastes 

are highly territorial and pugnacious. 

Maori Wrasse aka Humphead Wrasse 

Cheilinus undulates (Labridae) 

Wrasses 

Distribution: Much of the tropical and subtropical 

Indo-West Pacific. 

Habitat: Larger adults are typically found on 

outer or deep reefs and in the more open area 

around steep coral or cliff walls, channel slopes, 

boulder-rich habitats and in lagoon reefs up to 

100 m deep. Adults frequently shelter in caves 

or crevices at night. Smaller individuals and 

juveniles prefer a more cryptic environment 

of dense branching corals, and areas of bushy 

macroalgae or seagrasses. 

Appearance: A distinctive hump on the 

forehead above the eyes becomes more 

prominent with age. Lips are fleshy and thick. 

Adult coloration varies from bright electric 

blue to green, purplish blue, or a dull bluish 

green with a yellow posterior margin tapering 

to the caudal. Scales are large. Juveniles are a 

pale green with elongate dark spots forming 

bars on its scales and 2 black lines extend from 

the eyes. Males much larger than females. Max 

length: males - 2 m; females - 1 m. 

Diet: Primarily mollusks (particularly 

heavy-shelled gastropods), crustaceans, fish, 

echinoderms and other invertebrates. One of 

very few predators to feed on toxic animals 

such as sea hares, boxfishes and the crown-ofthorns 

sea star. 

Reproduction and Development: This species 

is very slow to sexually mature; females are 

sexually mature between 5–7 years, males 

around 9 years. Maori wrasses are protogynous 

hermaphrodites producing eggs before sperm. 

Spawning occurs with small groups of adults 

aggregating in the downward currents of reefs. 

Eggs are pelagic. 

Mortality/Longevity: Individuals are 

exceptionally long-lived with males reaching 

25 years, females around 30 years. 

Conservation Status: IUCN Red List: 

Threatened, mostly because of high fishing 

pressures in the center of its range in 

southeastern Asia. Also, highly valued by 

the aquarium trade. Data suggests declines 

over 10–15 years in exploited areas of 10-fold 

or more. Today, much of catch is juvenile 

fish, the preferred market size of this largegrowing 

species. The Maori’s long maturation 

time and the severe reduction of sexually 

mature individuals reduces the potential for 

population increase. 

Remarks: The Maori wrasse is the largest 

member of the family Labridae. 

Harlequin Tuskfish 

Choerodon fasciatus (Labridae) 

Wrasses 

Distribution: Western Pacific, disjunct distribution. 

North: Ryukyus to Taiwan; South: New 

Caledonia to Queensland. 

Habitat: Seaward reefs, 5–35 m. Usually solitary. 

Patrol a large territory. Active diurnally. 

Appearance: Length to 30 cm. Vertical, broad, 

bright orange bands interspersed with blue 

bands. Black caudal peduncle, white tail. Dorsal 

and pelvic fins orange. 

Diet: Mollusks, echinoderms, crustaceans, 

worms.Tuskfish have protruding canines used 

for moving rubble to expose invertebrate prey 

and prying mollusks from the substrate. Hardshelled 

prey crushed by pharyngeal teeth. 


spawners, initial males spawn in large groups; 

terminal males are usually territorial and pair 

spawn with females of their choice. Females 

change sex into males for their terminal phase. 

Exquisite Fairy Wrasse 

Cirrhilabrus exquisitus (Labridae) 

Wrasses 

Distribution: East Africa to Tuamotus, north to 

Izus, southern Japan and south to Great Barrier 

Reef, Australia. 

Habitat: Over rubble or low patch reefs in areas 

of current, also on reef edges and near rubble 

zones in 5–35 m depth. 

Appearance: Length to 12 cm. Post-juvenile 

initial phase to 7 cm and colored shades of 

brown; large black spot on base of upper tail. 

Terminal phase individuals colored shades of 

green, bright red margins on dorsal and anal 

fins, narrow blue stripe from mid-body to tail, 

large black spot on base of upper tail, two or 

three blue line marks on head.

Diet: Zooplankton in the water column, well 

above the substrate. 


spawners, like all wrasses. 

Remarks: Like all wrasses, active diurnally, 

rest nocturnally. 

Frequently in moderately large groups of 

mixed sexes during feeding. 

Males often display to each other. 

Yellowfin Fairy Wrasse 

Cirrhilabrus flavidorsalis (Labridae) 

Wrasses 

Distribution: Western Central Pacific: 

Philippines and Indonesia. 

Habitat: Found among branching corals and 

rubble on protected reef slopes, at depths 

12–30 m. 

Appearance: Brightly colored; dichromatic 

and sexually dimorphic. Colors variable 

depending on mood and stage. Terminal male: 

white to pinkish with red upper head; 2 wide 

red bars on forebody and yellow margin on 

dorsal fin. One of the smallest wrasses. Max. 

size: 10 cm. 

Diet: Carnivorous; various small invertebrates; 

does not harm stony or soft coral polyps. 

Reproduction/Development: Protogynous 

hermaphrodite. Dominant female morphs 

to male if dominant male is lost or dies. The 

dominant male and selected female release 

their gametes together in a complex mating 

ritual. 

Remarks: Like all fairy wrasses, this one is a 

very energetic, free swimmer but never far 

from a crevice to dart into. At night, it creates 

a mucous cocoon masking its appearance and 

scent. 

Male fairy wrasses are typically more brightly 

colored than the females. 

Lubbock’s Fairy Wrasse 

Cirrhilabrus lubbocki (Labridae) 

Wrasses 

Distribution: Indo-Pacific: Philippines, 

Celebes, and Indonesia. 

Habitat: On outer reefs in coral rubble or finely 

branch coral, at depths of 20-25 m. 

Appearance: Found in various colors: pink, 

red, and purple. Orange to yellow upper head, 

dorsal fin a bright yellow in adults. Females 


169 

less colorful. Max. size: 7.5 cm. 



hermaphrodites: in the absence of the male, the 

dominant female morphs to male. Dominant 

males have harems of several females. Like all 

fairy wrasses, are pelagic spawners and do not 

guard young. 

Remarks: Fairy wrasses (Cirrhilabrus spp.) 

are all sexually dichromatic (males typically 

more colorful, especially during courtship) 

and somewhat sexually dimorphic (males 

slightly larger, with longer, more pointed 

unpaired fins). 

Fairy wrasses are diurnally active, wrapping 

themselves in mucous cocoons at night and 

walling themselves up in reef crevices to hide. 

Like all wrasses, they have protrusible mouths, 

with teeth of the lower jaw jutting outward. 

The wrasse family (Labridae) is known from 

the Paleocene (65 to 55 million years ago). 

Redeye Fairy Wrasse 

Cirrhilabrus solorensis (Labridae) 

Wrasses 

Distribution: Found in the Western Central 

Pacific and Indonesia. 

Habitat: Coastal to outer reef lagoons on rubble 

and coral habitats. 

Appearance: Highly variable. The eye is bright 

red. Males usually have a dark band along the 

end of the gill covering. Change color and sex 

with growth. Females are able to change sex 

into an often brilliantly colored terminal male 

phase. Max. size: 11 cm. 

Diet: Natural diet consists of zooplankton. In 

captivity they eat small shrimp, worms, and 

invertebrates, as well as chopped meat. 

Reproduction and Development: In general 

wrasses spawn following a mating ritual 

during which the male flashes his colors to a 

harem of females. He selects a gravid female 

and they swim in a loop and at the highest 

point release the gametes. A second male may 

perform what is known as streak spawning, 

where he swims into the loop of a spawning 

pair and releases his sperm at the same time. 

Remarks: The cornea of the eye of fairy 

wrasses is divided into two segments, 

essentially forming a double pupil. It is 

thought that the center pupil is a close-up


lens that lets the fish have a magnified view 

of their small prey. 

Bird Wrasse 

Gomphosus varius (Labridae) 

Wrasses 

Distribution: Indo-Pacific: East Africa to 

Hawaiian Islands, north to southern Japan, 

south to Australia. 

Habitat: Found in lagoons and seaward reefs 

at depths 2–30 m. 

Appearance: The common name refers to the 

fish’s long snout, which is said to resemble a 

bird’s beak. This species, like many wrasses, 

changes appearance as it matures. During the 

juvenile phase it is blue above and white below. 

The snout is short. In the next phase, called the 

initial phase, most or all are females, and they 

are white with a black spot on each scale. The 

caudal fin is black and the top of the snout is 

orange. During the terminal phase, a dominant 

male becomes blue green. The caudal fin has a 

bright blue crest. The male can grow to 30 cm. 

Females to about 20 cm. 

Diet: Although its mouth is small, it can grasp 

prey in its strong jaws and smash it against the 

substrate until its meal is broken into bit-sized 

pieces. In captivity, brine and mysid shrimp 

and worms satisfy this non-avian “bird”. 


are territorial, and females live within these 

territories. The male will perform a mating 

dance and then both sexes release gametes. 

The larvae are planktonic. 

Remarks: Like other wrasses, the bird 

wrasse can be recognized by its characteristic 

swimming pattern: the pectoral fins move up 

and down in a “flying” motion. 

Yellow Wrasse aka Canary Wrasse 

Halichoeres chrysus (Labridae) 

Wrasses 

Distribution: East Indo-Pacific: Christmas Island 

to Marshall Islands; north to Japan, south 

to Australia. 

Habitat: Sand and rubble edges of reefs. Depth 

6–60 m; usually below 20 m. 

Appearance: Length to 12 cm. Color canary 

yellow, head with distinctive light-green 

bands. Males have a single white-rimmed 

black spot on dorsal fin; females have two 

black, light yellow-rimmed spots. 

Diet: Small worms, snails, crustaceans; may eat 

parasites off other fishes. 


spawners; protogynous hermaphrodites. 

Remarks: Relatively uncommon; often form 

small groups. 

Adult male and female appear similar, very 

atypical of wrasses. 

Like many wrasses, these fish typically burrow in 

the sand at night or anytime to escape predators. 

Yellowhead Wrasse 

Halichoeres garnoti (Labridae) 

Wrasses 

Distribution: Western Atlantic; Bermuda and 

southern Florida to southeastern Brazil. 

Habitat: Commonly found on shallow and deep 

reefs and exposed ledges at depths from 2–80 m. 

Appearance: Adults are blue above the lateral 

line and have a yellow belly. Juveniles are 

yellow with a silvery blue stripe along the 

side. Terminal male: head and forebody varies 

from bright yellow to yellowish tan; dark blue 

to green rear body and tail; two or more lines 

radiate from rear of eye. Max. size: 19 cm. 

Diet: Various invertebrates. 


hermaphrodite. During breeding males form 

leks (a gathering of males to attract females by 

competitive display). 


fishes such as groupers and snappers. 

Remarks: Curious; easily attracted by divers. 

Diurnal; swim constantly during the day and 

rest at night. 

Pastel Green Wrasse 

Halichoeres chloropterus (Labridae) 

Wrasses 

Distribution: West Central Pacific: Philippines 

to the Great Barrier Reef. 

Habitat: Shallow protected coral reef on silt, 

sand and rubble bottom. 

Appearance: Juveniles lime green; females 

pale green above and white below, with a 

thin dark line on the base of the pectoral fin. 

Terminal males greenish with pink spots of the 

side of the body, and irregular bands of pink 

and green on the head. Max. size: 19 cm. 

Diet: Hard-shelled prey, including mollusks, 

crustaceans, and sea urchins.

Pinstriped Wrasse 

Halichoeres melanurus (Labridae) 

Wrasses 


Habitat: Sheltered reefs to 2–15 m. 

Appearance: Juvenile to 11 cm. Alternating 

yellow to orange and blue horizontal stripes, 

small black spot on dorsal fin, large blueedged 

black dots on mid-dorsal fin, similar but 

smaller markings on upper tail base. Adults to 

12 cm. Alternating horizontal green teal and 

orange stripes. Three to 6 narrow turquoise 

bars on upper side, large yellow spot on base 

of pectoral fin, black tail tip. 

Diet: Small invertebrates including polychaetes, 

copepods, isopods and foraminiferans. 


hermaphrodite; largest female in a male’s 

territory typically completes sex change within 

2–3 weeks of male’s disappearance. 


lizardfishes and other fishes. 

Remarks: A recent study showed that sex 

change for this species, if recent, is reversible. 

When a dominant male was reintroduced to a 

territory, the newly sex-changed male reverted 

to its former female role. 

Two-tone Wrasse 

Halichoeres prosopeion (Labridae) 

Wrasses 

Distribution: Western Pacific; east to Indonesia 

and Sumatra, north to southern Japan, south 

to Great Barrier Reef. 

Habitat: Lagoons and seaward reefs. 

Appearance: Adults green-blue in front fading 

to light yellow behind. A dark spot behind 

the eye; dorsal fin with large black spot near 

the front. Unlike most wrasses, no obvious 

differences between sexes. Max. size: 13 cm. 

Diet: Small crabs, shrimps, worms, and other 

benthic invertebrates. 

Remarks: Like many wrasses, quickly buries 

in sand when threatened or alarmed. 

Rock Wrasse 

Halichoeres semicinctus (Labridae) 

Wrasses 

Distribution: Pt. Conception, California to 

Guadalupe Island off central Baja California. 

Habitat: Close to rocks near patches of sand; 


171 

tide pools and down to 24 m. 

Appearance: Cigar-shaped fish with prominent, 

forward-pointing teeth; large scales. Greenish 

above, yellow below. Males have dark bar 

behind base of yellow pectoral fin. Wavy 

blue lines may radiate from the eye. Dark 

flecks on back, especially noticeable in young 

individuals. Max size: 38 cm. 

Diet: Small invertebrates, taken during the day. 


hermaphrodites.: individuals function first as 

females, then about 5% change to males at 

length of about 30 cm. 

Remarks: Sleeps at night buried in sand, with 

head protruding, and will dart to a sandy refuge 

during the day if startled. 

Striped Cleaner Wrasse 

Labroides dimidiatus (Labridae) 

Wrasses 


Habitat: Virtually all coral reef habitats: inner 

lagoons and subtidal reef flats to seaward 

reefs, 0.5-40 m, typically near branching corals. 

Active diurnally. Aggressively territorial. 

Nocturnally retires to small crevices in the reef, 

enclosing itself in a mucus cocoon. Remains in 

stations where other fish come to be cleaned. 

Appearance: Length to 11.5 cm. Elongate body, 

tubular mouth. Anterior of body yellowish, 

posterior very pale blue. Widening horizontal 

black band from mouth, through eye to end 

of tail. 

Diet: Coral polyps, crustacean ectoparasites 

and mucus gleaned from other fishes. 

Reproduction and Development: External batch 

spawns in pairs, also haremic. Pelagic spawners: 

initial males spawn in large groups, terminal 

males are usually territorial and pair spawn 

with females of their choice. Females change 

sex into males for their terminal phase when the 

dominant male is removed. Sex change complete 

within 14–18 days. Do not guard eggs. 

Mortality/Longevity: Can live to at least 4 

years. 

Remarks: The most common cleaner wrasse 

on reefs. 

Pick external parasites from other fishes. Also 

clean the wounds of other fishes by removing 

scar tissue. Clean the gills and even enter the 

mouth of the host.


Advertise their services with an undulating 

“invitation dance.” 

Mimicked by the fin and scale nipping blenny 

Aspidontus taeniatus, the bogus cleaner wrasse. 

Star of the movie Shark Tale. 

Leopard Wrasse 

Macropharyngodon meleagris (Labridae) 

Wrasses 

Distribution: Indo-Pacific: Eastern Indian 

Ocean to western Pacific and the islands of 

Oceania. 

Habitat: Subtidal reefs and outer lagoons, at 

depths of 0–30 meters. 

Appearance: Sexual dichromism. Females are 

white with black or brown irregular spots with 

white to blue margins over the body. Males 

have orangey-red background with green 

mottling. Max. length: 15 cm. 

Diet: Gastropods, other hard-shelled prey and 

foraminiferans. 

Remarks: Wrasses can be recognized by 

their characteristic swimming pattern. Their 

pectoral fins move up and down in a “flying” 

motion. 

Señorita Wrasse 

Oxyjulis californica (Labridae) 

Wrasses 

Distribution: Salt Point, northern California 

to south-central Baja California. 

Habitat: Found in kelp and other seaweeds and 

over rocky reefs, usually at shallow depths. 

Appearance: Cigar-shaped fish with large 

scales and protruding teeth. Orange to brownish, 

a few are more pink or yellow. Large black 

marking at base of caudal fin. 

Diet: Feeds during the day on small invertebrates; 

on occasion acts as a cleaner, picking parasites 

from other fishes. Known to clean giant sea 

bass, garibaldi, kelpfish, and many other fishes. 

Juveniles feed on plankton and pick hydroids 

and other small food items off algae. 


pelagic spawner. Unlike most wrasses, they do 

not change sex. 

Mortality/Longevity: Eaten by birds, such as 

Brandt’s cormorants, and sea lions. 

Live about 7 years and grow to about 25 cm. 

Remarks: Popular in the aquarium trade. 

At night, señoritas seek out a nearby sandy 

area and bury themselves with a headfirst dive 

into the sand, ultimately sleeping with head 

protruding. 

Red-tailed Flasher Wrasse 

Paracheilinus rubricaudalis (Labridae) 

Wrasses 

Distribution: Western Central Pacific: Fiji and 

Vanuatu. 

Habitat: Coral reefs, depths to 45 m. 

Appearance: Adults reach 2 to 3 inches in 

length. The species has a red tail and a broad 

red zone with a single filament on its dorsal 

fin. Males have a reddish area on their distal 

anal fin. The reddish stripes on their sides turn 

whitish and their body becomes bright yellow 

while they are displaying. Males from Fiji 

have a narrow bluish vertical stripe on their 

caudal fin that is never seen on specimens from 

Vanuatu. The color of the female is subdued 

compared to the brilliance of the male. 

Diet: Plankton feeders; need to feed often 

(three times a day) in captivity. 

Reproduction: Like all Paracheilinus species, 

the red-tailed flasher wrasse is a protogynous 

hermaphrodite. All specimens are born as 

females and the dominant females develop 

into males when there is a shortage of males. 

The dominant female will for instance develop 

into a male if the male in her group falls prey 

to a predatory fish. The transformation from 

female to male can take as little as 10–14 days. 

Flasher wrasses scatter their eggs in the open 

water. The actual spawning is preceded by a 

“dance” where the male follows the female 

until both fish rapidly swim upward into the 

water column and simultaneous release egg 

and milt. The eggs and larvae are carried by 

the current until the fry become free swimming 

and make their way to the bottom. 

Remarks: First described in 2003. 

John E. McCosker, Academy Senior Curator 

and former Steinhart Aquarium Director, is the 

ichthyologist credited for naming members of 

the genus Paracheilinus “flasher wrasses,” the 

common name derived from male’s brilliant 

“flashing” behavior, or rapid color changes, 

observed during courting and mating. 

Flasher wrasses create a mucous cocoon over 

their bodies for sleeping.

Sixline Wrasse 

Pseudocheilinus hexataenia (Labridae) 

Wrasses 

Distribution: Indo-Pacific: Red Sea south to 

South Africa and east to the Tuamoto Islands, 

north to the Ryukyu Islands, south to Lord 

Howe and the Austral islands. 

Habitat: Seaward reefs among coral branches; 

dense coral habitats on shallow reef crest or 

slopes 2–35 m. 

Appearance: To 7.5 cm. Violet with six horizontal 

orange stripes on side. Small black dot 

on upper tail base. 

Diet: Primarily small crustaceans, snails, and 

flatworms. 


spawners; protogynous hermaphrodites. 

Mortality/Longevity: Preyed upon by grouper 

and other finfish. 

Remarks: Usually occurs in small loose groups. 

A shy species, usually swimming among the 

protection of coral branches. 

Like most wrasses, inactive at night. 

Mystery Wrasse 

Pseudocheilinus ocellatus (Labridae) 

Wrasses 

Distribution: West to central Pacific ocean. 

Habitat: On coral reefs, 20–60 m, usually near 

the substrate. 

Appearance: The genus is known as the “lined 

wrasses,” but unlike others in the group, 

the mystery wrasse has vertical rather than 

horizontal lines. Body reddish-pink, stripes 

white. These lines may fade as the fish matures. 

Distinct black ocellus (eye spot) on each side 

of the caudal fin, often surrounded by yellow 

may confuse predators. Max. size: 10 cm. 

Diet: Carnivorous: Fish egges, small crabs, 

mollusks, sea urchins, and other benthic 


Mortality/Longevity: Predatory fishes such as 

grouper, lionfish, and scorpionfish find lined 

wrasses a tasty meal. 

Remarks: First described in 1999, its life history is 

not well known. Because of its handsome coloring 

and hardy nature, it has become increasingly 

popular with aquarists. 


173 

California Sheephead Wrasse 

Semicossyphus pulcher (Labridae) 

Wrasses 

Distribution: Monterey Bay, California to Cabo 

Saint Lucas, Baja California. 

Habitat: Solitary or in small groups in kelp forests 

and shallow reefs to 55 m, typically 3–30 m. 

Appearance: Length to 91 cm, weight to 16 

kg. Fusiform, deep, compressed. Adult males 

with head, posterior body and caudal fin black, 

mid-body brick red, chin white. 

Adult females reddish-brown. Caudal fin almost 

square. Juveniles brick red on sides with 

white stripe. 

Diet: Varies. Hard-shelled prey (sea urchins, 

barnacles, clams, gastropods, mussels, lobsters 

and crabs) crushed with tooth-plates in rear of 

mouth. Also take octopuses and various worms; 

can pry prey from substrate with canine teeth. 


hermaphrodite. Individuals initially 

female, change to males at about 30 cm and 

8 years old. Sex change metamorphosis takes 

less than one year. 

Mortality/Longevity: Can live to more than 

50 years, although this rarely happens now. 

A popular food fish. Giant sea bass, as well as 

various marine mammals such as California sea 

lions and harbor seals, consume this species. 


Populations shrinking in southern California 

due to fishing pressure and reduction of kelp 

beds. Large males now rare. 

Remarks: Juvenile sheepheads may act as 

cleaner fish symbionts to other fish. 

Adults have steeply sloping foreheads, thus 

the common name. 

Sixbar Wrasse 

Thalassoma hardwicke (Labridae) 

Wrasses 

Distribution: Tropical Indo-Pacific: East Africa 

west to the Line and Tuamoto islands and from 

southern Japan in the north to the Austral 

islands in the south. 

Habitat: Shallow lagoons and seaward reefs, 

along slopes and drop-offs to moderate depths, 

ranging from 0-15 m. 

Appearance: Adult is pastel blue to pale green 

with six dark, vertical bars on their body, the


last two saddling the tail. The head has a 

distinct ‘daisy’ print around the eyes made 

of a few different pastel colors (e.g., pink 

bands radiating from the eye) in larger adults. 

Terminal males are gaudier than primary 

males. Max length: 20 cm. 

Diet: Carnivore on benthic and planktonic 

crustaceans, other motile invertebrates and 

small fishes. 


hermaphrodite; pelagic spawner. 

Remarks. Occur in small, loose groups. 

Rainbow Wrasse 

Thalassoma lucasanum (Labridae) 

Wrasses 

Distribution: Tropical marine waters from 

the central Gulf of California to the Galapagos 

Islands. 

Habitat: Shallow reefs at depths of about 48 m 

as well as near-bottom substrate. 

Appearance: Distinctive yellow and red lateral 

stripes with the less common larger males 

displaying a blue head with a broad yellow 

vertical stripe behind the head. Like most 

wrasses, is cigar-shaped with a pointed snout, 

thick lips, a protractile mouth and protruding 

canine teeth. Max. length: 15 cm. 

Diet: An efficient carnivore that congregates 

during the day in groups to feed on a wide 

variety of small crustaceans, algae and egg 

masses. 

Reproduction and Development: Rainbow 

wrasses utilize two types of reproduction and 

two types of males. Those displaying the red 

and yellow striped pattern are both males 

and females, and reproduce by broadcast 

spawning. They rise in large numbers to the 

top of the water column, release eggs and 

sperm, and quickly return to the safety of 

deeper water.. 

Terminal males are those identified with blue 

heads and yellow vertical stripe. This male 

forms a harem and selects each female with 

which to spawn. Normally each population 

of these wrasses has only one sexually mature 

terminal male. Should that male be removed, 

a female newly transformed into a terminal 

male will quickly take its place. 

Remarks: Not fished commercially. 

Moon Wrasse 

Thalassoma lunare (Labridae) 

Wrasses 

Distribution: Indo-Pacific; Red Sea to East 

Africa to the Line Islands, northwest to 

southern Japan, and southwest to northern 

New Zealand. 

Habitat: Marine reefs to a depth of 20 m. Also 

lagoons, coastal reefs, protected seaward reefs, 

and estuaries. 

Appearance: Adult’s caudal fin is a large 

yellow crescent edged in purple and blue, the 

source of the species common name. Body 

dark green to blue with vertical red lines on 

scales; pectoral fins a bright pink surrounded 

by neon blue. The head is distinctive for its 

bright irregular pink and violet bands radiating 

from the mouth towards the body, a kind of 

fluorescent camouflage. Terminal males most 

colorful. Max. length: 25 cm. 

Diet: Crustaceans, snails, and other small 

benthic invertebrates; also fish and snail eggs. 


hermaphrodites. The terminal male has 

priority access to food and spawning females. 

Because eggs are fertilized externally during 

mass spawning, some lesser males may mix 

their gametes into the spawning cloud. 

Remarks: Typically a peaceful fish with only 

the dominant males becoming aggressive in 

territorial or mating disputes. 

When frightened this fish will hide in the reef 

or bury itself in the sand; also buries in sand 

to sleep. 

SUBORDER ZOARCOIDEI 

Northern Ronquil 

Ronquilus jordani (Bathymasteridae) 

Ronquils 

Distribution: Bering Sea to Monterey Bay. 

Habitat: On bottom, usually among rocks, 

3–165 m. 

Appearance: Males orange above, with vague 

dark bars on side; olive-green below. Females 

olive-green above, paler below. Like all 

ronquils, body elongate, dorsal and anal fins 

long, caudal and pectoral fins rounded. Max. 

size: 18 cm. 

Diet: Small invertebrates of the plankton and 

benthos.


known to guard the brood. 

Remarks: Secretive habits make this species 

rarely seen. 

Ronquils are known only from the North 

Pacific. 

Monkeyface Prickleback 

Cebidichthys violaceus (Stichaeidae) 

Pricklebacks 

Distribution: Southern Oregon to northcentral 


Habitat: Common in tide pools and shallow 

rocky areas to 24 m. Hide in territorial crevices 

and rock shelters, venturing out around 5 m 

to feed. 

Appearance: Length to 76 cm. Large and long 

compressed eel-like body. Adults usually 

uniformly colored black, olive or gray, except 

for black streaks across eyes. Dorsal and anal 

fins edged with red. Fleshy hump above eyes 

pronounced in reproductive males. 

Diet: Primarily crustaceans, esp. amphipods; 

also worms, clam siphons and algae. Red and 

green algae are the preferred diet of 5–8 cm 

juveniles. 


during the spring at 3–4 years old. Female 

lays large egg masses in rocky crevices. Eggs 

guarded until hatching. Male and female grow 

at the same rate for their first 8 years. Thereafter 

male grow faster. 


Juveniles preyed upon by birds such as great 

egrets and great blue herons. Occasionally sold 

in fish markets. 

Remarks: Sometimes placed in a separate family 

(Cebidichthyidae). 

Largest fish species in the intertidal zone of the 

eastern Pacific. 

Able to breathe air. If in an moist environment, 

can remain out of water for 35 hours or more. 

Not a true eel of the Order Anguilliformes. 

Decorated Warbonnet 

Chirolophis decoratus (Stichaeidae) 

Pricklebacks 

Distribution: North Pacific from Kamchatka, 

Russia, to the Bering Sea and Alaska, south to 

Humboldt Bay, California. 

Habitat: Usually among seaweed on rock 


175 

bottoms from the subtidal to 90 m. 

Appearance: Body is eel-like; pale brown with 

whitish-cream markings. Dark bars run down 

from eyes; prominent dark bars on dorsal, 

caudal, and anal fins. “Decorated” by large 

cirrus in front of each eye and by dense cirri on 

head and spines at front of dorsal fin. The effect 

resembles feathers of a chieftain’s warbonnet. 

Diet: Small animals that swim or crawl near 

its lair. 

Remarks: This secretive fish is rarely seen out 

of the small rocky crevices where it hides. 

Mosshead Warbonnet 

Chirolophis nugator (Stichaeidae) 

Pricklebacks 

Distribution: Aleutian Islands to southern 

California. 

Habitat: Usually subtidal rocky areas to about 

80 m. Often hides in crevices or tubeworm 

holes with only head protruding. Max. size: 

c. 18 cm. 

Appearance: Brown or reddish brown. 

Numerous cirri on top of the head, all about 

the same length. About 12 black eyespots (or 

sometimes short bars) on the dorsal fin. Dark 

streak below the eye. 

Diet: Known to eat small mollusks and 

probably other items. 

Remarks: Pricklebacks are long, compressed, 

and somewhat eel-like, and are so named 

because, in most species, all rays of the dorsal 

fin are spiny. 

Penpoint Gunnel 

Apodichthys flavidus (Pholidae) 

Gunnels 

Distribution: Kodiak Island, Alaska to Santa 

Barbara Island, southern California. 

Appearance: They have long, narrow ribbonlike 

bodies with light spots along the sides. 

Their coloration is red, brown or green. A spine 

with a groove in front of the anal fin resembles 

a penpoint, hence the common name. To 46 cm. 

Habitat: Tide pools and tidal to subtidal areas, 

especially among algae, such as rockweed or 

other kelps. 

Diet: Small mollusks and crustaceans. 


occurs from January to April in nearshore 

waters. The female lays sticky eggs onto a


substrate where they will be guarded by the 

male for 2.5 months. Pairs have been observed 

coiled around egg masses. 

Mortality/Longevity: Preyed on by other fishes 

and seabirds. 

Remarks: Color phases seem to vary with 

surroundings, controlled by two distinct body 

pigments with individuals often reflecting the 

green, brown, or red of the algae where they 

are collected. 

Breathe air when out of water at low tides while 

hiding in crevices or algae. 

Apodichthys [Gr.] means “fish without feet,” a 

reference to this genus’ lack of pectoral fins. 

Rockweed Gunnel 

Apodichthys fucorum (Pholidae) 

Gunnels 

Distribution: Eastern Pacific; British Columbia 

to central Baja California. 

Habitat: Intertidal areas, commonly found in 

rockweed (Fucus) and other algae growing in 

tide pools and subtidal areas. 

Appearance: Body eel-shaped, lacking pelvic 

fins and possessing much reduced pectorals. 

Colors range from dark red, light green in the 

intertidal to light brown or tan in kelp areas. 

Red morphs tend to associate with red algae, 

green ones with green algae. Long dorsal fin 

usually joined to the caudal fin. Max. length: 

22.5 cm. 

Diet: Small crustaceans and mollusks. 

Remarks: A. fucorum is able to remain out of 

water for extended periods of time, protected 

under rocks or seaweed and able to breathe air 

for up to 24 hours if kept moist. 

Ecologically, gunnels are important forage 

fishes for birds and commercially important 

flatfishes. 

Wolf Eel 

Anarrhichthys ocellatus (Anarhichadidae) 

Wolffishes 

Distribution: Sea of Japan and Aleutian Islands 

to Imperial Beach, California. 

Habitat: Adults live on bottom, usually among 

rocks in subtidal locations; often in dens. 

Depths from barely subtidal to 226 m. 


An eel-like fish (large, elongate, compressed 

body) with no pelvic fins. Large pectoral fins. 

Colored mostly gray to brown, occasionally 

greenish. Round dark spots with pale rings on 

body and fins. Juveniles often orangish with 

dark spots merging into stripes at rear of body. 

Diet: Crabs, sand dollars, marine snails and 

fishes. 

Reproduction and Development: Eggs laid 

in rocky protected areas and guarded by both 

parents. Juveniles initially pelagic, living near 

the top of the water column for 2 years. They 

then settle to an active life over the benthos, 

eventually locate a rock shelter hideaway and 

become less active. A male-female pair will 

occupy the same shelter for years, apparently 

mating for life. Females reproductive at 7 years. 

Male butts his head against female’s abdomen 

during courtship. He externally fertilizes the 

10,000 eggs per clutch. Both parents wrap 

themselves around the egg mass; only one at 

a time leaves to feed. 

Mortality/Longevity: Predators of eggs 

include benthic rockfish and kelp greenlings. 

Remarks: Not a true eel of the Order Anguilliformes. 

Can inflict a painful bite. 

An edible food fish. 

SUBORDER PHOLIDICHTHYOIDEI 

(CONVICT BLENNIES) 

Engineerfish aka Convict Blenny 

Pholidichthys leucotaenia (Pholidichthyidae) 

Convictfish 

Distribution: Philippines and Eastern Borneo 

to New Guinea and Solomon Islands, south to 

Flores, Indonesia. 

Habitat: Shallow lagoons and coastal reefs. Juveniles 

form schools that are often found under 

ledges or around coral heads. . . 

Appearance: Length to 34 cm. Eel-like, confluent 

dorsal and anal fins, scaleless, yellowish 

body heavily colored with very dark blotches 

or vertical bars; thus the common name “convictfish.” 

Juveniles resemble the venomous 

striped catfish Plotosus lineatus but lack that 

species’ venomous spines and barbels. 

Remarks: Often swim with conspecifics in tight 

formation resembling a single large body. Able 

to move backwards and forwards, pulling itself 

through the water with extra-sinuous body 

movements.

Adults live secretively in reefs, camouflaged 

by their barred or spotted color pattern. Nocturnally 

retreat into a sand burrow containing 

1 or 2 adults 

Maintain their nocturnal sand burrows by collecting 

and spitting the sediment out. 

Have small, conical teeth, unlike the welldeveloped 

teeth of true blennies. 

Only species in the family. 

SUBORDER BLENNIODEI 

(TRUE BLENNIES) 

Crevice Kelpfish 

Gibbonsia montereyensis (Clinidae) 

Kelpfishes and Fringeheads 

Distribution: British Columbia to Baja California. 

Habitat: Lives in rocky areas among algae. 

Appearance: Color varies from reddish 

to lavender or brown, depending on 

surroundings. Patterning also varies: may 

be plain colored, striped or spotted. It has a 

long dorsal fin which is raised at both ends. 

Grows to 11 cm. 

Remarks: Can change color to match 

surroundings; typically rests with tail curved 

behind, often well camouflaged among coralline 

algae. 

Bicolor Blenny 

Ecsenius bicolor (Blenniidae) 

Combtooth Blennies 

Distribution: Tropical Indo-Pacific, from 

Maldives north to southern Japan, south to 

Great Barrier Reef; throughout Micronesia. 

Habitat: Inhabit clear lagoon and seaward reefs 

with mixed corals and algae-covered rocks at 

depths 2–25 m. 

Appearance: Highly variable. In a common 

phase, anterior half is blue to dull brown; 

posterior half a dull orange—thus the common 

name. Males generally larger than females, and 

become more brightly colored during breeding 

periods. Length to 10 cm. 

Diet: Marine algae. 


demersal, adhesive eggs. 

Remarks: Bottom dwellers; sometimes hard to see 

as they hide in caves and rock crevices with only 


the head visible. Live solitary or in pairs. 

177 

Midas Blenny 

Ecsenius midas (Blenniidae) 


Distribution: Indo-Pacific: from Gulf of Aqaba 

and southeast coast of Africa to Marquesas 

Islands. 

Habitat: Coral reefs in moderate current. 

Appearance: Usually dark yellow in color, 

with streaks of blue and gold over the body. 

Elongate, thick body and large head with big 

eyes. Max. length: ~13 cm. 



eggs are demersal and adhesive. 

Remarks: Can change colors quickly to 

match the colors of other fish with which it 

is swimming. In its orange-yellow phase, it 

schools with Pseudanthias squamipinnis, which 

it closely resembles in color. 

Midas blennies have been compared to eels, 

because of their undulating swimming motions, 

and because they back into holes and crevices from 

which they observe their surroundings. 

Striped Poison-fang Blenny 

Meiacanthus grammistes (Blenniidae) 


Distribution: Western Pacific, including 

Philippines, Indonesia, south to Great Barrier 

Reef. 

Habitat: Sheltered lagoons and seaward reefs. 

Appearance: This colorful, elongate fish with 

its spotted caudal fin and alternating black and 

white stripes blending into bright yellow on 

the head advertises its venomous bite. Max. 


Diet: Omnivorous; small invertebrates and 

plant material. 


Details unknown, but probably like most 

blennies, the male entices the female to lay eggs 

in a hole in the reef, and both male and female 

may guard them until they hatch. 

Remarks: About 50 blenny spp., including the 

22 Meiacanthus spp., have evolved glands that 

produce venom and fangs to deliver it. The fangs 

are very large canines in the lower jaw that are 

grooved to inject venom when the fish bites, 

usually only in self-defense. Reports indicate that


the fang blenny will bite the inside of a predator’s 

mouth and is quickly spit out. Humans are rarely 

bitten as the blenny’s mouth is small. The bite is 

said to resemble a wasp sting. 

Several non-venomous species have evolved 

to mimic and be protected by their semblance 

to the venomous model. The dandy blenny 

(Petroscirtes breviceps) is thought to be a mimic 

of the striped poison-fang blenny. 

Unlike most blennies, which typically lack swim 

bladders and are bottom-dwellers, Meiacanthus 

spp. have functional swim bladders and 

frequently hover in mid-water. The large tail gives 

the fish bursts of speed, causing one observer to 

call them “aquatic hummingbirds.” 

Canary Blenny 

Meiacanthus oualanensis (Blenniidae) 


Distribution: Western Pacific; native to Fiji. 

Habitat: Reefs. 

Appearance: Uniformly rich, solid yellow 

body with a long, continuous trailing lyretail 

composed mostly of soft rays. Males are 

generally larger than females and undergo a 

succession of color changes during breeding. 


Reproduction and Development: Demersal 

(on or near the bottom) spawner. 

Remarks: Five genera with about 50 species 

are known as “sabre-toothed” blennies because 

of the distinctive canine-like tooth on each 

side of the lower jaw. (The rest are “combtoothed” 

- see blenny species above). The genus 

Meiacanthus is notable having venom that can 

be injected through grooves in these fangs. 

Fortunately for other fish, the bite is mostly 

defensive, but aquarists should be cautious. 

The bite is painful. 

The conspicuous color is believed to advertise 

venomous fangs to predators, an example of 

aposematism. 

The golden mimic blenny, Plagiotremus 

laudandus flavus, gains protection from 

predators by being a canary blenny lookalike. 

Jeweled Blenny aka Eyelash Blenny aka 

Lawnmower Blenny 

Salarias fasciatus (Blenniidae) 



Habitat: Intertidal to a few meters in depth on 

reef flats and in shallow lagoons and estuaries. 

Appearance: Body a mottled tan with blue 

dots; up to about 12 cm. 

Diet: Algae eaters; tend to be territorial about 

feeding areas. 


form pairs and guard nests. 

Remarks: Tends to hop from rock to rock 

looking for food. Its nickname “Lawnmower 

Blenny” comes from its prodigious and efficient 

algal consumption using comb-like teeth 

that line the jaws. 

Also noted for the filamentous skin projections 

on the head that give it a look of having long 

(if not too glamorous) eyelashes. 

SUBORDER CALLIONYMOIDEI 

(DRAGONETS) 

Spotted Dragonet aka Psychedelic 

Mandarinfish 

Synchiropus picturatus (Callionymidae) 

Dragonets 

Distribution: NW Australia, Indonesia, 

Philippines. 

Habitat: Over rubble patches and sandy 

bottoms of shallow, sheltered coral reefs 2–10 

m. Hides secretively in coral rubble. 

Appearance: Elongate, moderately depressed, 

broad-headed. Pale brown to green, covered 

with large dark spots ringed with orange and 

green, turquoise band markings around eye. 


Diet: Benthic invertebrates. 

Reproduction and Development: In captivity 

frequently fight with opposite sex conspecifics. 

Remarks: Spectacularly attractive, thus 

potentially a popular aquarium fish. That said, 

it is very difficult to maintain in captivity and 

has one of the highest mortality rates in the 

aquarium trade, though Steinhart specimens 

have done well. 

Green Mandarinfish 

Synchiropus splendidus (Callionymidae) 

Dragonets 


Habitat: Shallow protected lagoons and inshore 

reefs to 18 m. Over silty substrates with

coral and rubble. 

Appearance: Length to 6 cm. Body depressed, 

small head. Ground color green (rare individuals 

red). Body covered with dark blue blotches ringed 

with dark outlines. Pectoral fins, face yellow. 

Diet: Benthic invertebrates. 


fertilization. Open water egg scatterers. 

Conservation Status: Heavily exploited in the 

Philippines for the aquarium trade. 

Remarks: Mandarinfish produce mucous that 

is highly distasteful; their bright color is a 

warning to would-be predators to steer clear 

of this noxious beauty. 

SUBORDER GOBIOIDEI 

(GOBIES) 

Yellowfin Goby 

Acanthogobius flavimanus (Gobiidae) 

Gobies 

Distribution: Native to Asia; introduced to 

Australia and the west coast of North America. 

Habitat: Muddy and sandy bottoms in 

estuarine, marine and freshwater habitats. 

Found at depths of 1 – 14 m. 

Appearance: Large head, pale brownish body 

with dark saddles and spots; length to 30 cm. 

Diet: Smaller fish. 


in winter to early spring in estuaries; eggs 

are laid on the ceilings of y-shaped burrows 

constructed by the males. Male guards the 

eggs. 

Mortality/Longevity: Males mature at 1 year, 

females at 2. Most live only 3 years. 

Remarks: Used in Chinese medicine. 

This goby is an invasive species which 

has partially replaced the Pacific staghorn 

sculpins in at least one location in California 

and extirpated the endangered tidewater 

goby from some bodies of water. Probably 

introduced in ships’ ballast or contaminated 

oyster shipments. 

Like all gobies, the yellowfin’s pelvic fins are 

fused into a sucking disc enabling the fish able 

to cling to substrates or crawl into burrows. 


179 

Shrimp Goby aka Watchman Goby 

Amblyeleotris sp. (Gobiidae) 

Gobies 


Habitat: Areas of broken rubble or coarse sand. 

Appearance: Typical goby body. 

Diet: Sand-dwelling invertebrates, many of 

which are exposed by the shrimp’s digging. 


fishes. 

Remarks: Amblyeleotris is the largest genus 

of shrimp gobies, a group well known for its 

symbiotic relationships with certain pistol 

shrimps of the genus Alpheus. The hardworking 

shrimp digs and maintains the burrow 

that is home to both, and the shrimp goby uses 

its superior eyesight to detect predators. 

The shrimp, nearly blind, maintains contact 

with its visually superior partner via its 

antennae touching the goby’s tail. If the goby 

flicks its tail, the shrimp retreats. 

Randall’s Prawn Goby 

Amblyeleotris randalli (Gobiidae) 

Gobies 


Habitat: Occurs on patches of carbonate sand 

of clear-water reefs. 

Appearance: Whitish background with seven 

horizontal orange stripes, the first through the 

eye. Male sports a white-rimmed black eyespot 

on prominent dorsal fin. Max. length: 12 cm. 

Diet: Zooplankton and small benthic 


Reproduction and Development: Male 

attracts a female with his courtship “dance,” 

stimulating the female to lay her eggs, usually 

in a hole in the sand. After fertilization, 

the male guards the eggs from predators. 

Successfully bred in captivity. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: 5 to 8 years. 

Remarks: Called a “prawn-goby” because it 

usually lives in a symbiotic association with 

one or more alpheid shrimps in a shared 

burrow. The shrimp builds and maintains 

the burrow, constantly clearing it of sand and 

rubble. When exposed, the shrimp rests an 

antennae on the fish, which quivers to alert 

the shrimp if danger lurks. Both then quickly 

retreat to cover in the burrow. Presently our


goby is living without the company of a 

crustacean companion. 

Hector’s Goby 

Amblygobius hectori (Gobiidae) 

Gobies 

Distribution: Red Sea and Aldabra atoll east 

to Indonesia and Palau, north to SW Japan. 

Habitat: Over sandy patches near base of reef 

formations, 3–30 m. 

Appearance: Dark brown with 4 bright yellow 

stripes; black spot on first dorsal fin, yellowedged 

black spot on second dorsal fin and black 

spot on dorsal base of tail. Length to 8.5 cm. 

Diet: Stomach contents of one specimen 

included filamentous algae, copepods, 

amphipods, and nematodes. 

Reproduction and Development: Demersal 

eggs are guarded by the male. 

Remarks: Solitary. Lurks near shelter 

Stripes through the eyes disguise them; eye 

spots on the tail may confuse predators into 

attacking a less vulnerable area. 

Banded Goby 

Amblygobius phalaena (Gobiidae) 

Gobies 

Distribution: Indo-Pacific from the Philippines 

to the Society Islands, southern Australia, 

throughout Micronesia. 

Habitat: Coastal reefs and sandy lagoons from 

shallows of about 2 m to depths of 20 m. 

Appearance: Head is greenish-yellow with 

blue and orange markings. The body is yellow 

with brown bands. Fin edges are fringed with 

dark blue. 

