Exotic Animal Formulary5

Exotic Animal

Formulary

FIFTH EDITION

James W. Carpenter, MS, DVM, DIPLOMATE

ACZM

Professor, Zoological Medicine, Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary

Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas

Christopher J. Marion, DVM, MPH

Marion Veterinary Consulting, Manhattan, Kansas

2

Table of Contents

Cover image

Rapid Reference to the Exotic Animal Formulary, Fifth Edition

Title page

Copyright

Dedication

Contributors

Foreword

Preface

Acknowledgments

Disclaimer

About the Editors

About the editor

About the assistant editor

Chapter 1: Invertebrates

Chapter 2: Fish

3

Chapter 3: Amphibians

Chapter 4: Reptiles

Chapter 5: Birds

Chapter 6: Backyard Poultry and Waterfowl

Chapter 7: Sugar Gliders

Chapter 8: Hedgehogs

Chapter 9: Rodents

Chapter 10: Rabbits

Chapter 11: Ferrets

Chapter 12: Miniature Pigs

Chapter 13: Primates

Chapter 14: Wildlife

Chapter 15: Select Topics for the Exotic Animal Veterinarian

Index

Hints for Using This Formulary

4

Rapid Reference to the

Exotic Animal Formulary,

Fifth Edition

Hints for Using This Formulary, See Inside Back Cover

Table of Contents, p. xvii

Invertebrates, p. 1

Fish, p. 16

Amphibians, p. 53

Reptiles, p. 81

Birds, p. 167

Backyard Poultry and Waterfowl, p. 376

Sugar Gliders, p. 432

Hedgehogs, p. 443

Rodents, p. 459

Rabbits, p. 494

Ferrets, p. 532

Miniature Pigs, p. 558

Primates, p. 575

Wildlife, p. 616

Select Topics for the Exotic Animal Veterinarian, p. 636

Index, p. 665

5

Copyright

3251 Riverport Lane

St. Louis, Missouri 63043

EXOTIC ANIMAL FORMULARY, FIFTH EDITION

ISBN: 978-0-323-44450-7

Copyright © 2018, Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Previous editions copyrighted 2013, 2005, 2001, and 1996.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any

means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information

storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on

how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies

and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and

the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website:

www.elsevier.com/permissions.

This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright

by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices

Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and

experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional

practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge

in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments

described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their

own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a

professional responsibility.

With respect to any drug or pharmaceutical products identified, readers are advised to

6

check the most current information provided (i) on procedures featured or (ii) by the

manufacturer of each product to be administered, to verify the recommended dose or

formula, the method and duration of administration, and contraindications. It is the

responsibility of practitioners, relying on their own experience and knowledge of their

patients, to make diagnoses, to determine dosages and the best treatment for each

individual patient, and to take all appropriate safety precautions.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or

editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a

matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of

any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Carpenter, James W. (James Wyman), editor. | Marion, Christopher J., assistant

editor.

Title: Exotic animal formulary / editor, James W. Carpenter, MS, DVM, Diplomate

ACZM, Professor, Zoological Medicine, Department of Clinical Sciences, College of

Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas; assistant editor,

Christopher J. Marion, DVM, MPH, Marion Veterinary Consulting, Manhattan, Kansas.

Description: Fifth edition. | St. Louis, Missouri : Elsevier, [2018] | Includes index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2017031268 (print) | LCCN 2017032341 (ebook) | ISBN

9780323498036 (ebook) | ISBN 9780323444507 (pbk. : alk. paper)

Subjects: LCSH: Veterinary drugs. | Veterinary drugs--Dosage. | Exotic animals.

Classification: LCC SF917 (ebook) | LCC SF917 .C27 2018 (print) | DDC 636.089/51--

dc23

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017031268

Senior Content Strategist: Jennifer Flynn-Briggs

Senior Content Development Manager: Lucia Gunzel

Senior Content Development Specialist: Dee Simpson

Publishing Services Manager: Deepthi Unni

Senior Project Manager: Umarani Natarajan

Design Direction: Brian Salisbury

7

Printed in the United States of America

Last digit is the print number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

8

Dedication

This book is dedicated to the 40 (yes, 40!) interns and residents whom I’ve

had the honor to train from 1991 to 2018, and who have brought great joy

to my life and pride to our profession: Dr. Rob Browning (2017-2018), Dr.

Louden Wright (2016-2017), Dr. Melissa R. Nau (2015-2016), Dr. Dana M.

Lindemann (2014-2015), Dr. Christine Higbie (2013-2014), Dr. Katie Delk

(2012-2013), Dr. Daniel V. Fredholm (2011-2012), Dr. Rodney Schnellbacher

(2010-2011), Dr. Kristin Phair (2009-2010), Dr. Judilee Marrow (2008-2009),

Dr. Kim Wojick (2007-2008), Dr. Julie Swenson (2006-2007), Dr. Gretchen

Cole (2005-2006), Dr. Karen Wolf (2004-2005), Dr. Jessica Siegal-Willott

(2003-2004), Dr. Jennifer D’Agostino (2002-2003), Dr. Adrian Mutlow (2001-

2003), Dr. Nancy Boedeker (2001-2002), Dr. Robert Coke (2000-2001), Dr.

Greg Fleming (1999-2000), Dr. Peter Helmer (1999-2000), Dr. Tama Cathers

(1998-1999), Dr. Cornelia Ketz (1998-1999), Dr. Geoff Pye (1997-1998), Dr.

Nancy Morales (1996-1998), Dr. R. Scott Larsen (1996-1997), Dr. Pilar Hayes

(1995-1996), Dr. Cynthia Stadler (1995-1996), Dr. Ray Ball (1994-1996), Dr.

Christine Kolmstetter (1994-1995), Dr. James K. Morrisey (1994-1995), Dr.

Edward Gentz (1993-1994), Dr. Lisa Harrenstien (1993-1994), Dr. Janette

Ackermann (1992-1993), Dr. Ted Y. Mashima (1992-1993), Dr. Sandra C.

Wilson (1991-1992; 1992-1995), Dr. Craig A. Harms (1991-1992), Dr. Mel

Shaw (1990-1992), and Dr. Mitch Finnegan (1990-1991).

I have always been inspired by them, learned more from them than they

realize, and always valued their friendship. I am very proud of all they have

accomplished and their contributions to exotic animal, wildlife, and zoo

animal medicine.

This formulary is also dedicated to my wife (Terry), son (Michael), daughter

(Erin Peterman) and her husband (Steve), and my three grandchildren

(Kylie, Hayden, and Asher the Dasher) for their support throughout this

project.

9

James W. Carpenter

I dedicate this book to my wife, Landa Colvin-Marion, PharmD, and son,

Evan, for their support and patience during this project. Landa provided

invaluable insight from her area of expertise, veterinary pharmacy.

Additionally, I need to thank Dr. James W. Carpenter who has been my

mentor during veterinary school, a colleague upon graduation, and most

importantly, a great friend throughout my veterinary career. I would not be

the individual I am today without their support along the way.

Christopher J. Marion

10

Contributors

Heather W. Barron, DVM, Diplomate ABVP (Avian) Hospital Director, Clinic for

the Rehabilitation of Wildlife (CROW) Sanibel Island, Florida, USA

Hugues Beaufrére, Dr. med. vet., PhD, Diplomate ACZM, Diplomate ABVP

(Avian), Diplomate ECZM (Avian) Service Chief, Avian and Exotic Service, Assistant

Professor, Department of Clinical Studies, Ontario Veterinary College, University of

Guelph, Ontario, Canada

David M. Brust, DVM

Sugar Land Pet Hospital, Sugar Land, Texas, USA

James W. Carpenter, MS, DVM, Diplomate ACZM Professor, Zoological Medicine,

Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University,

Manhattan, Kansas, USA

Peter Fisher, DVM, Diplomate ABVP (Exotic Companion Mammal)

Veterinary Hospital, Virginia Beach, Virginia, USA

Pet Care

Kathryn C. Gamble, DVM, MS, Diplomate ACZM, Diplomate ECZM (Zoo Health

Management) Dr. Lester E. Fisher Director of Veterinary Medicine, Lincoln Park Zoo,

Chicago, Illinois, USA

Paul M. Gibbons, DVM, MS, Diplomate ABVP (Reptile/Amphibian)

Operating Officer, Turtle Conservancy, Ojai, California, USA

Chief

Jennifer Graham, DVM, Diplomate ABVP (Avian; Exotic Companion Mammal),

Diplomate ACZM Associate Professor, Zoological Companion Animal Medicine,

Department of Clinical Sciences, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts

University, North Grafton Massachusetts, USA

Cheryl B. Greenacre, DVM, Diplomate ABVP (Avian; Exotic Companion

Mammal) Professor, Avian and Zoological Medicine, Department of Small Animal

Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tennessee, Knoxville,

Tennessee, USA

David Sanchez-Migallon Guzman, LV, MS, Diplomate ECZM (Avian; Small

Mammal), Diplomate ACZM Associate Professor, Clinical Zoological Companion

Animal Medicine and Surgery, Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of

Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA

11

Michelle G. Hawkins, VMD, Diplomate ABVP (Avian) Professor, Companion

Avian and Exotic Animal Medicine and Surgery, Department of Medicine and

Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis,

California, USA

Peter J. Helmer, DVM, Diplomate ABVP (Avian)

Blue Pearl, Tampa, Florida, USA

Matthew S. Johnston, VMD, Diplomate ABVP (Avian) Associate Professor, Avian,

Exotic, and Zoological Medicine, Colorado State University, Veterinary Teaching

Hospital, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA

Eric Klaphake, DVM, Diplomate ACZM, Diplomate ABVP (Avian;

Reptile/Amphibian) Associate Veterinarian, Cheyenne Mountain Zoo, Colorado

Springs, Colorado, USA

Angela M. Lennox, DVM, Diplomate ABVP (Avian; Exotic Companion Mammal),

Diplomate ECZM (Small Mammal) Avian and Exotic Animal Clinic of Indianapolis,

Indianapolis, Indiana, USA

Gregory A. Lewbart, MS, VMD, Diplomate ACZM, Diplomate ECZM (Zoo

Health Management) Professor, Aquatic Animal Medicine, Department of Clinical

Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North

Carolina, USA

G. Lynne Luna, DVM, MAM, Diplomate ACPV Avian Consultant, Veterinary

Information Network, Salem, Oregon, USA

Christoph Mans, Dr. med. vet., Diplomate ACZM, Diplomate ECZM (Zoo Health

Management) Clinical Assistant Professor, Zoological Medicine, School of Veterinary

Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA

Jörg Mayer, Dr. med. vet., MSc, Diplomate ACZM, Diplomate ECZM (Small

Mammal), Diplomate ABVP (Exotic Companion Mammal) Associate Professor,

Zoological Medicine, Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, College of

Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA

Colin T. McDermott, VMD

Jersey, USA

Mount Laurel Animal Hospital, Mount Laurel, New

David McRuer, MSc, DVM, Diplomate ACVPM Director of Veterinary Services,

Wildlife Center of Virginia, Waynesboro, Virginia, USA

Teresa Y. Morishita, DVM, MPVM, MS, PhD, Diplomate ACPV Founding

Director, Poultry Health Management School, Professor, Poultry Medicine and Food

Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona,

California, USA

James K. Morrisey, DVM, Diplomate ABVP (Avian) Chief, Companion Exotic

Animal Medicine Service, Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary

12

Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA

Kristie Mozzachio, DVM, CVA, Diplomate ACVP

Services, Hillsborough, North Carolina, USA

Mozzachio Mobile Veterinary

Kurt K. Sladky, MS, DVM, Diplomate ACZM, Diplomate ECZM

(Herpetology) Clinical Associate Professor, Zoological Medicine/Special Species

Health, Department of Surgical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of

Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, USA

Julie Swenson, DVM, Diplomate ACZM

Center, Glen Rose, Texas, USA

Valarie V. Tynes, DVM, Diplomate ACVB

Sweetwater, Texas, USA

Associate Veterinarian, Fossil Rim Wildlife

Premier Veterinary Behavior Consulting,

Brent Whitaker, MS, DVM Associate Professor, Institute of Marine and

Environmental Technology, University of Maryland, Baltimore, Maryland, USA

Roy P.E. Yanong, VMD Professor and Extension Veterinarian, Tropical Aquaculture

Laboratory, Fisheries and Aquaculture Sciences, School of Forest Resources and

Conservation, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences/University of Florida, Ruskin,

Florida, USA

13

Foreword

The practice of exotic animal medicine is founded on a strong understanding of medical

science. With confidence in one’s knowledge of medicine, treating many different species

is possible. It is absurd to believe that one should know all about every companion exotic

animal one treats—so much so that if that were the case, veterinarians would never have

even treated the first bird, snake, or rabbit patient when this area of veterinary medicine

was in its infancy. As veterinary practitioners who treat exotic animals, we owe much to

those who paved the way and revealed the challenging yet rewarding work that has

become an accepted veterinary discipline. It was their confidence in their medical

knowledge and abilities that allowed early exotic animal practitioners to push veterinary

medicine into this new realm. With the information we have available today and the

challenges faced by our patients, the question persists: “How did they do it?” There were

no books to speak of, no Internet, and no veterinary associations. It was through

dedication, collegial interaction, and meeting notes that the dissemination of companion

exotic animal medical knowledge first occurred. The need to share and gain information

through firsthand knowledge of exotic animal clinical medicine was the genesis of what

has quickly grown into the widely recognized area of companion exotic animal medicine.

Many influences have contributed to the growth of exotic animal medicine, including the

continued consumer demand for veterinary services and an increasing interest over the

years among young veterinary students who see both the challenges and rewards of

treating these exceptional animals. Also, over the last 35 years, there has been an increase

in the availability of published veterinary medical literature, the advent of Internet

resources, the formation of veterinary associations, and specialty designations related to

companion exotic animals. All of the contributions to the medical knowledge of exotic

animal species during the last 3 to 4 decades have allowed many individuals to develop

their interest in this area of medicine, who previously may have been reluctant.

Practicing medicine requires treatment of patients who are ill. This is a fact, and so is

the fact that proper dosage and duration of medications should be used. As with any

medication, there are adverse side effects. Often there are more potential adverse side

effects with a medication than therapeutic benefits. Therein lies the basis of many doctors’

decision to prescribe medications when the good outweighs the bad. Moreover, that is

why there should be knowledge of an appropriate length of treatment. Again, when

companion exotic animal medicine began, practitioners used personal communication

14

and published case reports to determine appropriate dose ranges and durations of

treatments. Often this information was extrapolated from other species, and possibly the

exotic animal patient did not die from the treatment and may have even improved. Of

course, all veterinarians knew this had to improve, and there was much to be done to

make pharmacologic information more detailed and as verifiable as possible through

structured scientific studies. As exotic animal practitioners, we have come a long way but

still have a long way to go in this regard. We can extrapolate dosages between species

from scientifically determined information, but it is known that this is done at the risk of

providing an incorrect treatment dose. It is simply not possible to scientifically determine

all of the correct dosages for the approximately 10,000 species of both birds and reptiles,

as well as the numerous companion exotic mammals and other species that may be

treated by exotic animal veterinarians. Consequently there have been formularies

published in exotic animal medical books over the last 35 years that help provide a basis

for prescribing medication to a patient. If a veterinarian treats all different groups of

companion exotic animals, it is difficult and time consuming to get the most up-to-date

information regarding drug dosages for these patients. Dr. James W. Carpenter saw this

problem and in the 1990s decided to do something about one of the most important tools

used by veterinarians treating exotic animals: the formulary. As editor, he published the

first edition of the Exotic Animal Formulary (1996) and has subsequently edited three

other editions (2001, 2005, 2013), as well as this fifth edition (2018). Since the first edition,

the Exotic Animal Formulary has arguably become the most important source of

information that a veterinarian treating these patients can own. It is quite possible that no

other area of veterinary medicine has changed as quickly over time than pharmacology.

Drugs are often used by practitioners treating exotic animals long before there is

validation of a proper dosage or the effectiveness has been determined. Through the

publication of new editions of the Exotic Animal Formulary, veterinarians’ ability to have

within grasp the latest information relating to the treatment of exotic animals has been

maintained.

It is an honor for me to be asked to write the foreword for this seminal exotic veterinary

text. The Exotic Animal Formulary is used on a daily basis in our veterinary hospital and

is the “go to” book for students and veterinarians alike when determining a treatment

plan for any animal species. The Exotic Animal Formulary also allows one to use their

veterinary medical knowledge. The extensive drug tables may not provide an exact,

scientifically determined dose for the species of animal being treated. One may need to

extrapolate from the information provided for another species. There are often wide

dosage ranges provided for the drugs listed, and the references may be associated with a

single case report. Therefore it is incumbent on the user of this text to assess his or her

patient and use the information in the Exotic Animal Formulary to determine whether the

drug he or she would like to use is advisable and if so, based on the patient’s condition,

select a proper dose.

Never before has so much valuable information been published in a condensed text

covering as many animal groups and species as the fifth edition of the Exotic Animal

15

Formulary. In addition to the 295 drug tables that have the most current information and

references (over 2400), there are many informative tables and charts at the end of each

chapter. The information contained in the tables and charts includes biological

information, therapeutic details to treat specific disease conditions, dietary

recommendations, common venipuncture sites, and useful websites related to exotic pet

practice. All in all the information provided in the fifth edition of the Exotic Animal

Formulary will elevate the ability of veterinarians to practice exotic animal medicine.

The veterinary medical community, as a whole, owes a debt of gratitude to the 29

authors who contributed to this text and to Dr. James W. Carpenter for his vision and

supreme effort to bring this work to fruition. The benefits of their work will be found in

veterinary hospitals the world over as patients recover through the use of information

provided by the fifth edition of the Exotic Animal Formulary.

Thomas N. Tully, Jr., DVM, MS, Dipl ABVP (Avian), Dipl ECZM (Avian),

Louisiana State University—School of Veterinary Medicine, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA

August 8, 2017

16

Preface

Welcome to the fifth edition of the Exotic Animal Medicine Formulary! As we know, the

medical care of exotic pets has become an integral part of most companion animal

practices. The Exotic Animal Formulary, fifth edition, therefore, was compiled to

accommodate this rapid growth of exotic animal medicine. For this revision, 29 of the

most recognized specialists in our field were invited to contribute; their role was to

evaluate published drug dosages and related biologic and medical information and

references, and to select those that would be most clinically useful and relevant to the

practitioner.

Not only is this edition updated and expanded (now containing 295 tables), but we’ve

added a section on “Backyard Poultry and Waterfowl,” in addition to sections on

invertebrates, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, sugar gliders, hedgehogs, rodents, rabbits,

ferrets, miniature pigs, primates, and wildlife. The “Selected Topics for the Exotic Animal

Veterinarian” has also been expanded and now includes information on compounding

resources.

This book is not intended to replace existing medical resources or the use of sound

medical judgment, but rather to serve as a guide in providing medical care to exotic

animals. This formulary assumes that the reader has a reasonable understanding of

veterinary medicine. For example, drug indications are generally listed only in unique

situations. Supporting tables have been carefully selected to include those topics of major

importance in clinical practice.

As in previous editions of this book, the selection of species, drugs, and other

information used in this reference was based on an extensive review of the literature (over

2400 references are cited) and on our collective teaching and clinical experience. The

book, therefore, is not intended to be all-inclusive, but rather to serve as a quick reference

for the common questions and medical situations we encounter in clinical practice.

Unfortunately, relatively few pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic studies in exotic

companion pets have been published. Until more pharmacokinetic, efficacy, and safety

studies of the drugs that we use are conducted, most dosages used in these species are

based on empirical data, observations, and experience.

This book is intended to be a practical, user-friendly, quick reference for veterinary

clinicians, students, and technicians working with exotic animals. We hope that you find

this formulary and accompanying tables handy to use and that it adds to the quality of

17

the medical care you provide to your exotic animal patients. Because exotic animal

practitioners face daily challenges to meet the pharmaceutical and clinical needs of their

patients, our hope is that this book will be a valuable tool in helping meet these

challenges.