Diet: Feeds by sifting mouthfuls of sand 

and expelling it through its gills filtering out 

small invertebrates, organic matter and large 

quantities of algae. 


gobies, they live in pairs maintaining territories 

with several burrows for shelter and spawning. 

A paired female will guard her mate to prevent 

him from mating with other females. Once the 

eggs have been deposited on the ceiling of the 

burrow, the male stops feeding and tends them 

until the embryos hatch in 3–4 days. Both the 

paired female and male will show aggression 

toward any fish approaching their burrow. 

Blackeye Goby 

Coryphopterus nicholsii (Gobiidae) 

Gobies 


central Baja. 

Habitat: Quiet water, usually in sandy areas 

near rocks. Intertidal to 100 m. 

Appearance: Eye and tip of first dorsal fin 

black. Large scales. Fleshy ridge extending 

from area between the eyes to dorsal fin. Pale 

tan overall with small blue spot below the eye. 


Diet: Mostly zooplankton and small bentthic 


Reproduction and Development: A 

protogynous hermaphrodite; forms permanent 

harem groups composed of a single male that 

defends a territory and several females. During 

spawning, which takes place between May– 

October, male prepares spawning site; after 

eggs are laid, male protects the nest. 

Remarks: Defensive strategy is to freeze on the 

bottom; if a predator comes too close, the goby 

dashes for safety under a rock or to another 

protective spot. 

Blue-Banded Goby 

Lythrypnus dalli (Gobiidae) 

Gobies 

Distribution: Eastern Pacific coast of southern 

California to Baja California and the Gulf of 

California. 

Habitat: Generally found in open rocky areas, 

but will retreat into crevices and holes. Prefers 

more exposed rocky areas to 75 m, but can be 

found in the intertidal area. 

Appearance: Bright reddish-orange body and 

several iridescent blue vertical bars that narrow 

towards the rear of the body. Males have a 

higher first dorsal fin than the females. Typical 

of gobies, the pelvic fins unite to form a ventral 

suction disk. Adult length: 6 cm. 

Diet: Mainly small crustaceans. 


Hermaphroditic, having the reproductive 

organs of both sexes but displaying only one 

behavioral gender at any given time. If it is 

unsuccessful as one gender, it can switch to the 

other sex. The male blue-banded goby selects 

a cave in which to care for his brood, courts a 

female by rapidly darting at her several times

with his dorsal fin fully extended until she 

deposits the eggs. The territorial male will then 

guard the eggs, which are attached to the walls 

of the brood chamber. 

Conservation Status: Prolific, not endangered. 

Remarks: When threatened, often hides among 

the spines of sea urchins. 

Barred Mudskipper 

Periophthalmus argentilineatus (Gobiidae) 

Gobies 

Distribution: Indo-Pacific: southern Red Sea 

to South Africa, east to Marianas and Samoa, 

north to southern Japan, south to western 

Australia and Oceania. 

Habitat: Brackish mudflats in mangrove areas. 

Typically found resting on mud, rocks, or 

mangrove roots with its tail dipped in water. 

Appearance: Eyes on top of head, mouth 

directed downward. Silvery bars on lowers 

sides. Strong pectoral fins enable it to lift 

its body from the surface and move about. 

Partially fused pelvic fins create a suction disk, 

a feature common to gobies. Max. size: 15 cm. 

Reproduction: Construct deep burrows in 

the mud where they sleep and breed. Females 

deposit eggs in the burrow and then are 

driven out by the male, who tends the eggs 

and often aerates them by bringing down 

mouthfuls of air that he relases inside the 

brooding chamber. 

Diet: Worms, crustaceans, insects. Active 

predators that sport sharp teeth 

Remarks: Actively shuttles back and forth 

between rock pools and air. 

Amphibious air-breather, the mudskipper is 

able to take in oxygen through the skin and 

the lining of the mouth and throat, where rich 

networks of capillaries absorb oxygen and 

release carbon dioxide, rather like a lung. The 

animal also has large gill chambers that retain 

water, can be tightly closed, and so supply 

oxygen to the gills even when the animal is 

out of water. 

When disturbed, it can jump away from danger 

by flipping itself with its muscular pectoral 

fins. 

The genus name refers to its large and 

mobile eyes, peri meaning “all around” (think 

periscope, and ophtalmos meaning “eye.” 


181 

Bluestreak Goby 

Valenciennea strigata (Gobiidae) 

Sleeper Gobies 

Distribution: Indo-Pacific Ocean, East Africa 

to Australia, and north to Southern Japan. 

Habitat: Shallow reef habitat, usually 1–6 

m, but have been found at depths of 25 m. 

Commonly seen in clear lagoons over hard 

or sandy bottoms, usually in pairs, hovering 

around their burrow. 

Appearance: Light gray dorsally and white 

ventrally with a yellow head; black-edged 

blue stripe from the mouth to the rear of the 

operculum, a short blue dash behind the eye, 

and several curved markings on the lower 

sides of the head. Max. length: ~18 cm. 

Diet: Benthic invertebrates, fishes, and fish 

eggs. 


and females bond for life. (The male has 

an elongated second dorsal spine that 

distinguishes it from the female.) A female 

will generally lay about 2000 eggs on the 

roof of the nesting chamber. She will tend 

the eggs for three weeks, during which 

time she will not leave the chamber. Just 

before hatching occurs the male will close 

the entrance to the chamber, sealing in the 

female. After the eggs have hatched, the 

male will reopen the chamber, at night, 

freeing the 2-millimeter fry. 

Remarks: Like many other goby genera, 

Valenciennea, commonly called sleeper 

gobies, have the habit of resting on the 

substrate for long periods. Sleeper gobies, 

however, often float motionless just above 

the substrate, and so are sometimes called 

“hover gobies.” 

Members of the genus are carnivorous sandshifters, 

a fancy name that describes their 

habit of taking in mouthfuls of sand, using 

specialized structures in their gills to extract small 

invertebrates, and then expelling the sand. 

Firefish Goby 

Nemateleotris helfrichi (Ptereleotridae) 

Dartfishes 

Distribution: Central Pacific. 

Habitat: Occurs on or near reefs, in relatively 

deep water, 25–90 m, over small patches of 

sand, rubble, or hard open bottoms of steep


seaward reefs. 

Appearance: Yellow head and lavender body; 

yellowish rear dorsal, anal, and tail fins; long 

white and red first dorsal spine. Female tends 

to be smaller and thinner than the male. Max 

length: 6 cm. 


Reproduction and Development: Egg layer. 

Monogamous, frequently found in pairs. 

Remarks: Dartfishes are timid and require 

lots of cover, including a sandy substrate for 

burrowing and rocky rubble into which they 

“dart.” 

Zebra Goby 

Ptereleotris zebra (Ptereleotridae) 

Dartfishes 

Distribution: Indo-Pacific: Red Sea and islands 

in the western Indian Ocean, north to the 

Ryukyu Islands, south to the southern Great 

Barrier Reef and parts of Micronesia. 

Habitat: Exposed seaward reefs, in shallow 

water over hard bottoms. Usually found at 

depths between 2–4 meters. 

Appearance: Long and slim with large slanted 

mouths. Yellowish to greenish gray in color. 

The area from the lower half of eye to the chin 

is enclosed by a broad blue-edged dark red 

to purple area. The pectoral fin base has an 

orange-red bar broadly bordered with bright 

blue. The fins are yellowish. 

Diet: Zooplankton. Small schools hover several 

feet above the substrate capturing morsels the 

current carries to them. 

Reproduction and Development: Very little 

known about reproduction. They are probably 

monogamous, since they are often found in pairs. 

Remarks: In captivity they are jumping fish 

and should be kept in a covered aquarium. 

The common name of the genus is “dartfish,” 

derived from the group’s habit of darting 

between rocks or into rubble when frightened. 

Ptereleotris spp. usurp the burrows of alpheid 

shrimp, like the pistol shrimp in the Commensal 

Cluster, or Valenciennea gobies, like its tank 

mate the bluestreak goby. 

SUBORDER ACANTHUROIDEI 

(SURGEONFISHES, RABBITFISHES, 

UNICORNFISHES AND MOORISH IDOL) 

Blue Spotted Spinefoot 

Siganus corallinus (Siganidae) 

Rabbitfishes and Spinefoots 


Habitat: Often among corals of lagoons and 

protected reefs at 3–30 m. 

Appearance: Head, body, and fins orangeyellow 

with many small blue spots on the head 

and body. Max. size: 30 cm. 

Diet: Benthic algae. Diurnal feeders, like all 

members of the genus. 


spawner. 

Remarks: Adults are often seen in pairs, as in 

our exhibit. 

Like all rabbitfishes, have small, rabbitlike 

mouths, large dark eyes, and a shy 

temperament, thus their common name. 

Rabbitfishes have fin spines with venom 

glands that can inflict painful, though not lifethreatening 

wounds; aquarists should take care 

as the genus is easily frightened and readily 

takes defensive action. 

Barred Spinefoot aka Scribbled Rabbitfish 

Siganus doliatus (Siganidae) 


Distribution: Tropical west Pacific. 

Habitat: Coral rich areas of channels and 

lagoon slopes, reef flats and seaward reefs. 

Depth 1–15 m. 

Appearance: Length to 25 cm. Light blue body 

above, silvery below with intricate patterns of 

thin blue and yellow lines; pair of brown bars 

on head and forebody; yellow tail. 

Diet: Algae and other plant matter. 

Reproduction and Development: Juveniles 

form schools. Pairs form at 7 cm; but these pairs 

continue to form loose schools to feed in areas 

being flooded by the tide. 

Remarks: Usually in male/female pairs. 

Fin spines are venomous. 

Named rabbitfish due to their voracious 

appetite.

Orange Spotted Spinefoot 

Siganus guttatus (Siganidae) 


Distribution: East Indo-Pacific. 

Habitat: To 25 m in inner lagoons, turbid 

coastal reefs, mangroves and brackish waters. 

Typically in large groups of conspecifics. 

Appearance: Length to 42 cm. Pale grey with 

numerous orange-gold spots; large yellow spot 

on caudal peduncle below base of dorsal fin. 

Diet: Algae and seagrasses, though known 

to nip on large-polyp stony corals as well as 

soft corals. 


Mortality/Longevity: Highly esteemed as a 

food fish. 

Remarks: The spines of rabbitfishes (Siganidae) 

are venomous, and can inflict painful wounds. 

Common name “rabbitfish” is due to their 

voracious appetites for browse. The orangespotted 

rabbitfish in the Steinhart coral reef 

tank at Howard Street left the large Sarcophyton 

soft corals with bare spots where the fish fed. 

Gold Spotted Spinefoot 

Siganus punctatus (Siganidae) 


Distribution: Tropical Western Pacific. 

Habitat: Clear lagoon and seaward reefs from 

1–40 m. Adults typically paired. Juveniles in 

groups to 50 individuals. 

Appearance: Length to 40 cm. Highly 

compressed body. Blue, with numerous dark 

edged orange spots on the head and caudal fin. 

Diet: Benthic algae. 


external. Spawn in pairs. 

Remarks: Like all rabbitfishes, possess 

venomous spines. 

Adults usually swim together as a pair. 

Masked Spinefoot 

Siganus puellus (Siganidae) 



Habitat: Shallow, coral-rich areas of lagoons 

and seaward reefs to 30 m. Adults often in 

pairs; species forms large schools in shallows, 

lagoons and outer reef flats, particularly in 

areas dominated by luxurious growths of 


183 

Acropora coral. 

Appearance: Length to 38 cm. Highly 

compressed body yellow with wavy, broken 

blue lines. Dark band from eyes to mouth. Dark 

dots extend from eyes to dorsal fin. 

Diet: Juveniles feed on filamentous algae; 

adults on algae, tunicates, and sponges. 

Remarks: Venomous spines, which can be 

flashed at any bothersome fish or hand. 

Blotched Foxface Rabbitfish 

Siganus unimaculatus (Siganidae) 


Distribution: Western Pacific: Ryukyu Islands 

of Japan, the Philippines, south to western 

Australia. 

Habitat: Coral rich areas of lagoons and 

seaward reefs to depths of 30 m. 

Appearance: Same as the Foxface Rabbitfish (S. 

vulpinus) except for the black spot or ‘blotch” 

on posterior upper side of body. Max. length: 

20 cm. 

Diet: Seaweeds. 


spawner. 

Remarks: Some researchers believe S. 

unimaculatus and S. vulpinus are a single 

species. 

All siganids have venomous spines on dorsal 

and anal fins. 

Barhead Spinefoot aka Varigate Rabbitfish 

Siganus virgatus (Siganidae) 



Habitat: Usually shallow, inshore coastal reefs, 

often in turbid water to 12 m. Juveniles are 

found in mangrove lagoons and are known to 

enter freshwater. 

Appearance: Yellow above, white below with 

yellow dorsal and caudal fins; blue markings on 

head and back. Eyes masked by a black stripe 

that extends from the bottom of the mouth to the 

top of the head, and a second black stripe behind 

the gill cover. Max. length: 30 cm. 

Diet: Benthic algae. 


spawner. 

Mortality/Longevity: Stout venomous spines 

discourage would-be predators.


Foxface Rabbitfish 

Siganus vulpinus (Siganidae) 


Distribution: Tropical Western Pacific. 

Habitat: Coral-rich areas of lagoon and seaward 

reefs to 30 m. Juveniles school among 

branching corals. Adults usually found in 

pairs. 

Appearance: Length to 24 cm. Highly compressed 

yellow body, face white with two 

vertical, broad chocolate bands. Long snout. 

Diet: Diurnal herbivore of algae and zoo- 

plankton. 


during outgoing tides. 

Remarks: Highly esteemed as a food fish. 

Moorish Idol 

Zanclus cornutus (Zanclidae) 

Moorish Idol 

Distribution: Indo-Pacific. Southern Gulf of 

California. 

Habitat: Hard substrates from turbid inner harbors 

and reef flats to clear seaward reefs as deep 

as 182 m. Usually in small groups of conspecifics, 

occasionally in schools of more than 100. 

Appearance: Length to 23 cm. Discoid body, 

tubular snout, dorsal spines elongated into a 

very long white whip-like filament. Broad vertical 

white, black, white-yellow black, yellow 

banding. Tail black with white margin Black 

stripes break up the body outline and hide the 

eye from predators. 

Diet: Primarily sponges. Also consumes tunicates, 

other benthic invertebrates, and algae. 

Reproduction and Development: Has a long 

larval phase and settles at a large size (6 cm), 

resulting in its very wide geographic distribution. 

Remarks: The moorish idol was the icon of 

the Golden Gate Park Steinhart Aquarium 

since 1923.. 

Gill, the leader of the tank fish in Finding Nemo, 

with the voice of Willem Dafoe, is a moorish 

idol. 

Achilles Tang aka Achilles Surgeonfish 

Acanthurus achilles (Acanthuridae) 

Surgeonfishes, Tangs and Unicornfishes 


Habitat: Clear seaward reefs, primarily in the 

surf zone to 4 m. Usually in small groups. 

Appearance: Length to 24 cm. Ovate compressed 

body black with a large orange caudal spot. Caudal 

fin has a broad vertical orange band. 

Diet: Diurnal herbivores of filamentous and 

small fleshy algae. 


Juveniles lack the orange spot. 

Mortality/Longevity: An important food fish 

on tropical islands. 

Remarks: Highly territorial. 

“Tang” in British dialect means dagger or knife. 

Thus the common name refers to the caudal 

peduncle spines. 

Single scalpel-like peduncular spine folds 

into a groove on each side of the tail. Spines 

are used offensively or defensively, against 

conspecifics in struggles for dominance or 

against predators. 

Whether a fish has a common name of 

“surgeonfish” or “tang” seems to be a matter 

of convention, not substance. 

The generic name comes from the Greek 

acantha (“thorn”) and oura (“tail”) 

Ringtail Surgeonfish 

Acanthurus blochii (Acanthuridae) 


Hawaiian Islands, south to Australia. 

Habitat: Lagoon and outer reef, 2–15 m. 

Appearance: Blue-gray to light brown; yellow 

spot behind the eye. Dark blue dorsal, anal, and 

caudal fins with narrow lighter blue margins. 

Often display a white ring around the base of 

the tail. Max size: 45 cm. 

Diet: Graze on algae. 

Blue Tang 

Acanthurus coeruleus (Acanthuridae) 


Distribution: New York (rare north of Florida), 

Bermuda, Northwest Gulf of Mexico south to 

Brazil, east to Ascension Island. 

Habitat: May be solitary, but typically in large 

schools over rocky areas or coral reefs, 2–40 m. 

Often school with other species of surgeonfishes. 

Appearance: Length to 39 cm. Juveniles yellow, 

subadults blue with yellow tails. Adults blue, 

laterally compressed, more circular than other 

surgeonfish. 

Diet: Graze on algae.


fertilization. Open water/substratum egg 

scatterers. Adults do not guard eggs. Males 

mature at 11 cm, females at 13 cm. 

Remarks: Adults can quickly change color 

from powder blue to deep purple, or become 

paler or darker. 

Eyestripe Surgeonfish 

Acanthurus dussumieri (Acanthuridae) 

Surgeonfishes, Tangs, and Unicornfishes 

Distribution: Indo-Pacific: from East Africa to 

Hawaii and the eastern Central Pacific. Also 

from southwest Japan to the Great Barrier Reef. 

Absent from most of the Central Pacific. 

Habitat: Adults are found mainly on deep 

coastal reef slopes and outer reef walls, often on 

deep shipwrecks. Depth ranges from 4–130 m. 

Appearance: Bluish to brownish body with 

horizontal line markings; yellow stripe through 

eye, blue tail with numerous black spots; white 

caudal spine with the socket edged in black. 

Typically seen as a solitary fish but may also 

occur in small groups. Max. size: 50 cm. 

Diet: Grazes algae from reefs and sand. 

Reproduction and Development: Reported to 

be a pair spawner; eggs are small and pelagic. 

Remarks: Surgeonfish are able to slash other 

fishes with their caudal spines by a rapid sidesweep 

of the tail. 

The eyestripe surgeonfish reputedly has a strong 

odor when cooked. The Hawaiian name for this 

fish is palani and a Hawaiian riddle based on this 

name means “odor reaching to heaven.” 

This species can quickly change its coloration 

to a much darker shade that obscures the 

yellow and markings. 

Powder Brown Tang 

Acanthurus japonicus (Acanthuridae) 


Distribution: Asian-Pacific: Sulawesi to Philippines, 

SW Japan. 

Habitat: Clear lagoons and shallow (2–12 m) 


Appearance: Like all surgeonfish, are colorful, 

thin-bodied, oval shaped. Typically have long 

continuous dorsal and anal fins and crescentshaped 

caudal fins. 

Brownish body with white patch on check 

between eyes and mouth; pectoral, anal, and 


185 

dorsal fins brown with blue highlight at tip. 

Orange band on last third of dorsal fin. Yellow 

stripes along base of dorsal and anal fins, tail 

blue with yellow bar. Length to 21 cm. 

Diet: Algae. 

Reproduction and Development: Group 

spawner. 

Lined Surgeonfish 

Acanthurus lineatus (Acanthuridae) 


Distribution: Indo-Pacific from East Africa 

north to southern Japan and south to New 

South Wales, Australia. 

Habitat: Usually found on exposed outer reef 

areas at depths of 1–3 m. 

Appearance: Compressed, disc-like body 

with a large venomous, scalpel-like spine 

on each side of the caudal peduncle. Body is 

yellowish green, with bright blue stripes edged 

with black most pronounced on the flank. The 

stripes on the belly are lavender blue to bluish. 

The pelvic fins are bright orange. Length to 

38 cm. 

Diet: Herbivorous, browses on algae. Large 

males patrol defined feeding areas and 

maintain harems of females. 

Reproduction and Development: Migrates to 

and spawns in aggregations at specific sites, 

although they sometimes spawn in pairs. 

Spawning occurs year-round at lower latitudes 

but may be seasonal at higher latitudes. The 

eggs and larvae are pelagic. 

Mortality/Longevity: Can live 30 to 45 years. 

Remarks: The caudal spines are very effective 

defense mechanisms for surgeonfish. They are 

razor sharp and useful weapons against attack. 

The lined surgeonfish was first described in 

1758 by Carl Linnaeus. 

Mata Tang 

Acanthurus mata (Acanthuridae) 


Distribution: Red Sea and East Africa to 

French Polynesia; southwest to Japan, Great 

Barrier Reef, New Caledonia. 

Habitat: Frequently inshore in turbid water, as 

well as outer reefs in depths 5–100 m. Usually 

in groups of conspecifics. 

Appearance: Length to 50 cm. Compressed, 

pale to dark bluish body with numerous dark


to blue horizontal lines. Yellow dorsal fin, 

upper lip and band across eyes. 

Diet: Group grazer upon plankton. 


resident spawning aggregations mid-water. 

Conservation Status: IUCN: Not Evaluated. 

Reported to be moderately to highly vulnerable 

to extinction in the scientific press. 

Remarks: Marketed as a food fish. 

Whitecheek Surgeonfish aka Goldrim Tang 

Acanthurus nigricans (Acanthuridae) 

Surgeonfishes and Unicornfishes 

Distribution: Eastern Indian Ocean and 

throughout the tropical Pacific, including 

Indonesia and the Philippines, eastward as 

far as Hawaii, Galapagos and coast of Mexico. 

Habitat: Hard substrates of clear lagoon and 

especially exposed reefs to 67 m. 

Appearance: Length to 21 cm. Body dark 

brown, navy-blue or black. Tail white with 

yellow bar; white patch below eye, white ring 

behind mouth; yellow line at base of anal and 

dorsal fins; yellow tail spine. 

Diet: Filamentous algae. 

Reproduction and Development: Monogamous. 

Following external fertilization, female 

scatters eggs over substrate. Hatched larvae 

join the plankton. 

Remarks: Territorial. 

Bluelined Surgeonfish 

Acanthurus nigroris (Acanthuridae) 


Hawaiian Islands. 

Habitat: Clear lagoons and outward reefs to 

90 m. 

Appearance: Dark brown body with numerous 

blue stripes in scroll patterns on face and chest, 

more horizontal on body. Dark peduncular 

spine and tail. Small but distinctive black spots 

on rear base of both dorsal and anal fins. A 

small surgeonfish; max. size: 25 cm. 

Diet: Filamentous algae, diatoms, fine algal 

film. 


spawner. 

Remarks: Solitary or forms small groups. 

Orangeband Surgeonfish aka Orange Shoulder 

Tang 

Acanthurus olivaceus (Acanthuridae) 


Distribution: Eastern Indo-Pacific. 

Habitat: Near reefs over sand, bare rock and 

rubble substrates, 3–45 m. Juveniles inhabit 

protected bays and lagoons in depths as shallow 

as 3 m. Adults occur singly or in schools. 

Appearance: Juveniles less than 6 cm are 

yellow, subadults become a dirty yellowishbrown. 

At 12 cm have the adult coloration: light 

gray head and forebody, dark gray behind; 

blue-edged elliptical orange band behind upper 

gill cover. Length to 35 cm. 

Diet: Diurnal feeder on surface film of detritus, 

diatoms and filamentous algae covering sand 

and rocks. 

Reproduction and Development: Spawn, 

typically at dusk. 

Mortality/Longevity: An important food fish. 

Mimic Surgeonfish 

Acanthurus pyroferus (Acanthuridae) 

Surgeonfishes and Unicornfishes 

Distribution: Indonesia, Philippines, 

Micronesia to French Polynesia; southwest 

Japan to New Caledonia and the Great Barrier 

Reef. 

Habitat: Lagoon and seaward reefs from 4–60 

m. Prefers areas of mixed coral, rock or sand 

near base of reefs. Often observed on silty reefs. 

Appearance: Length to 25 cm. Adults have a 

purplish-black to brown body; curving black 

band from chin to upper edge of the operculum; 

orange patch above base of pectoral fin. Front of 

juvenile’s body (“face”) is gray; body is white 

anteriorly and dark posteriorly. Dark-colored 

caudal fin rounded in juveniles. 

Diet: Algae. 

Reproduction and Development: Following 

external fertilization female scatters eggs over 

open water substrate; eggs not guarded. 

Remarks: The common name “mimic” is based 

on the juvenile coloration; juveniles exhibit three 

different color patterns mimicking angelfish in 

the Centropyge genus. Coloration of juveniles 

mimics these angelfishes until they achieve the 

largest size attained by the angelfishes; then 

their appearance transforms to the appropriate 

adult coloration for A. pyroferus. Presumably

there is an advantage to mimicking an angelfish 

which possesses a sharp, preopercular spine 

when this young surgeonfish and its peduncular 

spines are quite small. 

Convict Tang aka Convict Surgeonfish 

Acanthurus triostegus (Acanthuridae) 



Habitat: Juveniles in tide pools. Adults in 

lagoon and seaward reefs in areas of hard 

substrates from sea level to 90 m; typically 

occur in shallows to 5 m. 

Appearance: Length to 27 cm. White with 5–6 

black bars on head and body. 

Diet: Filamentous algae. 

Reproduction and Development: Spawn at 

sunset within small groups that break away 

from a huge milling aggregation of conspecifics 

at a reef edge or channel entrance. Pelagic eggs. 

Larvae drift ~75 days. Post-larvae settle in 

intertidal areas of benches and reef flats. 

Mortality/Longevity: Eggs and sperm are 

preyed upon by eagle rays, which are often 

present during spawning. 

Remarks: Ubiquitous, one of the most 

widespread coral reef species. May be solitary, 

in small groups or in schools of 1,000 or more. 

This black-barred fish’s common name 

presumably alludes to the coloration of many 

prison uniforms of the previous century. 

This species has a very small caudal spine and 

therefore is near the gutter of the “acanthurid 

pecking order.” Thus they usually feed in large, 

roving aggregations which overwhelm the 

defenses of territorial herbivores. 

Goldring Bristletooth aka Spotted Surgeonfish 

Ctenochaetus strigosus (Acanthuridae) 


Distribution: Central Pacific. 

Habitat: Coral-rich areas of deep lagoon and 


Appearance: Brown with pale yellow spots 

on head and pale yellow pinstripes on body. 

Conspicuous, broad yellow ring around the 

eye. Max. length: 15 cm. 

Diet: Feeds on algae and detritus using its 

comb-like teeth. 


spawner. 


R e m a r k s : T h e g e n u s C t e n o c h a e t u s 

(bristletooths) have differently shaped 

mouths than Acanthurus species. The latter 

group have lips and dentition suitable for 

snipping off the tips and branches of algae. 

Bristletooths feed on detritus and unicellular 

algae from the surfaces of dead coral, rock, 

seagrasses, or other algae, using specialized 

bristle-like teeth to scrape off their meal and 

then suck it into the mouth. Both groups are 

favorites of aquarists for their tank-cleaning 

services. 

Their diet may contain high concentrations 

of the dinoflagellates that produces ciguatera 

toxin, and so bristletooths and their predators 

are known to sometimes concentrate sufficient 

toxin to cause illness in humans. 

Tomini Tang 

Ctenochaetus tominiensis (Acanthuridae) 


Distribution: Western Central Pacific, 

including Indonesia, Philippines, to northern 

Great Barrier Reef. 

Habitat: Steep coral drop-offs of sheltered coasts. 

Appearance: Brown with pale lower head. The 

only species of Ctenochaetus (bristletooths) with 

angular dorsal and anal fins; outer portion of 

these fins is a bright orange. Caudal fin white. 


Diet: See Goldring Bristletooth remarks above. 


spawner. 

Spotted Unicornfish 

Naso brevirostris (Acanthuridae) 



Hawaiian Islands, north to southern Japan, 

south to Australia. 

Habitat: Mid-waters along steep outer lagoon 

and seaward reef drop-offs, from 4–45 m. 

Appearance: Olive-brown to blue-grey with 

dark spots on head and vertical rows of spots 

and lines on sides. Tail whitish with dark area at 

base. Long, tapering horn on forehead of adults 

is lacking in juveniles. Max length: 60 cm. 

Diet: Juveniles: benthic algae; adults: mainly 

zooplankton. 


spawners. 

187


Remarks: Unicornfishes (Naso spp.) are 

characterized by 2 sharp, fixed (not moveable 

as in surgeonfishes), keel-like plates on the 

caudal peduncle. The skin is leathery with tiny 

non-overlapping scales, and teeth have finely 

serrate edges. 

Males of many Naso species are able to display 

spectacular iridescent markings during courtship. 

Orangespine Unicornfish 

Naso lituratus (Acanthuridae) 



Habitat: Over coral, rock or rubble of lagoon 

and seaward reefs from the lower surge zone 

to 90 m. 

Appearance: Length to 46 cm. A hornless unicornfish, 

despite the common name. Coloration 

varies among populations. Ovate compressed 

body typically black with yellow dorsal fin and 

orange anal fin. Face white, prominent vertical 

black stripe from eyes to mouth. 

Diet: Primarily leafy brown algae. 

Reproduction and Development: External fertilization, 

open water pair spawning. Non-guarders. 

Bluespine Unicornfish 

Naso unicornis (Acanthuridae) 



Habitat: Inhabits channels, moats, lagoons and 

seaward reefs with strong surge. Typically occurs 

in small groups at depths of 1–80 m. 

Appearance: Body color gray to olive , tail 

spines blue, Short forehead horn does not 

project past mouth. Adult males tend be larger 

and have better developed horn, peduncular 

spines, and caudal filaments than females. 


Diet: Diurnal feeders on macro- and microalgae, 

including brown algae like Sargassum. 


fertilization. Pair-spawning has been observed; 

pelagic larvae. 

Mortality/Longevity: An important food fish 

on most tropical islands. Long-lived, up to 35 

years. Preyed upon by other fishes. 

Remarks: Rostral horn responsible for species’ 

common name. 

Surgeonfishes have a single scalpel-like peduncular 

spine which folds into a groove while 

unicornfishes have 1 or 2 sharp, fixed keel-like 

peduncular plates. 

The spines are used both offensively and defensively. 

Bignose Unicornfish aka Bumphead Naso 

Naso vlamingii (Acanthuridae) 



Habitat: Deep lagoon and seaward reefs from 

4–50 m.in conspecific groups off steep slopes. 

Appearance: Length to 60 cm. Adults develop 

a convexly rounded prominent snout and extremely 

tall dorsal and anal fins. Gray ovate 

compressed body with bright blue markings. 

Tips of the tail fin are unusually long. 



fertilization. Egg scatterers, non-guarding. 

Remarks: Courting males are able to 

instantaneously turn iridescent blue. 

Flagtail Surgeonfish aka Hepatus Tang 

Paracanthurus hepatus (Acanthuridae) 



Habitat: Clear, current-swept terraces of seaward 

reefs, 2–40 m. Typically in loose groups 

1–3 m above substrate. Shelters among branches 

of Pocillopora corals or in crevices of rocks. 

Appearance: Ovate, compressed blue body. Tail 

and pectoral fins yellow. Black oval extends under 

dorsal fin to caudal peduncle. Length to 31 cm. 



external. Open water egg scatterers on 

substrate. Nonguarders. 

Remarks: Single scalpel-like peduncular spine 

used offensively or defensively against conspecifics 

in struggles for dominance or against 

predators. 

Dory, the co-star of Finding Nemo, with the 

voice of Ellen DeGeneres’ “spaced-out” fish, 

is a hepatus tang. Most kids now recognize 

this fish as Dory. 

Taken for commercial and aquarium trade. 

Brown Scopas Tang 

Zebrasoma scopas (Acanthuridae) 

Surgeonfishes, Tangs, Unicornfishes 

Distribution: Widespread throughout the

Indo-Pacific from Africa to Japan. 

Habitat: Lagoons and outer reefs to 50 m. 

Particularly well suited to large aquaria where 

they can roam. 

Appearance: Males and females similar. Color 

can be variable; most often shades of gray and 

brown with a greenish tinge running along the 

dorsal spine; “scalpels,” which are used against 

rivals, are white (Gr. Acanthus means “thorn” 

or “spine”). Length to 20 cm. 

Diet: Predominantly herbivorous in the wild, 

but eats many different foods in captivity. 

Reproduction and Development: Mate in 

groups, scattering eggs and sperm into the 

water column. 

Remarks: Zebrasoma is a small genus of tangs 

characterized by round, laterally compressed 

bodies, large dorsal sail-like fins, and pointed 

snouts. Because of their snouts, they are able to 

eat filamentous algae that grow in spots other 

fishes cannot reach, a talent that also makes 

them popular in aquariums large and small. 

Interestingly, Zebrasoma are known to irritate 

some stony corals to induce the release of zooxanthellae, 

evidently a sailfin delicacy. 

Territorial and sometimes aggressive toward 

other fish, especially other sailfins. 

Pacific Sailfin Tang 

Zebrasoma veliferum (Acanthuridae) 



Habitat: Lagoon or outer reef to 45 m. Solitary 

or in small groups. Juveniles inhabit sheltered 

inshore areas. 

Appearance: Length to 40 cm. White bars 

alternate with grey/brown bars with pale 

bands. Displaying its enormous fins will more 

than double the size of this fish. Juveniles have 

alternating yellow and black bars. 

Diet: Small leafy algae growing around rock 

and coral. 

Reproduction and Development: Spawn in 

pairs and groups. Larvae planktonic. 

Mortality/Longevity: Relatively long-lived, to 

about 25 years; eaten by sharks and other fishes. 

Remarks: Shelter on the reef at night. 

The extended pelagic larval period of Zebrasoma 

spp. accounts for their broad distribution, 

but has also kept them from being bred 


189 

in captivity as yet. 

Like many other species of fish, use pheromones 

to communicate with conspecifics. 

Like most Zebrasoma spp., contain ciguatoxins 

that can be poisonous to humans if eaten; 

spines can inflict deep, painful wounds. 

SUBORDER ANABANTOIDEI 

(LABYRINTHFISHES) 

Whiteseam Betta 

Betta albimarginata (Osphronemidae) 

Labyrinthfishes 

Distribution: Known only from the Sebuku 

basin in Borneo, Indonesia. 

Habitat: Forest streams with moderate current, 

especially in shallow water (5–10 cm deep) 

among plant roots and leaf litter of shore 

margins. 

Appearance: Males have dark fins trimmed in 

white, and are more intensely colored than the 

relatively drab females. Max. length: c. 4 cm. 

Diet: Small insects and various zooplankton. 

Reproduction and Development: Paternal 

mouth brooder. The female stakes out a 

territory and initiates spawning, flaring her 

fins and coaxing the male into the typical betta 

side-by-side embrace. The female then deposits 

her eggs, the male fertilizes them and scoops 

them into his mouth for protective brooding for 

the 12 or so days before they hatch and he spits 

out the fully formed fry. At least in captivity, 

older fry from a previous spawn may eat their 

younger siblings. 

Remarks: All species in the suborder 

Anabantoidei possess an accessory breathing 

organ known as the labyrinth organ, highly 

vascularized, folded flaps of skin that allow 

the fish to take in atmospheric air when water 

is oxygen deficient. 

This betta lacks the brilliant colors and flowing, 

dramatic fins of the “figthing bettas” that have 

been selectively bred for these features over 

generations. In the wild, speed and agility are 

more important than color and beauty. 

Siamese Fighting Fish 

Betta splendens (Osphronemidae) 

Gouramis and their Allies 

Distribution: Thailand, (formerly Siam, thus 

their name), Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam, and


parts of China. 

Habitat: Shallow, warm freshwater of rice 

paddies, ponds, and slow moving streams. 

Appearance: Usually grow to about 5cm, 

though some varieties reach 30 cm in length. 

Known for brilliant colors (red, blue, turquoise, 

orange, yellow, and green, as well as marbled 

patterns and metallic shades) and large, 

flowing fins. 

Diet: Carnivorous surface feeder (note the 

upturned mouth); in the wild feeds on insects 

and insect larvae. 

Reproduction: When ready to spawn, the 

male builds an elaborate bubble nest at the 

water’s surface. He will posture with flared 

gills, twist his body and spread his elaborate 

fins if interested in a female. She will darken in 

color, and curve her body back and forth. The 

male then wraps his body around the female 

in a “nuptial embrace.” Some 10–40 eggs are 

released during each embrace, until the female 

is exhausted of eggs. The male fertilizes them, 

retrieves the sinking eggs in his mouth, and 

deposits them in the bubble nest which he 

guards and tends. Incubation lasts for 24–36 

hours, and the newly-hatched fry remain in 

the nest for 2-3 days before swimming free. 

Juveniles can reach sexual maturity at 3 

months. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: 2-5 years in 

captivity. 



trade. Breeders continue to develop new 

varieties, often crossing species to enhance 

colors, fin size, and combativeness. 

Remarks: Betta splendens has been nicknamed 

“The Jewel of the Orient” due to its beauty and 

wide range of colors. 

Males are highly territorial and aggressive, 

especially toward trespassing rivals. They are 

known to respond aggressively even to their 

own reflections in a mirror! Therefore, only 

one male should be kept in aquarium tanks. 

Several females and other compatible fishes 

can complete a peaceful community. 

Females will flare their gills at other females, 

especially when setting up a pecking order. 

Like their allies the gouramis, bettas possess a 

lung-like labyrinth organ that allows them take 

in oxygen directly from the air, an important 

adaptation for fishes that live in warm, shallow, 

oxygen-poor water. They can live out of water 

for several hours if necessary. 

Striped Betta 

Betta taeniata (Osphronemidae) 

Gouramies 

Distribution: Borneo; may also be found in 

other parts of South East Asia. 

Habitat: The upper parts of fast flowing rivers 

and clear-water streams, especially in shallow 

areas with vegetation where it hides when 

threatened. 

Appearance: An elongated fish with short, 

rounded fins. Males: brownish color; small 

iridescent green scales around the head and 

a black horizontal bar across the face close to 

eye level. Lower body and fins have a green or 

bluish iridescence. The female is smaller and 

less colorful. Length: c. 7 cm. 

Diet: Omnivore. 

Reproduction and Development: Paternal 

mouth brooders. During courtship, the male’s 

body becomes an iridescent red Between 200 to 

300 eggs are laid and fertilized, then the female 

spits them into the male’s mouth. The female 

defends the male and the territory during 

incubation which lasts about 9–12 days. 


Remarks: These fish puff out when aggravated 

or to intimidate other males while attracting 

females. 

When threatened, they can lighten or darken 

their color in seconds creating horizontal or 

vertical dark bars depending on the degree 

of danger. 

They have been kept in Thai households in 

aquariums since the 1200s, in Europe since 

the 1800s. 

Pearl Gourami 

Trichogaster leeri (Osphronemidae) 

Gouramies 

Distribution: Asia: Malay Peninsula, Thailand 

and Indonesia, including Borneo. 

Habitat: Small flowing rivers and lakes in areas 

of dense vegetation. 

Appearance: Has filamentous pelvic fins. Large 

anal fin extends from just behind the pelvic 

fins almost to the caudal fin. Length to 12 cm.

Diet: Omnivorous; small invertebrates and 

plants. 

Reproduction and Development: All gouramis 

build nests of small air bubbles that vary in 

size, shape, and position depending on the 

species. Some may incorporate plants; others 

are only bubbles. 

Remarks: Common name comes from the 

small, light spots that cover the body like 

iridescent “pearls. 

Moonlight Gourami 

Trichogaster microlepis (Osphronemidae) 

Gouramies 

Distribution: Thailand and Cambodia. 

Habitat: Lives in ponds, lakes and swamps 

with shallow, sluggish or standing water and 

abundant vegetation. 

Appearance: It has a greenish hue similar 

to moonlight glow, hence its name, and 

a distinctive concave head. Males can be 

identified by the orange to red color of the 

pelvic fins and the long, pointed dorsal fins. 

The female’s pelvic fins are colorless to yellow, 

while the dorsal fins are shorter and rounder. 

Length: 12–15 cm. 

Diet: Omnivore. Eats insects, crustaceans, and 

zooplankton. 


a bubble nest builder. The bubble nest does not 

contain much plant matter so the bubbles float 

around freely. The male performs a courtship 

dance beneath the nest, culminating with the 

male wrapping itself around the female and 

turning her on her back as she releases her 

eggs. Up to 2000 eggs may be laid during 

the spawning. The male fertilizes the eggs 

as they float up to the prepared bubble nest. 

Eggs incubate in the nest for 2–3 days before 

hatching. 

Remarks: Like all gouramis, has a lung-like 

organ that allows it to breathe air directly by 

gulping at the surface, an ability that increases 

survival in low oxygen situations. 

Blue Gourami 

Trichogaster trichopterus (Belontiidae) 

Gouramies 

Distribution: Southeast Asia: Mekong River 

basin in Laos, Yunnan, Thailand, Cambodia, 

and Viet Nam 


191 

Habitat: Preference is thickly vegetated fresh 

water in ditches, canals, ponds, swamps, rivers 

or lakes. 

Appearance: The three-spot gourami displays 

only two spots, one in the center of the body 

and a second on the caudal peduncle. The eye 

is actually the third “spot”. Their scientific 

name refers to the long pelvic fins that seem 

like “hair” (Gr. trichias) “wings” (Gr. pteron). 


Diet: Omnivorous 

Reproduction and Development: Typical of 

gouramies, male builds bubble nest, usually 

under a large leaf, after which he displays to 

female. Their courtship ends with her releasing 

eggs, which the male fertilizes and then collects 

in his mouth and “spits” into the bubble 

nest, where he guards them until they hatch 

in 2–3 days. 

Remarks: Like all gouramies, have a labyrinth 

organ just behind the gills that enables these 

fish to breathe air and so inhabit water low in 

oxygen. You may see them regularly come to 

the surface, release an air bubble, or swallow 

air.” 

ORDER PLEURONECTIFORMES 

(FLATFISHES) 

Pacific Sanddab 

Citharichthys sordidus (Paralichthyidae) 

Large-tooth Flounders 

Distribution: Bering Sea to Cabo San Lucas, 


Appearance: Flatfish; left-eyed, bottom dwelling. 

Eyed side mottled brown, blind side light. To 40 

cm long. Similar to speckled sanddab though are 

darker with yellow, orange, or reddish-brown 

rather than black spots. 

Habitat: Sandy bottom, most commonly from 

45–140 m, though reported as deep as 550 m. 

Diet: Opportunistic feeders: small fishes, 

mollusks, marine worms, sea squirts, copepods. 

Often swim above the bottom to feed. 

Reproduction and Development: Spawn from 

July through September, possibly multiple 

times. 

Mortality/Longevity: Sharks, rays, marine 

mammals and a variety of seabirds are among 

their predators. Older specimens probably live 

in excess of 11 years.


Remarks: They are a popular food fish taken 

by both commercial and sport fishermen. 

Common in San Francisco Bay and the Gulf 

of the Farallones. 

Speckled Sanddab 

Citharichthys stigmaeus (Bothidae) 

Lefteye Flounders 

Distribution: Alaska to southern Baja 

California. 

Habitat: Lives on sandy bottom from nearshore 

to 360 m; most often found at less than 90 m. 

Appearance: Small, left-eyed flatfish, c. 13–17 

cm. Eyed side brown or tan with black speckles 

and spots; blind side white. 

Diet: Small benthic crustaceans (mysid shrimp, 

amphipods especially), worms. Eaten by other 

fishes, marine mammals, and sea birds. 


March–October. Eggs and larvae pelagic. 

Remarks: Like many members of their family, 

speckled sanddabs can change color and 

pattern to match the substrate. 

California Halibut aka California Flounder 

Paralichthys californicus (Paralichthyidae) 

Large-tooth Flounders 

Distribution: Northern Washington to 

southern Baja California, though less common 

north of San Francisco Bay. 

Habitat: Sandy bottoms to a depth of 90 m along 

the shore, near rocks and in bays and estuaries. 

Appearance: They have small heads with large 

mouths, small eyes set wide apart and the 

lateral line appears as a high arch above the 

pectoral fin. Many of these fish are right eyed 

even though they are members of the left-eyed 

family. They may grow to 1.5 m in length and 

weigh 32 kg. 

Diet: Adults: fish and squid. Juveniles: small 

organisms such as copepods and amphipods. 

Reproduction and Development: Spawn in 

shallow water from February to July; some 

southern populations may spawn year round. 

The females mature at 4–5 years and grow 

larger than the males which are ready to spawn 

at 2–3 years. 

Mortality/Longevity: May live as long as 30 

years. Subject to predation by sea lions, sharks, 

rays and dolphins. 

Remarks: They have very sharp teeth, and 

are known to bite. In the larval form flatfish 

are bilaterally symmetrical and swim upright, 

as do other fishes, but at about 13 days one 

eye begins to migrate to the other side of the 

head. By the time the juvenile is about 8 mm, 

it has turned on its side and begins a primarily 

benthic lifestyle. 

Like flatfish in general, is an ambush predator, 

using its large, powerful caudal fin to accelerate 

off of the substrate when prey ventures near. 

Support important commercial and recreational 

fisheries. 

C-O Turbot 

Pleuronichthys coenosus (Pleuronectidae) 

Righteye Flounders 

Distribution: Southeastern Alaska to northern 

Baja. 

Habitat: On sandy or rocky bottoms. Common 

in shallow water, but found to depths of 350 m. 

Appearance: A right-eyed flatfish. Eyed side 

dark brown to blackish, though able to change 

color to match substrate. Blind side white. Max. 


Diet: Benthic crustaceans, mollusks, and 

worms. 


Females lay eggs that float in mid-water until 

larvae develop and sink to bottom. 


Remarks: As in all members of the family, 

swim bladder is absent in adults, an adaptation 

for bottom-dwelling life style. 

A dark spot on the caudal fin with a curved 

dark bar in front of it gives this fish its common 

name: upside down the pattern reads “CO.” 

Caught commercially and recreationally in 

small numbers. Like all flatfish, it is edible. 

English Sole 

Pleuronectes vetulus (Pleuronectidae) 

Right-eye Flounders 

Distribution: Eastern Pacific: Bering Sea to 


Habitat: Sand and mud bottoms. Young found 

in intertidal areas and estuaries; migrate into 

deeper water as they mature. 

Appearance: A right-eyed flatfish with a 

pointed head. Eyed side a flat brown; the blind 

side white or pale yellow. Max length: 49 cm; 

common length: 30 cm.

Diet: Small crustaceans, marine worms, brittle 

stars, small mollusks. Often feed by digging 

snouts into sand to extract food items. 


spawner. Move to deeper water for spawning. 

Larvae transform into flatfish shape at 6–10 

weeks. 

Mortality/Longevity: Preyed upon by large 

flounders, California sea lions, and cormorants. 

Life span: c. 20 years. 

Remarks: Pigmented side is capable of 

remarkable color changes to match substrate. 

As in all flatfish, the swim bladder disappears 

in the adult. 

Are an important part of the flatfish trawl 

fishery from California to British Columbia, 

where they are second only to Dover sole in 

total pounds landed. 

ORDER TETRAODONTIFORMES 

Clown Triggerfish 

Balistoides conspicillum (Balistidae) 

Triggerfishes 

Distribution: Indo-Pacific; East Africa to Samoa, 

north to Hakkaido, south to Lord Howe 

Island. Throughout Micronesia. 

Habitat: Clear seaward reefs, 3-–5 m. Adults prefer 

coral-rich areas of outer reef terraces adjacent 

to steep drop offs. Juveniles usually near ledges 

and caves of steep drop offs below 20 m. 

Appearance: Length to 50 cm. Adults have a 

small yellow mouth, black dorsal side with 

yellow venations, large white polka dots on 

belly, blue dorsal and anal fins. 

Diet: Solitary diurnal carnivores. Dentition is 

very efficient for chewing food with mineral 

structures, such as sea urchins, mollusks, corals, 

crabs and other crustaceans. Also eat tunicates. 


demersal eggs in a nest which is aggressively 

guarded by the male. 

Remarks: Large, thick dorsal spine may 

be locked upright by the second spine (the 

trigger). 

Pinktail Triggerfish 

Melichthys vidua (Balistidae) 

Triggerfishes 

Distribution: Indo-Pacific: East to South 


193 

Africa, east to the Hawaiian Islands, north to 

southern Japan, and south to the Great Barrier 

Reef. 

Habitat: Marine reefs, 4–60 m depth. 

Appearance: Kite-shaped body so dark it 

looks black, but is actually a deep forest green. 

Pectoral fins yellow, black-edged gray or white 

dorsal and anal fins, white and pink tail. Max. 


Diet: Algae, detritus, sponges, crustaceans, 

octopuses, and fishes. 

Reproduction and Development: Lays eggs 

in nests guarded by the female. 

Remarks: The first dorsal spine has a locking 

mechanism. 

Like all triggerfishes, able to rotate eyeballs 

independently. 

Black Triggerfish aka Redtooth Triggerfish 

Odonus niger (Balistidae) 

Triggerfishes 

Distribution: Red Sea to Marquesas and Society 

Islands, north to Southern Japan, south to 

Great Barrier Reef and New Caledonia. 

Habitat: Current-swept seaward reefs 2–35 m. 

Appearance: Length to 40 cm. Head green with 

rows of dark blue dots and stripes. Body, fins 

dark blue. 

Diet: Plankton and occasionally sponges, corals, 

and other invertebrates. 

Reproduction and Development: External fertilization. 

Forms pairs, builds and guards nest. 

Remarks: When alarmed retreats into crevasses, 

with only tail filaments visible. 

Blackbar Triggerfish aka Picassofish aka 

Humuhumu nukunuku a pua’a 

Rhinecanthus aculeatus (Balistidae) 

Triggerfishes 


Habitat: Subtidal reef flats and shallow protected 

lagoons to 50 m. In sandy areas with 

rubble and shelter cavities. 

Appearance: Length to 30 cm. Light brown 

dorsally, shading to white ventrally, with a 

large black area containing four blue diagonal 

bands. 

Diet: Algae, detritus, mollusks, crustaceans, 

worms, sea urchins, heart urchins, fishes, coral, 

tunicates, foraminiferans and eggs.



separate; fertilization external. Oviparous. 

Demersal eggs in nest aggressively guarded 

by the male. 

Remarks: Complete Hawaiian name Humuhumu 

nukunuku a pua’a means “grunts like a 

pig,” a reference to its habit of loudly grunting 

when disturbed. 

Popular in the tee shirt trade as a poster fish 

for the State of Hawaii. 

Highly territorial; individuals or pairs aggressively 

defend their turf. 

Sleeps on its side. 

Popular in the aquarium trade. 

Gilded Triggerfish aka Bluechin Triggerfish 

Xanthichthys auromarginatus (Balistidae) 

Triggerfishes 


Hawaiian Islands, north to the Ryukyus, south 

to New Caledonia. 

Habitat: Marine reefs, 8–150 m depths. 

Appearance: Steel blue with white spots. Males 

have blue chin patch and yellow margins on 

dorsal, anal, and caudal fins. Females lack 

chin patch, and have maroon stripe on base of 

dorsal and anal fins, and on outer margin of 

tail. Max. size: 30 cm 

Diet: Zooplankton, especially copepods. 


Lay eggs in nests. 

Remarks: Form small, loose aggregations. 

ORDER TETRAODONTIFORMES 

(PUFFERS AND FILEFISHES) 

Orange-spotted Filefish 

Oxymonacanthus longirostris (Monacanthidae) 

Filefishes 


Habitat: Clear lagoons and seaward reefs in 

depths from 0.5–30 m. 

Appearance: Color: pale blue with about eight 

longitudinal rows of orange-yellow patches, 

or green with small dark-edged yellow to 

orange spots. Dark spot on the caudal fin Long 

snout with a small upturned mouth; concave 

body profile above and below the snout. Max. 

size: 12.0 cm. Diet: Feeds almost exclusively 

on Acropora polyps throughout the day. (In 

aquaria, they may been weaned onto live brine 

shrimp, but this will not provide the complete 

nutrition they require.) Protruding snout and 

teeth that project from small mouth permit 

them to snip off coral polyps. 


Monogomous batch spawners and nonguarders, 

scattering eggs among algae on the 

substrate. After spawning and fertilization, the 

pair swims back to their territory. 

Remarks: Because the orange-spotted filefish 

has a passive nature, it needs a species-specific 

tank, or one with very passive tank mates. For 

successful acclimation, the aquarium should 

also include hiding places. 

Shaw’s Boxfish 

Aracana aurita (Aracanidae) 

Deepwater Boxfishes 

Distribution: Eastern Indian Ocean: southern 

Australia and Tasmania. 

Habitat: Continental shelf to depths of 160 m. 

Also on deep rocky reefs. 

Appearance: Sexes dichromatic: males covered 

with blue spots and lines, females orange/ 

brown with white lines. Max. size: 20 cm. 

Diet: Small worms and other invertebrates as 

well as plant material. 

Remarks: Like its Australian tank mate above, 

this fish also releases a poisonous substance, 

called ostracitoxin, which will kill other fish in 

the tank very quickly. 

Ornate Cowfish 

Aracana ornate (Aracanidae) 


Distribution: Eastern Indian Ocean, southern 

coast of Australia. 

Habitat: Shallow tropical seas under 20 m. 

Appearance: Brownish gold background with 

a handsome pattern of white stripes and spots. 


Diet: Small benthic crustaceans, algae. 

Remarks: Rare (and expensive) in the 

Aquarium trade. 

Though the cowfish moves slowly, it requires 

surprisingly little thrust as water flows over 

its body very efficiently. The fish is so good at 

turning and balancing that engineers modeled 

a submarine after it

Ornate Cowfish 

Aracana ornate (Aracanidae) 


Distribution: Eastern Indian Ocean, southern 

coast of Australia. 

Habitat: Shallow tropical seas under 20 m. 

Appearance: Brownish gold background with 

a handsome pattern of white stripes and spots. 


Diet: Small benthic crustaceans, algae. 

Remarks: Rare (and expensive) in the 

Aquarium trade. 

Though the cowfish moves slowly, it requires 

surprisingly little thrust as water flows over 

its body very efficiently. The fish is so good at 

turning and balancing that engineers modeled 

a submarine after it!! 

Papuan Toby aka Spotted Sharpnose Puffer 

Canthigaster papua (Tetradontidae) 

Pufferfish 

Distribution: Indo-Pacific: Philippines, 

Indonesia, New Guinea, Australia. 

Habitat: Various reef habitats from fringing 

reefs to lagoons, patch reefs, and deeper 

seaward reefs to 35 m. 

Appearance: Brown overall with blue lines on the 

back, forehead, and snout; blue spots on sides; 

black spot at base of dorsal fin. Max. size: 10 cm. 

Diet: Mostly algae, but also take a variety of 

small, benthic invertebrates. Some may nip off 

the tips of small-polyped stony corals and soft 

corals with their strong, fused teeth. 

Reproduction and Development: Haremic, 

with males establishing territories. Males 

posture and display to discourage conspecific 

competitors, a ritual that can become violent 

and result in serious injury. 

Remarks: Tobies, both in the wild and the 

aquarium, need hard calcareous material 

to bite on to wear down their teeth, which 

otherwise continue to grow and may interfere 

with regular feeding. 

Like all members of its family, tobies are 

able inflate themselves to a prickly ball that 

discourages predators. 

Amazon Pufferfish 

Colomesus asellus (Tetradontidae) 

Pufferfish 

Distribution: Peru, Colombia, Brazil. The 


195 

Amazon Basin. 

Habitat: Mostly warm freshwater and coastal 

streams. 

Appearance: Max size: 7.5 cm. 

Diet: An active hunter, especially of snails. 

Reproduction: Pairs breed during the wet 

season, spawning in rivers. Small eggs are 

scattered on the substrate and hatched larvae 

are carried downstream. 


Remarks: Continuous growth of teeth keeps 

these fish ready for their crunchy and abrasive 

diet of crustaceans and snails. In captivity, 

these puffers should have a daily dose of snails 

to prevent beak overgrowth. 

These active and curious little fish need a 

complexly decorated aquarium to explore, or 

like big cats in a barren cage, they will be found 

“pacing” back and forth along the aquarium 

glass. 

Like other puffers, can inflate themselves when 

threatened, presenting a much larger and spineladen 

body to suddenly disheartened predators. 

Many pufferfishes are highly toxic. C. asellus 

produces saixitoxin, the same neurotoxin 

produced by marine dinoflagellates such 

as Gymnodinium, source of the red tides off 

the California coast. Ingestion of saxitoxin 

by humans, usually through ingestion of 

contaminated shellfish, can produce potentially 

lethal paralytic shellfish poisoning. 

CLASS SARCOPTERYGII 

(LOBE-FINNED FISHES) 

ORDER COELACANTHIFORMES 

(COELACANTHS) 

Coelacanth (specimen) 

Latimeria chalumnae (Latimeriidae) 

Coelacanths 

Distribution: Western Indian Ocean; off coasts 

of Comoros Islands, Kenya, Mozambique, 

Madagascar, South Africa. 

Habitat: By day, along steep rocky shore, 

sheltered in caves with as many as 13 

conspecifics in a single cave at depths 100– 

700 m. By night, several individuals occupy


overlapping home ranges. 

Appearance: Length to 2 m. Weight to 95 k. 

Body dark, metallic blue-black, with numerous 

irregular pale blotches. 

Diet: After sunset, a coelacanth singly leaves 

its cave and moves slowly across the substrate, 

presumably looking for food, within 1–3 

meters of the bottom, drifting passively with 

the current or swimming slowly with its paired 

fins and its second dorsal and anal fins. Travels 

as much as 8 km in search of food and retreats 

to the nearest cave before dawn. Preys on fishes 

and squid (a skate, an eel and a swell shark 

have also been reported as eaten). 

A relatively small gill area seems to limit 

coelacanth to a slow metabolism and 

movements, drift-feeding at night in cold 

waters and resting in slightly warmer caves 

for food digestion during the day. By resting 

in caves where there are no strong currents, 

the coelacanth saves energy and avoids 

encounters with large predators such as deepwater 

sharks. 


with as many as 5–29 offspring. Gestation 

period estimated at 3 years, which would be 

the longest known in vertebrates. 

Mortality/Longevity: Eaten by large sharks. 

Live to at least 48 years, and perhaps to 80. 

Conservation Status: CITES: Appendix I: 

international trade banned since 1990. IUCN: 

Critically Endangered. 

Remarks: Entire books have been written 

about this species! 

This “living fossil,” was first documented as a 

living species in 1938, when discovered near the 

Comoros Islands off the east coast of Africa. It 

comes from a line of fishes thought to have been 

extinct since the time of dinosaurs some 66 million 

years ago. Earliest representatives from the fossil 

record date to at least 360 million years ago. 

Until fairly recently, coelacanths were believed 

to be the ancestors of tetrapods, though many 

researchers presently give this distinction to 

lungfishes. The issue has yet to be resolved. 

When the animal swims, the left pectoral and 

right pelvic fins move forward, while the right 

pectoral and left pelvic fins are pulled backward. 

This tandem movement of alternate paired fins 

resembles the movement of the forelimbs and 

hindlimbs of a tetrapod walking on land. 

ORDER CERATODONTIFORMES 

(AUSTRALIAN LUNGFISH) 

Australian Lungfish 

Neoceratodus forsteri (Ceratodontidae) 

Australian Lungfish 

Distribution: Four rivers in the state of 

Queensland, Australia. 

Habitat: Rivers with low flow in the austral 

summer, then restricted to pools that remain. 

Appearance: Flipperlike fins, large scales; stocky, 

compressed body. To nearly 2 m in length. 

Diet: Omnivorous. Plant material is an important 

component of the diet. 

Reproduction: Eggs hatch into small lungfish; 

unlike African (Protopteridae) and South 

American (Lepidosirenidae) lungfishes, the 

Australian lungfish has no larval stage 

Mortality/Longevity: Live to more than 65 

years in captivity. Some individuals may live 

to 100 years. 

Conservation Status: CITES Appendix II. Loss 

of habitat threatens this species. 

Remarks: One Australian lungfish is the oldest 

specimen in the Steinhart’s live collection; 

“Methusela” arrived from the Melbourne Zoo 

in 1938. It was half its current size at the time. 

This species most resembles lungfish fossil 

forms. 

Unlike the African lungfish, this species 

cannot survive dry spells through estivation. 

Although the lung supplements the gills 

during times of oxygen stress, it cannot survive 

solely by breathing air. 

The Australian lungfish has only a single lung; 

the other two lungfish species have paired 

lungs. 

CLASS AMPHIBIA 

ORDER CAUDATA 

(SALAMANDERS) 

Chinese Giant Salamander 

Andrias davidianus (Cryptobranchidae) 

Distribution: Streams and rivers in Southeast 

China. 

Habitat: Totally aquatic. Clear, cold, fast-

flowing mountain streams. Active nocturnally; 

rests under rocks by day. 

Appearance: Length to 1. m. Body broad and flattened, 

tail laterally compressed. Colored whitish 

with black and charcoal dots and mottling. 

Diet: Fishes, salamanders, worms, insects, 

crayfish and snails located nocturnally by smell 

and touch. Giant salamanders have very slow 

metabolism and are capable of going for weeks 

between meals. 

Reproduction and Development: Male builds 

a nest and entices a female to his site. External 

fertilization on strings of ~ 600 eggs laid in nest 

in streambed. Male drives away his mate and 

guards the eggs until they hatch. 


50 years. 

Conservation Status: Endangered due to 

pollution and damming of rivers. 

Remarks: It’s the world’s largest salamander. 

Its heavily wrinkled skin aids in respiration 

(oxygen uptake). 

Species first described by Pere David, a Jesuit 

scientist who made an early biological survey 

of China. A prized gourmet food item in some 

regions of China. 

Lesser Siren aka Mud Siren 

Siren intermedia (Sirenidae) 

Distribution: Southeast USA. 

Habitat: Totally aquatic. Inhabit shallow, heavily 

vegetated freshwater lakes, marshes and 

swamps, often buried in mud or sand. 

Appearance: Adults: length to 25 cm. Eel-like 

appearance, external gills, minute front legs, 

rear legs lacking. Tiny eyes. Larvae black with 

red markings. 

Diet: Benthic nocturnal feeders upon insect 

larvae, crayfish, worms, snails and small fish. 

Mouth lacks teeth; prey is crunched by siren’s 

horny beak and swallowed whole. 

Reproduction and Development: Mating has 

never been observed; likely external fertilization. 

Females lay up to 1500 eggs singly, dispersing 

them widely onto aquatic vegetation. 

A parent guards until the larvae hatch 45–75 

days later. 

Conservation Status: Threatened in Texas due 

to drainage of wetlands. Due to degradation of 

habitat, likely threatened elsewhere. 


197 

Remarks: Able to estivate when their ponds 

dry up. The mucous coat covering their skin 

hardens into a parchment-like cocoon over the 

body, excepting the mouth. 

When grasped by humans, siren vocalization 

sounds like yelps. 

ORDER ANURA 

(TOADS AND FROGS) 

Dwarf African Frog 

Hymenochirus boettgeri (Pipidae) 

Distribution: Central Africa: Niger, Cameroon 

through Zaire. 

Habitat: Freshwater; shallow rivers, creeks, 

and ponds. 

Appearance: Like all pipids, are dorsoventrally 

flattened, though females are typically rounder 

and larger than males. Max. size: 3.5 cm. 

Diet: Insects and small fish fry. Unlike 

terrestrial frogs usually noted for their sticky 

tongues used to capture prey, pipids lack 

tongues entirely, and as aquatic feeders, seem 

to depend on the creation of negative pressure 

by the rapid opening of the mouth that sucks 

in prey that is then swallowed whole. Eyesight 

is poor; prey detection depends more on sense 

of smell and vibration. 

Reproduction and Development: Male 

captures the female in the embrace of amplexus 

and holds on for hours. If receptive, the female 

releases eggs near the surface where the male 

fertilizes them. Eggs attach to the water’s 

surface tension layer and hatch in about 24 

hours. Larvae are free-swimming for about 27 

days, and tadpoles metamorphose into small 

frogs in t six weeks. 


Remarks: The dwarf African frog has been 

introduced to southeastern Florida. 

Pipid males lack vocal cords but are able to 

communicate underwater via clicking sounds 

generated by the larynx. 

Surinam Toad 

Pipa pipa (Pipidae) 

Distribution: South America: Amazon region. 

Habitat: Freshwater; can live in oxygen deficient, 

muddy, turbid or even polluted water. 

Benthic, rises to surface to breathe.


Appearance: Length to 20 cm. Stout body, 

huge, webbed rear feet for propulsion. Body 

dark, gray to brown. Head triangular with 

flaps of skin on the jaw. Fingers are not webbed 

and terminate in star-like tipped extremities 

equipped with tactile sensory organs. 

Diet: Juveniles are cannibals and predators. 

Adults locate food with long fingers with tactile 

receptors in murky water. Adults eat fish, 

worms, insects, and crustaceans. 


utilize a rapidly repeated clicking sound to 

attract mates. Fertilization external. Eggs are 

extruded while the pair somersaults in the 

water column. Female’s epidermis becomes 

soft at mating; 290+ (60–100 eggs according to 

another reference) eggs laid on her back sink 

into her skin; within 24 hours the female’s 

skin begins to swell around her eggs forming 

pockets that cover over with skin. Larvae 

mature through the tadpole stage within these 

pockets for 12–20 weeks. Eventually emerging 

as fully formed toads, though they are less 

than 2 cm long. 

Mortality/Longevity: Eaten by some indigenous 

Amazonian people. 

Remarks: Like all Pipidae, it lacks a tongue. 

The clicking sound they make is produced by 

snapping the hyroid bone in their throats. 

Asian Horned Frog 

Megophrys nasuta (Megophryidae) 

Distribution: Borneo, Malay Peninsula, 

Sumatra. 

Habitat: Lives in relatively cool damp environs. 

Optimal temperature is between 22–24° C. 

Found on the rainforest floors, usually near 

small streams. 

Appearance: Have projections above each eye 

and nasal area, hence the name Horned Frog. 

Designed for camouflage; back is gray, tan, 

russet, or brown and darkens toward the side 

making the frog almost invisible among the 

forest leaf litter. The smooth skin resembles 

dead leaves. Females are about 12.5 cm and 

males about half that size. 

Diet: Mainly crabs and scorpions; also 

arachnids, nestling rodents, lizards and other 

frogs that live on the forest floor. 


Little is known about natural breeding. Captive 

reproduction is fairly common. Females attach 

the egg clusters to the underside of waterwashed 

rocks and logs. The eggs are large and 

few in number. Tadpoles have very large, funnel– 

shaped mouths. They cling with their mouths at 

the surface while their body hangs vertically. 

This helps them feed on microorganisms at the 

water’s surface. 

Remarks: Call is unmistakable: a loud, 

resonating, metallic honk or henk, somewhat 

reminiscent of an air horn. The Jahai, an 

aboriginal group from northern Peninsular 

Malaysia, call this frog “Kengkang,” 

onomatopoeic after its call. 

Oak Toad 

Bufo quercicus (Bufonidae) 

Distribution: Southeastern U.S. form southern 

tip of Florida to southern Virginia, west to 

eastern Louisiana. 

Habitat: Coastal plains in moist grassy areas 

near pine or oak savannahs with sandy soil. 

Also in vernal pools and freshwater wetlands. 

Appearance: Length from snout to vent: 1.9 to 

3.3 cm. Short head with pointed nose. Flat body 

is black to brown with a long dorsal stripe of 

white, cream, yellow, or orange. Back has fine 

bumps of red to orangish-brown. Relatively 

long teardrop-shaped parotid (poison) glands 

extend down the sides of the head. 

Diet: Primarily terrestrial insects and other 

small arthropods. Active during the day unlike 

most toads of the genus Bufo. 


separate. Males make high-pitched calls 

to attract females. Breeding takes place in 

shallow pools, ditches, and ponds. Eggs hatch 

and tadpoles develop into adult toads in 

about 2 months. No parental care. A notable 

evolutionary advantage: if males are unable 

to produce sperm, they have an ovary that 

becomes functional, allowing them to breed 

as females! 

Mortality/Longevity: Predators include snakes 

and larger frogs. 

Conservation Status: Not listed, but numbers 

are declining due to habitat loss. 

Remarks: B. quercicus is the smallest toad 

species in the Western Hemisphere. 

Though small, it plays a significant role in 

insect population control.

Like most toads, its poison glands secrete a 

toxic fluid used to deter predators. 

Borneo River Toad 

Phrynoidis juxtaspera (Bufonidae) 

Distribution: This species is widely distributed 

in Borneo and Sumatra. It probably occurs 

more widely than current records suggest, 

especially in areas between known sites. It 

occurs up to elevations of 1,600 meters. 

Habitat: Found along rocky creeks and 

riverbanks. Breed in rocky-bottomed, strong 

flowing streams where the larvae also develop. 

Appearance: Phrynoidis juxtaspera is one 

of the two river toads. It can get as big as a 

small rabbit. The toad has extensive webbing 

between toes and is a good swimmer; strong 

legs make it a good jumper as well. 

Diet: Ants, other insects, spiders. 

Reproduction and Development: No specific 

information found. Most species of toads lay 

eggs in water. The eggs develop into tadpoles, 

which metamorphose into adult toads. 

Remarks: The toads secrete large amounts of 

highly toxic, milky poison from their warts 

when molested. Not only skin secretions of 

adults but also eggs and tadpoles are poisonous. 

However, large specimens are hunted for food 

in some areas: the toad is skinned, washed, and 

cooked. The heat denatures the toxins. 

Green and Black Poison Dart Frog 

Dendrobates auratus (Dendrobatidae) 

Distribution: Central America to Northwest 

Colombia. 

Habitat: Lowland primary tropical rainforests. 

Active diurnally. 

Appearance: Length to 4.2 cm female, 4.0 cm 

male. Calligraphic green marking on dark 

background. Color and pattern varies widely 

among populations of this species. 

Diet: Ants and mites, also tiny beetles, flies and 

springtails. Often captures insects feeding on 

rotting fruit. 

Reproduction and Development: Males territorial 

at high population densities. Females do not 

defend territories, but some females guard protecting 

males and attack other females. Lay eggs in 

leaf litter during rainy season. Male visits the eggs 

periodically during the two weeks of development 

and sheds water on them, removes fungi and 


199 

rotates eggs. Males can tend offspring of several 

different females simultaneously. The male of this 

species transports tadpoles on its back, typically 

one at a time, to pools of water, commonly in tree 

cavities. The male excretes a thick mucus on its 

back, soluble only in water so the tadpoles are 

securely attached until arrival in their new home. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: known to live 

8 years in captivity, probably a much shorter 

period in the wild. 

Conservation status: Still reported to be locally 

common. Popular in the pet trade; most sold 

are captive-born. 

Remarks: Common in cocoa (not coca) plantations. 

Introduced to Hawaii to control non-native 

insect populations. The “success” of this experiment 

has yet to be proven. 

Aposematic (“warning”) coloration shies 

diurnal predators away from this bold frog. 

Blue Poison Dart Frog 

Dendrobates azureus (Dendrobatidae) 

Distribution: Panama and Guyanas. 

Habitat: Adults entirely terrestrial. Active 

diurnally. 

Appearance: Length to 5 cm. Electric-blue 

coloration, flecked with black. 

Diet: Carnivorous. 

Reproduction and Development: Several 

clutches of 5-13 eggs per female. Eggs laid in 

leaf litter. Male apparently selectively guard 

eggs; often protects one clutch more than 

another. When the eggs hatch, the tadpoles 

wriggle to the male’s dorsum. The male 

transports them, one or two at a tme to quiet 

pools within leaves of bromeliads or into tree 

cavities. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: to 10 years 

Conservation Status: Endangered due to rain 

forest destruction. 

Remarks: Aposematic “warning coloration” 

shies diurnal predators away from this tiny 

but bold frog. 

Strawberry Poison Dart Frog 

Oophaga (formerly Dendrobates) pumilio 

(Dendrobatidae) 

Distribution: Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama. 

Habitat: Tropical rain forest leaf litter and


decaying vegetation. 

Appearance: Length to 2.5 cm. Despite the 

common name, coloration is reportedly highly 

variable among locations. Individuals may be 

ripe-strawberry red, brilliant blue, deep green 

or brown. The limbs are marbled dark blue and 

black. Body is slim, snout is rounded, the eyes 

large. The long, slender forelimbs end in finger 

and toe tips expanded into adhesive discs. 

Diet: Hunts diurnally, primarily upon ants 

and termites. 


vocalize loudly in order to attract mates. 

Amplexus absent; fertilization external. 

Females lay clutches of 4–6 eggs in leaf 

litter during the rainy season. Males protect 

the clutch of eggs, keeping them moist by 

periodically emptying their bladders on the 

eggs. Once the eggs hatch, the female of this 

species, transports them on her back, often 

high into the canopy, to rosettes of bromeliads 

or to water-filled tree crevices and deposits 

one tadpole into each pool. She returns on a 

regular basis to feed her offspring unfertilized 

eggs. Tadpoles metamorphose after ~ six 

weeks. 

Conservation Status: Reported locally 

common, though tourism and cultivation of 

forests are problems for some populations. 

Remarks: Indigenous hunters heat this frog 

over a fire to extract the toxin exuded from the 

frog’s skin glands. The hunters use the poison 

to tip their hunting darts. 

Their bright coloration is a “stay away” 

warning to potential predators. Such coloration 

is called warning coloration, or aposematic, if 

you are a biologist. 

Striped Poison Dart Frog 

Phyllobates sp. (Dendrobatidae) 

Distribution: Central and South America: 

Nicaragua to Colombia. 

Habitat: Humid lowlands to premontane 

zones. 

Appearance: Most species are brightly colored. 

Diet: Various insects. Diurnal feeder. 


deposited in dry leaf-litter; males transport 

hatching tadpoles to forest streams to complete 

metamorphosis. 

Remarks: The genus Phyllobates contains 

the most poisonous frog species, Pyllobates 

terribilis, the Golden Poison Dart Frog. 

Phyllobates species are the frogs most commonly 

sought by South American tribes for the poison 

used on their hunting darts. 

Red-eyed Treefrog 

Agalychnis callidryas (Hylidae) 

Distribution: Southeastern Mexico, through 

Central America, to northwestern Colombia. 

Habitat: Live near ponds or rivers in neotropical 

rainforests from sea level up to 960 m. These 

nocturnal frogs are completely arboreal. 

During the day they remain motionless, 

blending in among the foliage. They live in 

warm (75-85° F, day; 66-77° F, night), humid 

(80-100%) climates. 

Appearance: Males are smaller (about 5 cm) 

than females (almost 1.75 cm). Both have neon 

green backs. With its bright orange-red suction 

toe pads it easily clings, climbs, and jumps 

among arboreal surfaces. Their distinctive 

bright red, bulging eyes provide highly 

developed parabolic vision. A reticulated 

pale nictitating membrane shields the frog’s 

sensitive eyes. 

Diet: These carnivorous frogs ambush insects 

(crickets, moths, beetles, flies, grasshoppers) 

and even smaller frogs. 

Reproduction and Development: The redeyed 

treefrog’s reproduction is remarkable 

in all three phases: courting, mating, and 

development. Males call from branches and 

leaves of trees above ponds in the rainy 

season; they vocalize in unison and threaten 

one another competing for females. Females 

approach calling males; once in amplexus, with 

one or even several males attached, the female 

descends to the pond, where she absorbs water 

for each clutch of eggs and then climbs to a 

leaf above the water. with all suitors attached! 

Sometimes a single male will become superior, 

at other times another male will displace 

the original one and inseminate subsequent 

clutches. Clutches of 11–78 eggs are deposited 

on the leaf, which usually is folded around the 

egg clutch. After hatching, tadpoles drop into 

the water. Tadpoles are mid-water filter feeders 

and orient themselves in a head-up position. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: 3–5 yrs. Adults 

preyed upon by birds, turtles, lizards, snakes,

ats and other mammals. Tadpoles taken by 

aquatic predators such as giant water bugs or 

fishing spiders such as those on display in the 

Water Planet. 

Conservation Status: CITES Appendix II. 

A. callidryas has become the familiar icon 

for conservation of the world’s rainforests. 

However, as deforestation continues to destroy 

its habitat, its numbers are shrinking. 

These frogs are also threatened by being 

captured by zoos or for the pet trade. 

Global warming, deforestation, climatic and 

atmospheric changes, wetland drainage and 

pollution have caused dramatic declines and 

deformities in all amphibian populations 

including those of the neotropical rainforests. 

Green Treefrog 

Hyla cinerea (Hylidae) 

Distribution: Central to Southeastern United 

States. North to Virginia’s eastern shore, south 

to the southern tip of Florida, west to central 

Texas. 

Habitat: Forest habitats in small ponds, large 

lakes, marshes, and streams, especially in 

richly vegetated areas. 

Appearance: Bright yellow-green above, 

though some are reddish-brown to green, 

often with small golden spots. White to cream 

below with a prominent white lateral stripe 

on each side. Length to 62 cm. Females larger 

than males. 

Diet: Insectivores: flies, mosquitoes, and other 

small insects. 


cycle is influenced by day length, temperature, 

and rainfall. To attract females, males produce 

a distinct advertisement call. Males mate with 

as many females as they can attract. 

Mortality/Longevity: Predators include 

snakes, birds, large fish, and other frogs. 

Predatory aquatic insects such as giant water 

bugs may take tadpoles. Green frogs in 

captivity are known to live as long as 6 years. 

Remarks: Active at night. During the day, 

adults are well camouflaged among grasses 

and other vegetation, especially when legs are 

tucked below the body and eyes are closed. 

Grey Treefrog 

Hyla versicolor (Hylidae) 

Distribution: Southern Ontario/Maine, 


201 

westward to central Texas, northwest to 

Manitoba, and south to northern Florida. An 

isolated colony is also noted in New Brunswick. 

Habitat: All elevations of wooded areas near 

temporary and permanent waters. 

Appearance: Dorsal surface is rough and 

sprinkled with warts, but less than those of an 

average toad. Colors range with background 

and environment (including season and 

humidity), but shades of gray are common 

with a black star on the back and white mark 

beneath the eye. Bottom of hind legs and groin 

are orange/yellow with black speckles; belly is 

white. Sexes alike. Average size: length ~ 3–5 

cm; weight ~ 7 g. 

Diet: Tadpoles: algae and detritus. Adults: 

opportunistic cannibals, eating smaller frogs 

if they can catch and swallow them as well as 

most insects and their larvae. 

Reproduction and Development: Males start 

breeding choruses in April/May and go on 

for several weeks. Females choose males with 

the most prolonged and frequent calls. Eggs 

are externally fertilized by the male. Tadpoles 

hatch in 3–7 days and become froglets in 6-8 

weeks. 

Mortality/Longevity: Suffer a high mortality 

in the wild; in captivity can live up to 7 yrs. 

Remarks: Two species, Hyla versicolor and 

Hyla chrysoscelis, look identical and are 

distinguishable only by chromosome number 

(H. chrysoscelis is diploid, H. versicolor is 

tetraploid) and mating call (trill rate is faster 

in H. chrysoscelis). The different pulse rate and 

pitch of the mating call is a barrier to cross 

breeding. 

Hylid treefrogs produce a mucus on their 

toepads which adheres to smooth bark or 

man-made structures. Also, extra cartilage 

segments between the last two bones of each 

toe allow the toes to swivel and remain flat 

against surfaces. 

These frogs are known to seek out light sources, 

which attract insects. 

Waxy Monkey Tree Frog 

Phyllomedusa sauvagii (Hylidae) 

Distribution: Chacoan (dry prairie) regions of 

Bolivia, Paraguay, Brazil, and Argentina. 

Habitat: Arboreal, near ponds, lagoons, & 

other bodies of fresh water.


Appearance: Green with prominent white 

stripes. Hind legs are relatively short. Length: 

5–7.5 cm. 

Diet: Small insects such as flies and ants. 


takes place during the rainy months, and 

the frogs do not return to the ground. They 

deposit eggs in leaf nests attached to branches 

overhanging water. The leaves are rolled up 

and secured by a waxy substance, and upon 

hatching, tadpoles fall into the water where 

they mature. 

Remarks: The waxy monkey tree frog is 

adapted to a warm, dry environment by 

diurnal torpor, uric acid excretion, and the 

ability to secrete a waxy substance on the skin 

that limits water loss. The lipid secretions are 

distributed over the skin by the legs in a wiping 

movement. 

Though visitors rarely see this nocturnal 

species move about; the frog, rather than 

hopping, grabs branches and moves like tiny 

monkeys swinging through the trees. 

Golden Mantella 

Mantella aurantiaca (Mantellidae) 

Distribution: Very limited in west central 

Madagascar. 

Habitat: Sunny patches in the high montane 

rainforest. Entirely terrestrial. Diurnally active. 

Appearance: Length to 3 cm. Adult body 

color may be yellow, orange or gold. Black 

eye, horizontal pupils. Juveniles are black and 

green. 

Diet: Very young tadpoles rasp algae and plant 

matter. 6-8 week old froglets begin to hunt 

for flea-sized food. ~10 weeks begin to hunt 

fruitflies and other insects. 


call to females from their territories on the 

ground. Females roam among competing male 

territories. Fertilization internal (unusual for a 

frog). Lays eggs on leaf litter during the rainy 

season. Egg mass requires high humidity, 

warmth and no direct sunlight, but not 

immersion. At ~ 10 days larvae have absorbed 

much of their yolksac, the jelly surrounding 

the eggs liquifies and forms a communal pool 

for the clutch. A few days later tadpoles are 

washed into small pools by rain. Rear legs start 

developing at 3-4 weeks, front legs a week later. 

At this point the larval gills regress and the 

larvae can drown without access to air. They 

reach adult breeding size in 9–12 months. 

Conservation Status: Listed as endangered 

(IUCN) due to destruction of their habitat 

and introduced predators. Pet trade also 

decimating this species. 

Remarks: The animal’s bright color advertises 

the toxicity of skin secretions that protect it 

from most predators. 

Painted Mantella 

Mantella baroni (Mantellidae) 

Distribution: Endemic to the forests of eastcentral 

Madagascar. 

Habitat: Includes swamp forests, semi-arid 

streambeds, bamboo groves, and streamside 

forests, including rainforests. Also lives in 

degraded and second-growth forests. 

Appearance: Females generally larger than 

males. Length from snout to vent: 3 cm. 

Diet: Diurnal; feed on insects, especially ants. 


mantellas, lack amplexus (the nuptial embrace 

of most frog species). Instead, females lay 

eggs on land, but always close to water. When 

tadpoles develop, they are washed by rain into 

nearby stream or pool. Are successfully bred in 

captivity, though captive bred individuals are 

not widely available. 

Conservation Status: IUCN: Least concern. 

A fairly common frog within its area of 

distribution, parts of which are within borders 

of protected areas, though its increasing 

popularity in the pet trade may be reducing 

its numbers. 

Remarks: Research over the past several 

decades has shown that the poison dart frogs 

(Dendrobates spp.) acquire their alkaloids 

by eating ants, but the poison source for 

Madagascar frogs remained unknown until 

recently. Now, Academy entomologist Brian 

Fisher and Cornell chemist Valerie Clark, 

together with colleagues from the United 

States and Madagascar, have found that 

Madagascar’s Mantella frogs also acquire 

their toxins from ants. Both groups have 

evolved ways to ingest the poisonous ants 

without harming themselves. Their bright 

colors are aposematic signals of toxicity. 

Even though the frogs in Madagascar and

Panama live nearly half a world apart from 

one another, they share 13 identical poisonous 

compounds. This, Fisher notes, is a beautiful 

example of convergent evolution—similar 

evolutionary pressures in two different parts 

of the world have led unrelated frogs to find 

and sequester the same poisonous alkaloids 

in the same way (from Headline Science – 

CAS) 

Green Mantella 

Mantella viridis (Mantellidae) 


Habitat: Inhabits deciduous forests. Usually 

found around temporary streams. Also lives 

in degraded mango plantations. 

Appearance: Mantella viridis is one of the 

biggest of the Madagascar mantella frogs; max 

length: 3.5 cm. The back and sides are yellowgreen; 

ventral parts are black with blue spots. 

The toes are not webbed. A light stripe runs 

along the upper lip. 

Diet: Diurnal predators, eating mainly insects, 

ants, and termites. May also eat fruit that has 

fallen to the ground. 

Reproduction and Development: Adults mate on 

land and the eggs are laid in depressions in moss 

or damp vegetation. Eggs hatch into tadpoles 

during heavy rainfall, which washes them into 

small pools of water. The tadpoles grow to a 

size of about 2.5 cm. In 45–65 days they undergo 

metamorphosis and take the adult form. 

Mortality/Longevity: No specific information 

found. Snakes, small carnivorous mammals, 

and birds prey upon the frogs. Coloring and 

toxins may protect against predators. 

Conservation Status: IUCN Red list: 

Endangered. 

Remarks: Many species of tropical frogs 

sequester toxins in their skins. In most cases 

these toxins come from eating toxic arthropods 

such as ants. During the past 30 years, over 400 

alkaloids of over 20 structural classes have been 

detected. The skin of Mantella viridis has been 

shown to contain such toxins. 

It has been suggested that South American 

toxic frogs and Malagasy toxic frogs arose in 

Gondwanaland before continental separation 

began, from a common stock. This hypothesis 

still needs to be confirmed by DNA analysis. 


203 

Madagascar Reed Frog 

Heterixalus madagascariensis (Hyperoliidae) 

African Tree Frogs 

Distribution: Endemic to Madagascar. Found 

along the northeast coast. 

Habitat: Common near rainforest edges, in 

dry forested areas, and coastal forests as well 

as deforested areas, croplands, and even urban 

areas. 

Appearance: Though color can change 

depending on environmental conditions, 

the back is usually uniformly white, gray, or 

sometimes yellow. Thighs and the undersides 

of legs and feet are orange. A dark band 

extends between the nostril and eye. Males to 

3.5 cm snout to vent; females to 4 cm. 

Diet: A nocturnal and semi-arboreal hunter 

of insects, it readily eats insects as big as its 

own head. 


temporary or permanent still water year 

round. Like most members of the family, 

males compete over sites by calling during the 

evenings. Our Steinhart reed frogs bred during 

the late summer (2010); the minute tadpoles 

grew out in the leaf-nosed snake (MA14) and 

tiny frogs can be seen in the Klemmer’s yellowheaded 

day gecko tank (MA12). 


Conservation Status: IUCN: Species of Least 

Concern; H. madagascariensis seems a survivor, 

able to live and breed in a wide variety of 

human-impacted habitats, including heavily 

degraded forest areas and seasonably flooded 

agricultural land. 

Remarks: All of the 11 known species of the 

genus Heterixalus are endemic to Madagascar. 

Reed frogs spend days resting or sleeping 

in the sun, frequently perched on emergent 

vegetation of swamps and ponds, thus the 

common name “reed frogs.” 

Borneo File-eared Frog 

Polypedates otilophus (Rhacophoridae) 

Distribution: Endemic to islands of Borneo 

and Sumatra. 

Habitat: Secondary forest growth, edges of 

primary growth; also villages, plantations, and 

other disturbed habitats. Lowland: sea level to 

500 m. Generally arboreal on vegetation near 

pools of standing water.


Appearance: Dorsal color light brown to gray 

to yellowish brown or bright yellow. Head 

triangular and longer than broad; serrated 

bony ridge behind the eye. Thin black stripes 

run from the head down the back; thighs 

marked by black bars. Finger and toe tips 

expanded into large discs; toes webbed. Length 

from snout to vent: 6–8 cm. 

Diet: Adults feed on insects and spiders. 

Reproduction and Development: Males call 

at night. When clasped by males, females 

produce foam nest, made by whipping mucus 

with the hind limbs. Nest is attached to leaves 

overhanging water. Tadpoles, upon hatching, 

drop into the water. 

Conservation Status: Though populations 

are declining somewhat, this frog’s wide 

distribution and ability to thrive under 

conditions modified by humans suggest a 

strong survivability quotient 

Harlequin Tree Frog 

Rhacophorus pardalis (Rhacophoridae) 

Distribution: Known from pennisular 

Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo, and the Philippines. 

Habitat: Subtropical primary forest, secondary 

forest and freshwater marshes from sea level 

to 1,000 m. 

Appearance: Fingers webbed and bear 

expanded discs, outer edge of hand and 

forearm have wide flap of skin - all adaptations 

for gliding. Bright red hand and foot webbing 

make this frog easy to identify. Dorsal side 

tan to reddish brown, often with spots. Flanks 

yellowish with black spots. Size: Snout to vent 

- 5.0 cm males, 6.0–7.0 females. 

Diet: Forages in canopy. 

Reproduction and Development: Probably 

lives in the canopy, and descends in breeding 

aggregations to swampy forests, marshes, 

ponds. Eggs laid in foam nests and tadpoles 

develop in standing water. 

Remarks: Heavily webbed hands and feet used 

for gliding. Spreads digits to break its fall. 

Vietnamese Mossy Frog 

Theloderma corticale (Rhacophoridae) 

Distribution: Vietnam, and possibly China. 

Habitat: Known from karst (limestone rock) 

zones of montane evergreen forests, where 

they occupy flooded caves and deep niches 

in mountain streams. Less well-documented 

reports of habitation in lowland forests. 

Appearance: These frogs are a marvel of 

camouflage coloration and texture. Tubercles 

and spines on the skin and mottled colors of 

green, black, and purple make the animals 

blend perfectly into their mossy, wooded 

background. 

Diet: Feed nocturnally on insects. 


deposited above the water for protection from 

aquatic predators. Larvae develop in rock 

cavities or tree holes containing water. Tadpole 

larvae hatch in 7–14 days and drop into the 

water below. Are being bred in captivity, so 

threat from pet trade has been reduced. 

Conservation Status: Threatened by forest loss. 

IUCN lists it as “Data Deficient.” As a highly 

cryptic species and one that may have sizable 

but localized populations, the verdict is still out 

on its conservation status. Some biologists think 

it should be listed as threatened or endangered. 

Protected by the Vietnamese government. 

Remarks: A semi-aquatic species that spends 

much time in the water, hiding under rocks 

and floating plants. Also spends time above 

the water, attached to crevice or rock where it 

blends perfectly with its background. 

Curls into a ball and “plays dead” when 

frightened. 

Like all tree frogs, has adhesive toe pads that 

allow it to grip the undersides of slick leaves 

or rocks. Recent studies have shown these pads 

to be a sophisticated combination of mucouscovered 

areas that provide wet adhesion and 

raised dry areas that provide a grip on dry 

surfaces. These findings have stimulated 

exploration into improved tire design. 

Madagascar Tomato Frog 

Dyscophus antongilli (Microhylidae) 

Distribution: Northeast Madagascar. 

Habitat: Primarily terrestrial in lowland 

habitats. Buries itself in soil during the day; 

feeds nocturnally. 