James W. Carpenter, MS, DVM, Diplomate ACZM

Acknowledgments

This book would not have been possible without the invaluable assistance of many

dedicated and hard-working people. Certainly, first and foremost, my appreciation goes

to Dr. Christopher J. Marion, who, as the Assistant Editor for this edition of the Exotic

Animal Formulary, provided editorial assistance, technical expertise, and personal

encouragement. I am also greatly appreciative of the numerous contributors who

unselfishly shared their expertise and gave of their time, and are largely responsible for

the success of this book! I am indebted to Megan Cabot, Danielle Windle, Sarah Wilson,

and Nichole Arbona for assistance in the preparation of this formulary; to Lea Pearlman

and Amanda Wonn for assistance in preparing the Primate chapter; and to Dr. Butch

KuKanich for reviewing the appendix on antimicrobial agents.

I also wish to thank all those colleagues, interns and residents, and veterinary students,

both national and international, who encouraged me to prepare the Exotic Animal

Formulary, fifth edition. It let me know that our efforts into preparing this book are

appreciated by the veterinary community and provided a powerful incentive for me to

continue working on this reference.

In addition, a special thanks to Dr. Bonnie Rush for her many years of strong support

and encouragement for me and for our Zoological Medicine Service! And thanks to Dr.

Roger Fingland for his role in strengthening KSU’s zoo animal medicine program.

I also thank Penny Rudolph (a very special person and strong supporter of this

“project”), Jennifer Flynn-Briggs, Umarani Natarajan, Courtney Sprehe, Dee Simpson,

and Lucia Gunzel, our publishing team at Elsevier, for their patience and support, and to

their commitment to this fifth edition.

James W. Carpenter

Disclaimer

The Editor, Assistant Editor, and the Contributors attempted to verify and double-check

all references, dosages, and other data contained in this book. However, despite these

efforts, errors in the original sources or in the preparation of this book may have

occurred. All users of this reference, therefore, should empirically evaluate all dosages to

determine that they are reasonable prior to use. The publisher assumes no responsibility

for and makes no warranty with respect to results obtained from the uses, procedures, or

dosages listed, or for any misstatement or error, negligent or otherwise, contained in this

18

book. In addition, the authors do not necessarily endorse specific products, procedures, or

dosages reported in this book. Also, the listing of a drug or commercial product in this

book does not indicate approval by the FDA or the manufacturer for use in exotic

animals.

19

About the Editors

About the editor

James W. Carpenter, MS, DVM, Diplomate ACZM, is a professor of zoological

medicine at the College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University. He has been a

clinical and research veterinarian for 42 years in the field of exotic animal, wildlife, and

zoo animal medicine, and he has trained 40 interns and residents. He is the author of

numerous scientific papers and book chapters; is editor/co-author of the Exotic Animal

Formulary (1996, 2001, 2005, 2013, 2018) and its Japanese (2002), Spanish (2006), and

Portuguese (2010) translations; and was co-editor of Ferrets, Rabbits, and Rodents: Clinical

Medicine and Surgery (2004, 2012). Dr. Carpenter is also the former editor of the Journal

of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine (1987-1992), served on the Wildlife Scientific Advisory Board

of the Morris Animal Foundation (1998-2001; Chair, 2000-2001), and is the past president

of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians (1998-1999), the Association of Avian

Veterinarians (2006-2007), and the American College of Zoological Medicine (2008-2009).

He was awarded the Edwin J. Frick Professorship in Veterinary Medicine from the KSU

College of Veterinary Medicine in 2002 and the Emil Dolensek Award by the American

Association of Zoo Veterinarians in 2004. Dr. Carpenter was named the Exotic DVM of

the Year for 2000 and the T.J. Lafeber Avian Practitioner of the Year for 2012. He was also

named an Alumni of the Year by the Oklahoma State University College of Veterinary

Medicine in 2009. In 2013, the Veterinary Health Center (KSU College of Veterinary

Medicine) named the new veterinary facility at Manhattan’s Sunset Zoo the “James W.

Carpenter Clinic at Sunset Zoo.” In 2016, Dr. Carpenter was awarded both the E.R.

Frank Award by the KSU College of Veterinary Medicine Alumni Association for

“outstanding achievements, humanitarian service, and contributions to the veterinary

profession” and the KSU Distinguished Service Award for “outstanding leadership and

clinical/diagnostic service to Kansas Veterinary Medical Association members.” Dr.

Carpenter is currently the editor-in-chief of the Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery.

About the assistant editor

Christopher J. Marion, DVM, MPH, received his doctor of veterinary medicine and

master of public health degrees from Kansas State University. He has managed and

20

monitored clinical trials in the clinical research industry for the past 11 years. During this

time, he has also consulted with the Association of Avian Veterinarians as an associate to

the editor on the quarterly publication of the Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery.

21

C H A P T E R 1

Invertebrates

Gregory A. Lewbart

Table 1-1

Antimicrobial and Antifungal Agents Used in Invertebrates. a-e

Agent Dosage Comments

22

Ampicillin

Benzalkonium chloride

Ceftazidime (Fortaz, Pfizer)

Chloramphenicol

100 mg/L q12h×7

days 69

0.5 mg/L longterm

71

10 mg/L for

10 min 60

20 mg/kg

intracardiac

q72h×3 wk 60

75 mg/kg PO, IM

q12h×6 days 63

10-50 mg/L as an

immersion

treatment for

several

days 10,66,68

(prepare fresh

solution with

100% water

change q24h)

Control of white band disease

(WBD) in Acropora sp.

Quaternary amine with broad

disinfection properties, not for

use on live animals

Spiders/cephalosporin with good

activity against Gram-negative

bacteria (e.g., Pseudomonas);

although this regimen appears

safe, efficacy has not been

determined

Cephalopods

Corals/reduce lighting for treated

animals if possible (slows

metabolic rate and may reduce

stress and improve drug

tolerance); rinse animals well

with fresh seawater before return

to primary habitat; properly

treat any effluent before

discharge; florfenicol may be a

better alternative (risk to

humans from chloramphenicol)

Enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg IM, IV 33,63 Cuttlefish (PD) and possibly other

cephalopods

5 mg/kg IV 60 Spiders

5 mg/kg ICe 62 Purple sea stars (Pisaster

ochraceus)/PD

10 mg/kg PO 33,63 Cuttlefish (PD) and possibly other

cephalopods

10 mg/kg ICe 59 Green sea urchins (Strongylocentrotus

droebachiensis)/PD

10-20 mg/kg IM 70 Chinese mitten crabs/PD

10-20 mg/kg PO

q24h 60

Spiders

2.5 mg/L×5 hr Cuttlefish (PD) and possibly other

immersion q12- cephalopods

24 h 33,63

23

Fluconazole

5 mg/L×24 hr

immersion 14

5 mg/L immersion

for 6 hr 62

10 mg/L immersion

for 6 hr 59

3 mg/kg

intracardiac

q4d×6

treatments 64

Manila clams (Ruditapes

philippinarum)/PD; decreasing

temperature and/or salinity

slowed elimination

Purple sea stars (Pisaster

ochraceus)/PD

Green sea urchins (Strongylocentrotus

droebachiensis)/PD

Horseshoe crabs

Formalin

1-1.5 ppm

Horseshoe crabs/ectocommensals;

immersion for can also be administered

4 hr 42 indefinitely (i.e., until diluted

out)

Furazolidone

Iodine, Lugol’s 5% solution

50 mg/L q12h for

10 min

immersion 63

5-10 drops/L of

seawater; use as

an immersion

for 10-20 min 68

Topically at full

strength (5%)

for 20-30 sec 68

Cephalopods

Corals/antiseptic; cauterize wounds;

strong oxidizing agent; some

corals are sensitive, including

pulse corals (Xenia sp.), Anthelia

spp., and star polyps

(Pachyclavularia spp.); remove

corals at first signs of stress

(polyp expulsion)

Itraconazole (Sporanox, Janssen) 10 mg/kg IV q24h 2 Horseshoe crabs/PD

Nitrofurazone 1.5 mg/L for 72 hr 67

immersion

Cephalopods/nitrofuran;

carcinogenic; drug inactivated in

bright light; water soluble

formulations preferred

Oxolinic acid

25 mg/L q12h for

1 hr 67

immersion

10 mg/kg

intrasinus 72

Kuruma shrimp/PD; quinolone;

Gram-negative bacteria;

decreased uptake in hard water;

better uptake pH < 6.9

24

50 mg/kg PO 72 Kuruma shrimp/PD

Oxytetracycline

10 mg/kg

intrasinus 72,73

25 mg/kg

intrasinus 72

Tiger shrimp/PD; cooking reduced

muscle levels by 30%-60% and

shell levels by 20%

Kuruma shrimp/PD

25-50 mg/kg IV 56 Horseshoe crabs/PD

50 mg/kg PO 72,73 Kuruma shrimp/PD; tiger

shrimp/PD; cooking reduced

muscle levels by 30%-60% and

shell levels by 20%

100 mg/kg PO 61 White shrimp/PD

200 mg/colony PO

q4-5d×3

treatments 75,76

10-15 mg/L q48-

72 h×3-5

treatments 38

Honeybees/for treating American

and European foulbrood;

withdrawal time of 6 wk; should

not be used on hives where

honey will be consumed by

humans

Chocolate chip sea stars/cutaneous

ulcerations; may be applicable to

other echinoderms with bacterial

lesions

1 g/lb of feed 55 American lobsters/gaffkemia;

approved for use in food animals

by the FDA

Paromomycin

Silver sulfadiazine cream

(Silvadene, Marion Merrill

Dow)

Sulfadimethoxine

Sulfadimethoxine/ormetoprim

(Romet-30, Alpharma)

Sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim

100 mg/L q12h

immersion with

a 25% water

change×6 days 69

Apply topically to

lesions

50-100 mg/kg in

feed×14 days 55

42 mg/kg

intrapericardial 7

Bioencapsulated in

brine shrimp

PO q12h 13,45,53,54

Control of white band disease

(WBD) in Acropora sp.

Proceed with caution (biotest if

possible) as treatments are

empirical

Penaeid shrimp

American lobster/PD; although no

frequency is given, it appears

that q3-5d may be reasonable

based on the long half-life

White shrimp/PD; combine

20%-40% trimethoprim

sulfamethoxazole with a lipid

emulsion (Selco, INVE

25

Tetracycline

10 mg/kg PO

q24h 63

Aquaculture) at a concentration

of 1:5

Cephalopods

10 mg/L bath 41,68 Corals/efficacy questionable in

saltwater; anecdotal evidence of

successful treatment for bacterial

infections

Trifluralin

Tris EDTA and neomycin

(Tricide-Neo, Molecular

Therapeutics)

Tylosin (Tylan, Elanco)

Winter savory extract (Satureja

montana)

0.01-0.1 ppm as an

immersion 55

100 mL/L for

45 min q24h×7

days as an

immersion 38

200 mg/colony

q7d×3

treatments 75,76

0.01% in

microcrystalline

sugar 16

Penaeid shrimp/larval oomycetosis

Cushion sea stars/cutaneous ulcers;

may be applicable to other

echinoderms

Honeybees/antibiotic applied

topically to the brood chamber

for control of American

foulbrood (Paenibacillus larvae);

approved by the FDA; should

not be used in hives where the

honey will be consumed by

humans

Honeybees/chalkbrood fungal

disease (Ascosphaera apis); a

number of plant aromatic oils

have been tested, some with

more promise than others, on

various diseases of

honeybees 22,75,76

a

Not to be used with invertebrates intended for human consumption unless government approved.

b

Preferable to treat a single animal of a species (biotest) to determine toxicity.

c

Tank treatment: when treating the invertebrates’ resident aquarium, disconnect activated carbon

filtration to prevent drug removal. Many drugs adversely affect the nitrifying bacteria, so water quality

should be monitored closely (especially ammonia and nitrite concentrations). Keep water well aerated

when appropriate and monitor patient(s) closely. Perform water changes and reconnect filtration to

remove residual drug following treatment. Discard carbon following drug removal.

d

Bath (immersion) treatment: remove invertebrates from resident aquarium and place in container with

known volume of water and concentration of therapeutic agent. Watch closely for signs of toxicity.

e

Invertebrate species, temperature, and water quality parameters can influence the pharmacodynamics

of many drugs, especially antimicrobials.

Table 1-2

Antiparasitic Agents Used in Invertebrates. a-e

26


Acetic acid,

glacial

3%-5% solution for

1 hr 12 Horseshoe crabs

Amitraz (Apivar,

Véto-pharma)

Use as directed 75,76

Honeybees/acariasis; commercial packaging

should be consulted prior to use

Diflubenzuron 0.03 mg/L for 7 days 21 Control of amphipods in Chrysaora jellyfish

Formalin

50-100 µL/L for 4 hr

or 25 µL/L

indefinitely 55

Shrimp/protozoal ectoparasites; approved for use

by the FDA in food animals

Formic acid Use as directed 75,76 Honeybees/acariasis; commercial packaging

should be consulted prior to use; an empty

super must be used on hive during treatment

Freshwater 1-3 min dip 68 Stony corals, some soft corals/flatworms, and

other ectoparasites; buffer to pH 8.2 and use

clean, dechlorinated water; do not use on

small polyp corals or xenids; biotest first, if

possible, especially when attempting with a

new species

Fumagillin Use as directed 75,76 Honeybees/nosemosis (caused by microsporidian

parasites); commercial packaging should be

consulted prior to use

Ivermectin Stock solution of 1:1

(1% ivermectin and

propylene glycol);

dilute 1:50 with

distilled water

prior to topical

use 60

Spiders/for the treatment of individual parasitic

mites; apply carefully to mites with fine

paintbrush or similar implement

Levamisole

(Levasole,

Schering

Plough)

8 mg/L immersion for

24 hr 68 Corals/metazoan parasites; well tolerated by

Acropora spp., Montipora digitata, M. capricornis,

Seriatopora histrix, Stylophora pistillata

Menthol Use as directed 75 Honeybees/acariasis; commercial packaging


Metronidazole

Milbemycin

oxime

50 mg/kg

intracardiac×1

treatment 60

100 mg/L immersion

for 16 hr 63

0.625 mg/L as an

immersion 26,37,43

Spiders/appears safe, but efficacy is unknown

Cephalopods/antiprotozoal

Stony corals (Acropora)/ “red bug” (Tegastes

acroporanus)

27

(Interceptor,

Novartis)

0.16 mg/L as an

immersion q6-7d×2

treatments 9

For amphipod parasites of jellyfish; use with

caution on hydrozoans

Potassium

permanganate

25-30 ppm for 30-

60 min 55 Penaeid shrimp/external parasiticide

Povidone iodine

0.75% solution for

topical treatment 60

Spiders/fungal infections; use water-based

solution

Thymol Use as directed 75,76 Honeybees/acariasis; commercial packaging


a

Not to be used with invertebrates intended for human consumption unless government approved.

b

Preferable to treat a single animal of a species (biotest) to determine toxicity.

c

Tank treatment: when treating the invertebrates’ resident aquarium, disconnect activated carbon

filtration to prevent drug removal. Many drugs adversely affect the nitrifying bacteria, so water quality

should be monitored closely (especially ammonia and nitrite concentrations). Keep water well aerated

when appropriate and monitor patient(s) closely. Perform water changes and reconnect filtration to

remove residual drug following treatment. Discard carbon following drug removal.

d

Bath (immersion) treatment: remove invertebrates from resident aquarium and place in container with

known volume of water and concentration of therapeutic agent. Watch closely for signs of toxicity.

e

Invertebrate species, temperature, and water quality parameters can influence the pharmacodynamics

of many drugs.

Table 1-3

Chemical Restraint/Anesthetic/Analgesic Agents Used in Invertebrates.


Alfaxalone

200 mg/kg

intracardiac 31

Used as a general anesthetic for tarantulas

(Grammostola roseae)

Benzocaine 100 mg/L 4,35 bath Abalone/anesthesia; not sold as anesthetic in

United States; available from chemical

supply companies; do not use topical

anesthetic products marketed for mammals;

prepare stock solution in ethanol

(benzocaine is poorly soluble in water);

store in dark bottle at room temperature

400 mg/L 20 Leeches/this could be applied, with caution, to

other aquatic annelids

1 g/L 29 Prepare as 1:4 w/v added to 95°C water to

dissolve the benzocaine; for use in apple

snails (Pomacea paludosa)

2.5-3 g/L 63 bath Cephalopods/euthanasia

Butorphanol Fish, amphibian, Analgesia; use with caution as dosing

28

and reptile

dosages can be

employed with

care

regimens are empirical; biotest when

possible

Carbon dioxide 3%-5% 36 Terrestrial arthropods/euthanasia; isoflurane

and sevoflurane may be preferable with

regard to recovery; an anesthetic chamber

has been developed/described for use in the

fruit fly 71

Clove oil (eugenol)

0.125 mL/L (approx.

125 mg/L) as an

immersion 28

Crustaceans/stock solution: 100 mg/mL of

eugenol by diluting 1 part clove oil with 9

parts 95% ethanol (eugenol is poorly

soluble in water); over-the-counter

preparation (pure) available at most

pharmacies contains approximately 1 g

eugenol per mL clove oil

0.35 g/L 29 Apple snails (Pomacea paludosa)

Ethanol 1.5%-3% solution 39 Cuttlefish/anesthesia may not be effective for

cold water cephalopods 35

3% solution 35 Abalone/anesthesia

5% solution 27,36 Aquatic gastropods/anesthesia

5% solution 18,46 Oligochaetes/adequate anesthesia for terrestrial

earthworms such as Lumbricus terrestris

5% solution 32 Octopuses for general anesthesia

10% solution 63 Cephalopods/euthanasia

Ethanol/menthol

(Listerine,

McNeil-PPC)

10% in saline 79 Aquatic gastropods/anesthesia

Isoflurane

Can be used with an

anesthetic

chamber

5% with 1 L/min

oxygen 25

2 mL on a cotton

ball 5

Terrestrial gastropods, 30

arachnids 18,24,47,50,60,80 /anesthesia; fast

induction with a possible excitatory period;

anesthetic depth may not be appropriate for

invasive surgery; 27 usually applied at a 5%

concentration for arachnids

Tarantulas (Grammostola roseae)/sedation and

anesthesia (depending on the amount of

time in the anesthetic chamber

Place cotton ball in a 500 mL beaker with the

tarantula; cotton ball should be

placed/protected to avoid direct contact

Ketamine 40-90 mcg/g IM 11 Crayfish/induction time of less than 1 min and

anesthetic duration of 10 min at low dose

29

and 2 hr at high dose

0.025-1 mg/kg 28 Australian giant crabs/fast induction (less than

30 sec) with an excitatory phase; dose

dependent anesthetic duration of 8-40 min

20 mg/kg

intracardiac with

200 mg/kg

alfaxalone 31

Tarantulas/results in deep plane of anesthesia

Lidocaine 0.4-1 mg/g IM 11 Crayfish/induction time of less than 2 min and

duration of anesthesia of 5-30 min when

injected into the tail

Magnesium chloride Intracoelomic, 25-

50% bodyweight

with a

1000 milliosmolar

solution 15,49a

Sea hares/short induction time (2-5 min) and

good muscle relaxation

6.8 g/L 33,35 Cephalopods/induction time of 6-12 min in

cuttlefish

30-50 g/L 40 Scallops/fast induction and recovery

1:1 mixture of 7.5%

with seawater 38,49

Echinoderms/concentration adjustments may

be required for prolonged anesthesia

7.5% immersion 45,52 Polychaetes

10% solution prn 63 Cephalopods/euthanasia

30 g/L for 20 min 1 Queen conch (Strombus gigas)

32.5 g/L for 20 min 32 Octopuses

Magnesium sulfate 4-22 g/100 mL 78 Abalone/fast induction and good recovery

Morphine

5 mg/kg intracardiac

with 200 mg/kg

alfaxalone 31

Tarantulas

MS-222 (Finquel,

Argent)

— See tricaine methanesulfonate

2-phenoxyethanol 0.5-3 mL/L 78 Abalone/quick induction and short recovery

1-2 mL/L 35 Quick induction and short recovery

Potassium chloride

1 g/kg (330 mg/mL

solution) IV 8

Lobsters/euthanasia; inject at base of second

walking leg

Procaine 25 mg/kg IV 58 Crabs/very short induction time (less than

30 sec) and prolonged anesthesia (2-3 hr)

Propylene

phenoxetol

1-3 mL/L of a 1%

solution 35,51,57

Oysters/anesthesia; this concentration should

produce anesthesia in less than 15 min;

30

2 mL/L 35,74 Echinoderms

recovery time is short (under 30 min);

higher doses can be used but induce a

deeper level of anesthesia; can also be used

for giant clams 51

Sevoflurane

Can be used with an

anesthetic

chamber at a 5%

concentration 35,81

Terrestrial arthropods/see isoflurane for details

of administration; use with a 1 L/min

oxygen flow in tarantulas 81

Sodium bicarbonate

tablets (Alka-

Seltzer, Bayer)

Sodium

pentobarbital

2-4 tablets/L bath 34 Euthanasia; generates CO 2 ; use when other

agents unavailable; keep aquatic

invertebrate in solution >10 min after

respiration stops; dosage based on piscine

literature

400 mg/L 48 Aquatic gastropods/anesthesia; very slow

onset but apparently safe; controlled drug

1 mL/L 4 Abalone

Tricaine

methanesulfonate

(MS-222; Finquel,

Argent)

Dosages and efficacy

vary widely

depending on

species and

application;

consult taxonspecific

literature 35,36

0.4-0.8 g/L

immersion 3

Anesthesia; stock solution: 10 g/L, buffer the

acidity by adding sodium bicarbonate at

10 g/L or to saturation; store stock in dark

container; shelf-life of stock extended by

refrigeration or freezing; stock that

develops an oily film should be discarded;

aerate water to prevent hypoxemia;

euthanasia: keep animal in solution

>20 min after respiration stops

Purple sea urchin (Arbacia punctulata)/safe and

effective

Xylazine 16-22 mg/kg IV 28 Giant crabs/fast induction (3-5 min) and

approximately 30 min of anesthesia (dose

dependent)

20 mg/kg

intracardiac with

200 mg/kg

alfaxalone 31

Tarantulas/results in a deep plane of anesthesia

Table 1-4

Miscellaneous Agents Used in Invertebrates.