Appearance: Length to 12 cm. Female is larger 

with vivid red body (looking not unlike a 

rather oddly shaped ripe tomato); male less 

brightly colored. Flat head. 

Diet: Insects. 

Reproduction and Development: Breeds

in pools and ditches after heavy rainfall. 

Lays eggs in water during the rainy season. 

Fertilized eggs hatch into free-swimming 

tadpoles. 

Mortality/Longevity: Estimated to live ~10 

years in the wild. 

Conservation Status: CITES: Appendix I. 

Endangered due to habitat destruction and 

over-collecting for the pet trade. For the past 

20 years, the tomato frog has been considered 

a flagship species for the Madagascar Fauna 

Group, a consortium of mostly U.S. zoos 

dedicated to the preservation of threatened 

animals and natural habitats of Madagascar. 

Today, institutions in the U.S., Europe, and 

beyond have determined exact lineages 

of tomato frogs bred in captivity and are 

exchanging animals appropriate for breeding 

with maximum genetic diversity. 

Remarks: Captive-bred individuals are rarely 

as bright red as wild tomato frogs. 

When alarmed, the frog secretes a very sticky 

goo onto its skin, a defense against predators; 

this substance may produce allergic reactions 

in humans. 

CLASS REPTILIA 

ORDER TESTUDINES AKA CHELONIA 

(TURTLES AND TORTOISES) 

Pig-nosed Turtle aka Fly River Turtle 

Carettochelys insculpta (Carettochelyidae) 

Pignose Turtles 

Distribution: Southern New Guinea and Kimberly 

Plateau of Australia. 

Habitat: Shallow, slow-moving rivers, lagoons, 

lakes and swamps with sandy or silty bottoms. 

Also in estuaries. Active nocturnally. Emerge 

from water only in order to nest. 

Appearance: Length to 75 cm. Pitted, leathery, 

gray-green carapace and a white plastron. 

Limbs are clawed and paddlelike. Short head 

terminates in a broad, tubular, “piglike” snout. 

Carapaces of juveniles have serrated perimeters 

and a central keel. 

Diet: Opportunistic omnivores. Principal food 

is the fruits of shoreline trees. Eat other plant 

material: leaves, flowers that fall into river 


205 

from banks, and aquatic algae. Also take insect 

larvae, mollusks and crustaceans. Scavenge 

fishes and mammals as carrion. 


excavates nest with hind limbs, lays multiple 

clutches of 7–9 eggs, number probably correlated 

with the mother’s size. Sex of offspring is 

determined by temperature during the middle 

third of incubation (females produced at high 

temperatures, males during low temperatures). 

At 30° C embryos develop to full term 

in 64–74 days. Embryos capable of estivating 

in their egg until the rainy season’s flooding 

stimulates hatching. Thus total incubation 

period is to 102 days. 

Mortality/Longevity: Eggs and adults taken 

for food by Papua New Guineans. Australian 

aborigines eat adults of this species. 

Conservation Status: Listed as Vulnerable by 

the IUCN. Trampling of nests by water buffalo, 

fishing, logging, grazing, agriculture and hunting 

are among negative effects. 

Remarks: Australian populations were not 

discovered by biologists until 1969. 

Species first described from the Fly River of 

New Guinea in the 1800s. 

Secretive animals. Use forelimbs to burrow by 

scooping sand substrate over their carapace. 

Adults may thermoregulate underwater by 

lying over small thermal springs. 

Only extant species in its family. 

Matamata 

Chelus fimbriatus (Latin = “fringed turtle”) 

(Chelidae) 

Australo-American Snakenecked Turtles 

Distribution: Amazon Basin, South America. 

Habitat: Active nocturnally in lakes, ponds 

and sluggish creeks. This sideneck lives near 

the bottom of turbid waterways and rarely 

leaves the water. 

Appearance: Length to 40 cm. Broad, threekeeled 

brown carapace. Long thick neck, 

triangular head with tiny eyes. Large mouth, 

weak jaws. Snout is “snorkel-like: proboscis 

with nostrils at the top. Well camouflaged; 

algae grows on its carapace. 

Diet: A “lay-in-wait” predator. Fishes captured 

with the “gape and suck” technique: 

open mouth creates a vacuum to draw in prey, 

mouth snaps shut, water expelled, and the fish


is swallowed whole. 

Reproduction: Male attracts a mate by repeatedly 

extending the head toward the female and 

opening and closing its mouth. Fertilization 

internal. Female lays 12–28 ping-pong ball 

sized brittle-shelled eggs terrestrially. The eggs 

hatch about 200 days after being laid. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: up to 15 yrs. 

in captivity. 

Conservation Status: Reported to be locally 

common. 

Remarks: South American Indian name 

“matamata” translates as “I kill.” 

A poor swimmer; its legs are adapted for 

walking over bottom of habitat. 

Has been described as most resembling a pile 

of debris. Slow movement, mottled colors, and 

algal coating all combine to create the illusion. 

Alligator Snapping Turtle 

Macrochelys temmincki (Chelydridae) 

Snapping Turtles 

Distribution: Southeastern United States and 

Central America. 

Habitat: Primarily quiet, muddy freshwater, 

rivers, streams, lakes and ponds; leaves water 

only to deposit eggs. Juveniles occasionally 

near bottom of small mud and gravel streams, 

to 9–29 cm deep. 

Appearance: Big head, long tail. Three ridge 

keels on the broad carapace rise to knobby 

keels. Length to 80 cm, weight to 113 kg. Males 

have been known to exceed 100 kg; females are 

much smaller. The largest individual turtle in 

the exhibit is over 55 kgs. The rest are likely 

~45 kg. 

Diet: Lie-in-wait predator. Rests on substrate 

with its mouth open and lures fish to its mouth 

with a movable, pink wormlike tongue appendage. 

Also takes crayfish, crabs, snails, 

freshwater mussels, salamanders, snakes, very 

small alligators, small mammals, water birds, 

briar roots, wild grapes, acorns, and scavenges 

as well. At the Steinhart, are fed fish, including 

herring and tilapia. Because they are accustomed 

to being feed regularly, they are rarely 

tempted by their tankmate fish. 

Reproduction and Development: Male climbs 

onto the female’s carapace from behind. As in 

all reptiles, fertilization is internal. Female’s 

terrestrial nest is typically within 72 m. of wa- 

ter. A single clutch of 9–61 eggs (35 average) is 

laid per year. Larger females produce larger 

clutches. Incubation lasts 79–113 days, depending 

on temperature. Warm and low incubation 

temperatures result in all female neonates. 

Intermediate incubation temperatures produce 

mostly males. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: to 100 yrs. (A 

second source suggests 150 yrs) Eggs preyed 

upon by raccoons, river otters and wading 

birds. Humans collect adults for food. 

Conservation Status: Listed as Threatened 

on the IUCN Red List. CITES Appendix III. 

Still harvested as the key ingredient of turtle 

soup. Habitat degradation also threatens them. 

Hatchlings produced for the pet trade. 

Remarks: This is the largest freshwater turtle 

in North America. 

Can swim, but most locomotion is by bottomwalking. 

Can remain submerged for about an hour. 

Despite its reputation, the species does not readily 

bite; however, its powerful jaws and sharp 

beak can easily sever a finger, bone and all. 

Some living Steinhart specimens were 

“rescued” in 1972 from a “turtle soup” fate 

from a restaurant in San Bruno. A few months 

earlier than the arrival of their shipment by air, 

the California Fish and Game Commission had 

adopted regulations restricting snapping turtle 

importation, a law that remains on the books, 

and so they were confiscated and ultimately 

released to the Steinhart. Our middle-aged, 

lucky survivors are thought to be at least 

~40–50 years old. 

Arrau River Turtle aka South American River 

Turtle 

Podocnemis expansa (Pelomedusidae) 

Afro-American Side-necked Turtles 

Distribution: Northern South America: 

Amazon, Negro and Orinoco River basins. 

Habitat: Freshwater; large rivers and their 

tributaries, lagoons and forest ponds. Restricted 

to calm waters of large rivers during the dry 

season, but move into the flooded forest where 

food is plentiful during the high-water season. 

Appearance: Max. size: 100 cm. Carapace 

broad, flat; wider in the back than the front. 

Males smaller than females, which can weigh 

up to 90 kg.

Diet: Aquatic vegetation and fruit, also insects 

and sponges. Eats during the rainy season 

when the forest is flooded; fasts during dry 

season. In captivity, feeds on a vegetarian/fruit 

diet with a bit of fish added. 

Reproduction: During the dry season, migrate 

to nesting sites on beaches. Females dig a 

nest in which they lay 50–150 spherical eggs, 

and then cover them with sand. After about 

45 days, hatchlings emerge, usually at night 

or early morning to avoid midday heat and 

predators, and head directly to water. Colonial 

nesting and simultaneous hatching helps 

maximize survival numbers of this perilous 

journey. Hatchlings’ carapace is quite small, 

about 5 cm long. 

Mortality/Longevity: Recent studies on 

the growth patterns of bones and carapace 

suggest these turtles can live up to 50 years. 

Though young are vulnerable to predation, 

the massive size of adults protects them from 

most predators except man. 

Conservation Status: U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service: Endangered; IUCN: Endangered; 

Lower risk, conservation dependent. Eggs 

and adults have been overcollected for food. 

These turtles are considered rare throughout 

the Amazon. 

Remarks: A fossil Pelomdusid is thought to 

be the largest freshwater turtle to have ever 

lived (carapace length: 230 cm). Even today, the 

Arrau is one of the largest freshwater turtles 

in the world. 

Sidenecked turtles have a long neck which 

can be withdrawn horizontally within the 

shell, leaving it partly exposed, rather than 

retracting it in a vertical ‘S’ bend as in most 

other turtles. 

Our handsome “fellow” (sex unknown) is on 

loan from the San Francisco Zoo during the 

renovation of their Tropical Building. 

Weight: 20 kg. Age: unknown. 

“Art,” as we call our turtle, was confiscated in 

Miami and came to the SF Zoo via the Miami 

Metro Zoo in 1997. 

Radiated Tortoise 

Astrochelys radiata (Testudinidae) 

Distribution: Occur naturally only in the 

extreme southern and southwestern part of 

Madagascar. 


207 

Habitat: They prefer dry regions of brush, 

thorn and woodlands. 

Appearance: The basic “tortoise” body shape: 

high-domed carapace, a blunt head, and 

elephantine feet. Legs, feet and head are yellow 

except for a black patch on top of the head. 

Carapace is brilliantly marked with yellow 

lines radiating from the center of each dark 

plate of the shell, creating a star pattern. 

Diet: Grazing herbivores, they also eat fruits 

and succulent plants. A favorite food in the 

wild is the Opuntia cactus. 

Reproduction and Development: The male 

begins this fairly noisy procedure by bobbing 

his head and smelling the female’s hind legs 

and cloaca. He mounts her from the rear, 

hissing and grunting, while striking the anal 

region of his plastron against the female’s 

carapace. Females lay from 3–12 eggs in a 

pre-excavated hole about 15 cm deep and then 

depart. Incubation is between 5–8 months; 

juveniles are between 3–4 cm upon hatching 

and soon after attain the high-domed carapace. 

They can grow to a carapace length of up to 40 

cm and weigh up to 16 kg. 

Mortality/Longevity: Radiated tortoises may 

live as long as 40–50 years. 

Conservation Status: Critically endangered in 

the wild due to loss of habitat, being poached 

for food, and being over exploited in the pet 

trade. 

A team of biologists from the Turtle Survival 

Alliance predicts that unless drastic 

conservation measures take place, the 

species will be driven to extinction within 

the next 20 years. Conservation efforts: 

habitat preservation, environmental education 

programs, and captive breeding. A. radiata 

is included in the Species Survival Plan of 

the worldwide Association of Zoos and 

Aquariums. 

Remarks: These cold-blooded reptiles move 

from place to place to moderate their body heat 

and are active after rain. Traditional cultures 

revere the tortoise (it brings rain; when there 

are no more animals, there will be no more 

rain). 

Like other tortoises their shell is supplied with 

blood vessels and nerves, which enables it to 

sense when being touched. 

In some areas of China, a radiated tortoise


can sell for over $50, as it is believed to have 

aphrodisiac properties. 

When caught, this tortoise emits high-pitched 

cries, sometimes lasting an hour after capture. 

This noise would startle a predator in the wild, 

an effective defense. 

Pancake Tortoise 

Malacochersus tornieri (Testudinidae) 

Distribution: Confined to Kenya and Tanzania 

and a small population recently reported in 

Zambia. 

Habitat: Lives among rocky outcroppings in 

dry areas of scrub brush. 

Appearance: Unlike most tortoises, the pancake 

tortoise sports a soft, flexible shell rather than a 

rigid, thick one. Its common name reflects its flatas-a-pancake 

profile. Length: 6–7 inches (15–18 

cm); height: 2 inches (5 cm). 

Diet: Grasses and other vegetation, including 

red oat grass and aloe. Also eats seeds and 

nuts. During the dry season, the diet provides 

sufficient moisture. 


occurs in January, egg laying and nesting in 

July and August. The female generally lays a 

single egg per clutch and several clutches may 

be laid per year. 

Mortality/Longevity: Because of the soft shell, 

this tortoise is easy to tear apart though not 

so easy to catch, an evolutionary tradeoff that 

seems in the natural predator-prey cycle to 

favor the tortoise. Mongooses and predatory 

birds are among its predators 

Remarks: Its flat and flexible shell allows it to 

shelter in narrow crevices. Once tightly lodged in 

its cranny, the tortoise then braces its legs against 

the rock. These maneuvers usually thwart 

even the most determined predator’s efforts to 

dislodge it. They live communally, with several 

tortoises peaceably sharing a crevice. 

Because of its light shell, the animal is the 

fastest tortoise known and depends on 

escaping danger by dashing for the nearest 

crevice hideout rather than by withdrawing 

into its shell. Its relative lightness and agility 

also enable it to flip over quickly if turned on its 

back, an advantage for an animal that spends 

most of its day climbing over and perhaps 

falling from steep. rock-strewn hills. 

Spider Tortoise aka Madagascar Spider Tortoise 

Pyxis arachnoides (Testudinidae) 

Tortoises 

Distribution: Southwestern Madagascar. 

Habitat: Dry deciduous forest. 

Appearance: Highly variable among subspecies. 

Diet: Opportunistic browsers. 


maturity at ~12 years; clutch size 1 egg. 

Conservation Status: IUCN: Critically 

Endangered because of habitat loss and its 

popularity in the pet trade due to its small size 

and the handsome design on its carapace. Low 

reproductive rate exacerbates these pressures. 

Will likely be extinct in the wild in less than 30 

years; global climatic change not included in 

that dire conclusion. 

ORDER CROCODYLIA 

American Alligator 

Alligator mississippiensis (Crocodylidae) 

Distribution: Southeastern United States, from 

North Carolina to the Rio Grande in Texas. The 

wetlands it inhabits frequently overlap with 

human-populated areas. 

Habitat: Usually found in freshwater, especially 

in slow-moving rivers. They are also found in 

swamps, marshes, and lakes. They can tolerate 

salt water only briefly. 

Appearance: Average female length is 2.6 

m; average male length is 3.4 m. The largest 

recorded male was 5.8 m long. Exceptionally 

large males can weigh over 450 kg. Alligators 

have between 74 and 80 teeth, which are replaced 

as they wear down; an alligator can go through 

2,000 to 3,000 teeth in a lifetime. The tail, which 

accounts for half of the alligator’s total length, 

is primarily used for aquatic propulsion, but is 

also an effective defensive weapon. 

Diet: Alligators eat almost anything, but 

primarily consume fish, birds, turtles, mammals 

and amphibians. Hatchlings mostly eat 

invertebrates. Once an alligator reaches adulthood, 

it will prey on any animal that lives in the 

water or comes there to drink. Adult alligators 

will eat domestic animals including cattle, and 

will also kill and eat smaller alligators. Larger 

males have been known to tackle Florida 

panthers and bears, making the alligator the 

apex predator throughout its distribution.

Small prey is swallowed whole. Large prey is 

crushed by the sharp teeth, then slapped against 

water or shore to break off manageable pieces. 

Very large prey will be rolled underwater until 

the victim drowns, then guarded until the meat 

rots enough to be ripped apart and swallowed. 

The stomachs of alligators often contain 

gastroliths, which grind up food in the stomach 

and help with digestion. 

All crocs store fat in their tails, so they can go 

for long periods without eating if necessary— 

as long as two years for some big adults! 

Reproduction and Development: Both males 

and females reach sexual maturity at about 

10–12 years of age. Breeding takes place 

during the night, in shallow waters. Males 

roar to attract females and to ward off other 

males. Courtship starts in April, with mating 

occurring in early May. 

After mating, the female builds a nest of 

vegetation. The nest measures about 2 m–3 m 

in diameter and about 0.5 m to 1 m in height. 

In late June or early July, the female lays 35–50 

eggs. The eggs are then buried within the nest 

for a 65-day incubation period. The sex of the 

juveniles is determined by the temperature of 

the nest: above 34° C all are male, below 30° 

C all are female, and temperatures in between 

result in both sexes. 

Toward the end of August, the young alligators 

make high-pitched noises from inside the egg. 

The mother then removes the nesting material. 

Upon hatching the alligator measures about 

15 cm–20 cm. Newly hatched alligators live 

in small groups. Birds and raccoons eat 80%. 

Other predators include bobcats, otters, snakes, 

large bass, and larger alligators. Females 

aggressively defend their young during the 

first year (occasionally for 2 or even 3 years). 

This maternal care is unusual among reptiles. 

Mortality/Longevity: After it is 1.25 m long, an 

alligator is safe from predators except humans 

and occasionally other, larger alligators. 

American alligators may live about 50 years 

in the wild. 

Conservation Status: Although once on the 

verge of extinction, it is no longer endangered 

except in scattered parts of its range. A combined 

effort by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, state 

wildlife agencies, and commercial alligator 

farms saved these unique animals. However, 


209 

the American alligator is still listed as threatened 

on the U.S. Endangered Species List because 

it looks like the American crocodile, which is 

endangered, and hunters are likely to confuse 

the two species. Hunting is allowed in some 

states, but it is strictly controlled. The greatest 

current threat is habitat destruction; this includes 

water management systems and pollution. 

Remarks: Spanish sailors thought this animal 

was a huge lizard. In Spanish, “el lagarto” 

means “the lizard.” English sailors took the 

name as “allagarter” and in time it became 

‘”alligator.” 

Despite shared habitats, alligator attacks on 

humans are fairly rare. There were only nine 

fatal attacks throughout the 70s, 80s and 90s, 

although alligators killed 11 people from 2001 

to 2006. Most alligators fear humans; attacks 

often result from feeding. Once an alligator is 

fed by a human, it expects food whenever it 

sees someone. 

Differences between alligators and crocodiles: 

• Alligators tend to have wide, U-shaped, 

rounded snouts, while crocodiles tend 

to have longer, more pointed, V-shaped 

snouts. 

• The large lower fourth tooth of an 

alligator fits into a socket in the upper jaw 

and is not seen when the mouth is closed, 

whereas in crocodiles this tooth is visible. 

• Alligators live in freshwater; crocodiles 

tend to inhabit salt water. 

• On average alligators are smaller than 

crocodiles. 

Claude is a male, 15 years old, 2.5 m (8.5 ft) 

long, and weighs ~82 kg, (181 lbs); born in 

captivity in Florida. (2010) 

Claude is a true albino, meaning that he is 

unable to produce melanin in his skin or eyes. 

In fact, the pinkness/redness of his eyes is 

due our ability to see the blood/blood vessels 

through his irises. 

Albinism is a naturally occurring (recessive) 

genetic condition and is found in many kinds 

of animals, ncluding rats, birds, humans, 

tigers, etc. 

Like all albino animals, Claude has reduced 

vision and is vulnerable to UV rays from the 

sun. Because of these issues, and the fact that 

albinos are easily seen and eaten by predators, 

they rarely survive in the wild.


Gars and snapping turtles would be an 

alligator menu item in the wild. Fortunately, 

Claude is satifsfied with “gator chow.” large 

pellets comprised of “meat,” fish meal and 

vitamins. 

Alligators remain on average about 10–15 

minutes underwater before going to the 

surface for air. Dives may occasionally last 

longer, but alligators have also been known to 

drown within 20–30 minutes if held struggling 

underwater. 

ORDER SQUAMATA 

(LIZARDS AND SNAKES) 

Saharan Spiny-tailed Lizard 

Uromastyx geyri (Agamidae) 

Distribution: North Africa, including parts of 

Algeria, Mali, and Niger. 

Habitat: Rocky, semi-arid areas. 

Appearance: Beige or orange with lighter 

spots. A red phase is bright red to a near-neon 

orange. Females paler with less vivid patterns. 

Length: c. 35 cm. 

Diet: Primarily herbivorous. Acquire most of 

their water from vegetation. Have powerful 

jaws capable of eating cacti, especially if they 

need water. 


incubated 70–80 days before hatching. 

Conservations Status: An uncommon 

species, but total numbers seem to be holding 

steady in spite of increased import for the 

pet trade. 

Remarks: Hide in underground chambers 

during the heat of the day or to escape 

predators. In the wild, Uromastyx burrows may 

be as deep as 3 m. 

The thick spiked tail is characteristic of all 

Uromastyx species, thus the common name. 

Green Iguana 

Iguana iguana (Iguanidae) 

Distribution: Widely distributed from Mexico 

to southern Brazil and Paraguay, as well as on 

Caribbean Islands. 

Habitat: Tropical rainforests at low altitudes. 

Is arboreal and spends most ofi its time in the 

canopy, 12–15 m above ground, coming down 

only to mate, lay eggs, and change trees. 

Appearance: Green iguanas are among the 

largest lizards in the Americas: 2 m in length, 5 

kg weight. They can be various shades of green, 

ranging from bright green to a dull gray-green. 

The skin is rough with a set of pointy scales 

along the back. They have long fingers and 

claws to help them climb and grasp branches. 

Males have a flap of skin, called a dewlap, on 

the ventral side of the neck. It can be inflated to 

make them seem larger, to attract females, and to 

adjust their body temperature. The tail is almost 

half their length, and can be used as a whip to 

drive off predators. They can detach their tail if 

caught, and it will grow back. 

Diet: Primarily herbivores, eating plants, 

especially leaves and fruit. 

Reproduction and Development: Iguanas 

reach sexual maturity in 2–3 years. Green 

iguanas breed at the onset of the dry season. A 

month or two later, the females lay a clutch of 

14–76 eggs in burrows excavated in communal 

nesting sites. At the end of a three-month 

incubation period, the newly hatched iguanas 

emerge. Because hatching takes place during 

the rainy season, food is plentiful. 

Mortality/Longevity: Reptiles, birds and 

mammals prey upon the hatchlings. Less than 

3% live to adulthood. Adults are highly prized 

for their meat, and are hunted by humans. They 

are also captured for the pet trade. 

Conservation Status: The green iguana has 

become extinct in some countries and is 

endangered in others because of excessive 

hunting and habitat loss. In Costa Rica a 

program is being developed to breed and 

raise green iguanas in semi-captivity. After 

successful breeding, the hatchlings are 

maintained for 6–10 months, then released into 

the surrounding area with supplemental food 

and protection. When they are adults, some 

are harvested for food and to generate income 

by supplying leather for handicrafts. Such 

programs have decreased forest destruction 

and helped to protected wild iguanas. 

Remarks: In parts of Central America where 

iguanas are eaten for food, they are called 

“bamboo chickens” or “chicken of the trees.” 

Green Basilisk Lizard 

Basiliscus plumifrons (Corytophanidae) 

Helmeted Lizards 

Distribution: Central and South America.

Habitat: Arboreal and semi-aquatic; inhabit 

the trees and bushes of the rainforest, often 

along riverbanks. 

Appearance: Length, including tail, can be up 

to 85 cm. Adult color is bright green, or slightly 

blue-green. Males have distinctive, high crests 

on their heads and backs, which they use to 

impress females. The females have only one 

small crest. During the first months of their 

lives, young ones are a brownish/olive green 

color, with bright green heads. 

Diet: Omnivores: plant material, insects, fruit, 

and small vertebrates. 

Reproduction and Development: In Costa 

Rica breeding occurs during the wet season, 

May to September. Pregnant females prepare 

a shallow trench where they lay up to 20 eggs. 

Female then leaves the eggs to hatch on their 

own. Incubation period is about 2 months. 

Hatchlings are born with the ability to run (on 

land and water), climb, and swim. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span is up to 10 years 

in captivity. In the wild raptors, opossums, and 

snakes prey upon the lizards. 

Remarks: The green basilisk lizard has been 

called the “Jesus Christ” lizard, because of its 

ability to walk on water. The rear feet have 

long toes with fringes of skin that unfurl in 

the water, increasing surface area. The lizard 

rapidly moves its legs as it slaps its splayed 

feet hard against the water. This creates 

tiny air pockets that keep it from sinking, 

provided it keeps running fast enough. It 

can move along the surface for 4.5 meters or 

more. When gravity eventually takes over, 

the basilisk is an excellent swimmer. 

Jackson’s Chameleon 

Chamaeleo jacksonii (Chamaeleonidae) 

Chameleons 

Distribution: In the wild, live only in the 

woodlands of East Africa. 

Habitat: Arboreal; spends most of its time 

off the ground in bushes and shrubs, but 

sometimes in taller trees. 

Description: Length to 30 cm including tail. 

Bright green coloration as adults. Male has three 

rostral horns that begin to develop at about 4 

months. Female lacks or has reduced horns. 

Male also tends to be more brightly colored, with 

blue or yellow markings. Well camouflaged by 


211 

its color in the lush woodlands it prefers, it can, 

like most chameleons, change color quickly 

depending on mood and temperature, or as a 

mode of communication. 

Diet: Opportunistic: primarily insects. 

Mortality/Longevity: Preyed upon by snakes 

and large birds. 

Reproduction: Most chameleons are egg layers, 

but the Jackson’s gives birth to live young, 

10–50 at a time. Gestation period: 6–9 months. 

Young brownish at birth, taking on brighter 

green coloration at about 5 months. Strongly 

territorial animals, they live singly, with both 

males and females maintaining individual 

territories except during mating season. 

Remarks: The Jackson’s tongue, which extends 

1½ times the length of its body, can extend to 

capture prey more quickly than the human eye 

can see—in 30–50 milliseconds! The tongue’s 

sticky, suction-cup tip sticks to prey, which is 

drawn into the large mouth and crushed. 

All chameleons have specialized feet that allow 

them to grip branches securely; each toe also 

has a sharp claw that increases traction. 

The long tail is often curled, but can be used for 

balance and sometimes as a weapon. 

The eyes rotate independently, a feature that 

increases depth focusing as well as wide-range 

vision. 

This species was accidentally introduced 

into the wild in Hawaii. The large breeding 

population there now supplies the pet trade. 

Panther Chameleon 

Furcifer pardalis (Chamaeleondae) 

Chameleons 

Distribution: Coastal Northern third of 

Madagascar. 

Habitat: Humid disturbed scrub and forest. 

Arboreal. 


compressed body, prehensile tail, zygodactylous 

feet. Protruding eyes covered with mufflerlike 

lids. Independent eye rotation. Extensile 

tongue. Color variable; can change due to 

alterations in light, heat and emotional state. 

Sexes dichromatic rather than dimorphic. 

Diet: Forages diurnally for insects, small 

vertebrates and vegetation. 

Reproduction and Development: Lays 10–46 

eggs after about 45 days following copulation.


Can produce four clutches per year. Young 

hatch 4–9 months later, depending on climatic 

conditions. Growth is rapid. Sexual maturity 

at 6–9 months. 

Conservation Status: CITES Appendix II . In 

1998, 34,000 wild-taken of this species were 

exported from Madagascar for the pet trade. 

CITES established an export quota of 2000 in 1999. 

Sakalava Velvet Gecko 

Blaesodactylus sakalava (Gekkonidae) 

Geckos 

Distribution: Southwest Madagascar. 

Habitat: Found in semi-humid forest areas 

under bark, in crevices of rock or on trees. 

Appearance: Bodies broad with wide 

transverse bands across the back. Color ranges 

from brownish to gray, and changes depending 

on mood. Eyes are orange/brown or steel gray. 

The skin is velvet to the touch. 

Diet: In captivity eats all kinds on insects and 

their larvae, as well as fruits. 

Reproduction and Development: After mating 

a female will lay 6 to 12 eggs per season. It takes 

45 to 50 days for the eggs to hatch. 

Mortality/Longevity: Can live 10 to 25 years 

in captivity. 

Remarks: One of three species of the genus 

Blaesodactylus, all found in Madagascar. 

Formerly classified in the genus Homopholis. 

Sakalava velvet geckos have not been studied in 

detail in the wild, and they are not commonly 

held in captivity, so there is still a lot to learn 

about them. 

Electric Blue Day Gecko 

Lygodactylus williamsi (Gekkonidae) 

Geckos 

Distribution: Found only in the Kimboza 

Forest in eastern Tanzania. 

Habitat: Tropical forest. 

Appearance: A dwarf gecko. Male: bright blue 

with black throat. Female greenish, little or no 

black on throat. Max. length: 10 cm; usually 

closer to 6 cm. 

Diet: Insects, nectar. Unlike most geckos, is 

active during the day. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life history not well 

known; perhaps up to 10 years. 

Conservations Status: IUCN: not evaluated, 

but deforestation within their limited range 

threatens survival in the wild for this species. 

They breed well in captivity, which presents 

hope for their future. 

Remarks: Geckos, like lizards, have fracture 

planes in the tail so it breaks off easily, a handy 

adaptation to escape predators, but with a 

downside: the tail stores fat, which can be a 

lifesaver in hard times. 

Madagascar Giant Day Gecko 

Phelsuma grandis (Gekkonidae) 

Geckos 

Distribution: Found in northern Madagascar, 

Seychelles, and smaller islands close to 

Madagascar. 

Habitat: Canopy of tropical rain forests. 

Appearance: Largest species of the genus 

Phelsuma, 23–27 cm. They are bright green, with 

granular red spots on the body and a red line 

running from the eye to the tip of the nose. The 

eyes, surrounded by blue rings, have round 

pupils, indicative of a diurnal life style. 

Diet: Mostly insects and other invertebrates; 

also soft sweet fruit, nectar, and pollen. 


season is between November and the first weeks 

of May. During this period, the females lay up to 

6 pairs of eggs. Young hatch after approximately 

60–65 days. Juveniles measure about 7 cm and 

reach sexual maturity after one year. 


in captivity. 

Conservation Status: Listed in Appendix II 

of CITES. 

Remarks: Many geckos can make sounds to 

attract mates, to advertise their territories, to 

warn off unwanted intruders or to frighten 

predators. Herpetologist Ulrich Gruber 

described the sound produced by the 

Madagascar day gecko as resembling ”the 

croaking of a tormented frog.” 

Like many species of geckos, the giant day 

gecko does not have eyelids. Instead the lids 

have fused, and the eye is covered with a large 

transparent scale. Geckos keep their eyes clean 

by licking them with their broad flat tongues. 

The eye color of many diurnal species is 

much like the skin color. Their eyes blend 

into their heads, which in turn blend into the 

surrounding foliage of the geckos’ habitat.

Klemmer’s Yellow-headed Day Gecko 

Phelsuma klemmeri (Gekkonidae) 

Geckos 

Distribution: Found only in northwest 

Madagascar. 

Habitat: Medium-sized bamboo in fragmented 

“bamboo islands.” When disturbed they hide 

in the cracks in older dead bamboo. 

Appearance: Dorsal color is brown to turquoise 

with turquoise bands. A black lateral line runs 

from the eyes to the hind legs. The head and 

neck are yellow. The ventral surface is whitish; 

scales are small and smooth. Adults are about 

9 cm long. 

Diet: In captivity, eat a variety of insects, 

including crickets and fruit flies, but will also 

eat fruit baby foods. They also eat fruits such as 

guava, papaya, and peaches. In the wild, they 

avoid the hotter part of the day and usually 

hunt and forage in the early morning, late 

afternoon, or right after a shower. 

Reproduction and Development: Males reach 

sexual maturity at about 6 months and females 

will start producing eggs at around 8 months. 

Sexual maturity depends on size more than 

age. Breeding can occur at anytime of year, 

and females will lay eggs every 3–5 weeks. 

The developing eggs become visible through 

the underside of the female before the eggs 

are laid. By this time her once flattened body 

is so large it looks as though she’ll explode! 

Like most geckos, usually lay 2 eggs at a time, 

often inside a hollow piece of bamboo. The 

babies are iridescent and look like tiny copies 

of the adults. Newborn klemmeri weigh a mere 

0.1 g at birth. 

Mortality/Longevity: No specific information 

found. Many geckos live between 5 and 10 

years. 

Conservation Status: Species is widespread 

on the Ampasindava peninsula; they may not 

be as threatened as once feared. Their habitat 

was confined to fragmented “bamboo islands,” 

but the slash and burn techniques to clear land 

actually increased habitat, since bamboo forests 

have replaced previously cleared lands. 

Remarks: This species of Phelsuma was first 

described in 1990. 

Geckos have very special feet that contain 

millions of hairs capable of producing electrical 

forces, probably van der Waals forces. These 


213 

forces, which are molecular and not caused by 

a sticky substance, allow the gecko to attract 

any surface, even polished glass. 

Standing’s Day Gecko 

Phelsuma standingi (Gekkonidae) 

Geckos 

Distribution: Limited range within southwest 

Madagascar. 

Habitat: Dry thorn forests. Arid to semi-arid 

regions where vegetation consists of thorny 

succulent plants and baobab trees. 

Appearance: Large for a gecko, mostly stocky 

25 cm. total length. Individuals can occasionally 

reach 30 cm. Base color is usually light gray 

or brown with darker fine reticulations. 

Hatchlings have much brighter coloration 

with strong green and blue banding on a dark 

background. The pattern and colors gradually 

fade as the animals grow. 

Diet: Insects, fruit, nectar and possibly other 

lizards. 

Reproduction and Development: Established 

adult pairs will tolerate juveniles until they 

reach sexual maturity. Eggs most often laid in 

pairs that are “glued” to each other. As in many 

reptile species, sex of newborns is temperature 

dependent. 

Remarks: If inactive, the coloration of this 

day gecko is often duller, giving it an overall 

grey appearance. When cool it takes on darker 

colors to help absorb light and heat and when 

hot it turns pale. 

Kuhl’s Flying Gecko 

Ptychozoon kuhlii (Gekkonidae) 

Geckos 

Distribution: Southeast Asia, including 

southern Thailand, Malaysia, Borneo, 

Indonesia, and Singapore. 

Habitat: Nocturnal arboreal animals, found in 

lowland and mid-level rainforests. 

Appearance: Weird looking with big heads, 

bulging lidless eyes, and elaborate webbed 

feet. Gliding apparatus is composed of a large 

flap of skin along the flank. These flaps remain 

rolled across the belly until the lizard jumps 

off a tree. Then the flaps open passively in 

the air, acting as a parachute during descent. 

Additional flaps lie along the sides of the head, 

neck, and tail. These geckos are nocturnal and


cryptic, and often go unnoticed in their natural 

habitat. 

Diet: Insects and arthropods. 

Reproduction and Development: In captivity, 

breeding occurs when the animals are exposed 

to about 12 hours of daylight. The female will 

lay two eggs about once a month. She can lay 

five or six clutches per season. Eggs will hatch 

in 2–3 months. 

Mortality/Longevity: Can live up to 7–9 

years. 

Remarks: Some unusual characteristics of 

geckos: 

• Can vocalize, unlike most lizards, using 

their voice to threaten, or for sexual 

attraction. 

• Most have specialized toe pads that 

contain thousands of microscopic 

hooks. These hooks catch microscopic 

irregularities of surfaces and enable 

geckos to seem to defy gravity as they 

walk. 

• Geckos have remarkable eyes. Their 

irises resemble their skin color, so that 

their open eyes do not give them away to 

predators. Their lower lid is fused over 

the eye to form a transparent spectacle for 

protection; they can use their long tongue 

to clean them! 

• Scientists at UC Berkeley have developed 

an adhesive that has qualities of gecko 

feet—easy attachment and release while 

having great holding strength. It won’t slip 

or slide, but will release if lifted. Such an 

adhesive may be useful when movement 

and attachment are both desired, such as 

for climbing, or for robots. 

Henkel’s Leaf-tailed Gecko 

Uroplatus henkeli (Gekkonidae) 

Geckos 

Distribution: Limited range in northwestern 

Madagascar and on Nosy Be, an island off the 

northwest coast of Madagascar. 

Habitat: Malagasy rainforest. Arboreal, 

inhabits mid-section of trees; not usually found 

on the ground. 

Appearance: A master of camouflage: its 

grey-brown skin blends in with the colors of 

tree bark. The fringes of skin along its head 

and body mask shadows by breaking up the 

outlines of its body. The charcoal/light grey 

patterns on some individuals’ bodies look 

like lichen. The short flat tail, for which the 

genus was named (uro – “flat,” platus – “tail”), 

looks like a dead leaf. The bulging eyes on its 

flat triangular head have pupils with vertical 

slits, an indication of a nocturnal life style. 

Diet: Nocturnal predator, eats mainly insects. 

Reproduction and Development: Lays 

clutches of just two spherical eggs. Eggs are 

deposited on the forest floor hidden under 

fallen leaves, beneath pieces of wood, or among 

dead leaves still attached to a plant. Following 

a 3-month incubation period, the eggs hatch to 

reveal juveniles that are about 6 cm long. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span in the wild 

believed to be 3–5 years. Species has lived up 

to 15 years in captivity. 

Conservation Status: Listed in Appendix II 

of CITES. 

Remarks: Use several tricks to help escape 

predators. Like most lizard species, geckos 

can shed their tails. A new, shorter tail will 

grow back. 

In addition this gecko can frighten enemies by 

opening its mouth wide to reveal the bright 

red interior. 

Also some geckos, including this one, have 

vocal cords, the only lizards that do. Its 

defensive behavior is often accompanied by 

loud distress calls. 

Great Plated Lizard 

Gerrhosaurus major (Gerrhosauridae) 

Plated Lizards 

Distribution: Widely distributed in eastern 

and southeastern Africa. Found in the Somali 

Arid Zone. 

Habitat: Favors rocky terrain in semi-arid 

steppe or grassland. May also use burrows of 

other animals or termite mounds for shelter. 

Appearance: Length: snout to vent, c. 9 inches 

(23 cm); tail of equal length. Their heavy armor 

of large, bony, keeled scales, especially on the 

dorsal surface, gives them their common name. 

Moderately long tail is covered by rings of 

scales. Scaleless area along the sides functions 

as expansion joints for gravid females or 

distention after feeding. Color grayish brown; 

males are larger and sport bright-colored 

throat. Stout cylindrical body. Non-venomous.

Diet: Young eat fruit, leaves, and other 

vegetation; also spiders, insects, and other 

small invertebrates. Adults will also eat small 

mice and other rodents, as well as smaller 

lizards. They are sit-and-wait predators, 

disguised from prey by their coloration and 

stillness. In captivity, their diet may consist of 

live crickets, chopped fruits and vegetables, 

and small pinkie mice. 

Reproduction and Care of Young: Females 

lay 4–6 eggs in a shallow depression, which is 

then covered. Eggs hatch in three–four months; 

hatchlings are about 4–6 inches (10–15 cm) 

long. Life span: to 24 years. 

Mortality/Longevity: Primarily snakes. 

Remarks: Males are territorial. When 

threatened often run to hiding places among 

rocks where they wedge themselves into 

crevices. May also run a short distance, 

then stop abruptly with tail raised, perhaps 

confusing would-be attackers. 

A favorite in the pet trade, this lizard has a 

generally calm temperament. 

Madagascar Plated Lizard 

Zonosaurus sp. (Gerrhosauridae) 

Plated Lizards 

Distribution: Zonosaurus lizards comprise 

a genus of 17 species of plated lizards, all 

found in Magagascar and all but one (Z. 

madagascarensis) endemic to that country. 

Found in all ecoregions, they are common in 

eastern Madagascar, but also known in the 

west and south and on some offshore islands. 

Habitat: A wide range of habitats in 

Madagascar, depending on the species, from 

montane rainforests to rocky crevices, to sand 

dunes of the spiny desert. Normally found 

in dry, open landscapes, they also adapt well 

to field edges and secondary thickets. Even 

found in the zsingy, the fantastic limestone 

formations that create a “forest” of rocky spires 

that harbor many rare animals. 

Appearance: Plated lizards are medium-sized 

(up to 36 cm) with an elongate, slightly flattened 

body. A prominent lateral fold running 

the length of the flank allows considerable 

expansion of the body. The tail is almost twice 

as long as the body. Ground color is brown, 

with two yellow lateral stripes that run from 

the eye to the base of the tail. The color of the 


flanks is variable, but is usually mottled with 

white and dark scales. Belly is grayish white, 

but may be reddish on the throat. 

Diet: Active diurnal foragers. Most species eat 

a variety of insects, though some species also 

seek fruits and berries. 


fertilization. The female lays a small clutch 

(up to 5) of large, elongate eggs in moist soil 

or within a rock crack. 

Conservation Status: Some species and 

subspecies are listed by IUCN: Vulnerable. 

Remarks: One of the most unusual behaviors 

of the plated lizards is that they sunbathe, or 

bask, in an odd position. They lie on the belly 

with their arms and legs held up in the air. 

When frightened, which happens quite often 

for this shy species, they quickly run for cover 

under a bush or in some other hiding place 

or bury themselves in loose soil by moving 

their arms and legs as if they were swimming. 

Sometimes they will stay underground for 24 

hours before coming above ground again. 

Relatively peaceable lizards, they rarely bite, 

preferring instead to flail the spiked tail like a 

whip, an effective defense. 

Mexican Beaded Lizard 

Heloderma horridum (Helodermatidae) 

Gila Monsters 

Distribution: Western coast of Sonora, Mexico 

south to Western Guatemala. 

Habitat: Tropical, deciduous woodland and 

thornscrub. Frequently climbs trees. Often 

diurnal, on very hot days remains in burrows 

and emerges to hunt at night. 

Appearance: Length to 1 m. Stout body covered 

with dark brown and yellow beadlike 

scales. Powerful limbs, long fat tail. 

Diet: Young rodents, fledgling birds, eggs, 

reptiles, arthropods. Chemosensorily locates 

food with its forked tongue. 

Reproduction and Development: Mating takes 

place in spring. Copulation can last for nearly 1 

hour. Female lays 8-10 leathery eggs and buries 

them in shallow nests in sunny locations. 

Conservation Status: Listed as Vulnerable by 

IUCN. CITES Appendix II. Dry forest and desert 

habitat loss is the greatest threat, followed 

by collection by unscrupulous dealers and 

hobbyists. Fully protected on paper: cannot be 

215


killed, molested or collected. 

Remarks: Venom is used more for defense than 

for stunning prey. Venom is in lower jaw (vs. 

in upper jaw in venomous snakes). 

The two members of this family, which 

also includes the Gila Monster (Heloderma 

suspectum), are the only known venomous 

lizards. 

Their tenacious, chewing bite is potentially, 

though rarely fatal to humans. 

Redtail Boa aka Boa Constrictor 

Boa constrictor (Boidae) 

Boas 

Distribution: Northern Mexico south to Central 

and Northeast South America to 35° south 

latitude, Lesser Antilles, Dominica, St. Lucia 

and other small Caribbean islands. 

Habitat: Deserts, grasslands, arid woodlands, 

rainforests, also near human habitation. Primarily 

terrestrial but can climb and swim well. 

Active crepuscularly or nocturnally. Spends 

much time arboreally. Also shelters in burrows 

of agoutis, pacas and armadillos. 

Appearance: Varies by subspecies. Many are 

gigantic, camouflaged brown with saddle 

markings. Length to 5.6 m. for mainland boas; 

most are much smaller. 

Diet: Primarily ambush hunters. Rodents 

killed by constriction. Also consume bats, 

monkeys, squirrels, agoutis, pacas, birds and 

reptiles including ameivas, tegus and iguanas. 

Reproduction and Development: Reproductive 

in their second to fourth year. Fertilization 

internal. Viviparous. 15-60 offspring per clutch 

born 120-145 days after ovulation. Neonates 

average 45 cm. 


25 years. 

Conservation status: Not on IUCN Red List. 

Seems to be holding its own. 

Remarks: Capable of delivering painful bites 

to humans. 

Important predator of rodents. 

The two currently on display were born at the 

old Steinhart Aquarium. 

Emerald Tree Boa 

Corallus caninus (Boidae) 

Boas 

Distribution: South America’s Amazon basin. 

Habitat: Lowland rainforest. Adults arboreal, 

typically in high canopy. Juveniles live in leaf 

litter. 

Appearance: Length to 2 m. Adults: leafgreen 

scales with white transverse markings. 

Thin-bodied. Head and body heavily laterally 

flattened. Neonotates in a single litter may be 

green, red, yellow or a combination of these 

colors. Juveniles typically have brown bodies. 

Diet: Adults seize prey with long fang-like 

teeth, subsequently constrict with its coils. Eat 

rodents (e.g., the arboreal rice rat), monkeys, 

squirrels, birds (passerines and parrots) and 

bats. Juveniles may prey on lizards. 


internal. Live-bearing (ovoviparous). Seven-18 

neonates per clutch. Offspring colored red, 

orange or green; change to adult green at sexual 

maturity. 

Mortality/Longevity: In captivity the estimated 

life span is 25 years. 

Conservation Status: Locally common. 

Strong prehensile tail. 

The scales of the long, slender snout contain 

heat-sensitive labial pits used in locating prey. 

Anaconda aka Water Anaconda 

Eunectes murinus (Boidae) 

Boas 


Orinoco drainages from Colombia and Venezuela 

to East Bolivia and Central Brazil. Also 

on Trinidad Island. 

Habitat: Associated strongly with watercourses, 

swamps and other freshwater locations. 

Appearance: Length to 12 m. (another reference: 

to 5 m.) Gigantic, heavy-bodied, dark 

green boa with dark spots. 

Diet: Monkeys, deer, peccaries, pacas, agoutis, 

birds, fish, caiman and turtles. Prey usually 

killed by constriction; prey suffocates but is 

not crushed. Usually feed in water. Primarily 

a lie-in-wait predator. 


during the spring a group of males will court 

a receptive female, competing peacefully to 

copulate. Male vibrates his vestigial hindlimbs 

rapidly, rubs on the back and flanks of the 

female before mating. Copulatory behavior 

may last 2 hours. A receptive female orients her 

cloaca toward his hemipenis. Ovoviviparous.

Female coils around her eggs providing extra 

heat. She gives birth to 4-39 young, each about 

80 cm in length. 

Mortality/Longevity: Lives to over 29 years. 

Conservation status: Not yet strongly threatened. 

Rarely harvested for meat. Skin trade 

light in most of its range. Not a popular pet 

due to its size and “nasty” disposition. 

Remarks: Can remained submerged for a very 

long time lying in wait for its next meal. 

Our specimen is a female. She is now (2008) 3 

m long and weighs 90 lbs. In 3 0r 4 years, she’s 

expected to be about 6 m long! 

Madagascar Tree Boa 

Sanzinia madagascariensis (Boidae) 

Boas 

Distribution: Endemic to Nosy Be, (an 

island on the northwest coast of Madagascar) 

and throughout the island of Madagascar, 

excluding the very southwest corner. 

Habitat: Live in a variety of forest habitats, 

ranging from lowland tropical forests, to 

humid upland forests, to dry forests. 

Appearance: Occurs in 2 color variations; 

those in the eastern part of the range are green 

to grayish-green, while in some parts of the 

western range they are yellow, orange, and 

brown. The green variety is somewhat smaller 

than the western form. Max length: about 2 m. 

Females are larger than males. 

Diet: Hunt at night, feeding on small mammals 

and birds. They use heat sensitive pits around 

their mouths to hunt for warm-blooded animals 

in darkness. Once captured, they use powerful 

muscles to constrict the prey, decreasing blood 

return to the heart or oxygen intake. Prey die 

from cardiovascular or respiratory collapse. 

Boas are not venomous. 

Reproduction and Development: Viviparous 

(like all boas), usually bearing less than a dozen 

bright red young. Gestation lasts 6 months and 

the offspring are about 25cm long. During the 

first year of life, they attain adult coloration. 

Conservation Status: Vulnerable on IUCN 

Red List (2003), Listed on Appendix 1 of 

CITES. Although the Madagascar tree boa 

is part of a captive breeding program, it 

is threatened by loss of habitat. Only 10% 

to 20% of the original primary forest of 

Madagascar still exists. 


217 

Remarks: Although called a “tree boa” it is less 

arboreal than most other tree snakes, primarily 

using trees for hunting. They are probably best 

described as part-time arboreals. 

The bright red color of the newborn may be 

aposematic mimicry, warning predators to stay 

away, even though boas are not venomous. 

Black-headed Python 

Aspidites melanocephalus (Pythonidae) 

Pythons 

Distribution: Northern Territory, Queensland, 

Western Australia. 

Habitat: Open woodlands, shrublands, 

outcrops, humid coastal forests, and 

seasonally-dry tropical woodlands. Not 

found in very arid regions. Found among 

rocks and loose debris. 

Appearance: A large snake with maximum 

length of 2.5 m, though 1.5 to 2 m more 

common. Head covered with shiny black 

scales; body a striped or brindled pattern in 

shades of black and gray brown, gold and 

cream. Juveniles more vividly marked. Females 

larger than males. 

Diet: Other reptiles; small mammals, especially 

rodents. Active at night. 


with 5–10 eggs per clutch, incubated by female, 

who coils around the eggs and aggressively 

protects them for 2–3 months until they hatch. 

Reproductively mature at 4–5 years. 

Mortality/Longevity: Adults have no natural 

predators besides dingos and humans; 

juveniles are subject to predation, including 

cannibalism. 

Conservation Status: Though the species is 

unlisted, little is known about its numbers. 

Remarks: Like all pythons, a non-venomous 

species that kills by constriction. 

Because of its docility and handsome markings, 

the black-headed python is prized by collectors. 

To save energy during the dry season when 

food and water are scarce, pythons reduce their 

body temperature. 

Can dig and live in burrows to escape daytime 

heat. Small, streamlined head and nonprotrusive 

eyes may be adaptations to entering 

burrows and hollows. 

Valued by Aborigines as a Dream Time animal.


Woma 

Aspidites ramsayi (Pythonidae) 

Pythons 

Distribution: Central and southwest Australia. 

Habitat: Arid zones on sandplains and 

dune fields. Shelters in hollow logs, animals 

burrows, or vegetation during the day. 

Appearance: Like the black-headed python, 

the Woma’s head is unusually narrow for 

a python. Gray, olive, brown, or red-brown 

above with darker olive brown to black crossbands 

on the body. Sides and undersides pale. 

Diet: A nocturnal hunter of small mammals, 

ground birds, and lizards. Because it hunts its 

prey in narrow tunnels, it cannot throw coils 

around its target. Instead the snake pushes a 

loop of its body against the prey, crushing it to 

death against the side of the burrow. 


like all pythons. The female coils around the 

5–20 eggs, protecting and warming them with 

heat generated by muscular “shivering” for the 

2–3 month incubation period. 

Conservation Status: Listed as endangered by 

IUCN in 1996. Clearing of land for agriculture 

and grazing and perhaps high predation by 

foxes and feral cats are causes for decline. 

Adelaide Zoo in South Australia is coordinating 

a captive breeding program with offspring 

being released to the wild. Active research 

is aimed at returning the woma to its former 

range. 

Remarks: The woma, like its relative the blackheaded 

python, lacks the heat-sensing pits that 

border the mouth of most other pythons. 

The woma is a prized food item for desert 

Aboriginal people. Hunters follow the track 

of a woma to its burrow and then dig it out. 

Centralian Python 

Morelia bredli (Pythonidae) 

Pythons 

Distribution: Northern Territory of Central 

Australia. 

Habitat: Arid desert areas; most often on rocky 

outcrops and river banks in or around trees 

and shrubs. 

Appearance: A large, heavily built species, 

unlike its two more slender Aspidites exhibit 

companions, who are built for burrowing. 

Distinct, but variable colors and pattern; 

often brown-to-reddish background color 

with cream patterning surrounded by black. 

Undersides lighter. Length: up to 2 m, known 

to reach 3 m in captivity. 

Diet: Small mammals, lizards, other snakes, 

and birds. 


and incubates12–45 eggs, which hatch within 

2–3 months. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span in captivity: 

20–30 years. 

Remarks: Known to be a “well-mannered” 

species, easy to keep in captivity and thought 

by many collectors to be a particularly 

handsome snake. 

This species may be an unexpected visitor 

on rafters and ceilings of buildings in more 

populated areas. 

Ball Python 

Python regius (Pythonidae) 

Pythons 

Distribution: West and Central Africa. 

Habitat: Grassland, savannah, open woodlands 

and agricultural areas. Nocturnally active; 

often shelter in rodent burrows. 

Appearance: Length to 2 m. Heavy-bodied 

with small, slender head. Camouflage-colored: 

black background with brown saddles, some 

interspersed with black dots. Female larger 

than male. Young very similar to adults in 

color and pattern. 

Diet: Nocturnally prey on rodents. 


internal. Female mature at 3 years; some males 

mature at 1 year. Lay 6-8 eggs, clutch to 16 eggs. 

Hatchlings are ~ 41 cm in length. 

Mortality/Longevity: Live to at least 49 years 

in captivity. 

Conservation Status: Pet trade possibly 

threatening? Anecdotal evidence suggests that 

ball python populations may have benefited 

from deforestation. 

Remarks: Rolls into a tight ball with its head 

at the center when frightened. 

Most common python in captivity (~ 1,000,000 

exported into captivity in the 1990s). 

Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnake 

Crotalus adamanteus (Viperidae)

Distribution: Coastal lowlands, south from 

the Carolinas, and west to Lousiana; range 

includes Florida and the Florida Keys. 

Habitat: Dry forests and sandy beaches. 

Known to occasionally swim in salt water. 

Appearance: May grow to be 2.5 m long, but 

1–2 m is more common. This is the largest 

rattlesnake species. Notable for large pit 

between the nostril and eye. 

Diet: Small mammals, from mice to rabbits; it 

will also eat birds. Diamondback locates prey 

by odor, as well as by sensing infrared (heat) 

using its pit organ. Its venom disables and 

predigests its prey. 

Reproduction and Development: 6-21 young 

are born ovoviviparously. Maternal care is 

minimal, from a few hours to at most a few days 

Mortality/Longevity: Can live 20 years or 

more. Adults have no natural enemies. The 

young are prey to carnivorous mammals, 

raptors, and other snakes (especially king 

snakes). 

Conservation Status: Not listed as endangered, 

but populations are in decline due to habitat 

destruction and hunting. The rabbit population 

in Florida may be on the rise due to reduced 

numbers of these natural predators. 

Remarks: The world’s largest rattlesnake, it is 

considered the most dangerous snake in North 

America. A study in the late 1950s reported 

a human mortality rate of 30%. It has a high 

venom yield, up to 1,000 mg; the estimated 

human lethal dose is 100–150 mg. Typically, 

the rattler does not strike humans except when 

startled or provoked. 

Though feared and so often persecuted by 

people, this snake plays an important role in 

rodent control. 

Wagler’s Pit Viper 

Tropidolaemus wagleri (Viperidae) 

Distribution: Southeast Asia, including 

southern Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, 

Borneo, Sumatra, Sulawesi and southern 

Philippines. 

Habitat: Lives in lowland tropical rainforests. 

Arboreal, living in low trees, and active at 

night. 

Appearance: Juveniles and adult males are 

usually green or bluish green with white 

markings. Females change colors and markings 


219 

as they mature. The adult female coloration is 

dependent on the geographic region of origin. 

They can become quite colorful with yellow, 

red, blue, and green transverse markings. 

Females are larger than males, and can be up 

to 1 m long. 

Diet: Nocturnal hunters. Juveniles and adult 

males prefer lizards, especially geckos. Females 

eat a more varied diet, including rats, birds, 

frogs and lizards. 

Reproduction and Development: Mating may 

be seasonal, occurring during the rainy season. 

Pit vipers are viviparous, bearing live young. 

Litter size from 6 –50. 

Remarks: Wagler’s, like all pit vipers, have 

heat-sensing organs on their head below and 

in front of their eyes (called loreal pits.) They 

can use these organs to sense prey, even when 

they can’t see it. 

Their venom hemotoxic, making it hard 

for blood to clot. Bites can cause local pain, 

swelling, bruising, and bleeding. They are 

rarely fatal to humans. 

They, along with the Swamp’s Eastern 

Rattlesnake (also a pit viper), are the only 

venomous snakes maintained at the Academy. 

The Temple of the Azure Cloud in Penang 

Island, Malaysia is known as Snake Temple. It 

was once filled with hundreds of Wagler’s pit 

vipers. Tourists would be photographed with 

the snakes. Locals collected the snakes, and 

the ones used for photography had had their 

fangs removed. 

Mangrove Snake 

Boiga dendrophila (Colubridae) 

Colubrids 

Distribution: India to Southeast Asia, including 

Borneo. 

Habitat: Common in lowland forests, especially 

in riverine habitats and mangrove swamps. 

Appearance: Strikingly colored, black and 

yellow-banded. A large snake; may grow to 

almost 2.5 m. 

Diet: Mainly birds, but also takes fishes, frogs, 

small mammals, and other reptiles. A nocturnal 

hunter that basks on tree branches during the 

day. 

Reproduction and Development: Lays clutches 

of 4–15 eggs; young hatch in 3–4 mos. 

Remarks: The species, because it is isolated


on various islands in Indonesia and the 

Philippines, has evolved into at least 9 known 

subspecies. Most differ from each other by the 

number, length, and width of their bands. B.d. 

annectens is confined to Borneo. 

Boiga spp. are known as “cat snakes” because 

their elliptical pupils resemble those of cats. 

Unlike most “cats,” this animal is an adept 

swimmer. 

A venomous species: though no human 

fatalities are known, its bite can be extremely 

painful. Researchers recently (2006) isolated a 

novel toxin from the venom, and determined 

it to be a bird-specific neurotoxin. 

Paradise Flying Snake 

Chrysopelea paradisi (Colubridae) 

Colubrids 

Distribution: Southern Thailand, Malaysia, 

Singapore, Indonesia and the Philippines. 

Habitat: Arboreal. Lives in a fairly diverse 

habitat, ranging from tropical evergreen 

rainforests with relatively sparse undergrowth 

to deciduous forests with undergrowth of 

shrubs and grasses. 

Appearance: Long slender body, reaching over 

a meter long. It can reach well over 1 m. Its 

black body is covered with a yellow spotted 

pattern, which may form stripes with red and 

orange splotches. The head has 5 yellow or 

orange bars that extend the width of the head. 

Diet: Carnivorous and, like all snakes, swallows 

its food whole. Prefers lizard species but will 

eat frogs, bats, small birds and small rodents. 


with internal fertilization. Lay clutches of 5 

to 11 eggs. Gestation period is not known. 

Offspring hatch when they are about 15 cm 

long and are brightly colored like adults. 


predatory birds and large mammals. The 

biggest threat is increased human habitation. 

No information on life span. 

Remarks: When prey is identified, paradise 

snakes will strike and snare the prey with 

6 rows of teeth. Once it has hold, it uses a 

combination of constriction and mild venom 

to subdue the prey. 

Snakes classified in the genus Chrysopelea 

usually posses the ability to “fly.” They slither 

out to the end of a branch, and dangle in a “J” 

shape. Using the lower half of their body they 

form into an S. They then stretch out their ribs, 

flattening their bodies to double the original 

width. The belly region of the snake becomes 

concave, a shape that acts as a parachute as 

the snake glides on air drafts from a higher 

branch to a lower one. They can undulate their 

bodies to change directions and can glide up 

to 300 feet. 

Everglades Rat Snake 

Elaphe obsoleta rosalleni (Colubridae) 

Colubrids 

Distribution: Native to the Kissimmee Prairie 

and the Everglades regions of South Florida. 

Habitat: Found in the seas of sawgrass, in the 

open grasslands and agricultural fields, in trees 

or shrubs, and along waterways. Also found in 

the Australian pine trees planted along roads. 

Appearance: Adult rat snakes range from 

yellow to red to black, with 4 grey longitudinal 

stripes; have orange eyes and a red tongue. 

Relatively large, reaching lengths of up to five 

feet. These rat snakes are skilled swimmers and 

are also able to climb trees as well as burrow 

underground. Harmless, non-venomous. 

Diet: Rodents, lizards, frogs and birds in the 

wild; nocturnal hunters. 

Reproduction and Development: Female rat 

snakes generally lay clutches of 6–30 smoothshelled, 

oblong eggs between May and July. 

Hatchlings emerge in 8–15 weeks, August to 

October. Hatchlings are 30–40 cm long. 

Mortality/Longevity: In captivity, live up to 

20 years. 

Remarks: Record length of a rat snake is 

2.3 m. 

Pure Everglades rat snakes are becoming rare 

in the wild due to the expansion of the yellow 

rat snake (Elaphe obsoleta quadrivittata) into 

Southern Florida. The yellow rat has been 

interbreeding with the Glades rat to produce 

much darker individuals than those typical of 

the pure Glades form. 

Red-tailed Green Rat Snake 

Gonyosoma oxycephala (Colubridae) 

Colubrids 

Distribution: Southeast Asia including 

Burma, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia/ 

Singapore, Philippines Thailand, and Vietnam.

Habitat: Arboreal, living in lowland tropical 

forests, mangroves, or bamboos. 

Appearance: Bright iridescent green with 

tails of red, orange or gray. Long and slender, 

averaging 1.5 m but can exceed 2 m. Females 

are slightly larger than males. They have 

predominately smooth scales, with the head 

covered by plate-like scales, and the ventral 

side with ridged scales. 

Diet: In the wild eat birds, eggs, and nestlings. 

Will also eat frogs, lizards, bats, and other small 

mammals. In captivity they are usually fed 

mice. They are fast hunters, and can capture 

bats in flight. Prey is killed by constriction, 

rather than venom. 

Reproduction and Development: Breed year 

round, 3 to 4 clutches per year. Unlike most 

reptiles they will incubate their eggs for 3 to 4 

months. Hatchlings are about 24 cm. 

Mortality/Longevity: May live about 6 years in 

the wild and up to 15 years in captivity. 

Conservation Status: Once commonly sold 

for purported medicinal value in some Asian 

countries, the snake is now restricted from 

export, at least by the Thai government, and 

local people value it for rodent control. 

Remarks: Red-tailed rat snakes spend most 

of their time high in trees. The ridged scales 

on the ventral side help them hold tightly to 

tree branches. 

Red-tailed green ratsnakes look and behave 

like a species of venomous pit viper that lives 

in the same area, an example of mimicry. When 

threatened, they can compress laterally and 

inflate the first 1/3 of their bodies. They coil 

this region into an “S” that reaches above the 

rest of the body. This posture exposes black and 

white diagonal bands of tissue and presents an 

ominous threat to enemies. 

Madagascar Leaf-nosed Snake 

Langaha madagascariensis (Colubridae) 

Colubrids 


Habitat: Arboreal, lives in and on vines and 

branches. 

Appearance: Displays striking sexual 

dimorphism: male has a pointed snout and 

body with contrasting coloration; female 

has leaf-shaped snout and is uniformly dark 

brown. 


Remarks: Venomous; bites can produce severe 

local pain and swelling that may last for several 

days. Colubrids tend to chew when they bite, 

further envenomating and infecting the site. 

None of Madagascar’s more than 80 species 

of snakes is overly dangerous to humans. No 

adders, cobras, mambas, pythons, or vipers— 

just boas and colubrids. 

Burmese Vine Snake 

Ahaetulla fronticincta (Colubridae) 

Colubrids 

Distribution: Myanmar (formerly Burma). 

Habitat: Mostly arboreal in brackish mangrove 

swamps. 

Appearance: Length to perhaps 60 cm. Pencil 

thin, delicate; green and brown scales. Bulbous 

wide-set raised eyes. 

Diet: Diurnal hunter of small fish: gobies, and 

rice fish. Prey immobilized with mild venom 

from enlarged rear fangs. Visually-oriented 

hunter. 


internal. Viviparous. Newborn snakes are a 

subtle shade of brown. Polymorphic: some adults 

turn green, brown, or more rarely two-toned. 

Remarks: The Steinhart Aquarium was the first 

to display this species. Academy field research 

on this little-known species continues. 

An arboreally-adapted species that consumes 

fishes is an oddity. In the Steinhart, feed on 

guppies and goldfish. 

Steinhart’s vine shakes have bred and reproduced 

in captivity, a first for this species. 

CLASS AVES 

(BIRDS) 

African Penguin aka Jackass Penguin 

Spheniscus demersus (Spheniscidae) 

Distribution: Coasts of South Africa and 

Namibia. 

Habitat: Nests in colonies mainly on offshore 

islands. Rarely encountered more than 8 km 

from islands or mainland. 

Appearance: To 70 cm tall. Like most birds 

with shared parental duties, sexes are similar 

in appearance. Adults: upperparts blackishgrey, 

underparts mostly white with inverted 

221


black horseshoe extending down flank to thigh. 

Feet and legs black. Chicks arrive with secondary 

down feathers. Juveniles and immatures 

gradually come to resemble adults. 

Diet: Piscivorous. 

Reproduction and Development: Colonial 

nesters. Dig nesting burrows. 

Mortality/Longevity: May live to at least 25 

years. 

Conservation status: IUCN: vulnerable. 

Historically, egg-collecting by humans reduced 

populations. For example in 1897 

more than 700,000 eggs were collected from 

colonies near the Cape of Good Hope. African 

penguin populations have plummeted 

from 2 million in 1900 to less than 200,000, a 

90% decimation. Egg-collecting started that 

trend, and the downward spiral continues 

due to heavy shipping traffic. Oil spills and 

the careless discharge of oil kill penguins by 

reducing their ability to insulate themselves. 

The fishing industry continues to remove 

nutrition from the food web which would 

otherwise be available to penguins. Global 

warming, blamed in part on the increasing 

severity and number of fish population collapses, 

is also impacting penguins 

In July, 2007 the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

announced that the African penguin, along 

with 9 other penguin species, is under review 

for inclusion on the Federal List of Endangered 

Species. 

Remarks: The alternate common name “jackass” 

is a reference to its donkey-like vocalization. 

Members of the Academy’s colony are all captive-born. 

Hand-fed from birth. (CAS penguins 

will not eat live fish!) Twice daily fed thawed 

herring and capelin occasionally laced with 

medications for ailing birds. 

CAS is a participant of the AAZPA (American 

Association of Zoological Parks and Aquaria) 

SSP (Species Survival Program) for this species. 

CAS penguin pairs share the same colored 

wing band. Males wear their bands on their 

right wing, females on the left. 

Blue Ground Dove 

Claravis pretiosa (Columbidae) 

Distribution: Found in most of the New World 

tropical zone from Mexico to northwestern 

Peru, Bolivia, and northern Argentina; also 

Trinidad. 

Habitat: Semi-open rainforests. Also deciduous 

forest up to 1000 m. Common along forest 

edges. Though they feed on the ground, these 

doves are shy, mostly arboreal birds. 

Appearance: Relatively small pigeons. The 

male sports blue-grey upperparts and paler 

grey underparts, with gray-white face and 

wings marked with black. Female is greybrown 

on head, neck, and breast, with pale 

blue-grey belly, ruddy brown back, and 

chestnut rump and tail. Young resemble the 

female. Immature males similar to adult male, 

though some greyish brown feathers remain. 

Diet: Forages on the ground, feeding on seeds 

and small insects. 

Reproduction: Builds a flimsy nest of twigs 

high in a tree; lays two white eggs. 

Remarks: Found alone, in pairs, or in family 

groups. 

Call: a single, soft, repeated “coooo-oo.” 

Blue and Gold Macaw 

Ara ararauna (Psittacidae) 

True Parrots 

Distribution: Mexico, Central America, and 

northern South America. 

Habitat: Rainforests, where they live high in 

trees especially along swamps and rivers. 

Appearance: A striking bird with emerald 

crown topped with azure blue across the back 

and wings. Primary feathers meld to a deep 

cobalt blue with green tips. Chest a solid, eyecatching 

gold. Facial skin patch etched by lines 

of black feathers around the eyes. A large bird 

with a 1.2 meter wing span; weight up to 1.2 kg. 

Diet: Fruits, vegetable matter, seeds, nuts, 

leaves and bark. Also small animals. Beaks 

used for crushing seeds. In the course of daily 

feeding, macaws allow plenty of seeds (while 

eating, as well as in their droppings) to fall to 

the forest floor, thus generating forest growth. 

Reproduction: Breed readily in captivity and 

are popular in the pet trade. Sexual maturity 

reached at 3–6 years. Like other macaws, they 

form monogamous pairs. Nest is usually in 

hole of a tall dead tree. Female lays 1–3 eggs, 

incubating them for 24–26 days during which 

time the male feeds her. Young are precocial, 

born blind and almost naked. Female feeds 

them initially with regurgitated vegetable

matter; within a week, the male joins the effort. 

Young fledge after 4 months, may remain with 

parents for up to a year. 

Mortality/Longevity: Life span: about 50 years 

(some sources say 80 years). 

Conservation Status: Listed on CITES 

Appendix 2, indicating they may become rare 

or endangered if trade is not regulated. 

Remarks: A relatively calm bird which one 

source refers to as the golden retriever of the 

parrot family. 

Blue-golds are extremely intelligent, speak 

well, and can learn tricks. 

Powerful beaks exert great pressure, sufficient 

to crush seeds or even bite through a human 

finger, bone and all. Fortunately, these 

birds don’t bite handlers hard, preferring a 

reprimanding pinch instead. Beaks are also 

used as a “third foot” when climbing. 

In the wild, pairs are the principal grouping, 

though the birds often congregate in flocks of 

up to 30 birds. 

According to one source, blue and gold 

macaws are extremely intelligent, and will 

show their emotions or intentions by cocking 

their heads, vocalizing, flashing their eyes and 

blushing. They also use fluffing of the feathers, 

raising the wings, prancing, bowing, shaking 

their tail feathers, and head bobbing as forms 

of communication. 

This species is the most popular macaw 

among hobbyists. However, people should 

know blue-golds, like all parrots, are a longterm 

commitment given their life spans and 

require an extraordinary amount of positive 

interaction with their owners. 

Scarlet Macaw 

Ara macao (Psittacidae) 

True Parrots 

Distribution: From southeast Mexico through 

Central and South America to northern 

Argentina; especially in Amazon Basin. 

Habitat: In the rainforest canopy, mostly at 

altitudes below 1000 m. 

Description: Male and female are mostly 

scarlet on head, front, back, and main tail 

feathers. Scarlet is accented by brilliant blue 

and yellow on parts of flight and tail feathers 

and plumage on back. Face is contrasting 

white; large eyes are yellow. Beak is large and 


223 

deep “parrot bill” shape, ivory on upper bill, 

black on lower. Legs and feet are black. Young 

birds are similar in plumage, but eye is brown. 

Diet: Ripe fruit and nuts. The strong, powerful 

bill allows them to crack very hard nuts and 

pierce large unripe fruits, which are not 

available to the many other fruit-eating species. 

As with other parrot family members, the 

upper bill is highly hinged and can be raised 

and lowered with great force. They periodically 

eat clay to neutralize the acid of the unripe 

fruits. Also like other parrot family members, 

they bring food to their bill with one foot 

(usually the left one) while grasping branch 

with the other. 

Reproduction and Development: Macaws 

mate for life and reinforce the pair bond with 

frequent preening and rubbing each other. 

They nest in a found hole high in canopy tree, 

shaping it somewhat to their needs. Chipping 

inside the cavity, they create a chip and fiber 

cushion inside the nest to absorb chick waste. 

The body position for copulation is side-toside, 

rather than male on top of female, the 

male placing one wing and foot over the female 

as both turn towards each other to give cloacal 

contact. Mates may stay together on the nest, 

but the female incubates the 2–4 eggs for 24–27 

days. She is fed by the male. Young are fed 

regurgitated food by both parents. They are 

camouflaged in foliage, and sensing danger 

when nesting or feeding young, will freeze 

until threat is assessed. 

Mortality/Longevity: Adults are rarely preyed 

upon since size, aggressiveness, flight agility, 

habitat cover and camouflage offer protection. 

Young in nest may be taken by snakes, toucans, 

monkeys and African bees which may have a 

hive in cavity nest; fledglings are additionally 

prey for eagles, hawks. Life span: up to 50 

years. 

Remarks: Like other psittacids, macaws have a 

vocabulary of body language. Theirs includes 

“blushing” to indicate mood. They also hiss, 

ruffle feathers, raise and lower body, and 

threaten with one foot. Most aggressive posture 

is body and bill forward, hissing and up-anddown 

“push-ups.” 

They are strong fliers, with powerful, shallow 

wingbeats and very adept moving in trees, 

using their strong beaks as well as zygodactyl


feet to maneuver in branches. 

They can be aggressive and territorial. 

Red-legged Honeycreeper 

Cyanerpes cyaneus (Thraupidae) 

Tanagers, Honeycreepers, Euphonias and their 

Allies 

Distribution: Widespread from southern 

Mexico to Peru, Bolivia, Brazil and some 

Caribbean Islands. 

Habitat: Prefer crown of deciduous forests but 

are also common in semi-open, second growth 

and gardens in shrub and understory. 

Description: Male red-legged honeycreeper 

is a striking dark violet-blue on its face, 

undersides and neck, set off by black eye 

patches, wings, tail and upper back. The crown 

is bright turquoise, the underwings yellow. The 

black bill is fairly long and decurved. Its legs 

are brilliant red. The male molts to the female 

plumage colors: greenish paler below with 

slight streaks and rufous legs. Size: c. 12 cm; 

weight: 14 grams. 

Diet: Primarily fruit eaters, honeycreepers 

also depend on nectar sipped from blossoms 

while perching. Trees with arillate seeds (small 

fleshy-covered seeds often within a pod) 

are also a frequent food. They often come to 

feeders for fruit and nectar, joining small mixed 

flocks of birds with similar food preferences. 

Active and restless, they move through foliage 

often in groups of 15 – 20 seeking food trees. 

Keep in contact with constant ‘tsip’ notes. 

Reproduction and Development: Pair jointly 

build a thin, somewhat flimsy cup of fiber and 

grasses, small twigs and moss, and fasten it 

to the fork of a slender branch with cobwebs, 

usually 10–15 feet above ground. Two brownspotted 

white eggs are incubated by the female 

for 12–13 days; both parents feed the young 

for 14 days. 

Mortality/Longevity: Preyed upon by hawks 

and snakes. 

Remarks: The male’s striking brilliant blue, 

turquoise and yellow plumage colors, and 

the startling red legs impress human visitors, 

who often have a chance to see birds which 

are drawn to fruit and nectar feeders. Out of 

breeding season, they join in fairly large mixed 

flocks. 

Silver-beaked Tanager 

Ramphocelus carbo (Thraupidae) 

Tanagers, Honeycreepers, Euphonias and their 

Allies 

Distribution: Resident breeder in South 

America from Colombia and Venezuela south 

to Paraguay and central Brazil as well as on 

Trinidad. 

Habitat: Light woodland and cultivated areas. 

Appearance: Adult male: velvety crimson back 

with deep crimson throat and breast; upper 

mandible black, lower mandible bright silver. 

Female: duller; brownish upperparts and 

reddish brown underparts, throat, and breast. 

Diet: Mainly fruit as well as insects. 

Reproduction: Clutch of 2 green-blue eggs 

blotched with black-brown are laid in bulky 

cup nest usually built at lower forest level. 

Female incubates eggs for 11–12 days before 

they hatch. Chicks fledge 11–12 days later. 

Remarks: These social birds tend to be noisy, 

traveling in groups of 4–8 in the wild. 

Our rainforest birds have already nested, 

hatched, and fledged! 

Red-shouldered Tanager 

Tachyphonus phoenicius (Thraupidae) 

Distribution: Tropical to sub-tropical South 

America: Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, 

French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and 

Venezuela. 

Habitat: Dry shrubland or seasonally wet 

or flooded lowland grassland. Also open 

rainforest, to 2000 m. 

Appearance: Male: glossy black, point of 

shoulder red. Female: top and sides of head 

dark brownish grey as are back, wings, and 

tail. Underparts a dull white, sides of throat a 

brighter white. 

Diet: Usually forage in pairs. 

Rufous-crowned Tanager 

Tangara cayana (Thraupidae) 

Distribution: Tropical to sub-tropical areas of 

South America. 

Habitat: Favors tropical moist lowland forests, 

but also found in open terrain with scattered 

trees and in cultivated areas. 

Appearance: Male: crown a bright coppery 

rufous; sides of the head black; throat and 

breast dark greenish blue; back a shining

opalescent straw color; underparts light 

orange-yellow. Female: much duller; lacks the 

male’s distinctive dark throat patch. 

Diet: Fruit and insects; forages in flocks from 

low levels to treetops. 

Reproduction: 2 eggs laid in open cup nest. 

Paradise Tanager 

Tangara chilensis (Thraupidae) 

Distribution: South America: common in 

Venezuela, Peru, Colombia, Ecuador, Brazil. 

Habitat: Canopy and edges of subtropical to 

tropical lowland humid forests, including parts 

of the Amazon basin and upwards to 1400 m. 

Often moves in mixed flocks. 

Appearance: Striking colors: top and sides 

of head bright apple-green, black upper body 

plumage, lower back scarlet, underparts a bright 

turqoise. Beak and legs black. Sexes similar. 

Diet: Mainly fruit, buds, leaves. Forage from 

middle heights to treetops. Also, like other 

Tangara tanagers, picks insects from leaves or 

sometimes takes them in flight. Often moves 

and feeds in mixed flocks. 

Reproduction: Female builds a cup nest where 

she lays two or three brown- or lilac-speckled 

white eggs. Eggs hatch in 13–14 days; chicks 

fledge in additional 15–16 days. Nestlings 

are feed insects and fruit by both male and 

female. 

Remarks: In Spanish, called “sieite colores” for 

its seven-colored appearance: green, yellow, 

scarlet, black, and three colors of blue feathers 

adorn this handsome bird. 

Turquoise Tanager 

Tangara mexicana (Thraupidae) 

Distribution: Trinidad, Colombia, and 

Venezuela, much of Brazil, and south to 

Bolivia. 

Habitat: Rainforest, mangroves, open 

woodland and cultivated areas. 

Appearance: Head, throat, breast, lower back 

and rump a cornflower blue; bright turquoise 

shoulder patches and pale yellow lower 

underparts. Bill and legs black. Lower neck 

spotted with white; body with patches of black. 

Sexes similar. 

Diet: Variety of fruits as well as insects, often 

gleaned from twigs. Forages from ground to 

treetops. 


225 

Reproduction: Builds bulky cup nest in tree or 

shrub. Female incubates three brown-blotched 

grey-green eggs for about 12–14 days. 

Remarks: Call: sharp, twittering chirps. 

Opal-rumped Tanager 

Tangara velia (Thraupidae) 

Distribution: Bolivia, Ecuador, French Guiana, 

Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela. 

Habitat: Tropical forests, from emergent to 

shrub layer, especially lowland rainforests and 

the forest edge, though found in some areas 

up to 1200 m. 

Appearance: Upperparts mostly black; 

underparts a deep-violet blue. Rump an 

opalescent silvery green. Beak, feet, and legs 

are black. Female differs from male by having 

glistening blue green rather than purplish blue 

on sides of head. 

Diet: Usually forages in the canopy or emergent 

layer mostly for fruits and berries. 

Occasionally pick insects from leaves or takes 

them in flight. 

Reproduction: Female constructs wellconcealed 

cup nest and typically lays clutch of 

2 grayish-white eggs dotted with darker gray. 

Incubation: 13–14 days; chicks fledge 15–16 

days after hatching. Both male and female feed 

hatchlings a diet of insects and fruit, and are 

often assisted by same-species helpers. 

Remarks: Generally seen in pairs and/or small 

groups of mixed species. 

Emit a high-pitched twitter in flight. 

Blue-gray Tanager 

Thraupis episcopus (Thraupidae) 

Distribution: Found mainly from central 

Mexico to northern parts of Boliva and Brazil. 

Common throughout much of Costa Rica. 

Habitat: Semi-open habitats; often found near 

cultivated areas, especially fruit orchards. 

Appearance: Male: pale blue-gray color with a 

darker blue-gray back, bright sky blue wings 

and tail, a blackish bill, and large, black eyes. 

Female and young are grayer. 

Diet: Insects, spiders, and fruit. Also 

occasionally eat flowers, leaves, and nectar. 

Reproduction: Female incubates 2 eggs laid 

in open cup nest for 12–14 days; once eggs 

hatch, both parents feed young, which fledge 

in about 17 days.


Remarks: The species is quite vocal and social. 

Pairs or groups participate in noisy singing and 

chattering, though the song is not particularly 

musical. 

As fruit-eaters, these birds play an important 

role in seed dispersal for trees and shrubs in 

the tropics. 

Like many small tropical birds, they are preyed 

upon by cats, both wild and domestic, snakes, 

and birds of prey. 

Saffron Finch 

Sicalis flaveola (Thraupidae) 

Distribution: Common in the South American 

tropics of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, 

Brazil, and Argentina. 

Habitat: Open and semi-open forests and fields 

from lowland areas to 1850 m. Prefer drier areas; 

generally reside outside the Amazon basin. 

Appearance: Forehead and crown bright 

orange. Yellow head, greenish-yellow mantle 

and back, bright yellow underparts. Female 

duller above and lighter below. Bill brownishgrey, 

legs pink. 

Diet: Forage in pairs or larger groups for seeds, 

insects, and plant matter. 

Reproduction: Nest in tree hollows, though 

use nesting boxes in captivity. Female lays 3–4 

white eggs; incubation, 12–14 days. Female 

incubates the eggs, male guards the nest. After 

eggs hatch, both parents feed the young, and 

fledging takes place in about 2 weeks. 

Remarks: Saffron finches are a favorite caged 

bird because of their handsome colors and 

pleasant song. 

Violaceous Euphonia 

Euphonia violacea (Fringillidae) 

Distribution: Trinidad and eastern Venezuela 

south to Argentina. 

Habitat: Forests, including second growth and 

plantations. 

Appearance: A very small, tit-sized bird. Males 

are glossy blue-black on head and back, with 

contrasting yellow forehead, breast and belly. 

Females are green above, yellow-green below. 

Diet: Specialized small fruit and berry eaters, 

and particularly feed on mistletoe berries which 

their digestive tracks can manage without 

activating the toxins. They often move and eat 

in mixed flocks with other small fruit eaters. 

Reproduction: The female incubates 3–4 white 

eggs blotched with red in a ball nest formed in 

a cavity of a stump, bank or tree. 

Remarks: These are highly social birds, moving 

in mixed flocks of other birds. The mixed flocks 

provide some defensive safety with different 

levels of alertness to predators. 

As specialists on mistletoe and some other 

toxic berries, Euphonias have weak, digestive 

systems adapted to removing the flesh of the 

mistletoe berries without disturbing the toxic 

viscin layer surrounding each seed. Within 

ten minutes they can excrete the sticky strings 

of seeds by vigorous rear end movements, 

scraping them onto twigs and branches where 

the seeds have a chance to fall and germinate— 

good for the bird and good for the seeds! 

Yellow-green Grosbeak 

Caryothraustes canadensis (Cardinalidae) 

Distribution: Brazil, Colombia, French Guiana, 

Panama, Suriname, and Venezuela. 

Habitat: Tropical to subtropical moist lowland 

forest; also found on heavily degraded forest 

lands as well as suburban and cultivated areas 

up to 1000 m. 

Appearance: Male: olive yellow with black face, 

with the back less bright than crown and nape. 

Female: similar to male, except slightly duller; 

crown and nape are similar in color to the back. 

Diet: Mostly seed eaters, well equipped for 

this diet by their heavy bills. Also eat insects 

and occasional vegetable matter. Forage from 

medium heights to treetops, often in flocks. 

Remarks: Some birds commonly called 

“grosbeaks” and “tanagers,” such as the 

Yellow-green Grosbeak and the local Blackheaded 

Grosbeak (Pheucticus melanocephalus) 

and Western Tanager (Piranga ludoviciana) are 

now classified as members of the Cardinal 

family. 

Banaquit 

Coereba flaveola (Coerebidae) 

Bananaquits 

Distribution: Widespread in Central and South 

America, from southeast Mexico to northern 

Argentina, and in the West Indies. 

Habitat: Flourishes in different habitats that 

provide vegetation and flowers for food: 

canopy, forest edges, open second growth and

human inhabited areas. 

Description: Small, short-tailed and -legged 

bird, length about 10 cm, weight 4 grams. Both 

male and female plumage on chest, belly and 

upper rump are bright yellow, back and head 

are dark gray accenting a striking wide, white 

eyebrow stripe and throat. Bill is black, short 

and slender, and slightly decurved. 

Diet: Primarily nectar feeders, bananaquits 

seek small flowers for nectar and use sharp 

bill to pierce larger ones when its bill cannot 

otherwise reach the nectar. They also suck 

juices of berries and ripe fruits and nibble 

on bananas. Feeds in pairs or solo, short 

strong legs and feet allow acrobatic postures 

to probe or pierce flowers for nectar, even 

feeding upside down. They also pick bark for 

small insects. They readily join mixed flocks 

of tanagers, honeycreepers and warblers at 

feeders. 

Reproduction and Development: Both 

parents, but often primarily the male, build a 

brooding nest and also several roosting nests. 

Nest is a compact globe of leaves and plant 

fibre, lined with seed down, moss, and feathers. 

The round entry doorway faces down (to 

discourage snakes). Nest is usually 10 -50 feet 

up. Two eggs are brown-spotted white, which 

the female incubates 12–13 days. Both parents 

feed young regurgitated food for 17–19 days. 

Their period of incubation and feeding young 

are unique, as is the shape of their nest and 

the building of adjacent “dormitory” nests, 

where they roost or sleep when not actively 

incubating. They also have an exceptionally 

long breeding season, lasting all year except 

from March to May, and often raise three 

broods. 

Mortallity/Longevity: Like other small 

passerines, vulnerable to hawks, snakes. 

Remarks: Banaquits have adapted well to 

human impact on the environment. They are 

highly sociable and common in inhabited 

areas, mixing with other species at feeders 

and in gardens and farm areas. People enjoy 

their acrobatic stances to get nectar. Unlike 

suspended hummingbirds, bananaquits 

must get nectar as they grasp twigs. Like 

some other small, sharp-billed birds such as 

honeycreepers, they pierce the base of large 

flowers to get nectar their short bills cannot 


reach, thus thwarting the pollination strategy 

of the flowers. 

They communicate with sharp, piercing ‘tsip,’ 

and have no melodious song. 

Their period of incubation and feeding young 

are unique, as is the shape of their nest and 

the building of adjacent “dormitory” nests, 

where they roost or sleep when not actively 

incubating. They also have an exceptionally 

long breeding season, lasting all year except 

from March to May, and often raise three 

broods. 

Taxonomically, they have recently become 

the only remaining genus in their family, now 

considered unique, but that may change again, 

as som experts place them in the Thraupidae, 

the tanager family. 

CLASS MAMMALIA 

(MAMMALS) 

ORDER CHIROPTERA 

(BATS) 

Dog-faced Fruit Bat 

Cynopterus brachyotis (Pteropodidae) 

Fruit Bats 

Distribution: Southeast Asia including 

Sri Lanka, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, 

southern Myanmar, Thailand, southern China, 

Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines and Borneo. 

Habitat: Tropical forests and open country. 

Roost in caves, deserted mines, under the eaves 

of buildings, occasionally in hollow trees. 

Appearance: Wingspan to ~45 cm; weight to 

~100 g. Pelage is dense and variable in color, 

but typically olive-brown. Prominent, almost 

tubular nostrils. The upper lip is divided by a 

vertical groove. 

Diet: Fruits of many plants, including palms, 

figs, guavas, plantains, mangoes, chinaberries 

and, occasionally, flowers. Subsist primarily on 

fruit juice, little pulp ingested. May travel more 

than 100 km in one night to feed. 

Reproduction and Development: Gestation 

~120 days. Mothers carry their single offspring 

during the early part of its life. 

Mortality/Longevity: Sold in markets in 

northern Thailand as “medicine.” Eaten in 

227


some Asian cutltures “for strength.” 

Remarks: This is the only old world fruit bat 

known to build shelters; individuals occasionally 

bite off the center seed string in palm fruit clusters, 

resulting in a hollow from which to hang. 

Fruit-eating bats are important in seed dispersal 

and the pollination of many plant species. 

Like all Old World fruit bats, does not echolocate, 

depending instead on vision for orientation–note 

large eyes–and acute sense of smell 

to find food.