Barium sulfate 4 mL/15 g food 23 Tarantulas, scorpions, millipedes, hissing

cockroaches/contrast radiography;

31

inject into a strawberry and feed to

millipedes; inject into crickets and/or

other prey for carnivorous

invertebrates

Benzocaine topical

(Orabase, Colgate-

Palmolive)

Topically 68

Corals and, potentially, other aquatic

invertebrates/used as a water-resistant

paste; chemotherapeutics can be

combined for topical therapy

Carbon, activated 75 g/40 L tank water 55 Removal of medications and other

organics from water; usually added to

filter system; discard after 2 wk;

75 g≈250 cc dry volume

Chlorine/chloramine

neutralizer

Use as directed

See sodium thiosulfate

Diatrizoate meglumine

and diatrizoate

sodium (Hypaque-

76, Amersham

Health)

Hydrogen peroxide

(3%)

4 mL/15 g food 23 Tarantulas, scorpions, millipedes, hissing

cockroaches/contrast radiography;

combine with/inject into the food item

and feed 1-3 hr prior to radiography

0.25 mL/L water 54 Acute environmental hypoxia; dose from

the piscine literature

Iohexol 12 mL/kg IV 65 Horseshoe crabs/contrast radiography

15 mL PO 65

Methylmethacrylate

Apply topically as

needed 19,60

Arthropods (spiders, scorpions,

insects)/repair fractured exoskeleton;

there are numerous references for the

application of surgical adhesives, so

consult the appropriate taxon-based

literature

Mineral oil 1 mL/kg PO Insects/laxative 19

Nitrifying bacteria

Use as directed for

commercial

products

Add material (e.g.,

floss, gravel) from a

tank with an active

biological filter and

healthy fish to new

tank 54

Seed or improve development of

biological filtration to detoxify

ammonia, nitrite, and nitrate;

numerous commercial preparations;

do not expose products to extreme

temperatures; use before expiration

date

Must evaluate risk of disease transmission

with this technique

32

Oxygen (100%) Fill plastic bag with O 2

containing

vol of water 34

Acute environmental hypoxia common

with transportation; close bag tightly

with rubber band; keep animals in

bag until normal swimming and

respiratory behavior

Sodium thiosulfate

Use as directed for

chlorine/chloramine

neutralizers

10 mg/L tank water 44

10 g neutralizes

chlorine (up to

2 mg/L) in 1000 L

water 44

Active ingredient in numerous

chlorine/chloramine neutralizers;

chlorine and chloramine are common

additions to municipal water supplies

and are toxic to many aquatic

invertebrates; ammonia released by

detoxification of chloramine is

removed by functioning biological

filter (see nitrifying bacteria) or

chemical means (see zeolite)

100 mg/L tank water 67 Chlorine exposure

Zeolite (i.e., clinoptilite)

(Ammonex, Argent)

Use as directed

20 g/L tank water 54

Ion-exchange resin that exchanges

ammonia for sodium ions; clinoptilite

is an active form of zeolite; used to

reduce or prevent ammonia toxicity

Table 1-5

Common Captive Invertebrate Taxa. a

Arthropods

Chelicerates: This group includes the spiders, scorpions, and horseshoe

crabs. Some common species are listed here. 60,64

Chilean rosehair tarantula (Grammostola spatulata)

Mexican fireleg tarantula (Brachypelma boehmei)

Mexican redknee tarantula (Brachypelma smithi)

Emperor scorpion (Pandinus imperator)

American horseshoe crab (Limulus polyphemus)

Myriapods (centipedes, millipedes): 24

African banded millipedes (Isulus spp.)

33

Desert millipede (Orthoporus sp.)

Giant desert centipede (Scolopendra heros)

Giant train millipedes (Spirostreptida spp.)

Madagascar fire millipedes (Aphistogoniulus spp.)

Crustaceans: Decapods are a diverse group of readily recognized species

including the crabs, lobsters, and shrimp. Some common examples include

the banded shrimps, crayfish (numerous species), marine hermit crabs, and

terrestrial hermit crabs (Coenobita sp.). 55

Sea monkeys (Artemia sp.). 55

Insects: Insects, sometimes referred to as the phylum Hexapoda, are an

immense group of over a million described species. Some common captive

insects include the beetles (Order Coleoptera), butterflies and moths (Order

Lepidoptera), crickets (grey crickets [Acheta domestica]; black prairie

cricket [Gryllus sp.]), honeybee (Apis mellifera), Madagascar hissing

cockroach (Gromphadorhina portentosa), and the silkworm (Bombyx

mori). 19,24,60,75,76

Coelenterates

Scyphozoans (jellyfishes): Although not common as pets, some

individuals, and many public institutions and establishments, maintain

jellyfish aquaria. Some popular species include fried egg jellies

(Phacellophora camtschatica), moon jellies (Aurelia aurita), and the sea

nettles (Chrysaora sp.). 68

Anthozoans (anemones and corals): Numerous species of sea anemones

and corals (hard and soft) are commonly maintained in reef aquaria.

Frequently maintained soft coral groups include members of the families

Alcyoniidae, Nephtheidae, and Xeniidae. 43 Commonly maintained

scleractinian (hard coral) genera include Acropora, Montipora, and Porites. 43

Echinoderms

This entirely marine phylum includes five major classes: 38

Asteroidea: sea stars

Crinoidea: feather stars, sea lilies

Echinoidea: sand dollars, sea biscuits, sea urchins

Holothuroidea: sea cucumbers

Ophiuroidea: basket stars, brittle stars

Mollusks

Gastropods (nudibranchs, sea hares, slugs, and snails): This group

includes a diverse array of terrestrial, freshwater, and marine species. 15,30,43

Cephalopods (cuttlefish, nautilus, octopuses, squid): This group

includes a diverse group of marine species. Some species of octopus, and

the chambered nautilus (Nautilus pompilius), are occasionally found in

home aquaria. 63 34

Bivalves (clams, mussels, oysters): This group includes a diverse group

of freshwater and marine species. One of the most common reef genera is

the giant clam (Tridacna sp.). 43,51,57

a

This is not a comprehensive list of taxa. The reader should be aware that taxonomy is a

dynamic science and taxonomists frequently assign different taxonomic levels to the

same groups depending on the anatomical, genetic, and other criteria being considered.

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40

C H A P T E R 2

Fish

Gregory A. Lewbart; Roy P.E. Yanong

Table 2-1

Antimicrobial and Antifungal Agents Used in Fish. a-f


41

Acriflavine 4 mg/L×4h 118 Rainbow trout/organic dye and

antifungal agent

Amikacin 5 mg/kg IM q12h 152

10 mg/L×4h 111 Channel catfish/PK

5 mg/kg IM q72h×3

treatments 152

5 mg/kg ICe q24h×3

days, then

q48h×2

treatments 77

Koi/PK

Amoxicillin — Infrequently indicated in

ornamental fish because few

pathogens are Gram-positive

12.5 mg/kg IM 16 Atlantic salmon/PK

25 mg/kg PO q12h 142

40 mg/kg IV q24h 32 Seabream/PK

80 mg/kg PO

q24h×10 days 32

Seabream/PK

40-80 mg/kg/day in

feed×10 days 100

110 mg/kg/day in

feed 8

Channel catfish/PK

Ampicillin — Infrequently indicated in

ornamental fish because few

pathogens are Gram-positive

10 mg/kg q24h

IM 16,149

10 mg/kg q24h IV 110 Striped bass

50-80 mg/kg/day in

feed×10 days 100

Azithromycin (Zithromax,

Zoetis)

30 mg/kg q24h×14

days 39

Chinook salmon/PK

40 mg/kg ICe 40 Chinook salmon/PK

Aztreonam (Azactam, Bristol-

Myers Squibb)

100 mg/kg IM, ICe

q48h×7

treatments 120

Koi/Aeromonas salmonicida; used by

hobbyists

Benzalkonium chloride 0.5 mg/L long-term 149 Quaternary amine with broad

disinfection properties

42

10 mg/L for 10 min 149

Bronopol (Pyceze, Novartis)

15-50 mg/L×30- For mycotic infections (eggs and

60 min bath 114,152 fish); eggs may require the

higher dose

Cefovecin (Convenia, Zoetis) — Some intraspecies variability;

rapidly eliminated in white

bamboo sharks (not

recommended) 138

16 mg/kg SC 133 Adult copper rockfish/plasma

levels of >1 µg/mL persisted for

7 days

Ceftazidime (Fortaz, Zoetis)

22 mg/kg IM, ICe

q72-96h×3-5

treatments 120

Cephalosporin with good activity

against Gram-negative bacteria

(e.g., Pseudomonas)

Chloramine-T

2.5-20 mg/L as Disinfectant; used to control

immersion

bacterial gill disease and some

treatment 29,149 for ectoparasites; dosage and

60 min/day up to duration varies widely with

3 days 3 species and water quality

20 mg/L as

immersion×4 hr 95

Rainbow trout, striped bass,

yellow perch/PK

Chloramphenicol — Florfenicol may be a better

alternative than

chloramphenicol (risk to

humans)

40-182 mg/kg q24h

ICe 84

Carp/PK

50 mg/kg PO, IM

once, then

25 mg/kg q24h 143

50 mg/kg PO q24h 27 Rainbow trout/PK

Ciprofloxacin 15 mg/kg IM, IV 102 Carp, African catfish, rainbow

trout/PK

Difloxacin 10 mg/kg PO q24h 37 Atlantic salmon/PK; plasma levels

were higher in marine fish

compared with freshwater fish

10 mg/kg PO q24h 144 Olive flounder/PK

Diquat dibromide (Reward,

Syngenta)

20 mg/kg PO q24h×3

days 34

2-18 mg/L for 1-

4 hr×1-4

Goldfish/PK

For control of columnaris disease

in freshwater fish

43

treatments q24-

48h; 19-28 mg/L

for 30-60 min×1-3

treatments q48h 1

Doxycycline 20 mg/kg PO q24h 158

20 mg/kg PO,

IV 158

Tilapia/PK; possible intrahepatic

cycling; dosing intervals not

established

Enrofloxacin (Baytril, Bayer) — For a review of quinolones used in

fishes, see Samuelsen, 2006 126

2.5 mg/kg IV q24h 31 Seabream/PK; no ciprofloxacin

detected

5 mg/kg PO, IM, ICe

q24h 142 Red pacu/PK 89

5-10 mg/kg PO

q24h 149

5-10 mg/kg IM, ICe

q48h 92 × 7

treatments

10 mg/kg PO

q24h×10 days 108

10 mg/kg PO

q24h 31,126

Pacu (Piaractus

mesopotamicus)/withdrawal

period (non-USA) 23 days at

27°C; ciprofloxacin detected

Atlantic salmon, seabream/PK; no

ciprofloxacin detected

10 mg/kg PO, IV 81 Korean catfish/PK; ciprofloxacin

detected

10 mg/kg ICe q96h×

4 treatments 90 Koi/PK (21°C, 70°F)

30 mg/kg PO q24h 156 Grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon

idella)/prevention of resistance

mutation for Aeromonas

hydrophila strain AH10

10 mg/kg of feed

q24h 88,100,139

Atlantic salmon/PK

0.1% feed×10-

14 days 88 Oral or injectable form can be

used; equivalent to 10 mg/kg of

feed

2.5-5 mg/L×5 hr bath

q24h× 5-7 days 92

Red pacu/PK; change 50%-75% of

water between treatments

Erythromycin — Commonly sold as tank treatment

for aquarium fish; not

44

generally recommended

because of toxicity to nitrifying

bacteria 100

10-25 mg/kg IM, For treatment of bacterial kidney

ICe; 38 10-

disease; second dose is for

25 mg/kg IM, ICe control of vertical transmission

1-3× q3wk 38 of bacterial kidney disease

75 mg/kg PO q24h×7

days 28

75 mg/kg PO

q24h×10 days 35

Barramundi/successful treatment

of Streptococcus iniae

For control of Streptococcus iniae in

seabream/PD

100 mg/kg PO, IM

q24h × 7-

21 days 142,149

Florfenicol (Nuflor, Merck

Animal Health; Aquaflor

[Veterinary Feed Directivemedicated

feed], Merck

Animal Health)

100-200 mg/kg PO

q24h×21 days 97

5-20 mg/kg PO

q24h 72

10 mg/kg IM

q24h 160,161

10-15 mg/kg PO

q24h 10

10-20 mg/kg PO

q24h 127,130 ×10 days

10, 25, or 50 mg/kg

PO q24h 160,161

10, 25, or 50 mg/kg

PO q12h 160,161

10 or 100 mg/kg IM

q12h 160,161

Salmonids/to control Renibacterium

salmoninarum

Atlantic salmon/PK

Koi/PK (for MICs [minimum

inhibitory concentration] of 1-

6 µg/mL)

Catfish/PK

Cod/PK

Koi/PK, for MIC of 1, 3, and

6 µg/mL, respectively

Gourami/PK; for MICs of 1, 3, and

6 µg/mL, respectively

Gourami/PK; for MICs of 1 µg/mL

or 6 µg/mL

40 mg/kg IM 162 White-spotted bamboo shark/PK

40-50 mg/kg PO, IM,

ICe q12-24h 91,142 Red pacu/PK 91

Flumequine (Apoquin aqualtes,

Sigma-Aldrich)

— Quinolone; Gram-negative

bacteria; freshwater fish at

pH 6.8-7.2; decreased uptake in

hard water; increase dose for

marine fish

10 mg/kg PO q48h 54 Cod, goldsinny wrasse/PK

12-25 mg/kg PO,

ICe, IV q24h 128

Atlantic halibut/PK

45

25 mg/kg ICe q24h 129 Corkwing wrasse/PK

25-50 mg/kg PO

q24h 122

Atlantic salmon

30 mg/kg IM, ICe 100 High antibiotic levels for several

days when given IM

50-100 mg/L×3 hr

bath 100

10 mg/kg q24h in

feed×10 days 100

Formalin

All doses based on

volumes of 100%

formalin (=37%

formaldehyde

solution)

0.23 mL/L bath up to

60 min 100

1 mL/38 L as 12-

24 hr bath

followed by

30%-70% water

change, may be

repeated 48

Mycotic infections on eggs; do not

treat within 24 hr of hatching;

caution: carcinogenic; do not

use if highly toxic white

precipitates of

paraformaldehyde are present;

some fish are very sensitive;

test on small number first,

monitor fish for respiratory

distress and pale color;

increased toxicity in soft, acidic

water and at high temperature;

treat with vigorous aeration

because of oxygen depletion;

toxic to plants

Degradation in saltwater

recirculating aquaculture

systems occurred rapidly by

day 3 presumptively due to

microbial digestion (biotic) or

abiotic factors; for intended

multiple day treatments,

testing and variable additions

may be required to achieve

target dose above 15 mg/L 83

1-2 mL/L bath, up to

15 min 100 For eggs only

25 mg/L (9.3 mg

formaldehyde/L)

bath for 144 hr 155

Striped bass

Furazolidone — Nitrofuran; caution: carcinogenic;

toxic to scaleless fish; absorbed

from water; drug inactivated in

bright light

46

1 mg/kg PO, IV

q24h 112

Channel catfish

30 mg/kg PO 157 Nile tilapia

67.5 mg/kg PO

q12h×10 days 85

25-35 mg/kg q24h in

feed for 20 days 63

Rainbow trout/PK; at 14°C (57°F),

half-life≈30 days and residue

present at 40 days post 10-day

treatment

Some salmonids/not approved for

fish intended for human

consumption in the United

States

Gentamicin

50-100 mg/kg q24h

in feed× 10-

15 days 100

1-10 mg/L tank

water for≥24 hr 100

1 mg/kg IM, ICe

q24h 134

2 mg/kg IM, then

1 mg/kg IM at 8

and 72 hr 143

Channel catfish/PK

Brown shark/PK

2.5 mg/kg IM q72h 88 Nephrotoxic; substantial risk in

species for which dosages have

not been determined 117

3.5 mg/kg IM q24h 78 Goldfish, toadfish/PK

Hydrogen peroxide (HP) (3%) 0.1 mL/L×1 hr 123 For treatment of external bacteria

in swordtails

Hydrogen peroxide (HP)

(35% PEROX-AID, Eka

Chemicals)

— Each mL of 35% PEROX-AID

contains 350 mg HP

50 mg/L×1 hr 109 For control of columnaris disease

in channel catfish fry

50-75 mg/L×1 hr 109 For control of columnaris disease

in channel catfish fingerlings

and adults

Iodine, potentiated (Betadine,

Purdue Frederick)

Topical to wound, Do not use solutions combined

rinse

with detergent (e.g., Betadine

immediately 100 scrub)

20-100 mg/L for For disinfecting eggs (available

10 min 149 iodine)

Itraconazole

1-5 mg/kg q24h in

feed q1-7d 142

Systemic mycoses

47

Kanamycin sulfate (Kantrex,

Apothecon)

20 mg/kg ICe q3d× 5

treatments 100

Toxic to some fish

Ketoconazole

50 mg/kg q24h in

feed 100

40-640 mg/L×2 hr

bath 46

50-100 mg/L q72h×3

treatments 100

2.5-10 mg/kg PO,

IM, ICe 142

Channel catfish

Change 50%-75% of water between

treatments; absorbed from

water

Systemic mycoses

Malachite green (zinc-free) — Freshwater fish/mycotic infections;

caution: mutagenic,

teratogenic; toxic to some fish

species and to fry; increased

toxicity at higher temperatures

and lower pH; stains objects,

especially plastic; toxic to

plants; not approved for use on

fish intended for human

consumption

0.1 mg/L tank water

q3d× 3

treatments 100

0.25 mg/L×15 min

q24h 153

Remove residual chemical with

activated carbon after final

treatment

Fungal control on fish eggs

0.5 mg/L×1 hr bath 100 Freshwater fish eggs

1 mg/L×30-60 min

bath 100

Use 2 mg/L if pH is high

1 mg/L×1 hr 149 Fungal control on fish eggs

2 mg/L×15 min

q24h 149

10 mg/L×10-30 min

bath 100

Fungal control on fish eggs

Freshwater fish eggs

Methylene blue

50-60 mg/L×10-30 sec

bath 100

100 mg/L topical to

skin lesions 100

2 mg/L tank water

q48h, up to 3

treatments 100

Preventing infections of freshwater

eggs; toxic to nitrifying

bacteria and to plants; stains

48

many objects

Miconazole (Monistat, McNeil-

PPC)