CALIFORNIA ROCKY COAST - MAIN TANK 

Bull kelp 

Nereocystis luetkeana 

Giant plumose anemone 

Metridium giganteum 

Aggregating anemone 

Anthopleura elegantissima 

Painted Urticina 

Urticina crassicornis 

229 


Club-tipped anemone 

Corynactis californica 

Cloned plumose anemone 

Medtridium senile 

Giant green sea anemone 

Anthopleura xanthogrammica 

Rose anemone 

Urticina lofotensis


230 

Fish-eating anemone 

Urticina piscivora 

Gumboot chiton 

Cryptochiton stelleri 

Rough keyhole limpet 

Diodora aspera 

Giant rock scallop 

Crassedoma giganteum 

Lloyd Gomez E. Eugenia Patten © CAS 

Marguerite Marguerite Gregory Gregory © © CAS 

CAS Gary Ron McDonald DeCloux 

Stephen Lonhart Gary McDonald / NOAA Stephen Lonhart Ron DeCloux / NOAA 

Sherry Ballard Ron DeCloux © CAS 

Mossy chiton 

Mopalia muscosa 

Red abalone 

Haliotis rufescens 

California mussel 

Mytilus californianus 

Red rock crab 

Cancer productus 

Ron DeCloux 

Sherry Jan Haaga Ballard / © NOAA CAS

Red sea urchin 


Giant acorn barnacle 

Balanus nubilus 

Bat star 

Asterina miniata 

Giant sea star 

Pisaster giganteum 

231 


Sherry Ballard © CAS Sherry Ballard © CAS 

Gary McDonald 

Purple sea urchin 


Gooseneck barnacle 

Pollicipes polymerus 

Pink star 

Pisaster brevispinus 

Ochre star 

Pisaster ochraceus 

Sherry Ballard © CAS 

Ron DeCloux Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux


232 

Leather star 

Dermasterias imbricata 

Leopard shark 

Triakis semifasciata 

Red Irish lord 

Hemilepidotus hemilepidotus 

Gopher rockfish 

Sebastes carnatus 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

NOAA 

Blood star 

Henricia leviuscula 

Jacksmelt 

Atherinopsis californiensis 

Brown rockfish 

Sebastes auriculatus 

Copper rockfish 

Sebastes caurinus 

Gerald & Buff Corsi © CAS 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux Ron DeCloux

Black & yellow rockfish 

Sebastes chrysomelas 

Quillback rockfish 

Sebastes maliger 

Vermillion rockfish 

Sebastes miniatus 

China rockfish 

Sebastes nebulosus 

Ron DeCloux 

NOAA 

Ron DeCloux 

233 


Starry rockfish 

Sebastes constellatus 

Black rockfish 

Sebastes melanops 

Blue rockfish 

Sebastes mystinus 

Tiger rockfish 

Sebastes nigrocinctus 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux


234 

Bococcio rockfish 

Sebastes paucispinis 

Rosy rockfish 

Sebastes rosaceus 

Olive rockfish 

Sebastes serranoides 

California scorpionfish 

Scorpaena guttata 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Peter Atjai 

Canary rockfish 

Sebastes pinniger 

Flag rockfish 

Sebastes rubrivinctus 

Treefish 

Sebastes serriceps 

Cabezon 

Scorpaenichthys marmoratus 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux

Kelp greenling (male) 

Hexagrammos decagrammus 

Painted greenling 

Oxylebius pictus 

Redtail surfperch 

Amphistichus rhodoterus 

Black surfperch 

Embiotoca jacksoni 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

235 


Kelp greenling (female) 

Hexagrammos decagrammus 

Ocean whitefish 

Caulolatilus princeps 

Pile perch 

Damalichthys vacca 

Striped surfperch 

Embiotoca lateralis 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux


236 

Walleye surfperch 

Hyperprosopon argenteum 

Rubberlip surfperch 

Rhacochilus toxotes 

C-O turbot 

Pleuronichthys coenosus 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Rainbow surfperch 

Hypsurus caryi 

Wolf eel 

Anarrhichthys ocellatus 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux

237 

California Coast Southern California Tank 237 

SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA TANK - CALIFORNIA COAST EXHIBIT 

Giant kelp (synthetic) 

Macrocystis pyrifera 

Red gorgonian 

Lophogorgia chilensis 

Wavy turban snail 

Lithopoma undosum 

Warty sea cucumber 

Parastichopus parvimensis 


Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

CAS 

Laminaria (synthetic) 

Laminaria sp. 

Ron DeCloux 

Golden and brown gorgonians 

Muricea spp. 

Blood star 



Swell shark 

Cephaloscyllium ventriosum 

Ron DeCloux


238 

California scorpionfish (juvenile) 

Scorpaena guttata 

Treefish (juvenile) 

Sebastes serriceps 

Opaleye 

Paralabrax clathratus 

Blacksmith 

Chromis punctipinnis 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Gopher rockfish 

Sebastes carnatus 

Kelp bass 


Halfmoon 

Medialuna californiensis 

Garibaldi 

Hypsypops rubicundus 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux

Rock wrasse (initial stage) 

Halichoeres semicinctus 

Senorita wrasse 

Oxyjulis californica 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

239 

California Coast Southern California Tank 239 

Rock wrasse (terminal male) 

Halichoeres semicinctus 

California Sheephead 

Semicossyphus pulcher 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux

240 240 A Docent & Guide View of the Steinhart Aquarium Species 

DISCOVERY TIDEPOOL - CALIFORNIA COAST EXHIBIT 

Red algae 

Sea lettuce 

Ulva sp. 


Iridescent seaweed 

Iridea sp. 

Sea sacs 

Halosaccion glandiforme 

Gary McDonald 


Encrusting and articulating 

coralline algae 

Coralllina sp. 

Turkish towel 

Mastocarpus papillatus 

Rockweed 

Fucus sp. 

Feather boa kelp 

Egregia menziesii 

Gary McDonald 

NOAA 

Ron DeClouz

Giant kelp 


Orange cup coral 

Balanophyllia elegans 

Cloned plumose anemone 

Medtridium senile 

Gumboot chiton 

Cryptochiton stelleri 

Ron DeClouz 

Discovery Tidepool 

Oar weed 

Laminaria sp. 

Eugene Webber © CAS Gerald & Buff Corsi © CAS 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Aggregating anemone 

Anthopleura elegantissima 

Giant green anemone 

Anthopleura xanthogrammica 

Red abalone 

Haliotis rufescens 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

241 

241


Owl limpet 

Lottia gigantea 

Blue ring top snail 

Calliostoma annulatum 

Red top snail 

Lithopoma gibberosum 

California sea hare 

Aplysia california 

L. & L. Langstroth 


NOAA Gary McDonald 

Rough keyhole limpet 

Megathura crenulata 

Blue top snail 

Calliostoma ligatum 

Black turban snails 

Tegula spp. 

L. & L. Langstroth 

Steve Lonhart / NOAA 

Opalescent nudibranch 

Hermissenda crassicornis 

Ron DeCloux

California mussel 

Mytilus californianus 

Red rock crab 

Cancer productus 

Northern kelp crab 

Pugettia producta 



Purple shore crab 

Hemigraspus nudus 


Ron DeCloux 


Red octopus 

Octopus rubescens 

Green shore crab 

Hemigrapsus oregonensis 

Decorator (or masking) crab 

Loxorhynchus crispatus 

Hermit crab 

Pagurus spp. 

P. D. Hershman 

CAS 

Peter Atjai 

Gary McDonald 

243 

243


Striped shore crab 

Pachygraspus crassipes 

Gooseneck barnacle 

Pollicipes polymerus 

Pink sea star 

Pisaster brevispinus 

Giant sea star 

Pisaster giganteus 




Gary McDonald 

Acorn barnacle 

Balanus glandula 

Bat star 

Asterina miniata 

Charles Webber © CAS 

George W. Robinson © CAS 

Leather star 

Dermasterias imbricata 

Ochre star 

Pisaster ochraceus 


Sherry Ballard © CAS


Blood star 


Skate egg case 

Raja sp. 


Red sea urchin 



California sea cucumber 

Parastichopus californicus 



Brittle star 

Family Ophiodermatidae 


Purple sea urchin 


Warty sea cucumber 

Parastichopus parvimensis 

Swell shark egg case 

Cephaloscyllium ventriosum 

John White 

245 

245


Horn shark egg case 

Heterodontus francisci 

Dwarf surfperch 

Micrometrus minimus 

Penpoint gunnel 

Apodichthys flavidus 

CAS 

Ron Wolf 

Tidepool sculpin 

Oligocottus spp. 

Shiner surfperch 

Cymatogaster aggregata

GIANTS TANK - CALIFORNIA COAST EXHIBIT 

Giant kelp (synthetic) 


Ron DeCloux 

White-spotted rose anemone 

Urticina lofotensis 

California horn shark 

Heterodontus francisci 

Garibaldi 

Hypsypops rubicundus 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

247 

California Coast Giants Tank 247 

Gorgonian 

Muricea sp. 

Sunflower sea star 

Pycnopodia helianthoides 

California moray eel 

Gymnothorax mordax 

Giant sea bass 

Stereolepis gigas 

Ron DeCloux 


Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron D

248 248 A Docent Field Guide to the Species of the Steinhart Aquarium 

Kelp bass 


Lingcod 

Ophiodon elongatus 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

California halibut 

Paralichthys californicus 

Ron DeCloux


PHILIPPINE CORAL REEF LAGOON AND MANGROVE POP-UP 

Blacktip reef shark 

Carcharhinus melanopterus 

Javanese cownose ray 

Rhinoptera javanica 

Pacific tarpon 

Megalops cyprinoids 

Neon damselfish 

Neoglyphidodon oxyodon 


Bowmouth guitarfish 

Rhina ancylostoma 


Bluespotted stingray 

Dasyatis kuhlii 


Ron DeCloux 

Mono 

Monodactylus argenteus 

Moon wrasse 

Thalassoma lunare 

Ron DeCloux

250 

250250250 

A Docent Field Guide to Species of the Steinhart Aquarium 

Canary wrasse 

Halichoeres chrysus 

Naso 

Naso sp. 

Ron DeCloux 

Barred mudskipper 

Periophthalmus argentilineatus 

Maori wrasse 

Cheilinus undulatus 

Red mangrove 

Rhizophora mangle

SEAGRASS SHALLOWS - PHILIPPINE CORAL REEF 

Bryopsis algae 

Bryopsis sp. 

Zooanthids 

Zoanthus spp. 

Cauliflower coral 

Pocillopora damicornis 

Meat coral 

Acanthophyllia deshayesiana 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 


Striped mushrooms 

Discosoma sp. 

Sarcophyton 

Sarcophyton sp. 

Acanthastrea 

Acamtastrea sp. 

Lobophyllia 

Lobophyllia sp. 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux

252 

252252252 


Open brain coral 

Trachyphyllia geoffroyi 

Euphyllia coral 

Euphyllia sp. 

Magnificent sea anemone 

Heteractis magnifica 

Tridacna clam 

Tridacna derasa 

Ron DeCloux 

Sandy Linder 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Corkscrew tentacle sea anemone 

Macrodactyla doreensis 

Bubble coral 

Plerogyra sp. 

Bubbletip sea anemone 

Entacmea quadricolor 

Tridacna clam 

Tridacna gigas 

Sandy Linder 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux

Tridacna clam 

Tridacna squamosa 

Long-spined sea urchin 

Diadema setosum 

False clown anemonefish 

Amphiprion ocellaris 

Yellowtail blue damselfish 

Chrysiptera parasema 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 


Tridacna clam 

Tridacna maxima 

Jewel fairy basslet 

Pseudanthias squamapinnis 

Green chromis 

Chromis viridis 

Banded goby 

Amblygobius phalaena 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux

254 

254254254 


Orangebanded surgeonfish 

Acanthurus olivaceous 

Ron DeCloux 

Palette tang 

Paracanthurus hepatus 

Ron DeCloux

PHILIPPINE CORAL REEF MAIN TANK 

Sarcophyton 

Sarcophyton sp. 

Lobophytum 

Lobophytum sp. 

Pacific gorgonian 

Rhumphella sp. 

Hairy mushroom 

Rhodactis sp. 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 


Sinularia 

Sinularia sp. 

Pacific gorgonian 

Rhumphella sp. 

Beaded mushroom 

Discosoma sp. 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Bullseye mushroom 

Rhodactis inchoata

256 

256256256 


Blue coral 

Heliopora coerulea 

Cat’s paw coral 

Stylophora sp. 

Elkhorn coral 

Acropora sp. 

Cactus coral 

Pavona sp. 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Cauliflower coral 

Pocillopora damicornis 

Montipora capricornis 

Staghorn coral 

Acropora sp. 

Disk coral 

Cycloseris or Fungia sp. 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux

Galaxy coral 

Galaxea fascicularis 

Acanthastrea 

Acanthastrea sp. 

Horn coral 

Hydnophora grandis 

Plating hydnophora 

Hydnophora sp. 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 


Acanthastrea 

Acanthastrea sp. 

Symphyllia 

Syphyllia sp. 

Horn coral 

Hydnophora rigida 

Maze coral 

Platygra sp. 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux

258 

258258258 


Maze coral 

Platygra sp. 

Moon coral 

Diploastrea helipora 

Closed brain coral 

Favites sp. 

Bubble coral 

Plerogyra sp. 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Trumpet coral 

Caulastrea sp. 

Moon coral 

Favia sp. 

Euphyllia coral 

Euphyllia sp. 

Turbinaria cup coral 

Turbinaria reniformes 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Sandy Linder 

Ron DeCloux

Bubbletip sea anemone 

Entacmea quadricolor 

Magnificent anemone 

Heteractis magnifica 

Giant clam 

Tridacna sp. 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 


Leathery sea anemone 

Heteractis crispa 

Giant carpet anemone 

Stichodactyla gigantea 

Blue linckia sea star 

Linckia laevigata 

Sandy Linder 

Ron DeCloux Ron DeCloux

260 

260260260 


Spotted garden eel 

Heteroconger hassi 

Red-cheeked fairy basslet 

Pseudanthias huchti 

Jewel fairy basslet (male) 

Pseudanthias squamipinnis 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Jewel fairy basslet (female) 


Soldierfish 

Myripristis sp. 

Squarespot anthias 

Pseudanthias pleurotaenia 

Jewel fairy basslet (male) 


Spotted cardinalfish 

Apogon maculatus 

NOAA 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux

Seale’s cardinalfish 

Apogon sealei 

Ron DeCloux 

Yellow and blueback fusilier 

Caesio teres 

Striped large-eye bream 

Gnathodentex aurolineatus 

Longnose butterflyfish 

Forcipiger longirostris 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux DeCloux 


Gerald and Buff Corsi © CAS 

Pajama cardinalfish 

Sphaeramia nematoptera 

Bluestreak fusilier 

Pterocaesio tile 

Copperband butterflyfish 

Chelmon rostratus 

Pyramid butterflyfish 

Hemitaurichthys polylepis 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux

262 

262262262 


Bannerfish 

Heniochus diphreutes 

Flame angelfish 

Centropyge loricula 

Lamarck’s angelfish (female) 

Genicanthus lamarck 

Emperor angelfish 

Pomacanthus imperator 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Lemonpeel angelfish 

Centropyge flavissimus 

Lamarck’s angelfish (male) 

Genicanthus lamarck 

Ron DeCloux 

Blackspot angelfish (male) 

Genicanthus melanospilos 

Blue-girdled angelfish 

Pomacanthus navarchus 

Ron DeCloux

Clark’s anemonefish 

Amphiprion clarkii 

Ternate chromis 

Chromis ternatensis 

Yellowtail blue damselfish 

Chrysiptera parasema 

Blacktail damselfish 

Dascyllus melanurus 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 


False clown anemonefish 

Amphiprion ocellaris 

Green chromis 

Chromis viridis 

Southseas devil (female) 

Chrysiptera taupou 

Goldbelly damselfish 

Pomacentrus auriventris 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux

264 

264264264 


Ron DeCloux 

Spinecheek anemonefish 

Premnas biaculeatus 

Longnose hawkfish 

Oxycirrhites typus 

Exquisite fairy wrasse 

Cirrhilabrus exquisitus 

Lubbock’s fairy wrasse 

Cirrhilabrus lubbocki 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Harlequin tuskfish 

Choerodon fasciatus 

Flame hawkfish 

Neocirrhites armatus 

Yellowfin fairy wrasse 

Cirrhilabrus flavidorsalis 

Redeye fairy wrasse 

Cirrhilabrus solorensis 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux

Bird wrasse 

Gomphosus varius 

Pastel green wrasse 

Halichoeres chloropterus 

Striped cleaner wrasse 

Labroides dimidiatus 

Sixline wrasse 

Pseudocheilinus hexataenia 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 


Canary wrasse 

Halichoeres chrysus 

Two-tone wrasse 

Halichoeres prosopeion 

Leopard wrasse 

Macropharyngodon meleagris 

Sixbar wrasse 

Thalassoma hardwicke 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux

266 

266266266 


Moon wrasse 

Thalassoma lunare 

Midas blenny 

Ecsenius midas 

Jeweled blenny 

Salarias fasciatus 

Bluestreak goby 

Valenciennea strigata 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Bicolor blenny 

Ecsenius bicolor 

Ron DeCloux 

Convict blenny (engineerfish) 

Pholidichthys leucotaenia 

Zebra goby 

Ptereleotris zebra 

Blue spotted spinefoot 

Siganus corallinus 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux

Orange spotted spinefoot 

Siganus guttatus 

Gold spotted spinefoot 

Siganus punctatus 

Foxface rabbitfish 

Siganus vulpinis 

Achilles surgeonfish 

Acanthurus achilles 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 


Masked spinefoot 

Siganus puellus 

Barhead spinefoot 

Siganus virgatus 

Blotched foxface rabbitfish 

Siganus unimaculatus 

Ringtail surgeonfish 

Acanthurus blochii 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux

268 

268268268 


Eyestripe surgeonfish 

Acanthurus dussumieri 

Lined surgeonfish 

Acanthurus lineatus 

Bluelined surgeonfish 

Acanthurus nigroris 

Orangeband surgeonfish 

Acanthurus olivaceous 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Powder brown tang 

Acanthurus japonicus 

Mata tang 

Acanthurus mata 

Goldrim tang 

Acanthurus nigricans 

Mimic surgeonfish 

Acanthurus pyroferus 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux

Convict tang 

Acanthurus triostegus 

Tomini tang 

Ctenochaetus tominiensis 

Spotted unicornfish 

Naso brevinostris 

Bluespine unicornfish 

Naso unicornis 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 


Goldring bristletooth 

Ctenochaetus strigosus 

Palette tang 

Paracanthurus hepatus 

Orangespine unicornfish 

Naso lituratus 

Bignose unicornfish 

Naso vlamingii 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux

270 

270270270 


Brown scopas tang 

Zebrasoma scopas 

Clown triggerfish 

Balistoides conspicillum 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Pinktail triggerfish 

Melichthys vidua 

Blackbar triggerfish 

Rhinecanthus aculeatus 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Pacific sailfin tang 

Zebrasoma veliferum 

Black triggerfish 

Melichthys niger 

Redtooth triggerfish 

Odonus niger 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Gilded triggerfish (male) 

Xanthichthys auromarginatus

Ron DeCloux 

Gilded triggerfish (female) 

Xanthichthys auromarginatus 

Philippine Coral Reef Main Tank 271

272 


CARIBBEAN REEF TANK 

Encrusting gorgonian 

Erythropodium caribaeorum 

Sea rod 

Plexaura sp. 

Sea rod 

Pseudoplexaura sp. 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Purple frilly sea plume 

Pseudopterogorgia elizabethae 

Sea plume 

Muriceopsis flavida 

Slit-pore sea rod 

Plexaurella sp. 

Sea plume 

Pseudopterogorgia sp. 


Zoanthid colony polyps 

Protopalythoa grandis 

Sandy Linder 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux

Warty Corallimorpharian 

Discosoma sp. 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ricordea mushroom 

Ricordea florida 

Pencil sea urchin 

Eucidaris tribuloides 

Eugene Webber © CAS 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Queen angelfish (adolescent) 

Holacanthus ciliaris 

273 


Condylactis anemone 

Condylactis sp. 

Sun anemone 

Stichodactyla helianthus 

Cherubfish 

Centropyge argi 

Flame cardinalfish 

Apogon maculatus 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux

274 


Reef butterflyfish 

Chaetodon sedentarius 

Chalk bass 

Serranus tortugarum 

Beaugregory 

Stegastes leucostictus 

Yellowhead wrasse 

Halichoeres garnoti 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Sandy Ron DeCloux Linder 

Ron DeCloux 

Harlequin bass 

Serranus tigrinus 

Blue chromis 

Chromis cyanea 

Spanish hogfish 

Bodianus rufus 

Royal gramma 

Gramma loreto 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux 

Ron DeCloux

Redspotted hawkfish 

Amblycirrhitus pinos 

Ron DeCloux 

275 


Blue tang 

Acanthurus coeruleus 

Ron DeCloux


THE NEOTROPICAL FOREST 

Black olive tree 

Bucida buceras 

Water chestnut 

Pachira aquatica 

Peach Palm 

Bactris gasipaes 

Water chestnut Pachira aquatica (left) 

Peach palm (upper right) 

Brazilian beauty leaf 

Calophyllum brasiliense 

West Indies mahogany 

Swietenia mahagoni 

Peach Palm Fruit 

Bactris gasipaes 

Dutchman’s pipe 

Aristolochia labiata

Pitcher plant 

Nepehthes sp. 

The Neotropical Forest 277 

(l. to rt.) Brazilian beauty leaf 

Black olive 

West Indies mahogany 

All photographs of tress, flowers, birds and butterflies by Ron DeCloux


NEOTROPICAL RAINFOREST - BIRDS AND BUTTERFLIES 

Silver-beaked tanager 

Ramphocelus carbo 

Red-shouldered tanager (female) 

Tangara phoenicius 

Paradise tanager 

Tangara chilensis paradisea 

Opal-rumped tanager 

Tangara velia 

Red-shouldered tanager (male) 

Tangara phoenicius 

Rufous-crowned tanager 

Tangara cayana 

Turquoise tanager 

Tangara mexicana 

Blue-gray tanager 

Thraupis episcopus

Bananaquit 

Coereba flaveola 

Red-legged honeycreeper (female) 

Cyanerpes cyaneus 

Violaceous euphonia (male) 

Euphonia violacea 

Banded orange 

Dryadula phaetusa 


Red-legged honeycreeper (male) 

Cyanerpes cyaneus 

Saffron finch 

Sicalis flaveola 

Violaceous euphonia (female) 

Euphonia violacea 

Banded orange (underwing) 

Dryadula phaetusa


Giant owl 

Caligo memnon 

Zebra longwing 

Heliconius charithonia 

Doris longwing (blue morph) 

Heliconius doris 

Doris longwing (underwing) 


Isabella’s longwing 

Eueides isabella 

Zebra longwing (underwing) 

Heliconius charithonia 

Doris longwing (red morph) 


Postman 

Heliconius melpomene

Postman (underwing) 

Heliconius melpomene 

Sapho longwing 

Heliconius sapho 

Blue morpho 

Morpho peleides 

Orange barred sulfur 

Phoebis philea 


Hecale longwing 

Heliconius hecale 

Sara longwing 

Heliconius sara 

Blue morpho (underwing) 

Morpho peleides 

Malachite 

Siproeta stelenes

282 


FLOODED AMAZON 

ANACONDA TANK 

Green anaconda 

Eunectes murinus 

Silver tetra 

Ctenobrycon spilurus 

Flagtail prochilodus 

Semaprochilodus insignis 

Earth-eater cichlid 

Geophagus altifrons 

Green iguana 

Iguana iguana 

Banded leporinus 

Leporinus fasciatus 

Common silver dollar 

Mytennis sp. 

All photographs of the Amazon Flooded 

Forest, except the pike cichld, 

are by Ron DeCloux

FLOODED AMAZON 

MAIN TANK 

Pirarucu (Arapaima) 

Arapaima gigas 

Atlantic tarpon 

Megalops atlanticus 

Sweepline Brycon 

Brycon melanopterus 

Pirapitinga (Red-bellied pacu) 

Piaractus brachypomus 


Silver arawana 

Osteoglossum bicirrhosum 

Banded leporinus 

Leporinus fasciatus 

Tambaqui (Black pacu) 

Colossoma macropomum 

Red-bellied piranha 

Pygocentrus nattereri

284 


Ripsaw catfish 

Oxydoras niger 

Redtail catfish 

Phractocephalus hemioliopterus 

Pike cichlid 

Crenicichla lepidota 

Arrau river turtle 

Podocnemis expansa 

Tiger shovelnose catfish 

Pseudoplatystoma fasciatum 

Peacock bass 

Cichla ocellaris 

Turquoise severum 

Heros severus

FRESHWATER STINGRAYS 

White-blotched river stingray 

Potamotrygon leopoldi 

Smooth back river stingray 

Potamotrygon orbignyi 


Ocellated river stingray 

Potamotrygon motoro

286 

A Docent Field Guide to the Species of the Steinhart Aquarium

                                                                                                                            STEINHART AQUARIUM SPECIES LIST  9.19.10  

Tank/ 

Exhibit 

# 

Focus Area and Theme Common Name Scientific Name 

AFRICA HALL 

Malawi Cichlids Cichlids Many species 

AF02 African Hall Penguins African Penguins Spheniscus demersus 

AF08 Monitor Lizard Monitor Lizard - Off display Varanus albigularis 

AF18 Chameleons Jackson's Chameleon Chamaeleo jacksoni 

AF20 Tortoise and Lizard Pancake Tortoises & Plated Lizards 

Malacochersus tornieri 

Gerrhosaurus major 

ISLANDS OF EVOLUTION 

Madagascar Spiny Desert Radiated tortoise Astrochelys radiata 

Spider tortoise Pyxis arachnoides 

Madagascar plated lizard Zonosaurus sp. 

Madagascar Diversity Hissing cockroaches Gromphadorhina portentosa 

Galapagos Fishes Zebra moray Gymnomuraena zebra 

" Klein's butterflyfish Chaetodon kleinii 

" King angelfish Holacanthus passer 

" Falco’s hawkfish Cirrhitichthys falco 

" Rainbow wrasse Thalassoma lucasanum 

" Goldrim tang Acanthurus nigricans 

" Panamic cushion sea star Pentaceraster cumingii 

CALIFORNIA COAST EXHIBIT 

CCO1 Soft Coast Green sea anemone Anthopleura xanthogrammica 

" Bat star Asterina miniata 

CCO3 Salt Marsh Pop-up Topsmelt Atherinops affinis 

" Bay pipefish Syngnathus leptorhynchus 

" Pacific staghorn sculpin Leptocottus armatus 

" Barred surfperch Amphistichus argenteus 

" Pile perch Damalichthys vacca 

" Dwarf surfperch Micrometrus minimus 

CC06 Rocky Coast Main Tank Bull kelp Nereocystis luetkeana 

" Club-tipped anemone Corynactis californica 

" Giant plumose anemone Metridium giganteum 

" Cloned plumose anemone Medtridium senile 

" Aggregating anemone Anthopleura elegantissima 

" Giant green sea anemone Anthopleura xanthogrammica 

" Painted urticina Urticina crassicornis 

" White-spotted rose anemone Urticina lofotensis 

" Fish-eating anemone Urticina piscivora 

" Mossy chiton Mopalia muscosa 

" Gumboot chiton Cryptochiton stelleri 

" Red abalone Haliotis rufescens 

" Rough keyhole limpet Diodora aspera 

" California mussel Mytilus californianus 

" Scallops (artifical on rock walls) Crassedoma giganteum 

" Red rock crab Cancer productus 

9/19/10 Page 287

Tank/ 

Exhibit 

# 


" Red sea urchin Strongylocentrotus franciscanus 

" Purple sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus 

" Giant acorn barnacles (artificial) Balanus nubilus 

" Gooseneck barnacles (artificial) Pollicipes polymerus 


" Pink star Pisaster brevispinus 

" Giant seastar Pisaster giganteum 

" Ochre star Pisaster ochraceus 

" Leather star Dermasterias imbricata 

" Leviuscula sea star (Blood star) Henricia leviuscula 

" Leopard shark Triakis semifasciata 

" Jacksmelt Atherinopsis californiensis 

" Red Irish lord Hemilepidotus hemilepidotus 

" Brown rockfish Sebastes auriculatus 

" Gopher rockfish Sebastes carnatus 

" Copper rockfish Sebastes caurinus 

" Black & yellow rockfish Sebastes chrysomelas 

" Starry rockfish Sebastes constellatus 

" Quillback rockfish Sebastes maliger 

" Black rockfish Sebastes melanops 

" Vermillion rockfish Sebastes miniatus 

" Blue rockfish Sebastes mystinus 

" China rockfish Sebastes nebulosus 

" Tiger rockfish Sebastes nigrocinctus 

" Bocaccio Sebastes paucispinis 

" Canary rockfish Sebastes pinniger 

" Rosy rockfish Sebastes rosaceus 

" Flag rockfish Sebastes rubrivinctus 

" Olive rockfish Sebastes serranoides 

" Treefish Sebastes serriceps 

" California scorpionfish Scorpaena guttata 

" Cabezon Scorpaenichthys marmoratus 

" Kelp greenling Hexagrammos decagrammus 

" Rock greenling Hexagrammos superciliosus 

" Painted greenling Oxylebius pictus 

" Ocean whitefish Caulolatilus princeps 

" Redtail surfperch Amphistichus rhodoterus 

" Pile perch Damalichthys vacca 

" Black surfperch Embiotoca jacksoni 

" Striped surfperch Embiotoca lateralis 

" Walleye surfperch Hyperprosopon argenteum 

" Rainbow surfperch Hypsurus caryi 

" Rubberlip surfperch Rhacochilus toxotes 

" Wolf eel Anarrhichthys ocellatus 

" C-O turbot Pleuronichthys coenosus 

Rocky Reef Cluster Articulaing and encrusting coralline algae Corallina sp. 

" Red rock shrimp Lysmata californica 


" Red brotula Brosmophycis marginata 

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# 


CC10 Abalone Red abalone Haliotis rufescens 

" Green sea anemone Anthopleura xanthogrammica 

" Turban snails Tegula spp. 

" Decorator crab Loxorhynchus crispatus 


CC11 Nudibranchs Sea lemon nudibranch Peltodoris nobilis 

" White dorid Doris odhneri 

" Red algae Rhodophyta spp. 


" Barnacles feeding (sometimes) Balanus sp. 

" Vermillion sea star Mediaster aequalis 

" Blood star Henricia leviuscula 

" Northern ronquil Ronquilus jordani 

CC12 Chitons Mossy chiton Mopalia muscosa 

" Lined chiton Tonicella lineata 

" Articulating coralline algae Coralllina spp. 

CC13 Sculpins/Kelpfish Orange cup coral Balanophyllia elegans 

" Brown cup coral Paracyathus sternsi 

" Creeping petal sea cucumber Psolus chitonoides 

" Scalyhead sculpin (male) Artedius harringtoni 

" Grunt sculpin Rhamphocottus richardsoni 

" Decorated warbonnet Chirolophis decoratus 

" Spotfin sculpin Icelinus tenuis 

" Crevice kelpfish Gibbonsia sp. 

CC14 Southern California Giant kelp (synthetic) Macrocystis pyrifera 

" Laminaria (synthetic) Laminaria sp. 

" Red gorgonian Lophogorgia chilensis 

" Golden gorgonian Muricea californica 

" Brown gorgonian Muricea fruticosa 

" Wavy turban snails Lithopoma undosum 


" Warty sea cucumber Parastichopus parvimensis 

" Swell shark (often hiding) Cephaloscyllium ventriosum 

" California scorpionfish (juvenile) Scorpaena guttata 

" Gopher rockfish (juvenile) Sebastes carnatus 

" Kelp bass Paralabrax clathratus 

" Opaleye Girella nigricans 

" Halfmoon Medialuna californiensis 

" Blacksmith Chromis punctipinnis 

" Garibaldi Hypsypops rubicundus 

" Rock wrasse Halichoeres semicinctus 

" Senorita wrasse Oxyjulis californica 

" California sheephead Semicossyphus pulcher 

" Blue-banded goby Lythrypnus dalli 

CC15 Discovery Tidepool Likely species as available 

" Red algae Phylum Rhodophyta 

" Articulaing coralline algae Corallina sp. 

" Encrusting coralline algae Corallina sp. 

" Iridescent seaweed Iridea sp. 

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" Turkish towel Mastocarpus papillatus 

" Sea lettuce Ulva spp. 

" Fucus Fucus sp. 

" Sea sacs Halosaccion glandiforme 

" Feather boa kelp Egregia menziesii 

" Oar Weed Laminaria sp. 

" Giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera 

" Orange cup coral Balanophyllia elegans 

" Aggregating anemone Anthopleura elegantissima 



" Gumboot chiton Cryptochiton stelleri 

" Red abalone Haliotis rufescens 

" Owl limpet Lottia gigantea 

" Rough keyhole limpet Megathura crenulata 

" Shield limpet Collisella pelta 

" Owl limpet Lottia gigantea 

" Blue ring top snail Calliostoma annulatum 

" Blue top snail Calliostoma ligatum 

" Red top snail Lithopoma gibberosum 

" Brown turban snail Tegula brunnea 

" Black turban snail Tegula funebralis 

" California sea hare Aplysia california 

" Opalescent nudibranch Hermissenda crassicornis 

" California mussel Mytilus californianus 

" Red octopus Octopus rubescens 

" Red rock crab Cancer productus 

" Pacific mole crab (in small tank) Emerita analoga 

" Green shore crab Hemigrapsus oregonensis 

" Purple shore crab Hemigraspus nudus 

" Decorator (or Masking) crab Loxorhynchus crispatus 

" Northern kelp crab Pugettia producta 

" Hermit crab Pagurus spp. 

" Black-eyed hermit crab Pagurus armatus 

" Striped shore crab Pachygraspus crassipes 

" Acorn barnacle Balanus glandula 

" Gooseneck barnacle Pollicipes polymerus 


" Pink sea star Pisaster brevispinus 


" Giant sea star Pisaster giganteus 



" Brittle star(s) Family Ophiodermatidae 

" Red sea urchin Strongylocentrotus franciscanus 


" California sea cucumber Parastichopus californicus 

" Warty sea cucumber Parastichopus parvimensis 

" Skate egg cases Raja sp. 

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" Swell shark egg cases Cephaloscyllium ventriosum 

" Horn shark egg cases Heterodontus francisci 

" Northern clingfish Gobiesox maeandricus 

" Tidepool sculpin Oligocottus maculosis 

" Dwarf surfperch Micrometrus minimus 

" Shiner surfperch Cymatogaster aggregata 

" Penpoint gunnel 

" Rockweed gunnel Apodichthys fucorum 

CC16 Sand Dollars Sand dollars Dendraster excentricus 

" Big skate Raja binoculata 

" Blackeye goby Coryphopterus nicholsii 

CC17 Sea Pen Giant sea pen Ptilosarcus gurneyi 

" Northern spearnose poacher Agonopsis vulsa 

" Vermillion rockfish (juvenile) Sebastes miniatus 

" Flag rockfish (juvenile) Sebastes rubrivinctus 

" Yelloweye rockfish (juvenile) Sebastes ruberrimus 

" Other rockfish juveniles as available 

CC18 Flatfish Tube anemone Pachycerianthus fimbriatus 

" Speckled sanddab Citharichthys stigmaeus 

" English sole Pleurinectes vetulus 

" Pacific sanddab Citharichthys sordidus 

CC19 Giants Giant kelp (synthetic) Macrocystis pyrifera 

" White-spotted rose anemone Urticina lofotensis 

" Sunflower seastar Pycnopodia helianthoides 

" California horn shark Heterodontus francisci 

" California moray eels Gymnothorax mordax 

" Garibaldi Hypsypops rubicundus 

" Giant sea bass Stereolepis gigas 

" Kelp bass Paralabrax clathratus 

" California halibut Paralichthys californicus 

CC20 Giant Octopus Giant Pacific octopus Enteroctopus doffleini 

" Giant plumose anemone Metridium giganteum 

" Painted urticina (anemone) Urticina crassicornis 

" White-spotted rose amemone Urticina lofotensis 


" Black rockfish (juvenile) Sebastes melanops 

" Blue rockfish (juvenile) Sebastes mystinus 

" Various (changing) juvenile rockfishes 

CC23 Jewel Cave Wave Crash Tank Club-tipped anemone Corynactis californica 


" Black turban snail Tegula funebralis 




" Shiner surfperch Cymatogaster aggregata 

" Black surfperch Embiotoca jacksoni 

" Rainbow surfperch Hypsurus caryi 

" Monkey-faced prickleback (blenny) Cebidichthys violaceus 

CC24 Plankton/Sea Drifters Sea nettle Chrysaora fuscescens 

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PHILIPPINE CORAL REEF 

PRO2 Lagoon Blacktip reef shark Carcharhinus melanopterus 

" Bowmouth guitarfish Rhina ancylostoma 

" Javanese cownose ray Rhinoptera javanica 

" Blue-spotted ray Dasyatis kuhlii 

" Pacific tarpon Megalops cyprinoides 

" Mono Monodactylus argenteus 

" Neon damselfish Neoglyphidodon oxyodon 

" Moon wrasse Thalassoma lunare 

" Humphead wrasse aka Maori wrasse Cheilinus undulatus 

" Canary wrasse Halichoeres chrysus 

" Naso Naso sp. 

PR03 Mangrove Pop-up Red mangrove Rhizophora mangle 

" Barred mudskipper Periophthalmus argentilineatus 

PR03a Sea Grass Shallows Bryopsis algae Bryopsis sp. 

" Striped mushroom Discosoma sp. 

" Zoanthid Zoanthus sp. 

" Sarcophyton Sarcophyton spp. 

" Sinularia leather coral Sinularia sp. 

" Cauliflower coral Pocillopora damicornis 

" Acanthastrea Acanthastrea sp. 

" Meat coral Acanthophyllia deshayesiana 

" Lobed brain coral Lobophyllia sp. 

" Open brain coral Trachyphyllia geoffroyi 

" Euphyllia coral Euphyllia sp. 

" Corkscrew tentacle sea anemone Macrodactyla doreensis 

" Bubble coral Plergyra sp. 

" Bubbletip sea anemone Entacmea quadricolor 

" Magnificent sea anemone Heteractis magnifica 

" Tridacna clam Tridacna derasa 

" Tridacna clam Tridacna gigas 

" Tridacna clam Tridacna squamosa 

" Tridacna clam Tridacna maxima 

" Long-spined sea urchin Diadema setosum 

" Jewel fairy basslet Pseudanthias squamapinnis 

" False clown anemonefish Amphiprion ocellaris 

" Green chromis Chromis viridis 

" Yellowtail blue damselfish Chrysiptera parasema 

" Banded goby Amblygobius phalaena 

" Orangebanded surgeonfish Acanthurus olivaceous 

" Palette tang Paracanthurus hepatus 

" Various other "visitors" from the deep reef Paracanthurus hepatus 

PRO4 Main Coral Reef Tank Lobophytum Lobophytum spp. 

" Sarcophyton Sarcophyton spp. 

" Sinularia Sinularia spp. 

" Pacific gorgonian Rumphella sp. 

" Zoanthid Zoanthid spp. 

" Beaded mushroom Discosoma spp. 

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" Hairy mushroom Rhodactis spp. 

" Bullseye mushroom Rhodactis inchoata 

" Blue coral Heliopora coerulea 

" Cauliflower coral Pocillopora damicornis 

" Bird's nest coral Seriatopora sp 

" Club finger coral (Cat's paw coral) Stylophora sp. 

" Montipora coral Montipora capricornis 

" Acropora coral Acropora spp. 

" Pavona coral Pavona sp. 

" Disk coral Fungia or Cycloseris sp. 

" Slipper coral Polyphyllia sp. 

" Galaxy coral Galaxea fascicularis 

" Chalice coral Oxypora sp. 

" Acanthastrea coral Acanthastrea sp. 

" Symphyliia coral Symphyllia 

" Echinopora coral Echinopora lamellosa 

" Horn coral coral Hydnophora grandis 

" Horn coral Hydnophora rigida 

" Plating hydnophora coral Hydnophora sp. 

" Maze brain coral Platygrya sp. 

" Trumpet coral Caulestrea sp. 

" Moon coral Diploastrea helipora 

" Moon coral Favia sp. 

" Closed brain coral Favites sp. 

" Euphyllia coral Euphyllia spp. 

" Small bubble coral Plerogyra sp. 

" Turbinaria cup coral Turbinaria reniformis 

" Bubbletip anemone Entacmea quadricolor 

" Leathery sea anemone Heteractis crispa 

" Magnificent anemone Heteractis magnifica 

" Giant carpet anemone Stichodactyla gigantea 

" Giant clam (all Tridacnas as available) Tridacna gigas 

" Giant clam Tridacna crocea 

" Giant clam Tridacna derasa 

" Giant clam Tridacna maxima 

" Giant clam Tridacna squamosa 

" Blue linckia seastar Linckia laevigata 

" Spotted garden eel Heteroconger hassi 

" Soldierfish Myripristis sp. 

" Red-cheeked fairy basslet Pseudanthias huchti 

" Squarespot fairy basslet Pseudanthias pleurotaenia 

" Jewel fairy basslet (Lyretail anthias) Pseudanthias squamipinnis 

" Spotted cardinalfish Apogon maculatus 

" Seale's cardinalfish Apogon sealei 

" Pajama cardinalfish Sphaeramia nematoptera 

" Yellow and blueback fusilier Caesio teres 

" Bluestreak fusilier Pterocaesio tile 

" Striped large-eye bream Gnathodentex aurolineatus 

" Paradiise whiptail Pentapodus paradiseus 

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" Copperbanded butterflyfish Chelmon rostratus 

" Longnose butterflyfish Forcipiger longirostris 

" Pyramid butterflyfish Hemitaurichthys polylepis 

" Bannerfish Heniochus diphreutes 

" Lemonpeel angelfish Centropyge flavissima 

" Flame angelfish Centropyge loricula 

" Lamarck's angelfish Genicanthus lamarck 

" Blackspot angelfish Genicanthus melanospilos 

" Emperor angelfish Pomacanthus imperator 

" Bluegirdled angelfish Pomacanthus navarchus 

" Clark's anemonefish Amphiprion clarkii 

" False clown anemonefish Amphiprion ocellaris 

" Ternate chromis Chromis ternatensis 

" Green chromis Chromis viridis 

" Yellowtail blue damselfish Chrysiptera parasema 

" Southseas devil Chrysiptera taupou 

" Blacktail damselfish Dascyllus melanurus 

" Goldbelly damselfish Pomacentrus auriventris 

" Spinecheek anemonefish Premnas biaculeatus 

" Harlequin tuskfish Choerodon fasciatus 

" Longnose hawkfish Oxycirrhites typus 

" Flame hawkfish Neocirrhites armatus 

" Exquisite fairy wrasse Cirrhilabrus exquisitus 

" Yellowfin fairy wrasse Cirrhilabrus flavidorsalis 

" Lubbock's wrasse Cirrhilabrus lubbocki 

" Redeye fairy wrasse Cirrhilabrus solorensis 

" Bird wrasse Gomphosus varius 

" Canary wrasse Halichoeres chrysus 

" Pastel green wrasse Halichoeres chloropterus 

" Two-tone wrasse Halichoeres prosopeion 

" Striped cleaner wrasse Labroides dimidiatus 

" Leopard wrasse Macropharyngodon meleagris 

" Six-line wrasse Pseudocheilinus hexataenia 

" Sixbar wrasse Thalassoma hardwicke 

" Moon wrasse Thalassoma lunare 

" Bicolor blenny Ecsenius bicolor 

" Midas blenny Ecsenius midas 

" Convict blenny (engineerfish) Pholidichthys leucotaenia 

" Jeweled blenny (eyelash) Salarias fasciatus 

" Zebra goby Ptereleotris zebra 

" Bluestreak goby Valenciennea strigata 

" Blue-spotted spinefoot Siganus corallinus (tetrazonus) 

" Orange-spotted spinefoot Siganus guttatus 

" Masked spinefoot Siganus puellus 

" Gold-spotted spinefoot Siganus punctatus 

" Barhead spinefoot Siganus virgatus 

" Foxface rabbitfish Siganus vulpinus 

" Blotched foxface rabbitfish Siganus unimaculatus 

" Achilles surgeonfish Acanthurus achilles 

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" Ringtail surgeonfish Acanthurus blochii 

" Eyestripe surgeonfish Acanthurus dussumieri 

" Powder brown tang Acanthurus japonicus 

" Lined surgeonfish Acanthurus lineatus 

" Mata tang Acanthurus mata 

" Bluelined surgeonfish Acanthurus nigroris 

" Goldrim tang Acanthurus nigricans 

" Orangebanded surgeonfish Acanthurus olivaceous 

" Mimic surgeonfish Acanthurus pyroferus 

" Convict tang Acanthurus triostegus 

" Goldring bristletooth Ctenochaetus strigosus 

" Orangetip bristletooth Ctenochaetus tominiensis 

" Palette tang Paracanthurus hepatus 

" Spotted unicornfish Naso brevirostris 

" Orangespine unicornfish Naso lituratus 

" Bluespine unicornfish Naso unicornis 

" Bignose unicornfish (Bumphead naso) Naso vlamingii 

" Brown scopas tang Zebrasoma scopas 

" Sailfin tang Zebrasoma veliferum 

" Clown triggerfish Balistoides conspicillum 

" Black triggerfish Melichthys niger 

" Pinktail triggerfish Melichthys vidua 

" Redtooth triggerfish Odonus niger 

" Picassofish (Blackbar triggerfish) Rhinecanthus aculeatus 

" 

Color Cluster 

Bluechin triggerfish Xanthichthys auromarginatus 

Rhinomuraena quaesita 

" Blue ribbon eels 

Rhinomuraena quaesita 

PRO5 Ribbon eels Black ribbon eels 


" Zoanthids Parazoanthus sp. 


" Mushroom corallimorph Ricordea sp. 

" Mycedium coral Mycedium sp. 

" Brittlestar spp. Family Ophiodermatidae 

PR06 Hector's Goby Hector's goby Amblygobius hectori 

PR07 Hiding the Eye Pajama cardinalfish Sphaeramia nematoptera 

" Coral beauty Centropyge bispinosus 

" Raccoon butterflyfish Chaetodon lunula 

" Mystery wrasse Pseudocheilinus ocellatus 

" Moorish idol Zanclus cornutus 

" Papuan toby Canthigaster papua (solandri)? 

" Fire urchin Astropyga radiata 

" Green-spined salmacis (urchin) Salmacis sphaeroides 

PR08 Alligator Pipefish Alligator pipefish Syngnathoides biaculeatus 

" Chocolate chip seastar Protoeaster nodosus 

PRO9 Sea Apple Sea apple Pseudocolochirus violaceus 

" Yellow sea cucumber Colochirus robustus 

" Zoanthids Zoanthus sp. 

" Orange sun coral Tubastrea sp. 

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PR10 Harlequin Shrimp Harlequin shrimp Hymenocera picta 

" Lobophytum leather coral Lobophytum sp. 


" Zoanthids Parazoanthus sp. 

" Spotted dragonet Synchiropus picturatus 

PR11 Coral Rubble Candy shrimp (cleaner) Rhynchocinetes durbanensis 

" Chaetodon vagabundus Chaetodon vagabundus 

PR12 Frogfish Frogfish Antennarius sp. 

" Lobophytum Lobophytum spp. 

" Pulsing xenia Xenia sp. 

" Mushroom corallimorph Discosoma sp. 

" Mushroom corallimorph Ricordea sp. 

" Zoanthid Parazoanthus sp. 

" Chalice coral Echinophyllia sp. 

" Oxpora Mycedium sp. 

" Symphyllia coral Symphyllia sp. 


" Fire urchin Astropyga radiata 

Life in the Dark 

PR21 Flashlight Fishes Flashlightfish Photoblepharon palpbratum 

" Splitfin flashlight fish Anomalops katoptron 

PR22 Moray Eel Honeycomb (Laced) moray eel Gymnothorax favagineus 

" Whitemouth moray Gymnothroax meleagris 

" Snowflake moray Echidna nebulosa 

" Zebra moray Gymnomuraena zebra 

" Cleaner shrimp Lysmata amboinensis 

PR 23 Chambered Nautilus Chambered nautilus Nautilus pompilius 

" Sea fan Species unknown 

Venoms Cluster 

PR 24 Fire Coral Fire coral (branching) Millepora sp. 

" Yellowstriped cardinalfish Apogon cyanosoma 

" Pink and yellow scorpionfish Sebastapistes cyanostigma 

" Canary blenny Meiacanthus oualanensis 

" Sinularia Sinularia sp. 

" Waving hand coral Anthelia sp. 

" Zoanthid Palythoa sp. 

" Miniature carpet anemone Stichodactyla tapetum 

" Pocillopora coral Pocillopora sp. 


" Montipora coral Montipora spp. inc. capricornis 

" Chalice coral Mycedium sp. 

" Miniature carpet anemone Stichodactyla tapetum 


PR25 Stonefish Stonefish Synanceia verrucosa 

PR26 Cone Snail Cone snail Conus marmoreus 

" Bullseye mushroom Rhodactis sp. 

" Striped mushroom Discosoma spp. 

PR27 Lionfish Lionfish Pterois volitans 

" Various artifical corals 

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# 

Focus Area and Theme 

Reef Partners Cluster 

Common Name Scientific Name 

PR29 Shrimp Goby/Pistol Shrimp Shrimp goby Amblyeleotris sp. 

" Pistol shrimp Alpheus sp. 

PR30 Decorator crab Hermit crab wearing anemones 

Dardanus pedunculatus 

" Symbiotic anemone Calliactis sp. 

PR31 Shrimpfish Spotted shrimpfish Aeoliscus strigatus 

" Copperbanded butterflyfish Chelmon rostratus 

" Randall's prawn-goby Amblyeleotris randalli 

" Tomini tang Ctenochaetus tominiensis 

" Encrusting gorgonian Erythropodium sp. 

" Pacific gorgonian Rhumphella sp. 

" Green star polyp Briareum sp. 

" Hydnophora coral Hydnophora rigida 

PR32 Commensal Shrimp on Corals Sexy anemone shrimp Thor amboinensis 

" Cleaner shrimp Periclimenes sp. 

" Coral hermit crab Paguritta sp. 

" Diploastrea coral Diploastrea sp. 

" Branching frogspawn coral Euphyllia paradivisia 

" Frogspawn coral Euphyllia divisa 

" Anchor coral Euphyllia parancora 

" Fox coral Nemenzophyllia sp. 

" Redspot cardinalfish Apogon parvulus 

PR33 Small Giant Clams Tridacna clams (species as available) T.maxima,squamosa,crocea,dersa 

" Royal dottyback Pseudochromis paccagnellae 

" Dog-toothed cardinalfish Cheilodipterus isostigmus 

" Pinsptriped wrasse (immature) Halichoeres melanurus 

" Tree coral Capnella sp. 

" Zoanthid (button polyps) Protopalythoa sp. 

" Chalice coral Mycedium sp. 

PR34 Clownfish and Anemones Pink clownfish Amphiprion perideraion 

" Bicolor chromis Chromis margaritifer 

" Beaded and striped mushroom Discosoma spp. 

" Magnificent anemone Heteractis magnifica 

PR35 Upside-down Jellyfish Upside-down jellyfish Cassiopea andromeda 

" Sand-eating seastar Archaster typicus 

" Banded goby Amblygobius phalaena 

PR36 Caribbean Reef Encrusting gorgonian Erythropodium caribaeorum 

" Sea plume Muriceopsis flavida 

" Sea rod Plexaura sp. 

" Silt-pore sea rod Plexaurella sp. 

" Porous sea rod Pseudoplexaura sp. 

" Purple frilly sea plume Pseudopterogorgia elizabethi 

" Sea plume Pseudopterogorgia sp. 

" Zoanthid Protopalythoa grandis 

" Discosoma Discosoma sanctithomae 

" Ricordea mushroom coral Ricordea florida 

" Condylactis sea anemone Condylactis gigantea 

" Sun anemone Stichodactyla helianthus 

" Pencil sea urchin Eucidaris tribuloides 

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" Cherubfish Centropyge argi 

" Queen angelfish (adolescent) Holacanthus ciliaris 

" Flame cardinalfish Apogon maculatus 

" Reef butterflyfish aka painted butterflyfish Chaetodon sedentarius 

" Harlequin bass Serranus tigrinus 

" Chalk bass Serranus tortugarum 

" Blue chromis Chromis cyanea 

" Beaugregory Stegastes leucostictus 

" Spanish hogfish Bodianus rufus 

" Yellowhead wrasse Halichoeres garnoti 

" Royal gramma Gramma loreto 

" Redspotted hawkfish Amblycirrhitus pinos 

" Blue tang Acanthurus coeruleus 

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WATER PLANET 

Centerpiece Exhbits 

H2O Dependence/Independence 

WP01 Independent of Standing Water Black-headed python Aspidites melanocephalus 

" Woma (python) Aspidites ramsayi 

" Centralian python Morelia bredli 

WP03 Moist Environment Vietnamese mossy frog Theloderma corticale 

WP04 Total Immersion Leafy seadragon Phycodorus eques 

" Potbelly seahorse Hippocampus abdominalis 

H2O Chemistry /Salinity 

WP09 Open Water Marine Moon jellies Aurelia aurita 

H2O Temperature 

WP10 Cold (Perch under Ice) Yellow perch Perca flavescens 

Concept Clusters 

In and Out of Water Cluster 

WP12 Air breather in low-oxygen conditions Australian lungfish Neoceratodus fosteri 

WP13 Siamese fighting fish Betta splendens 

WP14 Arid-adapted breeding cycle Redtail killifish Nothobranchius guentheri 

Reproduction Cluster 

WP15 " Butterfly splitfin (Buttefly goodeid) Ameca splendens 

WP16 Weedy seadragons Weedy seadragon Phyllopteryx taeniolatus 

WP17 Lined Seahorse Lined seahorse Hippocampus erectus 

" Longsnout seahorse Hippocampus reidi 

" Janss' pipefish Doryrhamphus janssi 

" Banded pipefish Doryrhamphus dactyliophorus 

" Saddled Butterflyfiish Chaetodon ephippium 

" Sponge unknown species 


" Hairy mushroom Rhodactis sp. 


WP18 Livebearers Endler’s livebearer Poecilia wingei 

" Black bee shrimp Caridina cantonensis 

WP19 Retailed flasher wrasse Retailed flasher wrasse Paracheilnus rubricaudalis 

" Redspot cardinalfish Apogon parvulus 

" Bank butterflyfish Prognathodes aya 

" Lobophytum Lobophytum sp. 

" Sarcophyton Sarcophyton sp. 


" Beaded and striped mushrooms Discosoma spp. 



WP21 Dive Station Tank Banggai cardinalfish Pterapogon kauderni 

" Bubble coral Plerogyra sinuosa 

" Long-spined sea urchin Diadema setosum 

Locomotion Cluster 

WP22 Vampire Crabs Vampire crab Geosesarma sp 

WP23 Precision movement (pectoral/dorsal) Shaw's boxfish Aracana aurita 

" Ornate boxfish Arcana ornate 

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WP24 Adhesion Pacific spiny lumpsucker Eumicrotremus orbis 

" Grunt sculpin Rhamphocottus richardsoni 

" Coralline algae Corallina sp. 



" Turban snail Tegula sp. 

" Giant acorn barnacles (shells) Balanus nubilis 

WP25 Pignose Turtle Pignose turtle Carettochelys insculpta 

WP26 Seastars (tube feet) Brittle stars Iohiura incrassata & 2 others 

" Euphyllia coral Euphyllia divisa 

WP27 Swimming Crab Blue crab Callinectes sapidus 

" Encrusting gorgonian Erythropodium sp. 


Feeding Cluster 

WP28 Diving Beetle Sunburst diving beetle Thermonectus marmoratus 

WP29 Aquatic Insect Being updated 

WP30 Fishing Spider Fishing spider Dolomedes okefinokensis 

WP31 Various Feeding Strategies Paddlefish Polyodon spathula 

" Spotted gar Lepisosteus oculatus 

" Longnose gar Lepisosteus osseus 

" Pallid sturgeon Scaphirhynchus albus 

" Shovelnose sturgeon Scaphirhynchus platorynchus 

" Smallmouth buffalofish Ictiobus bubalus 

" Longear sunfish Lepomis megalotis 

" Black crappie Pomoxis nigromaculatus 

WP32 Fishing snake Burmese vine snakes Ahaetulla fronticincta 

Defenses Cluster 

WP33 Venom, Camouflage Scorpionfish - off exhibit Rhinopias frondosa 

" Organ pipe coral Tubipora musica 


" Sarcophyton leather coral Sarcophyton sp. 

" Pulse coral Xenia sp. 

" Cauliflower coral Pocillopora sp. 

" Bird's nest coral Seriatopora sp. 

" Montipora coral Montipora capricornis 

" Montipora coral Monitpora digitata 

" Encrusting montipora Montipora spp. 

" Acropora coral Acropora tenius 



" Button coral Scolymia sp. 

" Acanthastrea (stony coral) Acanthastrea sp. 

" Meat coral Australomussa sp. 

" Blastomussa coral Blastomussa wellsi 

" Trumpet coral Caulastrea sp. 

" Maze coral Platygrya sp. 

" Goniastrea coral Goniastrea sp. 

" Diploastrea coral Diploastrea sp. 

WP34 Behavior Upsidedown catfish Synodontis nigriventris 

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Exhibit 

# 


WP35 Camouflage by transparency Glass catfish Kryptopterus minor 

" Glassfish Parambassis ranga 

WP36 Camoulfage - color change Dwarf cuttleflish Sepia bandensis 



" Meat coral Acanthophyllia deshayesiana 

" Chocolate chip seastar Protoeaster spp. 

WP37 Behavior Feather duster worm Sabellastarte sp. 

" Coco worm Protula sp. 

" Flambuoyant cuttlefish Metasepia pfefferi 

WP38 Protective shell Queen conch Strombus gigas 

" Spaghetti algae Chaetomorpha 


Senses Cluster 

WP39 Sight Peacock mantis shrimp Odontodactylus scyllarus 



" Beaded mushrooms Discosoma spp. 


" Zoanthids Zoanthus sp. 

" Green star polyp Briareum sp. 

" Caulastrea coral Caulastrea sp. 

WP40 Sound Humming toadfish Porichthys notatus 

Coralline algae Corallina spp. 

" Green anemone Anthopleura xanthogrammica 

WP41 Lack of Sight Blind cave fish Astyanax fasciatus 

WP42 Electric Signals Elephantnose Gnathonemus petersi 

Desert Cluster 

WP43 Beaded Lizard Mexican Beaded lizard Heloderma horridum 

WP44 Desert hairy scorpion Desert hairy scorpion Hadrurus arizonensis 

WP45 Desert Pupfish Desert pupfish Cyprinodon macularius 

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RAINFORESTS OF THE WORLD 

Neotropical Rainforest 

" Black olive tree Bucida buceras 

" Brazilian beauty leaf Calophyllum brasiliense 

" Peach palm Bactris gasipaes 

" Water chestnut aka Saba nut Pachira aquatica 

" West Indian mahogany Swietenia mahogani 

Birds Silver-beaked tanager Ramphocelus carbo 

" Red-shouldered tanager Tachyphonus phoeniceus 

" Rufous-crowned tanager Tangara cayana 

" Paradise tanager Tangara chilensis 

" Turquoise tanager Tangara mexicana 

" Opal-rumped tanager Tangara velia 

" Blue-gray tanager Thraupis epicopus 

" Bananaquit Coereba flaveola 

" Red-legged honeycreeper Cyanerpes cyaneus 

" Saffron finch Sicalis flaveola 

" Violaceous euphonia Euphonia violacea 

" Yellow-green grosbeak Caryothraustes canadensis 

Macaws Blue and yellow macaw Ara ararauna 

" Scarlet macaw Ara macao 

Buttterflies Species commonly on display: 

" Banded orange heliconian Dryadula phaetusa 

" Giant owl butterfly Caligo sp. 

" Julia Dryas julia 

" Isabella tiger Eueides isabella 

" Zebra longwing Heliconius charithonia 

" Doris longwing Heliconius doris 

" Small Postman Heliconius erato 

" Hecale longwing aka Tiger longwing Heliconius hecale 

" Postman Heliconius melpomene 

" Sapho longwing Heliconius sapho 

" Sara longwing Heliconius sara 

" Blue morpho Morpho peleides 

" Orange barred sulfur Phoebis philea 

" Malachite Siproeta stelenes 

Borneo 

B002 Cave Cluster Dog-faced fruit bat Cynopterus brachyotis 

B003 " Cave rat snake Elaphe taeniura ridleyi 

B004 Scolopendra Centipede Scolopendra centipede Scolopendra subspinipes 

B005 Wagler's Pit Viper Wagler's pit viper Tropidolaemus wagleri 

" Asian horned frog Megophrys nasuta 

B006 Plant Models Rafflesia and pitcher plants Rafflesia arnoldi/Nepthenes sp. 

B008 Cobalt Blue Tarantula Cobalt blue tarantula Haplopelma lividum 

B009 Freshwater Fishes of Borneo Celestial pearl danio Celestichthys margaritatus 

" Red tailed black shark Epalzeorhynchus bicolor 

" Cherry barb Puntius titteya 

" Red-striped rasbora Rasbora pauciperforata 

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" Harlequin rasbora Trigonostigma heteromorpha 

" Dwarf loach Botia sidthimunki 

" Siamese algae eater Crossocheilus siamensis 

" Striped betta Betta taeniata 

" Pearl gourami Trichogaster leeri 

" Moonlight gourami Trichogaster microlepis 

" Blue gourami Trichogaster trichopterus 

" Wood shrimp Atyopsis moluccensis 

B010 Lowland Forest Herps Mangrove snake (off exhibit) Boiga dendrophila 

" Red-tailed green rat snake Gonyosoma oxycephela 

" Borneo river toad Phrynoidis juxtaspera 

B011 Borneo Gliding Herps Kuhl's flying gecko Ptychozoon kuhlii 

" Borneo eared frog Polypedates otilophus 

" Harlequin flying frog Rhacophorus pardalis 

BO12 Pitcher Plants/Orchids Many species on wall Nepenthes spp. and Orchid spp. 

BO13 Flying Snake 

Forest Floor 

Paradise flying snake Chrysopelea paradisi 

BO14 Leafcutter Ants 

Madagascar 

Leafcutter ants Atta cephalotes 

MAO2 Insects Ghost praying mantis Phyllocrania paradoxa 

MA03 Tomato Frog Sambava tomato frog Dyscophus guineti 

" Sakalava's velvet gecko Blaesodactylus sakalava 

MA04 Cichlids of Mad Saroy Ptychochromis grandidieri 

" Tarantsy Ptychochromis sp. Tatantsy 

" Marakely Paratilapia polleni 

" Katria Katria katria 

MAO5 Rainbowfish of Mad Madagascar rainbowfish Bedotia geayi 

" 

Herps of Mad Cluster 

Patriciae killifish Pachypanchax patriciae 

MA06 Madagascar tree boa Madagascar tree boa Sanzinia madagascariensis 

" Painted mantella frog Mantella baroni 

MAO7 Geckos 1 Standing's day gecko Phelsuma standingi 

" Henkel's leaf-tail gecko Uroplatus henkeli 

MA08 Geckos 2 Madagascar giant day gecko Phelsuma grandis 

" Lined leaf-tail gecko Uroplatus lineatus 

MA13 Mantellas/Orb-weaving Spider Orb weaving spiders Nephila madagascariensis 

" Golden mantella Mantella aurantiaca 

MAO9 Chameleons 1 Panther chameleon Furcifer pardalis 

MA10 Chameleons 2 Panther chameleon Furcifer pardalis 

MA12 Geckos 3 Klemmer's yellow-headed day gecko Phelsuma klemmeri 

" Green mantella Mantella viridis 

" Madagascar reed frog Heterixalus madagascariensis 

MA14 Madagascar leaf-nosed snake Madagascar leaf-nosed snake Langaha madagascariensis 

" 

Costa Rica 

Madagascar reed frog tadpoles Heterixalus madagascariensis 

CR02 Green Basilisk Green basilisk lizard Basiliscus plumifrons 

" Green and black poison dart frog Dendrobates auratus 

CRO3 Poison Dart Frog Striped poison dart frog Phyllobates sp. 

CRO4 Cockroach Giant cockroach Blaberus giganteus 

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CR05 Poison Dart Frogs Strawberry poison dart frog Oophaga (Dendrobates) pumilio 

" Green and black poison dart frog Dendrobates auratus 

CRO6 Red-eye treefrog Red-eye treefrog Agalychnis callidryas 

Flooded Amazon 

AM02 Matamata Matamata turtle Chelus fimbriatus 

" Emerald tree boa Corallus caninus 

AMO3 Anaconda Green anaconda Eunectes murinus 

" Green iguana Iguana iguana 

" Banded leporinus Leporinus fasciatus 

" Silver tetra Ctenobrycon spilurus 

" Suckermouth catfish Hypostomus sp. 

" Flagtail prochilodus Semaprochilodus insignis 

" Silver dollar Metynnis sp. 

" Earth-eater cichlid Geophagus altifrons 

AM05 Altum Angelish Orinoco angelfish Pterophyllum altum 

AMO6 Electric eel Electric eel Electrophorus electricus 

AMO8 Piranha Red-bellied piranha Pygocentrus nattereri 

" Bucktooth tetra Exodon paradoxus 

" Dwarf cichlid Apistogramma macmasteri 

AM10 Surinam Toad Surinam toad Pipa pipa 

AM11 Amazon Flooded Tunnel Pirarucu (Arapaima) Arapaima gigas 

" Silver arowana Osteoglossum bicirrhosum 

" Atlantic tarpon Megalops atlanticus 

" Banded leporinus Leporinus fasciatus 

" Sweepline brycon Brycon melanopterus 

" Tambaqui (Black pacu) Colossoma macropomum 

" Pirapitinga (Red-bellied pacu) Piaractus brachypomus 

" Ripsaw catfish Oxydoras niger 

" Tiger shovelnose catfish Pseudoplatystoma fasciatum 

" Redtail catfish Phractocephalus hemioliopterus 

" Perruno catfish Perrunichthys perruno 

" Peacock bass Cichla ocellaris 

" Pike ciclid Crenicichla johanna 

" Ringtail pike cichlid Crencichla saxatilis 

" Turquoise Severum Heros appendiculatus 

" Chocolate cichlid Hypselecara temporalis 

" Arrau river turtle Podocnemis expansa 

AM12 Freshwater Stingrays Ocellate river stingray Potamotrygon motoro 

" White-blotched river stingray Potamotrygon leopoldi 

" Smooth back river stingray Potamotrygon orbignyi 

" Sailfin plecostomus Pterygoplichthys gibbiceps 

" Rummy nose tetra Hemigrammus bleheri 

" Rummy nose tetra Hemigrammus rhodostomus 

AM14 Cardinal Tetras Cardinal tetras Paracheirodon axelrodi 

" Amazon pufferfish Colomesus asellus 

" Orange neon corydoras no species name (undescribed) 

" Golden pencilfish Nannostomus beckfordi 

" Midget sucker Otocinclus affinis 

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SWAMP 

SW02 Alligator Tank American alligator Alligator mississippiensis 

" Alligator snapping turtle Macroclemys temminckii 

" Spotted gar Lepisosteus oculatus 

" Common carp Cyprinus carpio 

" Koi carp Cyprinus carpio 

" Suckermouth catfish Hypostomus plecostomus 

" Sailfin plecostomus Pterygoplichthys spp. 

" Walking catfish Clarias batrachus 

" Channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus 

" Red oscar Astronotus ocellatus 

" Midas cichlid Amphilophus citrinellus 

" Umbee cichlid Cichlasoma umbriferum 

" Jaguar cichlid Nandopsis managuensis 

" Hornet tilapia Tilapia buttikofferi 

" Black belt cichlid Vieja maculicauda 

" Largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides 

" Redbreast sunfish Lepomis auritus 

" Longear sunfish Lepomis megalotis 

" Black crappie Pomoxis nigromaculatus 

SW03 Eastern Diamondback Eastern diamondback snake Crotalus adamanteus 

" Everglades rat snake Elaphe obsoleta 

SW04 Lesser Siren Lesser siren Siren intermedia 

" Golden topminnow Fundulus chrysotus 

SWO5 Pygmy Sunfish Pygmy sunfish Elassoma evergladei 

SWO6 Spider Black Widow Latrodectus mactans 

SW07 Treefrogs & pitcher plants Green treefrog Hyla cinerea 

SW08 Alligator Gars Alligator gar Atractosteus spatula 

" Texas cichlid Herichthys cyanoguttatus 

" Redbreast sunfish Lepomis auritus 

STAFF PICKS 

SP01 Nicole Chaney Blue poison dart frog Dendrobates azureus 

" Electric-blue day gecko Lygodactylus williamsi 

SP02 Brooke Weinstein Whiteseam betta Betta albimarginata 

SP03 Ken Howell South American leaf fish Monocirrhus polyacanthus 

SP04 Bart Shepherd Engineerfish Pholidichthyes leucotaenia 

" Threadfin cardinalfish Zoramia leptacantha 

" Pacific sailfin tang Zebrasoma veliferum 

SP05 Tom Tucker Fluffy sculpin Oligocottus snyderi 

SP06 Pam Schaller Tiger shark stomach contents Galeocerdo cuvier 

SP07 Rich Ross Orange spotted file fish Oxymonacanthus longirostris 

" Orchid dottyback Pseudochromis fridmani 

" Striped fangblenny Meiacanthus grammistes 

" Organ pipe coral Tubipora musica 



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" Tree coral Nephthea sp. 

" Pulse coral Xenia sp. 

" Zoanthids Palythoa sp. 


" Ricordea yuma mushroom coral Ricordea yuma 

" Lettuce coral Agaricia sp. 

" Montipora (stony coral) Montipora capricornis 

" Green star polyps Briareum sp. 


" Trumpet coral Caulastrea sp. 

" Echinopora (stony coral) Echinopora sp. 

" Maze coral Platygyra sp. 

" Frogspawn coral Euphyllia divisa 

" Whiskers coral Duncanopsammia axifuga 

SP08 Frank Glennon Common kribensis Pelvicachromis pulcher 

SP09 Tanganyikan Fishes Mtoto zebra Lamprologus brevis zebra 

" Black calvus and white color morph Altolamprologus calvus 

SP10 " Brazilian salmon-pink birdeater Lasiodora parahybana 

SP11 Alison Rusch Waxy monkey tree frog Phyllomedusa sauvagii 

SP12 Jim Evans Dwarf African frogs Hymenochirus boettgeri 

SP13 Kristen Natoli Butterworts and sundews Pinguicula and Drosera spp. 

SP14 Matt Wandell - Coral Reef Fishes Peach fairy basslet Pseudanthias dispar 

" Lori's anthias Pseudanthias lori 

" Yellowstriped fairy basslet Pseudanthias tuka 

" Fathead anthias Serranocirrhitus latus 

" Indian butterflyfish Chaetodon mitratus 

" Purple tilefish Hoplolatilus purpureus 

" Firefish goby (Helfrich's dartfish) Nemateleotris helfrichi 

" Sea rod Diodogorgia nodulifera 

" Orange sun coral 

Tubastrea sp. 

SP15 Chris Andrews 2 -Coral Fuoresence Actinodiscus (striped mushroom) Actinodiscus sp.(Discosoma) 


" Favia coral Favia sp. 

" Bubble coral Plerogyra sinuosa 

" Banggai cardinalfish Pterapogon kauderni 

SP16 Seth Wolters Pacific gopher snake (two-headed) Pituophis catenifer catenifer 

SP17 Jim Evans Crystal red shrimp Caridina cantonensis 

" Moss ball Aegagropila linnaei 

" White cloud minnow Tanichthys albonubes 

SP18 Bart Shepherd 2 Coelacanth (CAS preserved) Latimeria chalumnae 

Academy Cafe 

AC01 Asian River Fishes (mostly) Tricolor sharkminnow Balantiocheilos melanopterus 

" Black ruby barb Rasbora borapetensis 

" Clown loach Botia macracanthus 

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" Redtail loach Botia modesta 

" Longfin tetra Brycinus longipinnis 

" Redtail brycon Brycon rubricauda 

" African glass catfish Pareutropius debauwi 

" Suckermouth catfish Hypostomus plecostomus 

" Vampire pleco Leporacanthicus galaxias 

" Splendid rainbowfish Melanotaenia splendid 

" Banded rainbowfish Melanotaenia trifasciata 

" Freshwater angelfish Pterophyllum scalare 

" Lionhead cichlid Steatocranus casuarius 

" Golden tilapia Tilapia brevimanus 

" Flagtail prochilodus Semaprochilodus taeniurus 

" Morgunda morgunda Morgunda morgunda 

Moss Room 

MRO1 Barbs (mostly) Java barb Barbonymus gonionotus 

" Tinfoil barb Barbonymus schwanenfeldii 

" Hampala barb Hampala macrolepidota 

" T-barb Puntius lateristriga 

" Red devil cichlid Amphilophus labiatus 

Display Birds 

" Swainson's hawk Buteo swainsoni 

" Barn owl Tyton alba 

" Turkey vulture Cathartes aura 

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308 


abyssal pertaining to the great depths of the ocean 

advanced character state see derived character state 

allele one of the variant forms of a gene at a particular 

locus, or location, on a chromosome 

allelopathic the inhibition of grown in one species of 

plant or animal by chemicals produced by another 

species 

alternation of generations life cycle in which haploid 

and diploid generations alternate with each other; 

common in ferns and some algae 

amplexus the mating clasp of the male frog or toad: he 

clings to the back of the female and fertilizes her eggs 

as she ejects them into the water 

anadromous moving from the ocean to fresh water to 

spawn (e.g., salmon) 

anal fin median, unpaired, ventrally located fin that 

lies behind the anus; most often provides stability 

aposematic serving as a warning, with reference particularly 

to colors and structures that signal possession 

of defensive devices 

asexual reproduction a type of reproduction involving 

only one parent that usually produces genetically 

identical offspring, a clone. Asexual reproduction occurs 

without meiosis or syngamy, and may happen 

though budding, by the division of a single cell, or 

the breakup of an entire organism into two or more 

parts. 

asymmetrical not symmetrical; one side is not the 

mirror image of the other (e.g. most sponges) 

barbel fleshy projection near the mouth, chin or snout 

as in catfish, generally used for locating food 

batch spawner a fish that sheds eggs more than once 

during a spawning season 

benthic pertaining to the sea bottom and the organisms 

that inhabit the bottom of a body of water 

GLOSSARY 

bilateral symmetry a shape in which the left and right 

sides of a longitudinal plane that runs through an organism’s 

body are approximately mirror images of 

each other 

brackish pertaining to water less salty than sea water 

because of the mixing of fresh and salt water (e.g., in 

an estuary) 

budding a form of asexual reproduction, especially by 

pinching off a small part of the parent 

calcareous consisting of or containing calcium carbonate 

or calcium 

calyx the cuplike structure of a colonial coral from 

which the individual polyp protrudes and into which 

it can usually be withdrawn 

camouflage avoidance or reduction of detection by 

means of blending with the environment 

carapace a chitinous or bony case or shell covering the 

back or part of the back of an animal, such as a crab 

or turtle 

carnivore an animal that feeds on other animals 

cartilage a translucent elastic tissue that composes the 

skeleton of the embryos and very young of vertebrates; 

for the most part is converted to bone in higher vertebrates, 

a notable exception being sharks and rays 

catadromous moving from fresh water to the ocean to 

spawn (e.g., American eel) 

caudal relating to or being a tail; situated toward the 

hind part of the body 

caudal fin the tail fin, which, for most fish, functions to 

provide thrust and acceleration 

caudal peduncle slender part of a fish’s body just 

ahead of the caudal fin. 

character heritable trait possessed by an organism 

cephalization an evolutionary tendency toward concentration 

of sensory and neural organs in the anterior 

head

chitin the tough, resistant organic substance that is 

the major component of arthropod exoskeletons 

chordate member of an animal phylum whose members 

possess a notochord, a dorsal nerve cord, gill 

slits, and a tail, at least at some stage of development 

cilia hairlike structures that serve, especially in free 

unicellular organisms, to produce movement or, in 

higher forms, a current of fluid (e.g., sponges) 

cirri (singular cirrus) short bristlelike projections from 

the epidermis of certain invertebrates and fishes 

clade a group of organisms that includes a common 

ancestor and all of that ancestor’s descendants 

cladogram a branching diagram indicating a hypothesized 

sequence of evolutionary changes using cladistic 

methodology 

clone an organism derived from a founding individual 

by asexual means that is genetically identical to the 

founding individual 

coelom a body cavity in which the digestive tract and 

other internal organs are suspended 

commensalism relationship between species that is beneficial 

to one, but neutral or of no benefit to the other 

compressed flattened from side to side 

congeneric belonging to the same genus 

conspecific belonging to the same species; individuals 

or populations of the same species 

consumer an organism that obtains nutrients and energy 

by eating other organisms 

convergence or convergent evolution the evolution 

of similar characters in genetically unrelated species, 

mostly because they have been subjected to similar 

environmental selective pressures 

countershading said of the coloration of an animal 

whose ventral surface is lighter than its dorsal surface, 

thus helping the animal blend into its background 

when viewed from above or below 

demersal sinking to or lying on the bottom; living on or 

near the bottom and feeding on benthic organisms 

denticle literally, “small tooth;” usually refers to modified 

scales on some fishes, especially sharks and rays 

deposit feeder an animal which takes in masses of 

sediments and processes them through its digestive 

tract to extract organic material 

derived character state inferred to be a modified version 

of the primitive condition of that character, and 

to have arisen later in the evolution of the clade 

desiccation removal of water; the process of drying 

Glossary 309 

detritivore organisms that live on dead organic matter, 

usually in small particles 

detritus fine, particulate debris, mostly derived from 

the decomposition of plant and animal remains; often 

an important source of nutrients in a food web 

deuterostome an animal in whose embryonic development 

the anus forms first and the mouth forms secondarily. 

Deuterostomes are also characterized by 

radial cleavage and by formation of the coelom from 

outpocketings of the gut. Echinoderms and chordates 

are deuterostomes 

DNA “deoxyribonucleic acid;” the nucleic acid which 

carries the genetic code of an organism; DNA is the 

primary component of chromosomes 

dichotomous dividing into two parts; branching; 

paired 

dichromatic members of a species having different coloration; 

usually related to sexual or growth differences 

dinoflagellate dominant planktonic algal form 

diploid referring to cells having two sets of chromosomes 

(2n): in animals, twice the number characteristic 

of gametes; in plants, the chromosome number 

characteristic of the sporophyte generation; in contrast 

to haploid (1n) 

diurnal active during the day 

dominant 1) referring to an allele that is almost always 

expressed, even if only one copy is present; 2) 

used to describe a male fish which is the chief spawner 

and which endeavors to exclude other males from 

the spawning act 

dorsal pertaining to the back or upper side of the 

body 

dorsal fin unpaired fin on the dorsal surface of fishes; 

most often used for stabilization to prevent pitch and 

roll. A few fish species (e.g., bowfin, moray eel, and 

seahorse) use the dorsal fin for movement 

ectotherm an organism that regulates its body temperature 

by taking in heat from the environment or giving 

it off to the environment; “cold-blooded” 

ecosystem a major interacting system that includes 

both organisms and their physical environment 

ectoparasite a parasite that lives on the outside of its 

host; opposite of endoparasite 

endosymbiont a symbiotic organism that lives within 

the body of an individual of an associated species. 

endotherm an organism that uses metabolic energy to 

regulate body temperature independent of the environment

310 


epipodal on or near the edge of the foot 

estivation dormancy of animals through a drought or 

warm season 

evolution descent with modification; changes in the 

genetic makeup of a population over time that produce 

cumulative changes in the characteristics of the 

population 

extinction the total disappearance of a species or higher 

taxon 

extracellular outside of the cell 

fertilization the union of sperm and egg 

filter feeder an animal that feeds by filtering out and ingesting 

small particles of food suspended in the water 

fin ray one of the bony or horny rods that support the 

fins of rayfin fishes; may be soft or spiny 

foliaceous a growth form of corals exhibiting leaflike 

sheets and plates 

food chain movement of energy and nutrients from 

one feeding group of organisms to another in a series 

that begins with plants and ends with carnivores, detrital 

feeders, and decomposers 

food pyramid a graphic representation showing all the 

energy and biomass contained in each trophic level 

of an ecosystem at any given time, moving from producers 

(autotrophs) up the food web to top-level consumers 

(heterotrophs) 

food web the food relationships within a community; 

a diagram of who eats what or whom 

founder effect genetic drift observed in a population 

founded by a small non-representative sample of a 

larger population 

fusiform spindle-shaped; tapered at both ends 

gamete an egg cell or sperm cell; a mature reproductive 

cell with a haploid set of chromosomes 

gametophyte a haploid (1n) plant or plant part that 

can produce gametes 

gene flow the movement of genes from one population 

to another by way of interbreeding of individuals in 

the two populations 

genetic code the DNA sequence of a gene; the genetic 

code determines the sequence of amino acids in a 

protein or enzyme, and thus the functions of a living 

organism 

genetic drift random variation in gene frequency from 

one generation to another 

genotype the total set of genes present in the cells of an 

organism, as contrasted with phenotype, which is the 

realized expression of the genes 

habitat the area in which an organism lives and finds 

the essentials it needs to survive 

halophyte a plant adapted to living in a saline environment 

haploid pertaining to cells that have only one copy 

of each chromosome; typically are sex cells (sperm or 

egg) produced through meiosis 

herbivore an animal that feeds on plants or plantlike 

organisms 

hermaphrodite an animal which has the sex organs of 

both male and female. May be sequential or synchronous 

(See protandrous and protogynous) 

heterocercal describes a caudal fin in which the spinal 

column extends into the larger upper lobe 

holotype the single physical example (or illustration) 

of an organism, known to have been used when the 

species (or lower-ranked taxon) was initially and formally 

described 

homocercal describes a caudal fin that is nearly or 

completely symmetrical and that is supported by a 

complex internal V-shaped bony plate; characteristic 

of teleosts 

hydrostatic skeleton a skeleton in which the body’s 

shape and/or function is maintained by an incompressible 

fluid such as blood or hemolymph 

intracellular within the cell 

laminar arranged in, consisting of, or resembling 

plates or scales 

larva the early form of any animal that changes structurally 

when it becomes an adult 

lateral line a series of sensory pores along the head and 

sides of fish and some amphibians by which water currents, 

vibrations, and pressure changes are detected 

longitudinal fission asexual reproduction by a lengthwise 

division of the cell or body into two or more 

parts of roughly equal size 

mandible lower part of the jaw; the “jawbone” 

mantle layer of tissue over a mollusk body that secretes 

the shell, if present 

maxilla in vertebrates, the upper jaw 

medusa the free-swimming, bell- or umbrella-shaped 

stage in the life cycle of many cnidarians 

meiosis a special type of cell division that occurs when 

mature eggs and sperm are formed. Through the process 

of meiosis the number of chromosomes present

in a cell is decreased by half. Unlike what occurs in 

mitosis, the daughter cells produced in meiosis are 

not identical to each other 

metamorphosis the change of an immature animal into 

an adult. More generally, change in the form of an organ 

or structure 

mimic a species, or individual, that closely imitates 

another 

mitosis the process of nuclear division in cells that 

produces daughter cells genetically identical to each 

other and to the parent cell 

model the species, or individual, imitated by a mimic 

mutation any heritable change in DNA sequence; can 

occur randomly (naturally) or can be deliberately 

caused in the laboratory 

mutualism the living together of two or more organisms 

in a symbiotic association from which both 

members benefit 

nauplius free-swimming larval form characteristic of 

crustaceans 

natural selection the process recognized by Charles 

Darwin as the primary mechanism of evolution. The 

differential reproduction of genotypes, caused by factors 

in the environment 

nematocyst a specialized stinging cell characteristic 

of cnidarians (e.g., anemones and corals) that contains 

a barbed, threadlike tube that delivers a paralyzing 

sting; the term also often refers to the barbed 

structure itself 

notochord in lower chordates and in the embryos of 

higher vertebrates, a flexible supportive rod running 

longitudinally through the back, ventral to the nerve 

cord 

ocellus an eyelike, pigmented spot 

omnivore an organism that eats both plant and animals 

operculum 1) the gill cover of bony fish; 2) a plate 

that many gastropod mollusks produce and pull into 

place as a “door” to resist desiccation and intruders 

organ a part of the body composed of several different 

tissues that form a structural unit and function 

together; e.g., heart, stomach 

oviparous egg-laying; the eggs develop into embryos 

after being laid by the female 

ovoviviparous relating to animals that retain eggs 

within the body of the female in a brood chamber in 

which the development of the embryo takes place; 

the young hatch inside the mother and are usually 

born shortly afterwards 

Glossary 311 

pectoral fins paired fins, located either low on the 

body in some species or on the side just behind the 

operculum in many others; used by most fishes for 

fine control of movements. Provide lift for many 

sharks; used for propulsion by rays 

pedicellariae pincerlike structures that occur around 

the base of spines of sea stars, sea urchins, and sand 

dollars, apparently used to catch and crush small 

animals that try to settle on surface of these echinoderms 

pelagic living and feeding in the open sea, not in association 

with the bottom 

pelvic fins paired fins, located ventrally; used most often 

for breaking and steering 

pharynx part of the throat into which the gill slits 

open; part of the alimentary canal between mouth 

and esophagus 

phenotype the realized expression of the genotype; 

the physical appearance or functional expression of 

a genetic trait 

pheromone chemical substance released by one organism 

that influences the behavior or functioning of another 

organism of the same species; often serve as sex 

attractants, trail markers or alarm signals 

photic zone lighted water column of lake or ocean 

where photosynthesis can take place 

photosynthesis a complex process used by many 

plants and other organisms, such as algae, to build 

carbohydrates from carbon dioxide, inorganic substances, 

and water, using energy derived from light. 

Oxygen is released as a by-product. 

pinnate having leaflets arranged in opposite rows 

along an axis, like a feather 

pinnule leaflets of a pinnately-compound leaf; a side 

branch structure on the tentacles of many soft corals, 

giving them a feathery appearance 

piscivore an organism that feeds exclusively or preferably 

on fish 

plankton free-floating, usually minute, organisms of 

the sea 

planula larval form characteristic of cnidarians 

polyp one of the two principal body forms of cnidarians, 

typically sessile with the base attached to a substrate 

population a group of individuals belonging to the 

same species, occupying the same area at the same 

time and sharing the same gene pool 

preopercle the bone between the cheek and the gill 

cover

312 


primitive character state present in the common ancestor 

of a clade; a primitive character state is inferred 

to be the original condition of that character within 

the clade under consideration 

producers in an ecosystem, organisms, such as plants, 

that are able to produce their own food from inorganic 

substances 

protandrous referring to a sequential hermaphrodite 

in which the fish functions first as a male and then 

changes to a female 

protogynous refers to animals that are sequential hermaphrodites, 

where the animal functions first biologically 

as a female, having only female sexual organs, 

then changes to be biologically male 

radial symmetry a type of symmetry in which an organism 

can be divided into equal halves by passing a 

plane through the central axis in any direction 

radula rasping tongue found in most mollusks 

recessive refers to an allele that causes a phenotype 

(visible or detectable characteristic) that is only seen 

in an organism that has two copies of the same allele 

scavenger an organism that obtains nutrients from 

dead animals or other dead organic material 

selection pressure in a population, the force for genetic 

change resulting from natural selection 

sessile permanently attached or stationary 

sexual reproduction reproduction that involves male 

and female gametes, usually produced by different 

parents. The central event is fertilization (the joining 

of egg and sperm) 

species (1) a group of organisms that have a unique 

set of characteristics (like body shape and behavior) 

that distinguishes them from other organisms. If they 

reproduce, individuals within the same species can 

produce fertile offspring. (2) the basic unit of biological 

classification 

spore a reproductive cell, usually unicellular, capable 

of developing into an adult without fusion with another 

cell 

sporophyte the spore-producing, diploid (2n) stage in 

the life cycle of a plant having alternation of generations 

symbiosis the living together of two dissimilar organisms 

in close association; includes parasitism, commensalism, 

and mutualism 

synchronous hermaphrodite organism that possesses 

both active male and active female reproductive organs 

at the same time 

syngamy the union of a sperm cell and an egg cell to 

form a zygote; fertilization 

taxon (pl. taxa) a named group of organisms, not necessarily 

a clade; a group of organisms of any taxonomic 

rank, such as a given phylum, order, family, 

genus, species 

terminal phase male the dominant breeding male of 

certain fish families, such as wrasses and parrotfishes. 