Nalidixic acid

(NegGram, Sanofi-Aventis)

Neomycin

10-20 mg/kg PO, IM,

ICe 142

5 mg/kg PO, IM

q24h 142

5 mg/kg PO, IV

q24h 76


13 mg/L×1-4 hr bath,

repeat prn 100

66 mg/L tank water

q3d, up to 3

treatments 100

Systemic mycoses

Quinolone; Gram-negative

bacteria

Rainbow trout/PK

Commonly sold as tank treatment

for aquarium fish; toxic to

nitrifying bacteria; keep fish

densities low

Nifurpirinol — Nitrofuran; caution: carcinogenic;



bright light

0.45-0.9 mg/kg PO

q24h×5 days 100

4-10 mg/kg in feed

q12h×5 days 100

0.1 mg/L tank water

q24h ×

3-5 days 100

1-2 mg/L×5 min-6 hr

bath 100

Nitrofurazone — Nitrofuran; caution: carcinogenic;



bright light; water soluble

formulations preferred; change

50%-75% of water between

treatments

2-5 mg/L tank water

q24h× 5-

10 days 152

50 mg/L×3 hr 23 Seabream/no residues were found

in muscle following treatment

100 mg/L×30 min

bath 100 49

100 mg/L×6 hr 23 Tilapia/no residues were found in

muscle following treatment

Oxolinic acid — Quinolone; Gram-negative

bacteria

5-25 mg/kg PO

q24h 142

10 mg/kg q24h PO 149 Freshwater species/PK in many

species

25 mg/kg ICe q24h 129 Corkwing wrasse/PK

25-50 mg/kg q24h

PO 149

50 mg/kg q24h×5

days PO 24,25

Marine species

Rainbow trout/PK

10 mg/kg q24h in

feed×10 days 100

3-10 mg/L tank

water×24 hr 100

25 mg/L×15 min

bath q12h×3

days 100

Decreased uptake in hard water;

better uptake in pH <6.9

Oxytetracycline 3 mg/kg IV q24h 36 Red pacu/PK

7 mg/kg IM q24h 36 Red pacu/PK

10 mg/kg IM q24h 142 Produces high levels for several

days when given IM

20 mg/kg ICe 149 Some salmonids

20 mg/kg PO q8h 142

25-50 mg/kg IM,

ICe 100

60 mg/kg IM q7d 50 Carp/PK

70 mg/kg PO q24h×

10-14 days 151

82.8 mg/kg PO×10

days 21

100 mg/kg IM

q24h 119

10-100 mg/L tank

water 100

Walleye pike, tilapia, hybrid

striped bass, summer

flounder/PK

Tench/PK

Higher doses in hard water; if fish

still sick, retreat on day 3 after

50

50% water change; light

sensitive, so keep tank covered

to prevent photo-inactivation;

drug turns dark brown when

decomposing: change 50% of

water immediately; change

50%-75% of water between

treatments

7 mg/g feed q24h×10

days 151

55-83 mg/kg q24h in

feed×10 days 100

75 mg/kg PO q24h

in feed×10 days 149

Potassium permanganate

10-50 mg/L×1 hr

bath 100

2 mg/L as an

indefinite bath 152

5 mg/L×30-60 min

bath 100

1000 mg/L×10-40 sec

bath 100

Surface bacterial infections;

yellow-brown foam may

develop in treatment water

Heavily organic systems may

require a higher dose; test

efficacy by adding the

appropriate amount of KMnO 4

to a small amount of system

water (without fish); red color

should remain for at least 4 hr

(if not, then KMnO 4 should be

added until the 4-hr test is

completed); however, in

systems with lower organic

loading (e.g., moderate to

lower intensity recirculating

aquaculture systems), and for

sensitive species, treatment

durations may need to be

shortened to 1-2 hr

Freshwater fish/skin and gill

bacterial infections; toxic in

water with high pH; do not

mix with formalin; can be toxic

in goldfish 140

Sarafloxacin (Sarafloxacin

hydrochloride, Enzo Life

Sciences)

10-14 mg/kg PO

q24h×10 days 142

Fluoroquinolone

10 mg/kg PO q24h 149 Marine Atlantic salmon

51

10 mg/kg PO q24h×5

days 47

Channel catfish


(Silvadene, Pfizer)


(Romet, Zoetis)

Thiamphenicol

Topical q12h 88

50 mg/kg/day in

feed×5 days 100

Medicated brine

shrimp 100

15 and 30 mg/kg

PO 73

External bacterial infection; keep

lesion out of water 30-60 sec

after application; keep gills

submerged

Available as a powder to add to

feed and as medicated feed

Place brine shrimp nauplii

(larvae) in 3 mg/L seawater for

4 hr, rinse in seawater with

brine shrimp net, then feed

immediately to fish; may also

work with adult brine shrimp

and other live feeds

Sea bass/PK; drug was not

detected in plasma or tissues at

either dose on day 7;

recommended withdrawal

times of 5 and 6 days,

respectively

Tobramycin

Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole

2.5 mg/kg IM, then

1 mg/kg IM q4d 143 Brown shark/PK

30 mg/kg PO q24h× Change 50%-75% of water between

10-14 days 100 treatments

Triple antibiotic ointment

(polymyxin B

sulfate/bacitracin/neomycin

sulfate)

20 mg/L×5-12 hr

bath q24h× 5-

7 days 100

0.2% feed×10-

14 days 100

Topical q12h 88

External bacterial infection; keep

lesion out of water 30-60 sec

following application; keep

gills submerged

a

Not to be used in fish for human consumption.

b

Preferable to treat a single fish of a species (biotest) to determine toxicitxy.

c

Tank treatment: When treating the fishes’ resident aquarium, disconnect activated carbon filtration to

prevent drug removal. Many drugs adversely affect the nitrifying bacteria, so water quality should be

monitored closely (especially ammonia and nitrite concentrations). Always keep water well aerated and

monitor fish closely. Perform water changes and reconnect filtration to remove residual drug following

treatment. Discard carbon following drug removal. 89

d

Bath (immersion) treatment: Remove fish from resident aquarium and place in container with known

volume of water and concentration of therapeutic agent. Watch closely for signs of toxicity (e.g., listing

and dyspnea). Always keep water well aerated.

52

e

Species of fish, temperature, and water quality parameters can influence the pharmacodynamics of

many drugs, especially antimicrobials.

f

For more information, refer to the Web site by Reimschuessel et al. 118 This is a comprehensive and

informative resource for many drugs and other compounds used with aquatic animals.

Table 2-2

Antiparasitic Agents Used in Fish. a-d


Acetic acid, glacial

1-2 mL/L×30-45 sec

bath 100,152

Monogeneans, crustacean

ectoparasites; safe for goldfish; may

be toxic to smaller tropical fish

Albendazole 5 mg/kg PO once 99 Atlantic salmon/PK

10 mg/kg PO once 135 Atlantic salmon, rainbow trout,

tilapia/PK

10-50 mg/L×2-6 hr 132 Sticklebacks/treating Glugea anomala

infection

Chloramine-T — See Table 2-1

Chloroquine diphosphate 50 mg/kg PO once 93

10 mg/L tank

water, once 100

Red drum

Amyloodinium ocellatum; monitor for

21 days, repeat prn; use activated

carbon to remove drug if no relapse

Closantel

(50 mg/mL)/mebendazole

(75 mg/mL) (Supaverm,

Janssen-Cilag)

1 mL/400 L once; may

repeat in 3-7 days

following a water

change if

necessary 152

Koi/very safe and effective for external

monogeneans; reported to be

highly toxic to goldfish and

medaka; used in the United

Kingdom to kill digenean

trematodes of sheep

Copper sulfate — Marine fish/protozoan, monogenean

ectoparasites; copper levels must be

assessed with a commercial kit, and

adjusted as needed; blue copper

sulfate is copper sulfate (II)

pentahydrate (= CuSO 4·5H 2 O);

when calculating free copper 2 + ion

levels, copper sulfate pentahydrate

is approximately 25% free copper; in

marine systems, concentration

should be increased gradually to

target concentration over the

course of 3-4 days; toxic to gill

tissue; immunosuppressive;

extremely toxic to invertebrates and

53

many plants; copper removed by

activated carbon

Total alkalinity (TA)

(mg/L)/100=mg/L

(CuSO 4·5H 2 O)

0.012 and 0.094 mg/L

bath for 28 days 51

General dose recommendation for use

in freshwater systems (FS), for

50<total alkalinity (TA)<250 mg/L;

not recommended for use in

freshwater systems with

TA<50 mg/L; chelation may be

required for TA>250 mg/L 100

European eel

0.02 mg/L bath×65 or

72 hr 52,53 Rainbow trout

0.1-0.2 mg/L 149 Use higher dose in hard water

Maintain free ion

levels at 0.15-

0.2 mg/L tank

water, until

therapeutic

effect 100

Maintain copper Citrated copper sulfate; prepare stock

levels at 0.2 mg/L solution of 1 mg/mL (3 g

tank water× 14- CuSO 4·5H 2 O and 2 g citric acid

21 days 151 monohydrate in 750 mL distilled

water)

Maintain free ion

levels at 0.25-

1 mg/L×24-48 hr

bath 57

Diflubenzuron (Dimilin

25W, Chemtura)

100 mg/L×1-5 min

bath 20

0.01 mg/L tank

water×48 hr q6d×3

treatments 140

Prepare stock solution of 1 mg/mL (1 g

CuSO 4·5H 2 O in 250 mL distilled

water)

Crustacean ectoparasites; inhibits

chitin synthesis; drug persists in

water long-term; marketed for

control of terrestrial insects; may

need EPA restricted use pesticide

license for use in the United States

Dimethyl phosphonate — See trichlorfon

Dimetridazole

28 mg/kg in feed

q24h×10 days 116

Rainbow trout/Ichthyophthirius multifiliis;

available through compounding

veterinary pharmacies

80 mg/L×3 days Experimental evidence suggests some

54

(minimum)

control of Cryptobia iubilans and/or

associated mortalities 159

Doramectin

Emamectin (SLICE, Merck

Animal Health)

200 µg/kg PO once

750 µg/kg PO 64

1 mg/kg PO

q24h×10 days 65

5 µg/kg PO q24h×7

days 56

50 µg/kg PO q24h×7

days 131

50 µg/kg PO q24h×7

days 56

Carp (Labeo fimbriatus and Catla

catla)/Lernaea

Carp (rohu, Labeo rohita)/Argulus

Carp (fringed-lipped peninsula

carp, [Labeo fimbriatus] and

major/Indian carp [Catla

catla])/Lernacea

Koi/Argulus

Atlantic salmon/PK; an avermectin

compound used to control sea lice

(Lepeophtheirus salmonis, Caligus

elongatus, C. teres, and C. rogercressyi)

Goldfish/Argulus

Fenbendazole 1 mg/kg IV 30 Channel catfish

5 mg/kg PO×1 dose 82 Channel catfish

6 mg/kg q24h PO 75 Rainbow trout

50 mg/kg PO q24h×2

days, repeat in 14

days 151

0.2% in feed×3 days,

repeat in 14-

21 days 88

40 mg/kg in feed q4d×

2 treatments 149 Carp/Bothriocephalus acheilognathi

1.5 mg/L×12-hr bath 75 Rainbow trout

2 mg/L tank water

q7d× 3

treatments 100

Nonencysted gastrointestinal

nematodes

2.5 mg/g feed×2-3

days, repeat in 14

days 151

Bioencapsulation of

brine shrimp 7

Place 1 tablespoon of strained adult

brine shrimp and 4 g fenbendazole

per 500 mL volume for 30 min to

achieve 15.3 µg fenbendazole per

shrimp

55

Formalin — Formalin combination follows

Formalin (F)/malachite

green (M)

Freshwater

All doses based on

volumes of 100%

formalin (=37%

formaldehyde)

0.015-0.025 mL/L

tank water 100

0.125-0.25 mL/L, up

to 60 min bath,

repeat q24h×2-3

days prn 100

0.4 mL/L up to 1 hr

bath q3d, up to 3

treatments 140

0.5 mL/L up to 1 hr

bath q3d, up to 3

treatments 140

(F) 0.025 mL/L + (M)

0.1 mg/L tank

water q48h×3

treatments 100

3-15 min bath, repeat

q7d prn 100

4-5 min bath 87

Protozoan, monogenean, crustacean

ectoparasites; caution: carcinogenic;

do not use if highly toxic white

precipitates are present; some fish

are very sensitive: test on small

number first, monitor for piping

and pale color; increased toxicity in

soft, acidic water and at high

temperature; treat with vigorous

aeration because of oxygen

depletion; toxic to plants

For Ichthyophthirius, use 0.025 mL/L

tank water q48h×3 treatments;

change up to 50% of water on

alternate days

When using maximum dose, treat q3d

Soft water

Hard water

Combination synergistic for

Ichthyophthirius; change up to 50%

water on alternate days; several

premixed commercial products

available; malachite green should

never be used on fish intended for

human consumption

Marine fish/ectoparasites; aerate well;

match pH with seawater pH;

monitor closely; some small fish are

sensitive


(3%; 30 mg/mL)

— Not recommended for use in blue

gourami or suckermouth catfish

(Pterygoplichthys spp.) 124

0.22 mL/L×1 bath 123 Swordtails/Ichthyobodo

1-1.5 mL/L×20 min Atlantic salmon/sea lice

56

bath 147

5 mg/L×24 hr or

10 mg/L×1 hr 123 Tiger barb

5.4 mg/L×24 hr or

20.2 mg/L×1 hr 123 Swordtail

5.6 mg/L×24 hr or

7 mg/L×1 hr 123 Serpae tetra

17.5 mL/L×4-10 min

bath, once 57

Ectoparasites; monitor closely; may be

harmful to smaller fish


(PEROX-AID 35%, Eka

Chemicals)

— These are unlabeled experimental

treatments

170-560 mg/L (static Rainbow trout/Ambiphrya and

bath)×30 min 115 Gyrodactylus 115

75 mg/L×30 min 98

Pacific threadfin (Polydactylus

300 mg/L×10 min 94 sexfilis) juveniles/Amyloodinium

Kingfish/monogenean Zeuxapta

seriolae

Ivermectin — Do not use; neurologic signs and

death at therapeutic doses; 57,149 toxic

to many environmental

invertebrates 149

Levamisole 0.5 mg/kg ICe 79

Rainbow trout/immunostimulant

10 mg/kg PO q7d×

3 treatments 57

11 mg/kg IM q7d× 2

treatments 57

1 mg/L×24 hr bath 145 Eels/swimbladder nematodes

1-2 mg/L×24 hr bath 57 Internal nematodes, especially larval

50 mg/L×2 hr bath 57

4 g/kg feed q7d× 3

treatments 57

External monogeneans

Lufenuron (Program,

Novartis)

0.13 mg/L prn 120,152 Control of crustacean ectoparasites

Malachite green — See formalin for combination

0.1 mg/L tank water

q3d× 3

treatments 100

1 mg/L×30-60 min

bath 100

Use 2 mg/L if pH high

57

50-60 mg/L×10-30 sec

bath 100

100 mg/L topical to

skin lesions 100

Mebendazole 20 mg/kg PO q7d× 3

treatments 142

Freshwater fish/protozoan

ectoparasites; prepare stock

solution of 3.7 mg/mL (1.4 g

malachite green in 380 mL water);

caution: mutagenic, teratogenic;

toxic to some fish species (e.g.,

tetras) and fry; increased toxicity at

higher temperatures and lower pH;

toxic to plants; stains objects,

especially plastic; remove residual

chemical with activated carbon after

last tank treatment; not to be used

on fish intended for human

consumption

Gastrointestinal nematodes; do not

administer to brood fish:

embryotoxic and teratogenic

1 mg/L×24 hr bath 57,74 Monogeneans

1 mg/L×72 hr bath 17 European eels/branchial monogeneans

(Pseudodactylogyrus bini and P.

anguillae)

10-50 mg/L for 2-6 hr

immersion 132

Sticklebacks/Glugea anomala

100 mg/L×10 min-

2 hr bath 57 Monogeneans

Methylene blue

Metronidazole

1-3 mg/L tank

water 100

25 mg/kg q24h in

feed× 5-10 days 100

50 mg/kg PO q24h×5

days 57

100 mg/kg q24h in

feed× 3 days 100

6.6 mg/L tank water

q24h× 3 days 100

25 mg/L tank water

q48h× 3

treatments 100 58

Freshwater fish/ectoparasites; not

recommended because of poor

efficacy; toxic to nitrifying bacteria;

stains objects; toxic to plants

Equivalent to 0.25% in feed

(250 mg/100 g food) at 1% BW/day

Equivalent to 1% in feed (1 g/100 g

food) at 1% BW/day

Spironucleus (Hexamita) and other

internal flagellates; some external

flagellates; poorly soluble in water:

dissolve before adding to water or

feed; change water between tank

treatments

6.25-18 mg/g feed×5

days 151

Niclosamide

Piperazine


Brine shrimp

encapsulation of

metronidazole 6

0.055 mg/L×24 hr

bath 71

10 mg/kg q24h in

feed×3 days 100

5 mg/L×30-60 min

bath 100

100 mg/L×5-10 min

bath 100

1 g/L×10-40 sec

bath 100

One Tbs of live strained adult brine

shrimp is approximately 16 g wet

weight (≈262 shrimp/g); 5 g

metronidazole plus 1 Tbs brine

shrimp in 500 mL water for 0.25 hr

will yield 9.32 µg metronidazole per

shrimp (2500 µg per g of shrimp)

Rainbow trout/lampricide

Nonencysted gastrointestinal

nematodes; equivalent to 0.1% in

feed at 1% BW/day

Freshwater fish/protozoan, crustacean

ectoparasites; toxic in water with

high pH; do not mix with formalin;

can be toxic in goldfish 140

Praziquantel 5 mg/kg PO q24h× 3

treatments 149

5 mg/kg PO in feed

q7d, up to 3

treatments 142

Cestodes, some internal digenean

5 mg/kg PO, ICe,

21 days 87 in feed

repeat in 14-

trematodes; could be administered

50 mg/kg PO once 100 Adult cestodes; gavage or give 0.5% in

feed at 1% BW/day

2 mg/L×2-4 hr 113 Metacercaria

2-10 mg/L up to 4 hr

bath 151

5-10 mg/L×3-6 hr

bath, repeat in 7

days 87

Monitor closely for lethargy,

incoordination, loss of equilibrium

Monogenean ectoparasites, cestodes;

aerate water well; some marine fish

sensitive; may be toxic to Corydoras

catfish

5-12 mg/kg feed×3

days 151

Bioencapsulation of

praziquantel in

Place 1 Tbs of strained adult brine

shrimp and 2.5 g praziquantel per

59

brine shrimp 5

500 mL volume for 30 min to

achieve 8.6 µg praziquantel per

shrimp

Pyrantel pamoate

10 mg/kg in feed,

once 142

Gastric nematodes

Salt (as sodium chloride,

seawater, or artificial sea

salts)

— Freshwater fish/protozoan,

monogenean ectoparasites; seawater

or artificial sea salts preferred;

seawater is normally 30-35 g/L; use

non-iodized table/rock salts; some

anticaking agents in solar salts are

highly toxic; species sensitivity is

highly variable (some catfish

sensitive); may be toxic to plants

1-5 g/L tank water,

indefinitely 100

Prophylaxis or treatment of

ectoparasites

3 g/L 149 Supportive care

10-30 g/L up to With salt-sensitive or weak fish, use

30 min bath 100 lower dosage and repeat in 24 hr

30 g/L for 10 min 149 Fish >100 g only

Thiabendazole

30-35 g/L×4-5 min

bath 87

10-25 mg/kg in feed,

repeat in 10

days 142

66 mg/kg PO, once 142

Safe for goldfish and koi in most cases

Gastric nematodes; anorexia may be

seen (more severe at higher doses),

generally resolves within 2-4 days

Trichlorfon (dimethyl

phosphonate)

— Caution: organophosphate,

neurotoxic, avoid inhalation and

skin contact; aerate water well;

especially toxic to larval fish, some

characins (i.e., pacu, piranha, and

silver dollars); other species

sensitivities; liquid form marketed

for cattle is convenient to dispense

0.25 mg/L tank

water; 100 96 hr

bath at this

concentration in

channel catfish 118

Freshwater fish/use 0.5 mg/L tank

water if >27°C (80°F); treat q3d×2

treatments for Dactylogyrus and

other oviparous monogeneans;

treat q7d×4 treatments for anchor

worms (Lernaea) and fish louse

(Argulus); single treatment will

usually suffice for other copepods,

60

other monogeneans, leeches

0.5 mg/L tank water

q10d×3

treatments 87

0.5-1 mg/L tank

water 100

Crustacean ectoparasites; change

20%-30% of water 24-48 hr

following each treatment

Marine fish/treat q3d×2 treatments for

oviparous monogeneans; use

1 mg/L q48h×3 treatments for

turbellarians; single treatment will

usually suffice for copepods (except

sea lice), other monogeneans,

leeches

a


b

Preferable to treat single fish of a species to determine toxicity.

c

Tank treatment: when treating the fishes’ resident aquarium, disconnect activated carbon filtration to

prevent drug removal; many drugs adversely affect the nitrifying bacteria, so water quality should be

monitored closely (especially ammonia and nitrite concentrations); always keep water well aerated and

monitor fish closely; perform water changes and reconnect filtration to remove residual drug following

treatment; discard carbon following drug removal. 89

d

Bath (immersion) treatment: remove fish from resident aquarium and place in container with known

volume of water and concentration of therapeutic agent; watch closely for signs of toxicity, e.g., listing

and dyspnea; always keep water well aerated.

Table 2-3

Chemical Restraint/Anesthetic/Analgesic Agents Used in Fish. a-d


Alfaxalone (Alfaxan,

Jurox)

5 mg/L

induction 18

10 mg/L

induction; 1-

2.5 mg/L

maintenance 96

Oscar (cichlid)/sedation and anesthesia

Koi/sedation and anesthesia; not recommended as

an injectable agent for koi carp; 13 may have

opercular cessation at 2.5 mg/L

Atipamezole

(Antisedan,

Zoetis)

0.2 mg/kg IM 43 Reversal agent (α 2 antagonist) for medetomidine

Benzocaine — Not sold as fish anesthetic in United States;

available from chemical supply companies; do

not use topical anesthetic products marketed

for mammals; prepare stock solution in

ethanol (benzocaine is poorly soluble in

water); store in dark bottle at room

temperature

15-40 mg/L Transport sedation

61

bath 100

50-500 mg/L

bath 100

70 mg/L for 5 min

then 35 mg/L

for 30 min 118

Anesthesia

Channel catfish

1 g/L spray 100 Large fish/anesthesia; spray onto gills with an

aerosol pump sprayer

Butorphanol

0.05-0.1 mg/kg

IM 142

Postoperative analgesia

0.4 mg/kg IM 59,60 Koi/postoperative analgesia

10 mg/kg IM 14 Koi/postoperative analgesia; respiratory

depression at this dose; lower dosage might be

warranted

Carbon dioxide — Euthanasia; bubble gas through water until

respiration stops >10 min; other agents

preferred 100

Clove oil (also see

Eugenol)

— Clove oil consists of a mixture of eugenol,

methyleugenol, isoeugenol, and other

compounds and in this generic form is not

approved by the FDA for use in fish intended

for human consumption

40-120 mg/L

bath 87

Stock solution: 100 mg/mL of clove oil by diluting

1 part clove oil with 9 parts 95% ethanol

(eugenol is poorly soluble in water); over-thecounter

preparation (pure) available at most

pharmacies contains approximately 1 g

eugenol per mL of clove oil; recovery may be

prolonged; use lower end of this range to

start; many bony fishes readily anesthetized

with 25-50 mg/L

Dexmedetomidine d — See medetomidine for comments

Ethanol 1%-1.5% bath 58 Anesthetic levels difficult to control, resulting in

overdose; not recommended

>3% bath 58 Euthanasia; other agents preferred

Etomidate 1-4 mg/L 149 Lower doses should be used with striped bass and

related species 149

Eugenol (a purified

derivative of

clove oil; also see

clove oil)

10-100 mg/L bath

for sedation to

handleable 2

17-25 mg/L

bath 149

Aqui-SE contains 50% eugenol and Aqui-S20E,

10% eugenol, a compound mixture of eugenol

and polysorbate 80 (for solubility); lower doses

(6 mg/L) will produce sedation without

general anesthesia 2,149

62

Isoflurane

0.5-2 mL/L bath

or vaporize

then bubble

in water 58

Anesthetic levels difficult to control, resulting in

overdose; not recommended

Ketamine — Ketamine combination follows

66-88 mg/kg IM 142 Immobilization for short procedures; complete

recovery can take >1 hr

Ketamine

(K)/medetomidine

(M) d

Ketoprofen (Ketofen,

Zoetis)

(K) 1-2 mg/kg+ Immobilization; reverse (M) with atipamezole

(M) 0.05- (0.2 mg/kg IM); see medetomidine

0.1 mg/kg IM 58

2 mg/kg IM 60 As a postoperative analgesic in koi

Lidocaine — Local anesthetic; use cautiously in small fish; do

not exceed 1-2 mg/kg total dose 59

Medetomidine d

0.03-0.07 mg/kg

IV 4

See ketamine for combination; medetomidine is

off-market, but is available through selected

compounding services

Metomidate

(Aquacalm,

Syndel USA)

— Gouramis may be sensitive; contraindicated in

cichlids in water of pH <5

0.06-0.2 mg/L Transport sedation

water 141

0.1-1 mg/L 9 Convict cichlids/for 24 hr transport sedation

1 mg/L 80

0.5-1 mg/L water 58 Light sedation

1-10 mg/L bath

induction;

0.1-1 mg/L

maintenance 141

Freshwater fish/anesthesia

2.5-5 mg/L water 58 Heavy sedation

2.5-5 mg/L bath

induction;

0.2-0.3 mg/L

maintenance 141

Marine fish/anesthesia

3 mg/kg IV 55 Atlantic halibut, turbot/PK

5-10 mg/L bath 58 Anesthesia; some species require 10-30 mg/L bath

7 mg/kg PO 55 Turbot/PK

9 mg/L bath for

5 min 55 Atlantic halibut, turbot/PK

Morphine 5 mg/kg IM 14 Koi/analgesia

63

MS-222 (Tricaine-S,

Syndel USA)

— See tricaine methanesulfonate

Pentobarbital 60 mg/kg ICe 100 Euthanasia

2-Phenoxyethanol

0.1-0.5 mL/L

bath 149

0.6 mL/L bath 149 Carp/surgery

Propofol 3.5-7.5 mg/kg IV 43 Gulf of Mexico sturgeon

7 mg/L bath 45 Goldfish/anesthesia; induction time, 7.4 min;

recovery, 8.5 min

Quinaldine sulfate 25 mg/L bath 149 Channel catfish, salmonids/do not use with

largemouth bass; not recommended for long

surgical procedures

50-100 mg/L bath

induction; 15-

60 mg/L

maintenance 58

Anesthesia; not sold as fish anesthetic in United

States; stock solution: 10 g/L, buffer the acidity

by adding sodium bicarbonate to saturation;

store stock in dark container; shelf-life of stock

extended by refrigeration or freezing; aerate

water to prevent hypoxemia; drug not

metabolized, excreted unchanged; euthanasia:

keep in solution >10 min after respiration stops

Sodium bicarbonate 30 g/L bath 100 Euthanasia; generates CO 2 ; use when other

agents unavailable; keep fish in solution

>10 min after respiration stops; generally not

recommended; not an AVMA-approved

method of euthanasia

Sodium bicarbonate

tablets (Alka-

Seltzer, Bayer)

Tricaine

methanesulfonate

(MS-222;

Tricaine-S,

Syndel USA)

2-4 tablets/L

bath 48

15-50 mg/L

water 58

50-100 mg/L

bath

induction; 50-

60 mg/L

maintenance 141

100-200 mg/L

bath

induction; 50-

100 mg/L

maintenance 58

Euthanasia; generates CO 2 ; use when other

agents unavailable; keep fish in solution

>10 min after respiration stops; generally not

recommended; not an AVMA-approved

method of euthanasia

Sedation

Anesthesia; stock solution: 10 g/L, buffer the

acidity by adding sodium bicarbonate at 10 g/L

or to saturation (unbuffered solution may

cause some ectoparasites to leave fish) 20 store

stock in dark container; shelf-life of stock

extended by refrigeration or freezing; stock

that develops an oily film should be discarded;

aerate water to prevent hypoxemia; narrower

margin of safety in young fish, and soft, warm

water; euthanasia: keep fish in solution

>20 min after respiration stops

1 g/L spray 100 Large fish/anesthesia; spray onto gills with an

64

aerosol pump sprayer

a


b


c

Aerate water during anesthetic procedures; dissolved oxygen concentrations should be maintained

between 6 and 10 mg/L (ppm).

d

Medetomidine is no longer commercially available although it can be obtained from select

compounding services; a dosage is listed here as a guide for possible use with dexmedetomidine, an α 2

agonist that is the active optical enantiomer of racemic compound medetomidine; in other species,

dexmedetomidine is used at {1/2} the dose of medetomidine but the same volume due to a higher

concentration. However, the effects of the v/v use of the two drugs may not be equivalent, so the dose of

dexmedetomidine may need to be adjusted based on clinical response.

Table 2-4

Miscellaneous Agents Used in Fish. a-c


Atropine 0.1 mg/kg IM, IV, ICe 140 Organophosphate, chlorinated

hydrocarbon toxicity

Becaplermin (Regranex,

Smith & Nephew)

Topically as a thin

layer for 3 min 42

Ocean surgeonfish/light debridement of

the head and lateral line erosion

(HLLE) lesions is recommended prior

to treatment; multiple treatments are

not warranted, but fish should be

returned to a habitat without

predisposing factors to HLLE

Carbon, activated 75 g/40 L tank water 100 Removal of medications and other

organics from water; usually added to

filter system; discard after 2 wk;

75 g≈250 cc dry volume

Carp pituitary extract 0.75 mg/kg IM 149 Female fish (<2 kg)

1-1.5 mg/kg IM 149 Male fish

1.5 mg/kg IM 149 Female fish (2-5 kg)

2.5-3 mg/kg IM 149 Female fish (>5 kg)

5 mg/kg IM, repeat in

6 hr 142 Dose when combined with human

chorionic gonadotropin (20 U/kg);

hormone to stimulate release of eggs

(may be given in 2 doses, 24 hr apart;

the first “preparatory” dose ≤10% of

the total dose); does not cause eggs to

mature; do not administer unless eggs

are mature

Chlorine/chloramine Use as directed See sodium thiosulfate

65

neutralizer

Dexamethasone 1-2 mg/kg IM, ICe 142 Adjunct to treatment of shock, trauma,

chronic stress syndromes

2 mg/kg IV, ICe q12h 87 Chlorine toxicity; may improve

prognosis

Doxapram 5 mg/kg IV, ICe 140 Respiratory depression

Epinephrine (1:1000)

0.2-0.5 mL IM, IV, ICe,

intracardiac 140

Cardiac arrest

Furosemide 2-5 mg/kg IM q12- Diuretic; ascites, generalized edema; of

72 h 142 questionable value since fish lack a

loop of Henle

Glucans (MacroGard,

Orffa)

sGnRHa (salmon

gonadotropinreleasing

hormone

analogue) +

domperidone

(Ovaprim, Syndel

USA)

2-10 mg/kg ICe 121,149

1 g/kg in feed×24

days fed at 3%

BW 124

2 g/kg in feed×7

days 136

0.5 mL/kg (0.5 µL/g)

IM, ICe 66,106

Polysaccharides; immunostimulant

Red-tailed black sharks/significant

decrease in mortalities from

Streptococcus iniae

Rainbow trout/tested with positive

results

For use as a spawning aid in fish;

enhances/triggers ovulation and

spermiation; for ovulation of eggs

Haloperidol 0.5 mg/kg IM 142 Dopamine blocking agent; use with

luteinizing releasing hormone analog

(LRH-A) to stimulate release of eggs

Human chorionic

gonadotropin

(hCG) (Chorulon,

Merck Animal

Health)

20 U/kg IM, repeat in Dose when combined with carp pituitary

6 hr 142 extract (5 mg/kg)

30 U/kg (22.7-232 U/kg Indicated for use as an aid in improving

for males; 30.5-828 spawning function in male and female

U/kg for females) broodfish; hormone to stimulate

IM, repeat in 6 hr 142 release of eggs (ovulation) and sperm

× 1-3 injections 22 (spermiation); does not cause eggs to

mature: do not administer unless eggs

are mature

800-1000 U/kg IM

q8h 154

Carp

Hydrocortisone 1-4 mg/kg IM, ICe 142 Adjunct to treatment of shock, trauma,

chronic stress syndromes

Hydrogen peroxide

(3%)

0.25 mL/L water 100 Acute environmental hypoxia; see

oxygen

66

Luteinizing releasing

hormone analog

(LRH-A)

2 µg/kg IM, then

8 µg/kg 6 hr later 142 Synthetic luteinizing releasing hormone

analog; stimulates release of eggs; does

not cause eggs to mature: do not

administer unless eggs are mature; in

species that do not respond to LRH-A

alone, administer with haloperidol or

reserpine with the first injection of

LRH-A

Methyltestosterone

Nitrifying bacteria

Nucleotide (Aquagen,

Novartis)

30 mg/kg PO q24h×2

or 4 days 118

Use as directed for

commercial

products

Add material (e.g.,

floss, gravel) from a

tank with an active

biological filter and

healthy fish to new

tank 100

2 g/kg feed at 3%

BW×24 days 124

Rainbow trout/PD; functional

masculinization of genetic females

Seed or improve development of

biological filtration to detoxify

ammonia and nitrite; numerous

commercial preparations; do not

expose products to extreme

temperatures; use before expiration

date

Must evaluate risk of disease transmission

with this technique

Red-tailed black sharks/reduced

mortalities from Streptococcus iniae;

product may be difficult to find as

commercial production has been

discontinued.

Oxygen (100%) Fill plastic bag with O 2

containing ⅓ vol of

water 87

Acute environmental hypoxia common

with transportation; close bag tightly

with rubber band; keep fish in bag

until normal swimming and

respiratory behavior

Reserpine 50 mg/kg IM 142 Dopamine blocking agent; use with LRH-

A to stimulate release of eggs

Salt (sodium chloride) 1-3 g/L tank water 86 Freshwater fish/prevention of stressinduced

3-5 g/L tank water 100

mortality; seawater or

artificial sea salts preferred; use noniodized

table/rock salts; some

anticaking agents in solar salts are

highly toxic; highly variable species

sensitivity to salt (some catfish

sensitive); may be toxic to plants

Add chloride to

Treatment of nitrite toxicity; table/rock

67

produce at least a

6:1 ratio (w/w) of

Cl:NO 2 ions 100

salt=60% Cl, artificial sea salts=55% Cl

Sodium thiosulfate

Use as directed for

chlorine/chloramine

neutralizers

10 mg/L tank water 87

Active ingredient in numerous

chlorine/chloramine neutralizers;

chlorine and chloramine are common

additions to municipal water supplies

and are toxic to fish; ammonia

released by detoxification of

chloramine is removed by functioning

biological filter (see nitrifying bacteria)

or chemical means (see zeolite)

100 mg/L tank water 140 Chlorine exposure

10 g neutralizes

chlorine (up to

2 mg/L) from 1000 L

water 87

Zeolite (i.e.,

clinoptilolite)

Use as directed

20 g/L tank water 100

Ion-exchange resin that exchanges

ammonia for sodium ions;

clinoptilolite is an active form of

zeolite; used to reduce or prevent

ammonia toxicity; more effective for

removal of some compounds (e.g.,

sulfonamides, enrofloxacin) than

activated carbon 15,67,104

a


b


c

Bath treatment: remove fish from resident aquarium and place in container with known volume of water

and concentration of therapeutic agent; watch closely for signs of toxicity, e.g., listing and dyspnea;

always keep water well aerated.

Table 2-5

Euthanasia Agents Used in Fish. a


Benzocaine

Carbon dioxide

≥250 mg/L

immersion for

at least 10 min 12

Immersion to

effect 12

Solution should be buffered; once the fish

loses consciousness, a secondary method

(double pithing, decapitation, injectable

pentobarbital) should be used

Fish may become hyperactive before losing

consciousness; use in a well ventilated

area

68

Ethanol

10-30 mL 95%/L as

an immersion

to effect 12

Eugenol (a purified

derivative of clove

oil; also see clove oil)

Isoflurane/sevoflurane

≥17 mg/L as an

immersion to

effect 12

5-20 mL/L as an

immersion to

effect 12

Concentrations up to 5 times this amount

can be used; once the fish loses

consciousness, a secondary method



Due to the volatility of these comppounds

and risk to humans, ventilation

precautions should be taken

Ketamine 66-88 mg/kg IM 12 Follow with a lethal pentobarbital injection

Ketamine

(K)/dexmedetomidine

(D)

2-phenoxyethanol

(K) 1-2 mg/kg+(D)

0.05-0.1 mg/kg

IM 12

≥0.5-0.6 mL/L or

0.3-0.4 mg/L as

an immersion

to effect 12

Follow with a lethal pentobarbital injection

Propofol 1.5-2.5 mg/L IM 12 Follow with a lethal pentobarbital injection

Quinaldine sulfate

Tricaine

methanesulfonate

(MS-222) (Tricaine-S,

Syndel USA)

5-10 mg/L as an

immersion to

effect 103

≥100 mg/L as an

immersion to

effect 12

250-500 mg/L as an

immersion for

at least 10 min

after cessation

of respiration 12

Once the fish loses consciousness, a

secondary method (double pithing,

decapitation, injectable intracardiac


Buffering may be required in some cases

Buffering is required and a secondary method


intracardiac pentobarbital) should be used

a

Not to be used in fish for human consumption; CO 2 euthanasia is the exception.