Usually has a distinctive color phase and may be 

transformed initial phase males or transformed females. 

thallus a plant body without true stems or roots or 

leaves or vascular system; the body of a seaweed 

tissue a group of cells organized into a structural or 

functional unit 

trochophore the larval form characteristic of marine 

annelids and most groups of mollusks as well as several 

other phyla 

variation the differences that occur in the offspring of 

a particular population or species 

veliger the larval form common to most bivalves and 

gastropods; develops from the trochophore larva 

ventral pertaining to the undersurface 

viviparous producing live young from within the 

body of the female 

zoochlorellae symbiotic unicellular green algae 

zoospore a motile flagellated asexual spore, as of certain 

algae and fungi; typically produces a gametophyte 

zooxanthellae symbiotic dinoflagellate algae 

zygote the cell formed by the union of a sperm cell and 

an egg cell

A 

Abalone, Red 53, 241 

Acanthaster planci 86 

Acanthastrea spp. 39 

Acanthogobius flavimanus 179 

Acanthophyllia deshayesiana 39, 

251 

Acanthuridae 12, 184–190 

Acanthurus 

achilles 184 

blochii 184 

coeruleus 184 

dussumieri 185 

japonicus 185 

lineatus 185 

mata 185 

nigricans 186 

nigroris 186 

olivaceus 186 

pyroferus 186 

triostegus 187 

Acropora 35 

Acropora spp. 35 

Actiniaria 46 

Actinopterygii 96 

Aegagropila linnaeim 19 

Aeoliscus strigatus 123 

Agalychnis callidryas 200 

Agaricia sp. 36 

Agonopsis vulsa 137 

Ahaetulla fronticincta 221 

Alcyonacea 26 

Algae 

Articulating Coralline 21, 240 

Brown 20 

Bryopsis 251 

Encrusting Coralline 21, 240 

Green 19 

Red 240 

INDEX 

Alligator, American 

208 

Alligator mississippiensis 208 

Alpheus randalli 68 

Alveopora sp. 36 

Amazon Leaf Fish 153 

Amblycirrhitus pinos 153 

Amblyeleotris randalli 179 

Amblyeleotris sp 179 

Amblygobius 

hectori 180 

phalaena 180 

Ameca splendens 121 

Amphibians 196 

Amphilophus labiatus 154 

Amphiprion 

clarkii 163 

ocellaris 163 

percula 164 

perideraion 164 

Amphistichus 

argenteus 160 

rhodoterus 161 

Anaconda 216, 282 

Anarrhichthys ocellatus 176 

Anchovy, Northern 104 

Andrias davidianus 196 

Anemone 

Aggregating 46, 229, 241 

Bubbletip Sea 48, 252, 259 

Cloned Plumose 46, 229, 241 

Club-tipped 32, 229 

Condylactis Sea 47, 273 

Corkscrew Tentacle Sea 48, 252 

Fish-eating 49, 230 

Giant Carpet 49, 259 

Giant Green 47, 229 

Giant Plumose 46, 229 

Index 313 

Leathery Sea 49, 259 

Magnificent Sea 49, 259 

Miniature Carpet 50 

Painted 48, 229 

Rose 229, 247 

Sun 49, 273 

Tube 45 

White-spotted Rose 48 

Anemonefish 

Clark’s 163, 263 

False clown 263 

False Clown 253 

Pink 164 

Spinecheek 167, 264 

Anemonefishes 10 

Anemones 46 

Angelfish 

Altum 159 

Blackspot 151, 262 

Blackstriped 151 

Bluegirdled 153 

Emperor 152, 262 

Flame 150, 262 

Freshwater 159 

King 152 

Lamarck’s 262 

Lamarck’s 151 

Lemonpeel 151 

Orinoco 159 

Queen 152, 273 

Swallowtail 151 

Angelfishes 8, 150–153 

Angiosperms 22 

Annelids 51 

Anomalops katoptron 122 

Antennarius commerson 118 

Anthelia spp. 28 

Anthias

314 

A Docent & Guide View of the Steinhart Aquarium Species 

Fathead 140 

Lri’s 139 

Lyretail 140 

Purple 140 

Squarespot 139 

Anthias, Squarespot 260 

Anthopleura 

elegantissima 46 

xanthogrammica 47 

Anthozoans 26–35 

Ant, Leafcutter 82 

Aplysia californica 57 

Apodichthys 

flavidus 175 

fucorum 176 

Apogon 

cyanosoma 144 

leptacanthus 144 

maculatus 144 

parvulus 144 

sealei 144 

Apogonidae 8 

Ara 

ararauna 222 

macao 223 

Aracana 

ornate 195 

Aracana aurita 194 

Aracana ornate 194, 195 

Aracanaornate 195 

Arapaima 99, 283 

Arapaima gigas 99 

Arawana, Silver 100, 283 

Archaster typicus 84 

Archocentrus nigrofasciatus 155 

Aristolochia labiata 276 

Artedius harrington 135 

Arthropoda 63–71 

Aspidites 

melanocephalus 217 

ramsayi 218 

Asteroidea 84 

Astrochelys radiata 207 

Astronotus ocellatus 155 

Astropyga radiata 88 

Astyanax mexicanus 110 

Atherinops 

affinis 120 

Atherinopsis 

californiensis 120 

Atractosteus spatula 98 

Atta cephalotes 82 

Atyopsis moluccensis 68 

Aurelia aurita 50 

B 

Bactris gasipaes 25 

Balanophyllia elegans 44 

Balantiocheilos melanopterus 104 

Balanus 

glandula 76 

nubilus 77 

Balistidae 12 

Balistoides conspicillum 193 

Bananaquit 279 

Banaquit 226 

Bannerfish 150, 262 

Barb 

Black Ruby 108 

Cherry 106 

Hampala 107 

Java 104 

T- 108 

Tinfoil 105 

Barbonymus 

gonionotus 104 

schwanenfeldii 105 

Barnacle 

Acorn 76, 244 

Giant Acorn 77, 231 

Gooseneck 77, 231, 244 

Barnacles 76 

Basiliscus plumifrons 210 

Bass 

Chalk 141, 274 

Giant Sea 137, 247 

Harlequin 140, 274 

Kelp 138, 238 

Largemouth 143 

basslet 

Red-cheeked Fairy 260 

Basslet 

Jewel Fairy 140, 253. 260 

Pacific Candy 138 

Peach Fairy 139 

Red-cheeked Fairy 139 

Squarespot Fairy 139. 260 

Yellowstriped Fairy 140 

Basslets 7 

Bat, Dog-faced Fruit 227 

Bedotia madagascariensis 119 

Betta 

albimarginata 189 

splendens 189 

Striped 190 

taeniata 190 

Whiteseam 189 

Bicolor 

Chromis 165 

Birds 221–225 

Bivalves 58 

Blaberus giganteus 77 

Black Crappie 143 

Black Olive Tree 24, 276 

Blacksmith 165, 238 

Blaesodactylus sakalava 212 

Blastomussa merleti 39 

Blastomussa wellsi 40 

Blennies 11, 176–177 

Blenniidae 11 

Blenny 

Bicolor 177, 266 

Canary 178 

Convict 266 

Eyelash 178 

Jeweled 178, 266 

Midas 177, 266 

Striped Poison-fang 177 

Blind Cave Fish 110 

Boa 

constrictor 216 

Constrictor 216 

Emerald Tree 216 

Madagascar Tree 217 

Redtail 216 

Bocaccio 130 

Boiga dendrophila 219 

Bonytongues 99 

Botia 

macracanthus 108 

Botia sidthimunki 108 

Boxfish 

Shaw’s 194 

Boxfishes 13 

Brachyistius frenatus 161 

Brazilian Beauty Leaf 24, 276 

Bream 

Striped Large-eye 261 

Bristletooth 

Goldring 187, 269 

Brosmophycis marginata 118 

Brotula, Red 118 

Brown algae 20 

Feather Boa Kelp 20 

Giant Kelp 20 

Macrocystis 20

Oar Weed 20 

Rockweeds 20 

Brycon melanopterus 110 

Brycon, Redtail 283 

Bryopsis gae 251 

Bucida buceras 24 

Buffalofish, Smallmouth 109 

Bufo quercicus 198 

Bullseye Mushroom 33 

Butterflies 79–82 

Butterfly 

Banded Orange 79, 279 

Giant Owl 79, 280 

Orange Barred Sulfur 82, 281 

Postman 280 

Butterflyfish 

Bank 147 

Copperband 149, 261 

Klein’s 148 

Longnose 149, 261 

Pyramid 150, 261 

Raccoon 148 

Reef 148 

Saddle 148 

Vagabond 149 

Butterflyfishes 8, 147 

Butterfly Goodeid 121 

Butterfly Splitfin 121 

Button Coral 40 

C 

Cabezon 136, 234 

Caesio teres 146 

Caligo memnon 79 

Callinectes sapidus 71 

Calliostoma 

annulatum 55 

ligatum 55 

Calloplesiops altivelis 102 

Calophyllum brasiliense 24 

Cancer 

magister 71 

productus 72 

Canthigaster papua 195 

Capnella 28 

Carcharhinus melanopterus 94, 

249 

Carcharinidae 5 

Cardinalfish 

Banggai 145 

Dog-toothed 145 

Flame 144 

Pajama 145, 261 

Redspot 144 

Seale’s 144, 261 

Spotted 260 

Threadfin 144 

Yellowstriped 144 

Cardinalfishes 8 

Carettochelys insculpta 205 

Caridina cf. Cantonensis 68 

Cartilaginous Fishes 92 

Caryothraustes canadensis 

226–228 

Cassiopea andromeda 50 

Catalaphyllia jardinei 43 

Catfish 

Armored 115 

Channel 113 

Glass 114 

Perruno 115 

Redtail 115, 284 

Ripsaw 115 

Suckermouth 116 

Tiger Shovelnose 116, 284 

Upsidedown 115 

Walking 114 

Catfishes 113–116 

Caulastrea sp. 41 

Caulolatilus princeps 145 

Cebidichthys violaceus 175 

Celestichthys margaritatus 105 

Centipede, Scolopendra 84 

Centropyge 

argi 150 

bispinosus 150 

flavissima 151 

loricula 150 

Cephalopods 60–61 

Cephaloscyllium ventriosum 93 

Ceriantharia 45 

Chaetodon 

aya 147 

ephippium 148 

kleinii 148 

lunula 148 

senentarius 148 

Chaetodontidae 8 

Chaetodon vagabundus 149 

Chamaeleo jacksonii 211 

Chameleon 

Jackson’s 211 

Panther 211 

Characiformes 109–113 

Index 315 

Cheilinus undulates 168 

Cheilodipterus isostigmus 145 

Chelicerates 63–64 

Chelmonops curiosus 149 

Chelmon rostratus 149 

Chelus fimbriatus 205 

Cherubfish 273 

Chirolophis 

decoratus 175 

nugator 175 

Chiton 

Gumboot 53, 230, 241 

Lined 52 

Mossy 52, 230 

Chitons 52 

Chlamys hastata 60 

Chlorophyta 

Ulva spp. 19 

Choerodon fasciatus 168 

Chordata 92 

Chromis 10 

Bicolor 164 

Blue 164, 274 

Blue Green 165 

cyanea 164 

dimidiata 164 

Green 165, 253, 263 

margaritifer 165 

punctipinnis 165 

Ternate 263 

ternatensis 165 

viridis 165 

Chrysaora fuscescens 51 

Chrysiptera 

cyanea 165 

parasema 166 

taupou 166 

Chrysopelea paradisi 220 

Cichla 

ocellaris 155 

temensis 156 

Cichlid 

Black Belt 160 

Chocolate 157 

Convict 155 

Earth-eater 156, 282 

Jaguar 158 

Katria 157 

Lionhead 159 

Peacock Bass 155, 284 

Pike 156, 284 

Red Devil 154

316 


Ringtail Pike 156 

Speckled Pavon 156 

Texas 156 

Cichlidae 9, 154–158 

Cichlids 9 

Cirrhilabrus 

exquisitus 168 

flavidorsalis 169 

lubbocki 169 

solorensis 169 

Cirrhitidae 10, 153 

Cirripedia 76 

Citharichthys 

sordidus 191 

stigmaeus 192 

Clam 

Crocea Giant 58 

Giant 58, 59, 259 

Maxima 59 

Squamosa 59 

Clams 58 

Claravis pretiosa 222 

Clarias batrachus 114 

Clingfish 119 

Clownfish 

Common 164 

False 163, 263 

Clupea harengus pallasi 103 

Cnidarians 25 

Cockroach 

Giant 77 

Madagascar Hissing 78 

Coelacanth 195 

Coereba flaveola 226 

Coius microlepis 146 

Collisella pelta 54 

Colochirus robustus 91 

Colomesus asellus 195 

Colossoma macropomum 111 

Commensal Shrimp 70 

Conch, Queen 56 

Condylactis sp. 47 

Conus marmoreus 56 

Coral 

Acanthastrea 39, 251, 257 

Anchor 43 

Bird’s Nest 34 

Blastomussa 40 

Blue 26 

Brain 41 

Brown Cup 44 

Bubble 44, 252, 258 

Button 40 

Cactus 36, 256 

Cauliflower 34, 251 

Cladiella 26 

Closed Brain 40, 258 

Daisy 36 

Diploastrea 41 

Disk 256 

Echinophyllia 38 

Echinopora 42 

Elegance 43 

Elkhorn 35, 256 

Euphyllia 252, 258 

Favia 42 

Flat Leather 27 

Flowerpot 36 

Fox 44 

Frogspawn 43 

Galaxy 38, 257 

Goniastrea 42 

Green Star Polyp 28 

Horn 40, 257 

Knobby Leather 27 

Lettuce 36 

Lobed Brain 40 

Lobophyllia 251 

Lobophytum 27, 255 

Maze 42, 257 

Meat 39, 251 

Montipora 35 

Moon 258 

Mushroom 37 

Mycedium 38 

Open Brain 43 

Orange Cup 44, 45, 241 

Pineapple 39 

Plating Hydnophora 40, 257 

Porites 36 

Sarcophyton 27, 255 

Sinularia 27, 255 

Slimy Leather 27 

Slipper 37 

Staghorn 35, 256 

Stylophora 35 

Symphyllia 257 

Tree 28 

Trumpet 41, 258 

Turbinaria cup 45 

Turbinaria Cup 258 

Whisker 45 

Coral Beauty 150 

Corallimorpharia 32–33 

Corallina 

chilensis 21 

officinalis 21 

vancouveriensis 21 

Corallus 

caninus 216 

Cordgrass 22 

Corynactis californica 32 

Coryphopterus nicholsii 180 

Cottidae 134, 135 

Cowfish, 

Ornate 195 

Cowfish, Ornate 194 

Crab 

Black-eyed Hermit 75 

Blue 71 

Common Hermit 74 

Decorator 73, 243 

Dungeness 71 

Fiddler 74 

Graceful Decorator 73 

Green Shore 72, 243 

Hairy Hermit 76 

Hermit 75, 243 

Masking 73 

Naked Mole 75 

Northern Kelp 74, 243 

Orange Fiddler 74 

Purple Shore 72, 243 

Red Rock 72, 230, 243 

Striped Shore 73, 244 

Vampire 76 

Crangon franciscorum 69 

Crassedoma giganteum 60 

Crenicichla 

saxatilis 156 

Crenicichla lepidota 156 

Crossocheilus siamensis 105 

Crotalus adamanteus 218 

Crustaceans 67–75 

Cryptobranchidae 196 

Cryptochiton stelleri 53 

Ctenobrycon spilurus 111 

Ctenochaetus 

strigosus 187 

tominiensis 187 

Cuttlefish 

Dwarf 62 

Flambuoyant 61 

Cyanerpes cyaneus 224 

Cymatogaster aggregata 161 

Cynarina lacrymalis 40

Cynopterus brachyotis 227 

Cyprinidae 6, 104–107 

Cypriniformes 104 

Cyprinodon macularius 122 

Cyprinodontidae 122 

Cyprinus carpio 105 

D 

Damselfish 

Blacktail 166, 263 

Goldbelly 167, 263 

Neon 167, 249 

Yellowtail Blue 166, 253, 263 

Damselfishes 10, 163 

Danio 

Celestial Pearl 105 

Zebra 106 

Danio rerio 106 

Dardanus pedunculatus 74 

Dascyllus melanurus 166 

Dasyatis kuhlii 95, 249 

Datnioides microlepis 146 

Decapoda 68–74 

Dendraster excentricus 90 

Dendrobates 

auratus 199 

azureus 199 

pumillio 199 

Dermasterias imbricata 87 

Diadema setosum 89 

Diodogorgia nodulifera 29 

Diodora aspera 54 

Diploastrea heliopora 41 

Diploastrea helipora 258 

Diploria sp. 41 

Discosoma 32 

Distichlis spicata 22 

Diving Beetle 

Sunburst 79 

Doris odhneri 56 

Doryrhamphus janssi 124 

Dottyback 

Orchid 141 

Royal 141 

Dove, Blue Ground 222 

Dragonet. Spotted 178 

Dryadula phaetusa 79 

Dryas julia 80 

Duncanopsammia axifuga 45 

Dutchman’s Pipe 276 

Dyscophus antongilli 204 

E 

East Coast Saroy 159 

Echidna nebulosa 101 

Echinodermata 84–91 

Echinoidea 88 

Echinophyllia sp. 38 

Echinopora lamellosa 42 

Ecsenius 

bicolor 177 

midas 177 

Eel 

Electric 117 

Spotted Garden 103, 260 

Wolf 176, 236 

Eels 101–103 

Egg Case 

Horn Shark 246 

Skate 245 

Swell Shark 245 

Egregia menziesii 20 

Elaphe obsoleta rosalleni 220 

Elasmobranchii 92 

Elassoma evergladei 123 

Electrophorus electricus 117 

Elephantnose 100 

Embiotoca 

jacksoni 161 

lateralis 162 

Embiotocidae 9, 160–163 

Emerita analoga 75 

Encrusting Hydrocoral 25 

Endler’s Livebearer 122 

Engineerfish 176, 266 

Engraulis mordax 104 

Entacmaea quadricolor 48 

Enteroctopus dofleini 62 

Epalzeorhynchos bicolor 106 

Erythropodium caribaeorum 29 

Eucidaris tribuloides 88 

Eueides isabella 80 

Eumicrotremus orbis 137 

Eunectes murinus 216 

Eunicea mammosa 29 

Euphonia violacea 226 

Euphonia, Violaceous 226, 279 

Euphyllia 43 

Exodon paradoxus 111 

F 

Fairy Wrasse 

Exquisite 168, 264 

Index 317 

Lubbock’s 169, 264 

Redeye 169, 264 

Yellowfin 169, 264 

Favia sp. 258 

Favia spp. 42 

Feather Boa Kelp 240 

Featherduster Worms 51 

Filefish, Orange-spotted 194 

Finch, Saffron 226, 279 

279 

Flagtail Prochilodus 109 

Flashlight Fish 123 

Splitfin 122 

Flatfishes 191–192 

Flounders 191–192 

Flowering Plants 22 

Forcipiger longirostris 149 

Frog 

Blue Poison Dart 199 

Borneo File-eared 203 

Dwarf African 197 

Green and Black Poison Dart 

199 

Harlequin Tree 204 

Madagascar Reed 203 

Madagascar Tomato 204 

Strawberry Poison Dart 199 

Striped Poison Dart 200 

Vietnamese Mossy 204 

Waxy Monkey Tree 201 

Frogfish 118 

Fromia monilis 85 

Fucus spp. 20 

Fundulus chrysotus 121 

Fungia sp. 37 

Furcifer 

pardalis 211 

Fusilier 

Bluestreak 146, 261 

Yellow and Blueback 146, 261 

G 

Galaxea fascicularis 38 

Gar 

Alligator 98 

Longnose 99 

Spotted 99 

Garibaldi 166, 238, 247 

Gastropods 53–57 

Gecko 

Electric Blue Day 212 

Henkel’s Leaf-tailed 214

318 


Klemmer’s Yellow-headed Day 

213 

Kuhl’s Flying 213 

Madagascar Giant Day 212 

Sakalava Velvet 212 

Standing’s Day 213 

Genicanthus 

lamarck 151 

melanospilos 151 

Geophagus altifrons 156 

Geosesarma sp.’vampire” 76 

Gerrhosaurus major 214 

Giant Kelp 241 

Gibbonsia montereyensis 177 

Gigartina spp. 22 

Girella nigricans 147 

Gnathonemus petersi 100 

Gobies 11, 179–180 

Gobiidae 11, 179–180 

Goby 

Banded 180, 253 

Blackeye 180 

Bluestreak 181, 266 

Firefish 181 

Hector’s 180 

Randall’s Prawn 179 

Shrimp 179 

Yellowfin 179 

Zebra 182, 266 

Golden Topminnow 121 

Gomphosus varius 170 

Goniastrea sp. 42 

Gonyosoma oxycephala 220 

Goodeids 121 

Gorgonian 

Brown 30, 237 

Encrusting 29, 272 

Golden 30, 237 

Pacific 31, 255 

Red 30, 237 

Gorgonians 26 

Gourami 

Blue 191 

Moonlight 191 

Pearl 190 

Gramma loreto 141 

Green Algae 

Sea Lettuce 19 

Greenling 

Kelp 133, 235 

Painted 134, 235 

Rock 133 

Green-spined Salmacis 89 

Gromphadorhina portentosa 78 

Grosbeak, Yellow-green 226 

Guitarfish, Bowmouth 94, 249 

Gunnel 

Penpoint 175 

Rockweed 176 

Gymnomuraena zebra 101 

Gymnothorax 

favagineus 102 

meleagris 102 

mordax 102 

H 

Hadrurus arizonensis 64 

Halfmoon 147, 238 

Halibut, California 192, 248 

Halichoeres 

chloropterus 170 

chrysus 170 

garnoti 170 

prosopeion 171 

semicinctus 171 

Haliichthys taeniophorus 124 

Haliotis rufescens 53 

Halosaccion glandiforme 22 

Hamlet, Indigo 138 

Hampala macrolepidota 107 

Haplopelma lividum 64 

Hawkfish 

Flame 154, 264 

Longnose 154, 264 

Redspotted 153, 275 

Hawkfishes 10, 153 

Heliconius 

charithonia 80 

doris 80 

melpomene 81 

sapho 81 

sara 81 

Heliopora coerulea 26 

Heloderma horridum 215 

Hemigrammus 

bleheri 111 

rhodostomus 112 

Hemigrapsus 

nudus 72 

oregonensis 72 

Hemilepidotus hemilepidotus 134 

Hemitaurichthys polylepis 150 

Heniochus diphreutes 150 

Henricia leviuscula 86 

Herichthys cyanoguttatus 156 

Heros severus 157 

Herring, Pacific 103 

Heteractis 

crispa 49 

magnifica 49 

Heterixalus madagascariensis 203 

Heteroconger hassi 103 

Heterodontus francisci 92 

Hexacorallia 32–40 

Hexacorals 32 

Hexagrammidae 133 

Hexagrammos 

decagrammus 133 

lagocephalus 133 

Hippocampus 

abdominalis 124 

erectus 125 

kuda 125 

reidi 126 

Hippocampus spp. 124 

Hogfish 

Spanish 274 

Holacanthus 

passer 152 

Holacanthus ciliaris 152 

Holothuoidea 91 

Honeycreeper 

Red-legged 279 

Honeycreeper, Red-legged 224 

Hoplolatilus purpureus 146 

Horn Shark, California 92, 247 

Humuhumu nukunuku a pua’a 

193 

Hydnophora 

grandis 257 

Plating 257 

rigida 41, 257 

spp. 40 

Hydrozoans 25 

Hyla 

cinerea 201 

versicolor 201 

Hymenocera picta 70 

Hymenochirus boettgeri 197 

Hyperprosopon argenteum 162 

Hypoplectrus indigo 138 

Hypostomus plecostomus 116 

Hypselecara temporalis 157 

Hypsurus caryi 162 

Hypsypops rubicundus 166 

I

Icelinus tenuis 135 

Ictalurus punctatus 113 

Ictiobus bubalus 109 

Idol, False Moorish 150 

Iguana, Green 210, 282 

Iguana iguana 210 

Insects 77–82 

Iridaea spp. 22 

J 

Jacksmelt 120, 232 

Jellyfish 

Moon 50 

Sea Nettle 51 

Upside-down 50 

Jellyfishes 50 

K 

Katria katria 157 

Kelp 

Bull 229 

Feather Boa 20, 240 

Giant 20, 237, 241 

Kelpfish, Crevice 177 

Killifish 

Patriciae 120 

Redtail 120 

Koi 105 

Kryptopterus minor 114 

L 

Labridae 10 

Labroides dimidiatus 171 

Laminaria spp. 20, 237 

Lamprologus brevis zebra 158 

Langaha madagascariensis 221 

Lasiodora parahybana 64 

Latimeria chalumnae 195 

Latrodectus mactans 65 

Leiurus quinquestriatus 63 

Lepisosteus 

oculatus 99 

osseus 99 

Lepomis 

auritus 142 

megalotis 142 

Leporinus, Banded 110, 283 

Leporinus fasciatus 110 

Leptogorgia chilensis 30 

Leptoseris Coral 37 

Limpet 

Owl 54, 242 

Rough Keyhole 54, 230, 242 

Shield 54 

Linckia 

laevigata 85 

multiflora 85 

Lingcod 134, 248 

Lionfish, Red 131 

Liopropoma swales 138 

Lithopoma 

gibberosum 55 

undosum 55 

Lizard 

Great Plated 214 

Green Basilisk 210 

Madagascar Plated 215 

Mexican Beaded 215 

Saharan Spiny-tailed 210 

Lizards and Snakes 210 

Loach 

Clown 108 

Dwarf 108 

Redtail 109 

Lobe-finned fishes 195 

Lobophyllia sp. 40 

Lobophytum 27 

Longwing 

Doris 80, 280 

Hecale 281 

Isabella’s 80, 280 

Julia 80 

Sapho 81, 281 

Sara 81, 281 

Zebra 80, 280 

Lottia gigantea 54 

Loxorhynchus crispatus 73 

Lumpsucker, Pacific Spiny 137 

Lungfish, Australian 196 

Lygodactylus williamsi 212 

Lysmata 

amboinensis 69 

californica 69 

debelius 70 

M 

Macaw 

Blue and Gold 222 

Scarlet 223 

Macrochelys temminckii 206 

Macrocystis pyrifera 20 

Macrodactyla doreensis 48 

Macropharyngodon meleagris 

Index 319 

172 

Macrotocinclus affinis 116 

Malachite 82, 281 

Mandarinfish, Green 178 

Mangrove, Red 23, 250 

Mantella 

aurantiaca 202 

baroni 202 

Golden 202 

Green 203 

Painted 202 

viridis 203 

Marakely 157 

Matamata 205 

Medialuna californiensis 147 

Mediaster aequalis 85 

Megalops 

atlanticus 100 

cyprinoids 101, 249 

Megophrys nasuta 198 

Meiacanthus 

grammistes 177 

oualanensis 178 

Melanotaenia trifasciata 119 

Melichthys vidua 193 

Mespilia globulus 89 

Metasepia pfefferi 61 

Metridium 

giganteum 46 

senile 46 

Metynnis argenteus 112 

Mexican Beaded Lizard 215 

Micrometrus minimus 

162 

Micropterus salmoides 143 

Midget Sucker 116 

Millepora 25 

Minnow 

White Cloud 107 

Mollusks 52–56 

Mono 147, 249 

Monocirrhus polyacanthus 153 

Monodactylus argenteus 147, 249 

Montipora spp. 35 

Moorish Idol 184 

Mopalia muscosa 52 

Moray 

California 102, 247 

Honeycomb 102 

Snowflake 101 

Whitemouth 102 

Zebra 101

320 


Moray Eels 6 

Morelia bredli 218 

Morpho, Blue 82, 281 

Morpho peleides 82 

Moss Ball 19 

Mtoto Zebra 158 

Mudskipper, Barred 181, 250 

Muraenidae 6 

Muricea 

californica 30 

fruticosa 30 

Muriceopsis flavida 30 

Mushroom 

Striped 251 

Mushroom Leather Coral 27 

Mushrooms 251 

Mussel, California 58, 230, 243 

Mycedium elephantotus 38 

Myleus 

rubripinnis 112 

Myripristis amaena 123 

Mytilus californianus 58 

N 

Nannostomus beckfordi 110 

Naso 250 

brevirostris 187 

lituratus 188 

unicornis 188 

vlamingii 188 

Naso, Bumphead 188 

Nautichthys oculofasciatus 136 

Nautilus, Chambered 60 

Nautilus pompilius 60 

Nemenzophyllia turbida 44 

Nemo 163 

Neoceratodus forsteri 196 

Neocirrhites armatus 154 

Neoglyphidodon oxyodon 167 

Nepehthes sp. 277 

Nephila 

clavipes 66 

madagascariensis 66 

Newts and Salamanders 196–199 

Notemigonus crysoleucas 108 

Nothobranchius guentheri 120 

Nudibranch 

Sea Lemon 57 

White Dorid 56 

O 

Oar Weed 241 

Octocorallia 26–30 

Octocorals 26 

Octopus 

Giant Pacific 62 

Red 63, 243 

Octopus rubescens 63 

Odontodactylus scyllarus 67 

Odonus niger 193 

Oligocottus maculosus 135 

Opaleye 147, 238 

Ophiodon elongatus 134 

Opisthobranchia 56 

Oregonia gracilis 73 

Oscar, Red 155 

Osteoglossids 99, 99–100 

Osteoglossum bicirrhosum 100 

Ostraciidae 13 

Oxycirrhites typus 154 

Oxyjulis californica 172 

Oxylebius pictus 134 

Oxymonacanthus longirostris 194 

Oxypora sp. 38 

P 

Pachira aquatica 23 

Pachycerianthus fimbriatus 45 

Pachyclavularia 28 

Pachygrapsus crassipes 73 

Pachypanchax 

patriciae 120 

Pacific Cordgrass 22 

Pacu 

Black 111, 283 

Red-bellied 112, 283 

Paddlefish, Mississippi 97 

Pagurus 

armatus 75 

hirsutiusculus 76 

Pagurus spp. 75 

Palythoa spp. 32 

Paracanthurus hepatus 188 

Paracheilinus 

rubricaudalis 172 

Paracheirodon axelrodi 112 

Parachromis (Nandopsis) managuensis 

158 

Paracyathus sternsi 44 

Paralabrax clathratus 138 

Paralichthys californicus 192 

Parambassis ranga 137 

Paraplesiops meleagris 142 

Parastichopus 

californicus 92 

parvimensis 92 

Paratilapia polleni 157 

Patiria miniata 86 

Pavona spp. 36 

Peach Palm 25, 276 

Peacock Bass 284 

Peltodoris nobilis 57 

Pelvicachromis pulcher 158 

Pencilfish, Golden 110 

Penguin, African 221 

Pennatulacea 31 

Pentaceraster cumingi 85 

Perca flavescens 143 

Perch, Yellow 143 

Perciformes 137 

Periclimenes venustus 69 

Periophthalmus argentilineatus 

181, 250 

Perrunichthys perruno 115 

Phaeophyta 20 

Phelsuma 

grandis 212 

klemmeri 213 

standingi 213 

Phoebis philea 82 

Pholidichthys leucotaenia 176 

Photoblepharon palpebratus 123 

Phractocephalus hemiliopterus 

115 

Phrynoidis juxtaspera 199 

Phycodurus eques 126 

Phyllobates sp. 200 

Phyllocrania paradoxa 78 

Phyllomedusa sauvagii 201 

Phyllopteryx taeniolatus 127 

Piaractus brachypomus 112 

Picassofish 193 

Pimelodidae 115 

Pipa pipa 197 

Pipefish 

Alligator 127 

Bay 127 

Janss’ 124 

Ribboned 124 

Pipefishes 6 

Pipidae 197 

Piranha, Red-bellied 113, 283 

Pirapitinga 112, 283 

Pirarucu 99, 283 

Pisaster 

brevispinus 87

giganteus 87 

ochraceus 87 

Pitcher Plant 277 

Plainfin Midshipman 117 

Platygra sp. 257 

Platygrya sp. 42 

Plecostomus, Sailfin 116 

Plerogyra sinuosa 44 

Pleuronichthys coenosus 192 

Plexaura spp. 29 

Plexaurella nutans 29 

Poacher, Northern Spearnose 137 

Pocillopora damicornis 34 

Pollicipes polymerus 77 

Polyodon spathula 97 

Polypedates otilophus 203 

Polyphyllia sp. 37 

Polyplacophora 52–53 

Pomacanthidae 8, 150–153 

Pomacanthus 

imperator 152 

navarchus 153 

Pomacentridae 10, 163–167 

Pomacentrus auriventris 167 

Pomoxis nigromaculatus 143 

Porichthys notatus 117 

Porites sp. 36 

Postman 81, 280 

Potamotrygon 

leopoldi 96 

motoro 96 

orbignyi 96 

Praying Mantis 

Ghost 78 

Premnas biaculeatus 167 

Prickleback, Monkeyface 175 

Protopalythoa 32 

Protoreaster 

nodosus 85 

Protula sp. 51 

Pseudanthias 

dispar 139 

huchtii 139 

lori 139 

pleurotaenia 139 

squamipinnis 140 

tuka 140 

Pseudocheilinus 

hexataenia 173 

ocellatus 173 

Pseudochromis 

fridmani 141 

paccagnellae 141 

Pseudocolochirus violaceus 91 

Pseudoplatystoma fasciatum 116 

Pseudoplexaura spp. 30 

Pseudopterogorgia 

bipinnata 30 

elizabethi 31 

Pseudopterogorgia spp. 30 

Psolus chitinoides 91 

Pterapogon kauderni 145 

Ptereleotris zebra 182 

Pterocaesio tile 146 

Pterois volitans 131 

Pterophyllum 

altum 159 

scalare 159 

Pterygoplichthys gibbiceps 116 

Pterygoplichthys sp. 117 

Ptilosarcus gurneyi 31 

Ptychochromis grandidieri 159 

Ptychozoon kuhlii 213 

Pufferfish, Amazon 195 

Puffer, Spotted Sharpnose 195 

Pugettia producta 74 

Puntius 

lateristriga 108 

nigrofasciatus 108 

Puntius titteya 106 

Pupfish, Desert 122 

Pycnopodia helianthoides 88 

Pygocentrus nattereri 113 

Python 

Black-headed 217 

Centralian 218 

Python, Ball 218 

Python regius 218 

Pyxis arachnoides 208 

R 

Rabbitfish 

Blotched Foxface 183, 267 

Foxface 184, 267 

Scribbled 182 

Varigate 183 

Rabbitfishes 12, 182–183 

Rainbowfish 

Banded 119 

Madagascar 119 

Raja binoculata 94 

Ramphocelus carbo 224–228 

Rasbora 

Harlequin 107 

Index 321 

pauciperforata 107 

Redstripe 107 

Rattlesnake, Eastern Diamondback 

218 

Ray 

Blue-spotted 249 

Javanese Cownose 95, 249 

Ray-finned fishes 96 

Rays 92 

Red Algae 21 

Coralline Algae, Articulating 21 

Coralline Algae, Encrusting 21 

Iridescent Red Algae 22 

Sea Sacs 22 

Turkish Towel 22 

Red Irish Lord 134, 232 

Redtail Black Shark 106 

Reptiles 205–217 

Requiem Sharks 5 

Rhacochilus 

toxotes 162 

vacca 163 

Rhacophorus 

pardalis 204 

Rhamphocottus richardsoni 134 

Rhina ancylostoma 94, 249 

Rhinecanthus aculeatus 193 

Rhinomuraena quaesita 102 

Rhinopias eschmeyeri 132 

Rhinoptera javanica 95, 249 

Rhizophora mangle 23, 250 

Rhodactis 33 

Rhodactis inchoata 33 

Rhodophyta 21 

Rhynchocinetes durbanensis 71 

Ribbon Eel 102 

Ricordea 

florida 33, 273 

yuma 34 

Ricordea Mushroom 34 

Ricordea spp. 33 

Rockfish 

Black 129, 233 

Black & Yellow 233 

Blue 129, 233 

Brown 232 

Canary 234 

China 129, 233 

Copper 128, 232 

Flag 131, 234 

Gopher 232, 238 

Rosy 130, 234

322 


Splitnose 129 

Starry 129, 233 

Tiger 130, 233 

Tree 234 

Vermillion 233 

Yelloweye 131 

Rockfishes 128–131 

Rockweed 240 

Royal Gramma 141 

Rumphella sp. 31 

S 

Sabellastarte sp. 51 

Salamander, Chinese Giant 196 

Salamanders and Newts 196–199 

Salarias fasciatus 178 

Salmacis sphaeooides 89 

Salminus affinis 282 

Saltgrass 22 

Sanddab 

Pacific 191 

Speckled 192 

Sand Dollar 

Eccentric 90 

Western 90 

Sanzinia madagascariensis 217 

Sapphire Devil 165 

Sarcophyton 27 

Sarcopterygians 195 

Sardine, Pacific 104 

Sardinops sagax 104 

Saroy, East Coast 159 

Scallop 

Chlamys 60 

Giant Rock 60, 230 

Scaphirhynchus 

albus 96 

platorynchus 97 

Scleractinia 34–37 

Scolopendra subspinipes 84 

Scolymia sp. 40 

Scorpaena guttata 132 

Scorpaenichthys marmoratus 136 

Scorpaenidae 7, 128–133 

Scorpion 

Desert Hairy 64 

Scorpion, Death Stalker 63 

Scorpionfish 

California 132, 234, 238 

Eschmeyer’s 132 

Pink and Yellow 132 

Scorpionfishes 128 

Scorpions 63–64 

Sculpin 

Grunt 134 

Sailfin 136 

Scalyhead 135 

Spotfin 135 

Tidepool 135, 246 

Sculpins 134 

Scyphozoa 50–51 

Sea Anemones 46 

Sea Apple, Philippine 91 

Sea Basses 7 

Sea Cucumber 

California 92, 245 

Creeping Pedal 91 

Warty 92, 237, 245 

Yellow 91 

Sea Cucumbers 91 

Seadragon 

Leafy 126 

Weedy 127 

Seadragons 6 

Sea Fan 

Finger 29 

Sea Hare 

California 242 

Sea Hare, California 57 

Seahorse 

Lined 125 

Longsnout 126 

Potbelly 124 

Spotted 125 

Seahorses 6, 124 

Sea Lettuce 240 

Sea Nettle 51 

Sea Pen, Giant 31 

Sea Plume 30–31, 272 

Bipinnate 30 

Purple Frilly 31, 272 

Rough 30 

Sea Rod 

Porous 30 

Slit-pore 29, 272 

Warty 29 

Sea Rods 29 

Sea Sacs 240 

Sea Slugs 56–57 

Sea Star 

Bat 86, 231, 244 

Blood 86, 232, 237, 245 

Blue Linckia 85, 259 

Chocolate Chip 85 

Crown of Thorns 86 

Elegant 85 

Giant 87, 231, 244 

Leather 87, 232, 244 

Ochre 87, 231, 244 

Pacific 87 

Panamic Cushion 85 

Pink 87, 231, 244 

Red Linckia 85 

Sand-eating 84 

Sunflower 88, 247 

Vermillion 85 

Sea Stars 84–88 

Sea Urchin 

Long-spined 89, 253 

Pencil 88, 273 

Purple 90, 231, 245 

Red 89, 231, 245 

Sea Urchins 88–90 

Seaweed, Iridescent 240 

Sebastapistes cyanostigma 132 

Sebastes 128 

caurinus 128 

constellatus 129 

diploproa 129 

maliger 233 

melanops 129 

mystinus 129 

nebulosus 129 

nigrocinctus 130 

paucispinis 130 

rosaceus 130 

ruberrimus 131 

rubrivinctus 131 

serriceps 131 

Sebastes \ 

chrysomelas 233 

constellatus 233 

Semaprochilodus insignis 109 

Semicossyphus pulcher 173 

Sepia bandensis 62 

Seriatopora histrix 34 

Serranidae 7, 138–141 

Serranocirrhitus latus 140 

Serranus 

tigrinus 140 

tortugarum 141 

Shark 

Blacktip Reef 94, 249 

California Horn 92, 247 

Leopard 93, 232 

Swell 93, 237

Sharkminnow, Tricolor 104 

Sharks 92 

Sheephead 173 

Shiner, Golden 108 

Shrimp 68–71 

Anemone 69 

Banded Coral 71 

Black Bee 68 

California Bay 69 

Candy 71 

Fire 70 

Harlequin 70 

Humpback Cleaner 69 

Peacock Mantis 67 

Pistol 68 

Red Rock 69 

Sexy 70 

Shrimpfish, Spotted 123 

Siamese Algae-eater 105 

Siamese Fighting Fish 189 

Siamese Tigerfish 146 

Sicalis flaveola 226 

Siganidae 12 

Siganus 

corallinus 182 

doliatus 182 

guttatus 183 

puellus 183 

punctatus 183 

unimaculatus 183 

virgatus 183 

vulpinus 184 

Silver Dollar 

Common 282 

Redhook 112 

Siproeta stelenes 82 

Siren intermedia 197 

Siren, Lesser 197 

Skate 

Big 94 

Snail 

Black Turban 55, 242 

Blue Ring Top 55, 242 

Blue Top 55, 242 

Brown Turban 55 

Marble Cone 56 

Red Top 55, 242 

Wavy Turban 55 

Snails and Slugs 53–56 

Snake 

Burmese Vine 221 

Everglades Rat 220 

Madagascar Leaf-nosed 221 

Mangrove 219 

Paradise Flying 220 

Red-tailed Green Rat 220 

Snakes 216 

Soft Corals 26–30 

Soldierfish 260 

Southern Blue Devil 142 

Southseas Devil 166, 263 

Spartina foliosa 22 

Sphaeramia nematoptera 145 

Spheniscus demersus 221 

Spider 

Black Widow 65 

Brazilian Salmon Pink Bird 

Eater 64 

Golden Orb Weaving 66 

Madagascar Golden Orb 66 

Spiders 64–65 

Spinefoot 

Barhead 183, 267 

Barred 182 

Blue Spotted 182, 266 

Gold Spotted 183, 267 

Masked 183, 267 

Orange Spotted 183, 267 

Spinefoots 12 

Star, brittle 245 

Steatocranus casuarius 159 

Stegastes sp. 167 

Stenopus hispidus 71 

Stereolepis gigas 137 

Stichodactyla 

gigantea 49 

helianthus 49 

tapetum 50 

Stingray 

Bluespotted 95, 249 

Ocellated Freshwater 96 

Ocellated River 285 

Smooth Back River 96, 285 

White-blotched River 96, 285 

Stingrays, River 96 

Stonefish, Deadly 133 

Stony Corals 34–38 

Strombus gigas 56 

Strongylocentrotus 

franciscanus 89 

purpuratus 90 

Sturgeon 

Pallid 96 

Shovelnose 97 

Index 323 

Sturgeons 96–97 

Stylophora 256 

Stylophora sp. 35 

Sunfish 

Everglades Pygmy 123 

Longear 142 

Redbreast 142 

Surfperch 

Barred 160 

Black 161, 235 

Dwarf 162, 246 

Kelp 161 

Pile 163, 235 

Rainbow 162, 236 

Redtail 161, 235 

Rubberlip 162, 236 

Shiner 161, 246 

Striped 162, 235 

Walleye 162, 236 

Surfperches 9, 160 

Surgeonfish 

Achilles 184, 267 

Bluelined 186, 268 

Convict 187 

Eyestripe 185, 268 

Flagtail 188 

Lined 185, 268 

Mimic 186, 268 

Orangeband 186, 268 

Orange-banded 254 

Ringtail 184, 267 

Spotted 187 

Whitecheek 186 

Surgeonfishes 12, 184–187 

Sweepline Brycon 110 

Swietenia mahogani 24 

Symphyllia spp. 40 

Synanceia verrucosa 133 

Synchiropus 

picturatus 178 

splendidus 178 

Syngnathidae 6, 124–127 

Syngnathoides biaculeatus 127 

Syngnathus leptorhynchus 127 

Synodontis nigriventris 115 

T 

Tachyphonus phoenicius 224 

Tambaqui 111, 283 

Tanager 

Blue-gray 225, 278 

Opal-rumped 225, 278

324 


Paradise 225, 278 

Red-shouldered 224, 278 

Rufous-crowned 224, 278 

Silver-beaked 224, 278 

Turquoise 225, 278 

Tang 

Achilles 184 

Blue 184, 275 

Brown Scopas 188, 270 

Convict 187, 269 

Goldrim 186, 268 

Hepatus 188 

Mata 185, 268 

Orange Shoulder 186 

Pacific Sailfin 189, 270 

Palette 254, 269 

Powder Brown 185, 268 

Tomini 187 

Tangara 

cayana 224 

chilensis paradisea 225 

mexicana 225 

velia 225 

Tanichthys albonubes 107 

Tarantula, Cobalt Blue 

Cobalt Blue 64 

Tarpon 

Atlantic 100, 283 

Pacific 101, 249 

Tegula 

brunnea 55 

funebralis 55 

Tetra 

Bucktooth 111 

Cardinal 112 

Neon 112 

Silver 111, 282 

Tetra, Rummy-nose 111 

Thalassoma 

hardwicke 173 

lucasanum 174 

lunare 174 

Theloderma corticale 204 

Thermonectus marmoratus 79 

Thor amboinensis 70 

Thraupis episcopus 225 

Tilapia 

brevimanus 159 

buttikoferi 160 

Golden 159 

Hornet 160 

Tilefish, Purple Sand 

146 

Toad 

Asian Horn 198 

Borneo River 199 

Oak 198 

Surinam 197 

Toadfish, Humming 117 

Toads and Frogs 197–201 

Toby, Papuan 195 

Tonicella lineata 52 

Topminnow, Golden 121 

Topsmelt 120 

Tortoise 

Radiated 207 

Spider 208 

Trachyphyllia geoffroyi 43, 252 

Treefish 131, 238 

Treefrog 

Green 201 

Grey 201 

Red-eyed 200 

Triakis semifasciata 93 

Trichogaster 

microlepis 191 

trichopterus 191 

Trichogaster leeri 190 

Tridacna 

crocea 58 

derasa 58, 252 

gigas 59, 252 

maxima 59, 253 

squamosa 59, 253 

Triggerfish 

Black 193, 270 

Blackbar 193, 270 

Bluechin 194 

Clown 193, 270 

Gilded 194, 270 

Pinktail 193, 270 

Redtooth 193, 270 

Triggerfishes 12, 193–194 

Trigonostigma heteromorpha 107 

Tropidolaemus wagleri 219 

Tubastrea sp 45 

Turbinaria sp 45 

Turbot, C-O 192, 236 

Turkish Towel 240 

Turquoise Severum 157, 284 

Turtle 

Alligator Snapping 206 

Arrau River 206 

Pig-nosed 205 

Turtles and Tortoises 205–207 

Tuskfish, Harlequin 168, 264 

U 

Uca annulipes 74 

Unicornfish 

Bignose 188, 269 

Bluespine 188, 269 

Orangespine 188, 269 

Spotted 187, 269 

Unicornfishes 187, 188 

Urchin 

Pincushion Tuxedo 89 

Uromastyx geyri 210 

Uroplatus henkeli 214 

Urticina 

crassicornis 48 

lofotensis 48 

Painted 48 

piscivora 49 

V 

Valenciennea strigata 181 

Vertebrata 92 

Vieja maculicauda 160 

Viper, Wagler’s Pit 219 

W 

Warbonnet 

Decorated 175 

Mosshead 175 

Water Chestnut 23, 276 

Waving Hands Polyps 28 

Western Talma 149 

West Indies Mahogany 24, 276 

Whitefish, Ocean 145, 235 

Woma 218 

Wood Shrimp 68 

Wrasse 

Bird 170, 265 

California Sheephead 173, 239 

Canary 170 

Humphead 168 

Leopard 172, 265 

Maori 168, 250 

Moon 174, 249, 266 

Mystery 173 

Pastel Green 170, 265 

Rainbow 174 

Red-tailed Flasher 172 

Rock 171, 239

Senorita 172, 239 

Sixbar 173, 265 

Sixline 173, 265 

Striped Cleaner 171, 265 

Two-tone 171, 265 

Yellow 170 

Yellowhead 170, 274 

Wrasses 10, 168–174 

X 

Xanthichthys auromarginatus 194 

Xenia, Pulsing 28 

Xenia spp. 28 

Y 

Yasuhikotakia modesta 109 

Z 

Zanclus cornutus 184 

Zebrasoma 

scopas 188 

veliferum 189 

Zoantharia 32 

Zoanthids 32, 272 

Zoanthus 32 

Zonosaurus sp. 215 

Index 325

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