Table 2-6

Hematologic and Serum Biochemical Values of Fish. a

Measurement

Goldfish (Carassius

auratus) 49 Koi (Cyprinus carpio) 49,107,150

Hematology

69

PCV (%) 31±7.3 35 (24-43)

RBC (10 6 /µL) 1.5±0.1 1.61-1.91

Hgb (g/dL) 9.1±0.4 6.32-7.55

MCV (fL) — 166.3-190

MCH (pg) — 37.7-42.7

MCHC (g/dL) — 20.4-22.9

WBC (10 3 /µL) — 19.8-28.1

Heterophils (%) 29±3 7.96-13.89

Lymphocytes (%) 70±5 74.5-83.7

Monocytes (%) 1±0.1 2.3-3.4

Basophils (%) — 3.5-5.6

Chemistries

ALP (U/L) — 12 (4-56)

ALT (U/L) 106 (97-115) 31 (9-98)

Anion gap — 17 (14-23)

AST (U/L) 220 (111-433) 121 (40-381)

Bicarbonate (mmol/L) — 6 (3-8)

Bile acids (µmol/L) — 1 (0-6)

BUN (mg/dL) 28 2 (0.2-5)

Calcium (mg/dL) 9.1 (4.3-13.5) 8.7 (7.8-11.4)

Chloride (mEq/L) — 114 (108-119)

Cholesterol (mg/dL) — 149 (94-282)

Creatine kinase (U/L) 4515 (0-10,000) 4123 (80-9014)

Creatinine (mg/dL) — —

Glucose (mg/dL) 35.7 (15-93) 37 (22-65)

GGT (U/L) — 1 (0-6)

LDH (U/L) — 359 (41-1675)

Phosphorus (mg/dL) 8.83 (3.1-16.3) 6.1 (3.5-7.7)

Potassium (mEq/L) 2.16 (0.1-5.6) 1.4 (0-2.9)

Protein, total (g/dL) 2.03 (0.1-4.02) 3.4 (2.7-4.3)

Albumin (g/dL) 1.9 (0.3-3.2) 2 (1.4-2.7)

Globulin (g/dL) 0.69 (0.3-1.2) 0.9 (0.6-1.1)

A:G (ratio) 2.75 1.1 (0.8-1.6)

70

Sodium (mEq/L) 139 (126-176) 133 (110-143)

Total bilirubin (mg/dL) — 0.5 (0.2-2)

Uric acid (mg/dL) 0.08 (0-0.2) 0.1 (0-0.5)

Measurement

Hematology

Striped bass (Morone

saxatilis) 62,101

Palmetto bass (Morone saxatilis

× M. chrysops) 69,70,101

PCV (%) 42 (34-28) 20-34

RBC (10 6 /µL) — 2.42-4.96

Hgb (g/dL) — 4.2-8.4

MCV (fL) — 65-117

MCH (pg) — 16.2-24.8

MCHC (g/dL) — 19-26

WBC (10 3 /µL) — 32.6-118.2

Neutrophils (10 3 /µL) — 0-6.8

Lymphocytes (small and

large) (10 3 /µL)

— 23.7-125.1

Monocytes (10 3 /µL) — 0-3.2

Eosinophils (%) — 0-2.7

Chemistries

ALP (U/L) — 72

Anion gap 29±5 24±1

AST (U/L) 23±6 45±21

Calcium (mg/dL) 10.6±0.1 11.1±0.2

Chloride (mEq/L) 143±2 144±2

Cholesterol (mg/dL) — 164

Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.5±0 0.3±0

Glucose (mg/dL) 100±28 118±10

LDH (U/L) 221±92 164±54

Osmolality (mOsm/kg) 348±2 356±2

Phosphorus (mg/dL) 10±0.3 9.8±0.2

Potassium (mEq/L) 3.9±0.1 3.3±0.2

Protein, total (g/dL) 3.8±0.1 3.0

Albumin (g/dL) 1.1±0 1.3

71

Globulin (g/dL) — 1.7

A:G (ratio) 0.4±0 0.76

Sodium (mEq/L) 181±4 151

Chloride (mEq/L) 150

Total CO 2 (mmol/L) 9.5±1 10.7±0.9

Measurement

Hematology

a

Red pacu (Piaractus

brachypomum) 125,148

Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus

mykiss) 33,68a,137

PCV (%) 26 (22-32) 34.8-56.9

RBC (10 6 /µL) 1.7 (1.2-2.9) 1.4-1.8

Hgb (g/dL) — 6.4-9.5

MCH (pg) — 35.3-62.4

MCHC (g/dL) — 14.2-18.9

WBC (10 3 /µL) 33.5 (13.6-52.3) 9.9±1.3

Heterophils (%) 5.2 (0.3-36.7) —

Lymphocytes (%) 84 (53-96) —

Monocytes (%) 4 (0.8-11.2) —

Eosinophils (%) 0.3 (0.3-0.7) —

Chemistries

Anion gap 6.9 (1.2-12.5) —

AST (U/L) 49 (0-125) 102

BUN (mg/dL) — —

Calcium (mg/dL) 10.8 (9.5-12.5) 2.3

Chloride (mEq/L) 139 (146-159) 137

Creatine kinase (U/L) — —

Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.3 (0.2-0.4) 0.4

Glucose (mg/dL) — 103

Lactate (mmol/L) — —

LDH (U/L) 238 (65-692) —

Osmolality (mOsm/kg) — —

Phosphorus (mg/dL) 7.3 (4.1-8.9)

Potassium (mEq/L) 3.9 (2.7-5)

Protein, total (g/dL) — —

72

Albumin (g/dL) 0.9 (0.5-1) —

Sodium (mEq/L) 150 (146-159)

Total CO 2 (mmol/L) 7.5 (6-10) —

Uric acid (mg/dL) — —

Measurement

Hematology

a

Mbuna cichlid

(Metriaclima

greshakei) 137a

a

Cichlasoma dimerus (a South

American cichlid) 150a

>PCV (%) 25.3 (21-29.5) 31.3 (22.5-39.1)

RBC (10 6 /µL) 2.3 (1.7-2.7) 3.1 (1.7-4.3)

Hgb (g/L) 75 (63-91.3) 68.2 (52.3-83.3)

MCV (fL) 113.8 (95.3-132.4) 110.3 (70.1-198)

MCH (pg) 33.6 (26.9-40.3) 24.5 (14.5-40.6)

MCHC (g/dL) 3.0 (2.7-3.2) 22.3 (17.4-30.3)

WBC (10 3 /µL) 33.2 (22.9-55.2) 12.2 (6.6-18.6)

Granulocytes (10 3 /µL) 1.48 (0.3-2.4) 3.4 (1.9-5.2) (heterophils)

Lymphocytes (10 3 /µL) 30.9 (21.2-52.4) 4.7 (2.5-7.1)

Monocytes (10 3 /µL) — 2.2 (1.2-3.3)

Eosinophils (%) — 1.9 (1-2.8)

Chemistries

ALP (U/L) 44.5 (30.1-61.9) —

ALT (U/L) 59.8 (34.7-236.1) —

AST (U/L) 12.5 (3.5-46.3) —

Calcium (mmol/L) 2.6 (2.5-2.7) —

Chloride (mEq/L) 147 (143-150) —

Cholesterol (mmol/L) 10.6 (6.8-13.9) —

Creatinine (µmol/dL) 512 (265-941) —

Glucose (mmol/L) 2.4 (2.1-2.7) —

Phosphorus (mmol/L) 1.5 (1.3-1.6) —

Potassium (mmol/L) 3.1 (2.4-3.6) —

Protein, total (g/L) 39 (34.6-46.2) —

Albumin (g/L) 9.5 (8.1-10.5) —

Globulin (g/L) 29 (25.8-37) —

73

A:G (ratio) 0.33 —

Sodium (mmol/L) 161 (156.3-163.4) —

Chloride (mmol/L) 147 (143-150) —

Measurement

Hematology

a

Tilapia (Orechromis

hybrid) 68

a

Channel catfish (Ictalurus

punctatus) 146

PCV (%) 33 (27-37) 31 (27-54)

RBC (10 6 /µL) 6.1 (4.8-7.8) 3 (15-41)

Hgb (g/dL) 8.2 (7.0-9.8) 7 (4.4-10.9)

MCV (fL) 135.7 (115-183) 108 (88.6-186.7)

MCH (pg) 34.9 (28.3-42.3) —

MCHC (g/dL) 25.7 (22-29) 22 (15.7-28.7)

WBC (10 3 /µL) 7.6 —

Heterophils (%) 1.8 (0.56-9.9)

(neutrophils)

—

Lymphocytes (small) (%) 61 (6.8-136) —

Lymphocytes (large) % 10.7 (2.9-31) —

Monocytes (%) 1.5 (0.4-4.3) —

Eosinophils (%) 0.3 (0.03-1.6) —

Thromobocytes (10 3 /µL) 52.8 (25-85) —

Thromobocyte-like cells (10 3 /

µL)

1 (0.03-4.3) —

Chemistries

ALP (U/L) 26 (16-38) —

ALT (U/L) —

AST (U/L) 18 (5-124) —

Calcium (mmol/L) 2.9 (2.6-4.7) 2.7 (2.3-3.3)

Chloride (mEq/L) 141 (136-147) 108 (80-147)

Cholesterol (mg/dL) 156 (64-299) —

Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.2-1.1 —

Glucose (mg/dL) 52 (39-96) 35.1 (17-86.5)

Magnesium (mEq/L) 2.5 (2.3-2.8) 1.2 (1.0-2.0)

Phosphorus (mg/dL) 4.6 (3.5-7.2) —

74

Potassium (mEq/L) 3.9 (3.2-4.3) 3 (2.1-4.8)

Protein, total (g/dL) 2.9 (2.3-3.6) 4.2 (2.6-6.6)

Albumin (g/dL) 1.2 (1.0-1.6) —

Globulin (g/dL) 1.6 (1.3-2.1) —

A:G (ratio) 0.75 —

Sodium (mEq/L) 150 (140-156) 141 (132-155)

Total bilirubin (mg/dL) 0 (0-0.1) —

Measurement

Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) 33,68a,137

Hematology

PCV (%) 34.8-56.9

RBC (10 6 /µL) 1.4-1.8

Hgb (g/dL) 6.4-9.5

MCV (fL) 192-393

MCH (pg) 35.3-62.4

MCHC (g/dL) 14.2-18.9

WBC (10 3 /µL) 9.9±1.3

Chemistries

ALP (U/L) 31

AST (U/L) 102

Calcium (mmol/L) 2.3

Chloride (mEq/L) 137

Cholesterol (mg/dL) 144

Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.4

Glucose (mg/dL) 103

Magnesium (mg/dL) 2.3

Phosphorus (mg/dL) 10.5

Potassium (mEq/L) 2.3

Protein, total (g/dL) 2.7

Albumin (g/dL) 1.2

Globulin (g/dL) 1.5

A:G (ratio) 0.8

Sodium (mEq/L) 152

Total bilirubin (mg/dL) 0.1

75

Measurement

a

Bonnethead shark

(Sphyrna tiburo) 61

a

Sandbar shark (Carcharhinus

plumbeus) 11

Hematology

PCV (%) 24 (17-28) 17.5-23

Hgb (g/dL) — 7.6-10.1

WBC (10 3 /µL) — —

Heterophils (%) — 40-58 (total granulocytes)

Lymphocytes (%) — 40-55

Monocytes (%) — 2-6

Chemistries

Anion gap −5.8 (−15.7-7.5) —

AST (U/L) 42 (15-132) —

Bicarbonate (mmol/L) 3 (0-5) —

BUN (mg/dL) 2812 (2644-2992) —

Calcium (mg/dL) 16.8 (15.8-18.2) —

Chloride (mEq/L) 290 (277-304) —

Cholesterol (mg/dL) — —

Creatine kinase (U/L) 82 (18-725) —

Creatinine (mg/dL) — —

Glucose (mg/dL) 184 (155-218) —

Lactate (mmol/L) — —

LDH (U/L) <5 (<5-11) —

Osmolality (mOsm/kg) 1094 (1056-1139) —

Phosphorus (mg/dL) 8.8 (5.9-12.7) —

Potassium (mEq/L) 7.3 (5.7-9.2) —

Protein, total (g/dL) 2.9 (2.2-4.3) —

Albumin (g/dL) 0.4 (0.3-0.5) —

Globulin (g/dL) 2.6 (1.9-3.8) —

A:G (ratio) 0.1 (0.1-0.2) —

Sodium (mEq/L) 282 (273-292) —

Sand tiger shark

Cownose ray (Rhinoptera

76

Measurement (Carcharias taurus) 105 bonasus) 41

Hematology

PCV (%) 31 (24-38)

RBC (10 6 /µL) — 5.11 (2.6-7.15)

WBC (10 3 /µL) — 0.55 (0.16-1.98)

Fine segmented eosinophilic

granulocytes (%)

Fine nonsegmented

eosinophilic granulocytes

(%)

— 4 (0-13)

— 2 (0-10)

Lymphocytes (%) — 86 (72-95)

Monocytes (%) — 1 (0-3)

Coarse segmented

eosinophilic granulocytes

(%)

Coarse nonsegmented

granulocytes (%)

— 4 (0-14)

— 3 (0-15)

Chemistries

ALP (U/L) 8-31 33 (22-46)

ALT (U/L) 3 —

AST (U/L) 13-45 39 (15-78)

Bilirubin, total (µmol/L) 1.5 —

BUN (mg/dL) — 1,154 (1010-1270)

Calcium (mmol/L) 3.3-4.4 4.2 (3.75-4.85)

Chloride (mEq/L) 227-257 255 (192-290)

Cholesterol (mg/dL) 0.9-2.1 166 (118-321)

Creatine kinase (U/L) 5-79 —

Creatinine (µmol/L) 32 8.84

Glucose (mmol/L) 2.2-3.2 2.78 (1.94-4.0)

Magnesium (mmol/L) 1.6-2.2

Phosphorus (mmol/L) 1.7-2 5.8 (4.4-7.1)

Potassium (mmol/L) 4.3-5.7 1.5 (1-2.4)

Protein, total (g/L) 24-36 2.9 (1.9-4.2)

Albumin (g/dL) — 0.6 (0.5-0.8)

77

Globulin (g/dL) — 2.2 (1.4-3.6)

A:G (ratio) — 0.29 (0.17-0.38)

Sodium (mEq/L) 249-267 276 (208-312)

Total bilirubin (mg/dL) — 0.17 (0.1-0.3)

Triglyceride (mmol/L) 0.5-0.6 9.16 (3.16-22.8)

Measurement Southern stingray (Dasyatis americana) 19

Hematology

PCV (%) 22 (15-25)

RBC (10 6 /µL) —

WBC (10 3 /µL) 22.1-42.2

Heterophils (%) —

Lymphocytes (%) —

Monocytes (%) —

Eosinophils (%) —

Chemistries

Anion gap —

AST (U/L) 14.5 (3.6-61.2)

BUN (mg/dL) 1243 (1185-1293)

Calcium (mg/dL) 16.5 (12.06-19.3)

Chloride (mEq/L) 342 (301-362)

Creatine kinase (U/L) 80.5 (11.7-296.5)

Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.3 (0.2-0.4)

Glucose (mg/dL) 30.5 (16.9-42.4)

Lactate (mmol/L) 3.1 (<2-6.2)

LDH (U/L) —

Osmolality (mOsm/kg) 1065 (1007-1144)

Phosphorus (mg/dL) 4.7 (3-6.4)

Potassium (mEq/L) 5 (3.2-6.4)

Protein, total (g/dL) —

Albumin (g/dL) —

Sodium (mEq/L) 315 (301-362)

Total CO 2 (mmol/L) —

Uric acid (mg/dL) —

78

a

Values listed are means except where indicated with an a , which are medians. In some cases the data

are not based on a large sample size. These values are only meant to be guidelines. Age of fish, time of

year, and water temperature may all affect “normal” clinical pathological data.

References

1 AADAP/FDA. Web site: www.fws.gov/fisheries/aadap/inadsavailable/immersion/diquat/.

Accessed December 20, 2016.

2 AADAP-FWS FDA INAD. Web site: www.fws.gov/fisheries/aadap/inadsavailable/index.html.


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89

90

C H A P T E R 3

Amphibians

Brent R. Whitaker; Colin T. McDermott

Table 3-1

Antimicrobial Agents Used in Amphibians. a,b

Agent Dosage Species/Comments

91

Amikacin

5 mg/kg IM

q36h 59

Bullfrogs/PK

5-10 mg/kg SC, Most species; may be used in combination with

IM, ICe q24- piperacillin

48 h 58

Carbenicillin

100 mg/kg SC, IM

q72h 59

200 mg/kg SC,

IM, ICe q24h 59

Ceftazidime

Chloramphenicol

20 mg/kg SC, IM

q48-72h 59

50 mg/kg SC, IM,

ICe q12-24h 59

20 mg/L bath a

changed

daily 59

Caution: even miniscule exposure carries risk of

aplastic anemia in susceptible individuals; wear

disposable gloves when handling; aplastic

anemia-like findings in Bufo regularis exposed

to 125 mg/kg PO q24h×12 wk 14

Ciprofloxacin 10 mg/kg PO, 59

ICe 58 q24h

Doxycycline

(Psittavet,

Vetafarm)

Doxycycline

(Vibramycin,

Zoetis)

Doxycycline 1%

topical gel,

compounded

Enrofloxacin

500-750 mg/75 L

as 6-8 hr bath a

q24h 59

50 mg/kg IM

q7d 59

5-10 mg/kg PO

q24h 59

10-50 mg/kg PO

q24h 59

Apply topically

q8-12h not to

exceed

10 mg/kg per

day 59

5-10 mg/kg PO,

SC, IM q24h59

May be used for large numbers of animals

Broad-spectrum antibiotic, part of 4-quadrant

therapy; may have

antiinflammatory effect; chlamydiosis

Chlamydiosis

African clawed frogs/chlamydiosis

Useful for localized lesions; may have

antiinflammatory effect

Most species/PK (bullfrogs); 59 ICe and topical

routes also used but with limited PK data 59

10 mg/kg SC, IM 15 African clawed frogs/PK; high kidney

concentrations of enrofloxacin and

ciprofloxacin; 15 no significant difference

92

between routes 23

10 mg/kg

topically 52

Coqui frogs/detectable tissue concentration for

>24 hr, no correlation to plasma concentration

Enrofloxacin and

silver

sulfadiazine

solution (Baytril

Otic, Bayer)

Gentamicin

500 mg/L×6-8 hr

bath a q24h59

Apply topically to

lesions q12h 59

2-4 mg/kg IM

q72h×4

treatments 59

2.5 mg/kg IM

q72h 50

3 mg/kg IM q24h

at 22.2°C

(72°F) 59

Topical to eyes 59

May have some antifungal effect, but does not

appear effective against chytrid

Coldwater salamanders (i.e., Necturus)/PD; more

frequent dosing may be needed if temperature

>4°C (39.2°F)

Leopard frogs/PD; at higher temperatures, serum

concentrations will be lower

All species/ocular infections; dilute to 2 mg/mL

Intracameral Panophthalmitis

injection once;

not to exceed

4 mg/kg 59

Metronidazole

10 mg/kg PO

q24h×5-

10 days 42 For chronic diarrhea

10 mg/kg IV

q24h×2 days 59

Anaerobic infections

12 mg/kg

topically

q24h×5-

10 days 59 For chronic diarrhea

20 mg/kg PO

q48h×20 days 59

50 mg/kg PO

q24h×3 days 59

60 mg/kg

topically

q24h×3 days 59




50 mg/L×24 hr Anaerobic infections

93

bath a,59

Ofloxacin 0.3%

ophthalmic

solution

1 drop q2-

4h×10 days 58 Keratitis; may also be applied topically to wounds

Oxytetracycline

Piperacillin

Silver sulfadiazine

(Silvadine Cream

1%, Marion)

Sulfadiazine

Sulfamethazine

Tetracycline

Trimethoprim/sulfa

25 mg/kg SC, IM

q24h 59

50 mg/kg PO q12-

24h 59

50-100 mg/kg IM

q48h 59

100 mg/L×1hr

bath a,59

1 g/kg

feed×7 days 59

100 mg/kg SC, IM

q24h 59

Topical q24h 59

132 mg/kg PO

q24h 59

1 g/L bath a to

effect 59

50 mg/kg PO

q12h 59

150 mg/kg PO

q24h×5-

7 days 59

167 mg/kg

(5 mg/30 g)

PO

q12h×7 days 59

3 mg/kg PO, SC,

IM q24h 59

Most species

Most species

Bullfrogs/PK; especially useful in cases of

chlamydiosis (use up to 30 days) 59

Most species

Most useful with axolotls and Xenopus fed

compounded pelleted diet 59

Anaerobes; may be used in combination with

amikacin

Antibiotic cream

Change daily

Unspecified sulfa

Trimethoprim/

sulfadiazine

15-20 mg/kg IM

q48h 59 Chronic diarrhea 59

Trimethoprim/

sulfamethoxazole

15 mg/kg PO

q24h 59

Chronic diarrhea

a

Water baths containing antibiotics or topical applications may not provide as consistent distribution as

parenteral administration.

94

b

SC can be administered in the dorsal lymph sac of anurans. 59

Table 3-2

Antifungal Agents Used in Amphibians.


Amphotericin B 1 mg/kg ICe q24h 59 Internal mycoses; acutely toxic to Alytes

muletensis tadpoles at 8 µg/mL bath 33

Benzalkonium

chloride

Chloramphenicol

Florfenicol

0.25 mg/L×72 hr bath 59

2 mg/L×1 hr bath

q24h 59

20 mg/kg topically

(applied as Chlorsig

1% ointment

[Sigma] which also

contains paraffin

and wool fat) 5

10-30 mg/L (10-30 ppm)

as continuous bath

replaced fresh daily

for up to 30 days 59

20 mg/L by continuous

shallow

immersion×14 days,

changed daily 61

10 µg/mL topical spray

q24h×14 days 39

30 ppm as continuous

bath replaced fresh

daily for up to 30

days 59

Saprolegniasis

Chytridiomycosis; safe for larvae, recent

metamorphs, and adults; confirm negative

result by real-time PCR; 5,59 caution: even

miniscule exposure carries risk of aplastic

anemia in susceptible individuals; wear

disposable gloves when handling; aplastic

anemia-like findings in Bufo regularis

exposed to 125 mg/kg PO q24h×12 wk 14

Australian green frog (Litoria caerulea); severely

ill frogs treated with combination of

chloramphenicol, SC fluids q8-12h×6 days,

and temperature increased to 28°C×14 days 61

Experimentally infected Alytes muletensis

adults/reduced zoosporangia numbers but

did not eliminate infection; GI and renal

toxicity to tadpoles at 100 µg/mL 39

Chytridiomycosis; safe for larvae, recent

metamorphs, and adults; confirm negative

result by real-time PCR 59

Fluconazole 60 mg/kg PO q24h 59

Itraconazole 10 mg/kg PO q24h 59 Topical route best choice to treat

0.01% in 0.6% salt

solution×5 min bath

q24h×11 days 59

chytridiomycosis; caution with tadpoles 17,59

0.01% in buffered

solution×5 min bath

q24h×11-14 days 18

Multiple species/cleared chytridiomycosis by

PCR 14 days post-treatment; 6-15 mo posttreatment

follow-up yielded positive PCR in

95

some individuals

0.5-1.5 mg/L×5 min

bath q24h×7 days 17

50 mg/L×5 min bath

q24h×10 days 25

0.0025%×5 min bath

q24h×6 days 8

Alytes muletensis tadpoles/safe at varying

concentrations and duration of 7-28 days;

confirmed negative PCR

post-treatment; varying levels of

depigmentation observed in all individuals 17

Multiple species/cleared chytridiomycosis in

subclinical animals; confirmed with PCR

Australian green tree frog (Litoria caerulea),

coastal plains toad (Incillus nebulifer)/cleared

PCR positive juveniles with no clinically

apparent side effects

Ketoconazole 10-20 mg/kg PO q24h 59

Topical cream 59

Methylene blue 2-4 mg/L bath to effect 59 Tadpoles/may reduce mortality in newly

hatched tadpoles

4 mg/L×1 hr bath

q24h 59

Saprolegniasis

Miconazole

5 mg/kg ICe q24h×14-

28 days 59 Systemic mycoses

Neomycin,

polymixin B,

bacitracin

(Neosporin,

Pfizer)

Nystatin 1%

cream

Potassium

permanganate

Topical cream or

solution 59

Apply topically to

wound q24h 20

Topical 59

1:5000 water×5 min

bath q24h 59

Topical route best choice for chytridiomycosis;

solutions containing alcohol may cause

irritation; do not use with larvae 59

Microsporidian infections; not recommended

for bacterial infections, appears to inhibit

re-epithelialization 59

Cutaneous mycoses

Cutaneous mycoses

Sodium chlorite

(NaOCl 2 )

Temperature

elevation

20 mg/L×6-8 hr bath 59 Cutaneous mycoses

30°C (86°F)×10 days 11 Rana catesbeiana, Acris crepitans/confirm negative


37°C (98.6°F) for 16 hr 56 Chytridiomycosis, caution with temperature

elevation in sensitive species

Terbinafine

hydrochloride

(Lamisil AT,

0.005%-0.01% in

distilled water×5 min

bath q24h×5 days,

Various species/no adverse clinical effects noted

with treatment; pH 7.0; confirm negative


96

Novartis)

or q48h×6

treatments 7

Voriconazole

Voriconazole

(V)+polymixin

E (P)+elevated

temperature

(T)

1.25 µg/mL q24h

topically via

spray×7 days 33

(V) 12.5 µg/mL q24h

topically via spray+

(P)

2000 IU/mL×10 min

bath q12h+(T) 20°C

(68°F)

continuous×10 days 6

Poison dart frogs, Iberian midwife toad (Alytes

cisternasii)/cleared chytridiomycosis in

naturally infected individuals in vivo;

performed poorly with in vitro assays 33

Fire salamanders/treatment of Batrachochytrium

salamandrivorans; no effect of medications at

15°C (59°F) 6

Table 3-3

Antiparasitic Agents Used in Amphibians. a


Acriflavin 0.025% bath×5 days 59 Protozoa

500 mg/L×30 min bath 59 Protozoa

Benzalkonium

chloride

2 mg/L×1 hr bath q24h to effect 59 Protozoa

Distilled water 3 hr bath 59 Protozoa

Febantel (in

combination

with pyrantel

pamoate and

praziquantel;

Drontal Plus,

Bayer)

0.01 mL/1 g (10 mL/kg) PO q2-

3wk 40

Nematodes, cestodes, possibly

trematodes

Fenbendazole — Fenbendazole combinations follow

30-50 mg/kg PO 59 Gastrointestinal nematodes

50 mg/kg PO q24h×3-5 days,

repeat in 14-21 days 59

50-100 mg/kg PO 42 repeat in 2-3

wk prn

100 mg/kg PO, 59 repeat in 14

days

Gastrointestinal nematodes

Most species/gastrointestinal

nematodes


Fenbendazole (F) 100 mg/kg PO on day 1, then Gastrointestinal nematodes

97

(F)/ivermectin (I)

(I) 0.2 mg/kg PO on days

2,11 59

Fenbendazole

(F)/metronidazole

(M)

(F) 100 mg/kg PO, repeat in 10-

14 days+(M) 10 mg/kg PO

q24h for 5 days 59

Concurrent gastrointestinal

nematodes and protozoa

Formalin (10%) — Do not use if skin is ulcerated;

may be toxic to some species

1.5 mL/L×10 min bath q48h to

effect 59

Protozoans; may be toxic in some

species

0.5%×10 min bath once 59 Monogenic trematodes; may be

toxic to some species

Ivermectin — See fenbendazole for combination;

caution: may cause flaccid

paralysis with overdosage;

caffeine or physostigmine may

ameliorate effects 59

0.2-0.4 mg/kg PO, SC, repeat

q14d as needed 59

2 mg/kg topically, repeat in 2-3

wk 30

10 mg/L×60 min bath, repeat

q14d prn 59

Nematodes, including lungworms;

mites

Especially useful for small

specimens 59 and Rana spp. 30

Mites

Levamisole — May cause paralysis in some

species at suggested dosages; 59

caffeine or physostigmine may

ameliorate effects 59

6.5-13.5 mg/kg topically to pelvic

patch, repeat in 10 days 4

10 mg/kg IM, ICe, topically, 59

repeat in 2 wk

Anaxyrus houstonensis/reduced

nematode egg counts

Nematodes, including lungworms

12 mg/L bath×4 days 24 African clawed frogs/cutaneous

nematodes; use ≥4.2 L of tank

water/frog

100 mg/L×≥72 hr bath 59 Resistant nematodes

100-300 mg/L×24 hr bath, repeat

in 1-2 wk 59

Nematodes, including

subcutaneous nematodes in

aquatic amphibians; water

soluble form is available

through aquaculture supply

companies

Metronidazole — See fenbendazole for combination;

98

toxicity possible at high doses

10 mg/kg PO q24h×5-10 days 59 Protozoa; for unfamiliar or

sensitive species

50 mg/kg PO q24h×3-5 days 59 Confirmed cases of amoebiasis and

flagellate overload

100 mg/kg PO q3d 59 Protozoa

100-150 mg/kg PO, repeat in 2-3

wk or prn 59

Protozoa (i.e., Entamoeba,

Hexamita, Opalina)

50 mg/L×24 hr bath 59 Aquatic amphibians/protozoa

500 mg/100 g feed×3-4

treatments 59

Ciliates

Moxidectin 200 µg/kg SC q4mo 44 Nematodes

Oxfendazole 5 mg/kg PO 59 Gastrointestinal nematodes

Oxytetracycline 25 mg/kg SC, IM q24h 59 Protozoa

50 mg/kg PO q12h 59 Protozoa

1 g/kg feed×7 days 59 Protozoa

Paromomycin 50-75 mg/kg PO q24h 59 Gastrointestinal protozoa

Piperazine 50 mg/kg PO, repeat in 2 wk 59 Gastrointestinal nematodes

Ponazuril

Potassium

permanganate

Praziquantel

30 mg/kg PO q12h×3 days,

repeat in 3 wk; often more

effective at 30 mg/kg PO

q24h×30 days; may work

with less frequent

treatments 59

7 mg/L×5 min bath q24h to

effect 59

8-24 mg/kg PO, SC, ICe,

topically, 59 repeat q14d

10 mg/L×3 hr bath, 59 repeat q7-

21d

Coccidia but not Cryptosporidium;

may have some effect on

unidentified protozoan cysts

Ectoparasitic protozoa

Trematodes, cestodes

Trematodes, cestodes

Pyrantel pamoate 5 mg/kg PO q14d 40 Nematodes

Ronidazole 10 mg/kg PO q24h×10 days 59 Flagellated protozoa, amoebas

Salt (sodium

chloride)

4-6 g/L continuous bath 59 Ectoparasitic protozoa

5 g/L bath up to 12h,

10 g/L bath up to 1h 32 Axolotls, immediate negative

clinical effects in baths >20 g/L 32

6 g/L×5-10 min bath q24h×3-

5 days 59 Ectoparasitic protozoa

99

25 g/L×≤10 min bath 59 Ectoparasitic protozoa

Selamectin

(Revolution,

Zoetis)

6 mg/kg topically 12 Bullfrogs/PK

Sulfadiazine 132 mg/kg PO q24h 59 Coccidiosis

Sulfamethazine 1 g/L bath 59 Coccidiosis; change daily to effect

Tetracycline 50 mg/kg PO q12h 59 Protozoa

Thiabendazole 50-100 mg/kg PO, 59 repeat in 2

wk prn


100 mg/L bath, repeat in 2 wk 59 Verminous dermatitis

Trimethoprim/sulfa 3 mg/kg PO, SC, IM q24h 59 Coccidiosis; unspecified sulfa

a

SC can be administered in the dorsal lymph sac of anurans. 59

Table 3-4

Chemical Restraint/Anesthetic/Analgesic Agents Used in Amphibians. a


Alfaxalone 5-25 mg/kg IM 28 Most species/recommend starting at

lower dose (5-10 mg/kg) and

titrating up

10-17.5 mg/kg IM 41 Bullfrogs/immobilization, respiratory

depression, still responsive to

noxious stimuli; dose dependent

time to recumbency and time to

recovery; no effect by immersion at

2 g/L for 30 min 41

18 mg/kg IM, IV, ICe 22 African clawed frogs/deep sedation for

1-3 hr (IM, IV), 10-60 min ICe; no

effect via immersion at 18 mg/L 22

20-30 mg/kg IM 46 Australian tree frogs/initial effect

within 10 min, respiratory

depression; insufficient anesthesia

as sole agent for painful

procedures

5 mg/L in fresh water

bath 35

Axolotls/single individual; induction

of anesthesia, maintained

continuous irrigation of gills and

skin with additional 0.03 mL drops

of alfaxalone for maintenance of

anesthesia during surgery 35

100

200 mg/L in fresh water

bath 2

Fire-bellied toads/buffer with sodium

bicarbonate to pH 7.2; anesthetic

induction in 14±4 min, variable

duration of anesthesia up to

30 min; not sufficient for painful

procedures

Alfaxalone

(A)/morphine (M)

Atipamezole (Antisedan,

Zoetis)

Benzocaine (Sigma

Chemical)

(A) 3 mg/100 mL + (M) Fire-bellied toads/provided anesthetic

5 mg/100 mL as bath 1 induction and antinociception

Titrate to effect IM, IV Antagonist for dexmedetomidine 31

— Anesthesia; not sold as fish anesthetic

in United States; available from

chemical supply companies; do not

use topical anesthetic products

marketed for mammals; prepare

stock solution in ethanol (poorly

soluble in water); store in dark

bottle at room temperature

50 mg/L bath to effect 59 Larvae/dissolve in ethanol first

200-300 mg/L bath to

effect 59

Frogs, salamanders/dissolve in

ethanol first

200-500 mg/L bath 59 Dissolve in acetone first

Buprenorphine 38 mg/kg SC 31 b

Analgesia >4 hr; ED 50 in leopard

frogs 31

50 mg/kg ICe q24h 26 Eastern red spotted newts/return to

normal behavior following limb

amputation; may take >1 hr for

onset of clinical effects;

postsurgical bath in 0.1%

sulfamerazine (w/v; Sigma

Chemical Company) 26

Butorphanol 0.2-0.4 mg/kg IM 59 Analgesia; efficacy uncertain 59

0.5 mg/L continuous

immersion for 3 days 26

Eastern red spotted newts/return to

normal behavior following limb

amputation; may take >4 hr for

onset of clinical effects;

postsurgical bath in 0.1%

sulfamerazine (w/v; Sigma

Chemical Company) 26

Clove oil (eugenol) 0.3 mL/L (~310-

318 mg/L) 59 Anesthesia; deep anesthesia after

15 min bath; caused reversible

gastric prolapse in 50% of leopard

101

frogs

0.35 mL in 1 L purified

water 19

African clawed frogs/anesthetic plane

for frogs <10 g after 5 min

immersion, for frogs ~30 g after

10 min immersion

0.45 mL/L (~473 mg/L) 38 Anesthesia; deep anesthesia induced

in 80% of tiger salamanders

Codeine 53 mg/kg SC 31 Analgesia >4 hr; ED 50

b

in leopard frogs

Dexmedetomidine 40-120 mg/kg SC 31 Analgesia >4 hr; ED 50

b

in leopard frogs

Diazepam — See ketamine for combination

Fentanyl 0.5 mg/kg SC 31 Analgesia >4 hr; ED 50

b

in leopard frogs

Flunixin meglumine 25 mg/kg intralymphatic 10 African clawed frogs

Isoeugenol (Aqui-S;

0.54 µg/mL

isoeugenol)

20-50 µL/L 47 Litoria ewingii tadpoles/higher doses

resulted in faster induction and

longer recovery

Isoflurane — Anesthesia; induction chamber

3%-5% induction, 1%-2%

maintenance 59

Terrestrial species

5% 59 Terrestrial species/euthanasia;

induction chamber

Topical application of

liquid isoflurane 59

Topical mixture of

isoflurane (3 mL), KY

jelly (3.5 mL), and

water (1.5 mL) 59

Topical mixture of 1.5

parts distilled water,

3.5 parts

nonspermicidal jelly,

and 1.8 parts

isoflurane 63

Bufo spp. (0.015 mL/g BW), African

clawed frogs (0.007 mL/g

BW)/induce in closed container;

once induced, remove excess from

animal

Bufo spp. (0.035 mL/g BW), African

clawed frogs (0.025 mL/g

BW)/induce in closed container;

once induced, remove excess from

animal

American tree frogs/induced in closed

container; once induced remove

excess from animal; erythematous

lesions and signs of systemic

illness noted following

application 63

0.28 mL/100 mL bath 59 Induce in closed container

Bubbled into water to

effect 59

Aquatic species

Ketamine — May have long induction and

102

50-150 mg/kg SC, IM 59 Most species

recovery times; does not provide

good analgesia so may not be

suited for major surgical

procedures; other agents preferred;

ketamine combination follows; see

lidocaine

Ketamine (K)/diazepam

(D)

(K) 20-40 mg/kg+(D) 0.2-

0.4 mg/kg IM 59 Variable results

Lidocaine 1%-2% Local infiltration 59 All/local anesthesia; with or without

epinephrine; 2% lidocaine in

combination with ketamine has

been used for minor surgeries; 59

use with caution

Meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg 37 American bullfrogs/decreased

circulating prostaglandin E2

(PGE2) levels measured 24 hr post

muscle biopsy 37

0.4-1 mg/kg PO, SC, ICe

q24h 59

Analgesia

Metomidate

hydrochloride

30 mg/L bath 13 Rana pipiens/immersion for 60 min

then transferred to amphibian

Ringer’s solution; clinical sedation

in 11/11 frogs; surgical anesthesia

in 3/11; prolonged recovery; not

recommended as sole anesthetic

agent

Morphine 38-42 mg/kg SC 31 Analgesia >4 hr

Nalorphine 122 mg/kg SC 31 Analgesia >4 hr

Naloxone

Naltrexone

10 mg/kg SC; 31 titrate to

effect

1 mg/kg SC; 31 titrate to

effect

Antagonist for buprenorphine,

butorphanol, codeine, fentanyl,

morphine

Antagonist for buprenorphine,

butorphanol, codeine, fentanyl,

morphine

Pentobarbital sodium 60 mg/kg IV, ICe 59 Euthanasia; can also be administered

in lymph sacs in anurans

Pentobarbital

sodium+sodium

phenytoin

1100 mg/kg+141 mg/kg

ICe 51

African clawed frogs/complete cardiac

arrest within 3 hr

Propofol 10-30 mg/kg ICe 59 White’s tree frogs/pilot study; use the

lower dosage for sedation or light

103

anesthesia; induction within

30 min; recovery in 24 hr

35 mg/kg ICe 38 Deep anesthesia in 83% of tiger

salamanders 38

35 mg/kg ICe 57 Sonoran desert toads/sedation only;

did not achieve surgical plane of

anesthesia

60-100 mg/kg ICe 59 Euthanasia

88 mg/L by immersion 21 African clawed frogs/induced for

15 min, then rinsed; respiratory

depression, darkened skin color;

death at doses over 175 mg/L

100-140 mg/kg topically 59 Maroon-eyed tree frogs (Agalychnis

litodryas)/unpublished data; 15-

20 min to max effect at 100 mg/kg

dose; 10-15 min to max effect at

140 mg/kg; 59 sedation to deep

anesthesia; remove and rinse when

desired level achieved;

recommended only for animals

<50 g

Sevoflurane Topical application Rapid recovery unless constant

reapplication

Topical mixture of 1.5

parts distilled water,

3.5 parts

nonspermicidal jelly,

and 3 parts

sevoflurane 48,63

American tree frogs/induced in closed

container with 2 mL of sevoflurane

jelly per individual; once induced,

remove excess from animal;

recovery 4.5 times faster than

topical isoflurane jelly; 63 in cane

toads, reliable loss of righting

reflex when 37.5 µg/g sevoflurane

in jelly was applied to dorsum 48

Tiletamine/zolazepam

(Telazol, Fort Dodge)

Tricaine

methanesulfonate

(MS-222) (Finquel,

Argent)

10-20 mg/kg IM 59 Results variable between species; rapid

recovery; not suitable as single

anesthetic agent for anurans 29

— Anesthesia; buffer the acidity by

adding sodium bicarbonate to

buffer the solution to a pH of 7.0-

7.1; aerate water to prevent

hypoxemia; remove from bath on

induction or overdosing can

readily occur; following bath,

place terrestrial amphibians on

moist towel or in very shallow

104

water to recovery; some species can

be induced at much lower

concentrations than listed here; in

some cases, anesthesia can be

maintained by dripping a dilute

solution of this drug (100-

200 mg/L) over the skin or by

covering animal with a paper

towel moistened with the

anesthetic 59

50-200 mg/kg SC, IM,

ICe 59

Most species/may be irritating

administered SC, IM (neutral

solution is preferred) 59

100-200 mg/kg ICe 49 Leopard frogs

100-400 mg/kg ICe 49 Bullfrogs

100-200 mg/L bath to

effect 59

Larvae/induction

200-500 mg/L bath to Tadpoles, newts/induction in 15-

effect 59 30 min

0.5-2 g/L bath to effect 59 Frogs, salamanders/induction in 15-

30 min

1 g/L bath to effect 59 Most gill-less adult species (unless

very large)/induction

1 g/L by immersion,

buffered with 1 g/L

sodium bicarbonate 57

Sonoran desert toads/surgical plane of

anesthesia

a

SC can be administered in dorsal lymph sac in anurans. 59

b

ED 50 , effective dose for 50% of the population.

1-2 g/L by immersion 27 African clawed frogs/buffered to pH of

7.0±0.4; 20 min induction then

rinsed; respiratory depression;

longer duration of surgical

anesthesia with higher dosing

2-3 g/L bath to effect 59 Toads/induction in 15-30 min

5 g/L immersion 51 African clawed frogs/immersion for

1 hr; death within 3 hr

10 g/L bath 59 Euthanasia; can be administered ICe

or in lymph sacs

105

Table 3-5

Hormones Used in Amphibians. a


Gonadotropinreleasing

hormone

(GnRH)

10 µg SC to female

followed by

additional 20 µg

after 18 hr; 5 µg

SC to male 54

0.1 mg/kg SC, IM,

repeat prn 59

Tomato frogs (Dyscophus guineti)/ovulation and

spermiation

Induction of ovulation in those non-responsive

to pregnant mare serum gonadotropin

(PMSG) or human chorionic gonadotropin

(hCG); administer to females 8-12 hr before

males

Human chorionic

gonadotropin

(hCG)

50-300 U 59 SC, IM For mating or release of sperm in males; follow

with GnRH in 8-24 hr

250-400 U SC, IM 59 African clawed frogs, axolotls/induction of

ovulation; may be used with PMSG and/or

progesterone

Luteinizing

hormone–

releasing

hormone

(LHRH)

5 µg ICe per

animal 53

10 µg in 0.05 mL of

40% DMSO

applied to

ventral drink

patch 43

Salamanders (Desmognathus ochrophaeus)/induced

oviposition in 94% of animals

Bufo americanus, B. valliceps/induced spermiation in

70% of males

Pregnant mare

serum

gonadotropin

(PMSG)

50-200 U SC, IM 59 African clawed frogs, axolotls/induction of

ovulation; administer 600 U hCG SC, IM 72 hr

later 59

Progesterone 1-5 mg SC, IM 59 African clawed frogs, axolotls/use in addition to

PMSG or hCG for induction of ovulation

a

SC can be administered into the dorsal lymph sac of anurans. 59

Table 3-6

Miscellaneous Agents Used in Amphibians. a


Amphibian

Ringer’s

solution

6.6 g NaCl, 0.15 g KCl,

0.15 g CaCl 2 , and 0.2 g

NaHCO 3 in 1 L water 59

For treating hydrocoelom and

subcutaneous edema; place animal in

shallow ARS bath until stabilized

106

(ARS)

Atropine

Caffeine

0.1 mg/animal SC, IM

prn 59

Use caffeinated tea bag;

steep (soak) until

solution is “weak tea”;

place amphibian in

shallow bath, replace

q6h 59

(≈24 hr or more); replace with fresh

solution daily; may need to wean animal

off ARS by placing it in gradually more

dilute solutions; hypertonic solution

created by using 800-950 mL water

instead of 1 L and may be more effective

for some cases of hydrocoelom; up to

10 g of glucose may be added per L, but

then solution must be made fresh daily 59

Organophosphate toxicosis

Stimulant; may help reverse ivermectin or

levamisole toxicosis, or excessively deep

anesthesia 59

Calcium

glubionate

(Calcionate,

1.8 g/5 mL,

Rugby

Laboratories)

Calcium

gluconate

1 mL/kg PO q24h 59 Nutritional secondary

hyperparathyroidism

100-200 mg/kg SC 59 Hypocalcemic tetany

2.3% continuous bath

(with 2-3 U/mL vitamin

D 3 ) 59

Nutritional secondary

hyperparathyroidism

Critical care diets

• Carnivore

Critical Care

(Oxbow)

• Emeraid for

Carnivores

(Lafeber)

• Feline

Clinical Care

Liquid (Pet-

Ag)

• Hill’s Feline

a/d (Hill’s Pet

Nutrition)

Cyanoacrylate

surgical

adhesive (Vet

Bond, 3M)

—

3% bodyweight PO

q24-72h 59

3% body weight PO

q24-48h 59

1-2 mL/50 g PO q24h 59

3-6 mL/50 g PO q72h 59

PO 59

Topical on wounds 59

Dosages are approximate; may be more

appropriate to offer larger volume less

frequently for easily stressed animals

Nutritional support; mix 1:1 with water;

generally gavaged

Produces a seal for aquatic and semiaquatic

species

107

Dexamethasone 1.5 mg/kg SC, IM 59 Vascularizing keratitis

1.5 mg/kg IM, IV 59 Shock

Dextrose 5%

solution

Doxycycline

Bath 59

Topically to affected

tissues 34

1.25-2.5 mg/kg PO, SC, ICe

q24h 59

For treating hydrocoelom and

subcutaneous edema; 59 place animal in

shallow bath until stabilized (≈24 hr or

more); replace with fresh solution daily;

may need to wean animal off dextrose

by placing it in gradually more dilute

solutions; 7.5%-10% solutions may be

more effective for some cases of

hydrocoelom

Small amount can be applied to

edematous/inflamed tissue in cases of

cloacal prolapse to aid in prolapse

reduction

Antiinflammatory

1% gel topically q12h 59 Antiinflammatory

Hetastarch (6% in

0.9% saline)

Hypertonic

saline, 5%

ophthalmic

solution

Laxative

(Laxatone,

Evsco)

Meloxicam

Bath not to exceed 1 hr

without reassessment 59

Topically to affected

tissues 34

PO 59

0.4-1 mg/kg PO, SC, ICe

q24h 58

0.5% gel topically q24h; do

not exceed 0.4 mg/kg 59

May help with initial treatment of

hydrocoelom

Small amount can be applied to

edematous/inflamed tissue in cases of

cloacal prolapse to aid in prolapse

reduction

Laxative, especially for intestinal foreign

bodies

Antiinflammatory; presumptive analgesia;

adjunct therapy for septicemia

Antiinflammatory for localized wounds

Methylene blue 2 mg/mL bath to effect 59 Nitrite and nitrate toxicoses

Oxygen 100% for up to 24 hr 59 Adjunct treatment for septicemia, toxicoses

Physostigmine

(ophthalmic

drops)

1 drop/50 g topically q1-2h

to effect 59

May ameliorate flaccid paralysis from

ivermectin or levamisole toxicosis

Prednisolone

sodium

succinate

5-10 mg/kg IM, IV 59 Shock

Sodium

thiosulfate

1% solution as continuous

bath to effect 59

Halogen toxicoses

108

Vitamin A

(Aquasol A,

50,000 U/mL,

Mayne

Pharma)

Dilute 1:9 with sterile

water; make fresh

weekly; apply 1 drop

from a tuberculin

syringe with 27 g

needle to amphibians

under 5 g; 1 drop from

tuberculin syringe

w/out needle is about

200 U and useful for

15-30 g BW; >30 g, try

1 drop per 10 g BW;

topically q24h×14 days,

then q4-7d 59

Hypovitaminosis A; given the plethora of

organ systems that hypovitaminosis A

may affect, it is reasonable to institute

vitamin A supplementation of any

clinically ill amphibian, particularly

ones with signs similar to “short tongue

syndrome,” swollen eyelids, evidence of

infectious dermatitis, hydrocoelom, or

simply “failing to thrive”; 59 the use of

mixed dietary carotenoids may also be

effective in some species 9

Dilute 1:10 in sterile water; African foam-nesting frogs/weight range, 2-

applied as one drop 7 g; dosing q48h and once weekly

from18g needle;

significantly increased whole body

estimated as 50 U/frog vitamin A levels over control group and

q48h to q7d 45 group treated with vitamin A fortified

supplement dusted over crickets 45

1 U/g PO daily×14 days 59

Vitamin A gel

caps (10,000

U/cap)

Dilute 1:9 with corn oil to

yield 1000 U/mL; give 1

U/g PO q24h×14 days,

then q7d 59

Hypovitaminosis A; given the plethora of

organ systems that hypovitaminosis A

may affect, it is reasonable to institute

vitamin A supplementation of any

clinically ill amphibian, particularly

ones with signs similar to “short tongue

syndrome,” swollen eyelids, evidence of

infectious dermatitis, hydrocoelom, or

simply “failing to thrive;” 59 the use of

mixed dietary carotenoids may also be

effective in some species 9

Vitamin B 1 25 mg/kg PO 59 Deficiency resulting from thiaminasecontaining

fish

25-100 mg/kg IM, ICe 60

Vitamin D 3

2-3 U/mL continuous bath

(with 2.3% calcium

gluconate) 59

100-400 U/kg PO q24h 59

Nutritional secondary

hyperparathyroidism

Vitamin E (alphatocopherol)

1 mg/kg PO, IM q7d 59

200 U/kg feed 59 Steatitis

a

SC can be administered into the dorsal lymph sac of anurans. 59

109

Table 3-7

Physiologic and Hematologic Values of Select Amphibians. 59

Measurement

African

clawed

frog

(Xenopus

laevis) 55,59

American

bullfrog

(Rana

catesbeiana) 59

Australian

common

green tree

frog

(Litoria

caerulea) 62

Australian

white-lipped

tree frog

(Litoria

infrafrenata) 62

Cuban tree frog

(Hyla

septentrionalis

BW (g) — — — — 28-35

Blood volume

(mL/100 g BW)

— 3.1-3.6 — — 7.2-7.8

Hematology a

PCV (%) 23.3-47.0 39-42 34-40.8 26.0-34.0 20-24

RBC (10 6 /µL) 0.80-1.48 0.45 0.62-0.82 0.63-0.82 —

Hgb (g/dL) 6.06-15.19 9.3-9.7 8.0-10.6 6.1-8.2 5.6-6.8

MCV (fL) 31.6-62.8 — 461-602 374-486 —

MCH (pg) 6.9-22.1 — 111-148 84-115 —

MCHC (g/dL) 19.3-32.3 21.1-25.9 236-268 210-250 25-31

WBC b (10 3 /µL) 0.64-9.56 — 12.4-22.1 14.2-29.1 —

Early stages b (%) — — — — —

Neutrophils b (%) 8±1.1 — 14-27 15.0-32.0 —

Lymphocytes b

(%)

65.3±2.7 — — 57.0-78.3 —

Monocytes b (%) 0.5 — 5.0-10.0 4.0-8.0 —

Eosinophils b (%) — — 1.0-5.0 0-1.3 —

Basophils b (%) 8.5±1.4 — 0 0-1.0 —

Plasmocytes b (%) 0.2 — — — —

Thrombocytes

(10 3 /µL)

17.1 — 23.2-33.5 25.8-38.8 —

Chemistry

ALP (U/L) 59-282 — — — —

ALT (U/L) 10-39 — — — —

AST (U/L) 27-1774 — 66-122 41-119 —

110

Bilirubin, total

(mg/dL)

0.01-0.26 — — — —

BUN (mg/dL) 2-10 — — — —

Calcium (mg/dL) 5.2-12.3 — 10.6-13.1 8.6-11.3 —

Chloride (mEq/L) 72.7-92.7 — — — —

Cholesterol (mg/dL) 56-563 — — — —

Creatine kinase

(U/L)

10-5400 — 347-705 233-722 —

Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.1-1.1 — — — —

GGT (U/L) 1-19 — — — —

Glucose (mg/dL) 18-111 — 55-78 45-81 —

LDH (U/L) 21-240 — — — —

Phosphorus

(mg/dL)

3.5-11.6 — 3.3-5.0 3.2-4.9 —

Potassium (mEq/L) 2.3-7.3 — 4.9-7.7 3.2-4.7 —

Protein, total (g/dL) 2.0-4.6 — 5.5-6.8 3.0-4.1 —

Albumin (g/dL) 0.1-2.3 — — — —

Globulin (g/dL) 1.1-4.1 — — — —

Sodium (mEq/L) 111-134 — 107-114 104-108 —

Triglyceride

(mg/dL)

57-555 — — — —

Uric acid (mg/dL) 0.1-0.4 — 0.2-0.7 0.1-0.2 —

a

Hematology is presently of limited diagnostic value because of the lack of normal data and the wide

variation in hematologic and biochemical values according to sex, season, and state of hydration.

b

For leukocyte totals and percentages for various species, refer to The Wildlife Leukocytes Web site at

wildlifehematology.uga.edu.

111

Table 3-8

Blood Collection Sites in Amphibians 3,a

Collection Site

Ventral

abdominal

vein

Species

Reported

Anurans

Notes

Vessel present on midline along the ventral coelom,

between sternum and pelvis; risk of hitting coelomic

organs; visualization may be confirmed via

transillumination of coelom in some species

Lingual plexus Anurans With mouth open, depress tongue to expose buccal surface

of the oral cavity; lingual plexus can be visualized as

superficial vessels; sedation may be needed in some

species; safely used in frogs as small as 25 g, possible

salivary contamination

Femoral vein Anurans Superficial vessel present along the medial aspect of the

femur; runs parallel with femoral nerve; sedation may

be needed

Heart Multiple Sedation recommended; aim needle at ventricle, allow

heart to passively fill syringe to avoid collapsing

ventricle; visualization may be assisted with

ultrasound

Ventral tail vein Urodelans Similar to reptiles; caudal vein runs along the ventral

caudal vertebrate and can be accessed via ventral or

lateral approach; tail autotomy possible in some species

Facial

vein/musculocutaneous

vein 16

Anurans

(Ranidae)

Facial vein forms at the middle of the orbit and courses

caudally to the angle of the jaw, turning into the

musculo-cutaneous vein as it passes the caudal half of

the tympanum; blood may be collected just rostral or

just caudal to the tympanum; insert needle in

rostrocaudal direction at 30° angle to the skin 16

a

Blood volume has been reported to vary by species or genus. In general, it is safe to collect 10% of the

blood volume from healthy animals (approx. 1% of body weight). Clinical judgment should be used in

collecting blood from sick or debilitated animals.

Table 3-9

Differential Diagnoses by Predominant Signs in Amphibians. a

Sign Common Causes Suggested Diagnostics b

Changes in

skin color

Infectious agents: virus, bacteria, mycobacteria

nodules, saprolegniasis,

chromoblastomycosis, other mycoses,

Biology review of species

in question;

husbandry review

112

protozoa, myxosporeans, microsporidia,

helminths (Capillaroides xenopi), leeches, fly

larvae, other arthropods, fish lice, mollusks

(diet, water quality

tests, soil pH,

temperature); skin

scrapes (wet mount

and stained); PCR

tests for ranavirus

and chytrid; skin and

blood cultures; fecal

parasite exams;

plasma cholesterol

and triglycerides;

radiograph for

skeletal density;

plasma calcium and

phosphorus; CBC

and other plasma

biochemistries

Changes in

skin

texture

Excess mucus

production

Noninfectious causes: toxicosis, hypothermia,

hyperthermia, dehydration, desiccation,

burn, frostbite, trauma, neoplasia,

nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism,

xanthomatosis/hyperlipidosis, drug reaction

Infectious agents: virus, bacteria, mycobacteria,

mycoses, protozoa, myxosporeans,

microsporidia, helminths, fly larvae, leeches,

mites, ticks, fish lice, other arthropods,

mollusks

Noninfectious causes: toxicosis, hypothermia,

hyperthermia, dehydration, desiccation,

stress, trauma (especially rostral abrasion),

neoplasia, normal (e.g., dorsal crests in

European newts, egg brood patch of

Surinam toad, nuptial pads in male anurans)

Infectious agents: virus, bacteria, mycoses,

protozoa, helminths, arthropods, mollusks

Noninfectious causes: toxicosis (ammonia,

nitrite, chlorine, chloramine, salt, nicotine),

poor water quality (pH, hardness,

supersaturation), stress (cagemate, escape

behavior, inappropriate soil pH or

composition), hyperthermia, trauma


in question;

husbandry review


tests, soil pH,

temperature); skin

scrapes (wet mount

and stained); PCR

tests for ranavirus



parasite exams; CBC

and plasma

biochemistries

Husbandry review (diet,

water quality tests,

soil pH, temperature);

skin scrapes (wet

mount and stained);

PCR tests for

ranavirus and

chytrid; skin and

blood culture; fecal

parasite exams; CBC

and plasma

113

Fluctuant

mass

Corneal

opacity

Sudden death

Weight loss

Infectious agents: bacterial abscess, mycobacteria

(rare), mycoses (rare), protozoal cyst,

myxosporeans, helminths (e.g., immature

trematodes and cestodes), subcutaneous

leeches, fly larvae, mites, pentastomes

Noninfectious causes: lymphatic blockage (e.g.,

gout), xanthomatosis, toxicosis, trauma,

fluid overload, thermal injury, hypocalcemia,

neoplasia, normal (e.g., active marsupium of

Gastrotheca spp. females, water sacs of

Cycloderma rana, distended lymphatic sacs of

Ceratophrys spp.)

Infectious agents: bacteria, mycoses, nematodes

Noninfectious causes: scar, corneal

lipidosis/xanthomatosis, trauma, chemical

irritation, toxicosis, neoplasia

Infectious agents: iridovirus, bacteria,

chamydiosis, chytridiomycosis

Noninfectious causes: toxicosis (ammonia,

household pesticides, chlorine),

electrocution, hypothermia, hyperthermia,

trauma, gastric overload/impaction, stress,

drowning, neoplasia

Infectious agents: bacteria, virus,

chromomycosis, other mycoses,

mycobacteria, coccidiosis, flagellate or ciliate

overgrowth, helminths

biochemistries


in question;

husbandry review


tests, soil pH,

temperature); aspirate

(wet mount, stained,

culture); fecal parasite

exams; plasma uric

acid, cholesterol, and

triglycerides;

radiograph for

skeletal density;

plasma calcium and

phosphorus; skin and

blood cultures; CBC

and other plasma

chemistries

Husbandry review; slit

lamp ophthalmic

exam; culture and

sensitivity; plasma

cholesterol and

triglycerides


in question;

husbandry review


tests, soil pH,

temperature); PCR

tests for ranavirus

and chytrid;

necropsy; physical

exam of cagemates

(include CBC, plasma

biochemistries, blood

culture, fecal parasite

exams); consider

euthanasia and

necropsy of one or

more cagemates


in question;

husbandry review


tests, soil pH,

114

Noninfectious causes: heavy metal toxicosis

(e.g., copper), chemical irritation (e.g.,

ammonia, chlorine, salt, pH), stress from

inappropriate husbandry (e.g.,

environmental temperature too high,

cagemate aggression), ocular disease with

vision impairment, xanthomatosis

temperature); skin

scrapes (wet mount

and stained); fecal

parasite exams; PCR

tests for ranavirus

and chytrid; CBC;

skin and blood

cultures; plasma

calcium, phosphorus,

cholesterol, and

triglycerides;

radiograph for

skeletal density; other

plasma biochemistries

Anorexia,

inappetence

Bloating

Infectious agents: iridovirus, Lucke’s

herpesvirus, other virus, bacteria,

mycobacteria, chytridiomycosis,

chromoblastomycosis, mucormycosis,

protozoa, myxosporean, microsporidial,

helminth, fly larvae, pentastomes, mites, ticks

Noninfectious causes: inappropriate

environment (e.g., substrate, temperature,

illumination, photoperiod, humidity, lack of

furnishings and hiding spots, inappropriate

cagemates, too many cagemates or visible

specimens in adjacent cages, activity in

room), inappropriate feeding practices (e.g.,

wrong kind of food/prey, wrong size of

food/prey, feeding at wrong times, too many

prey items offered at one time), frequent

handling or cage servicing, nutritional

secondary hyperparathyroidism,

hypocalcemia, toxicosis (e.g., copper,

ammonia, chlorine), xanthomatosis, ocular

disease with vision impairment, neoplasia,

geriatric/senescence, normal (i.e., estivation

or hibernation cues)


mycobacteria, gastrointestinal nematodes

Noninfectious causes: hypocalcemia (especially

in hylid frogs), toxicosis, hypothermia,

decomposition of ingesta (e.g., gastric

overload, low or high temperatures),

pneumocoelom (i.e., ruptured lung or

trachea), gas supersaturation


in question;

husbandry review


tests, soil pH,

temperature); skin

scrapes (wet mount

and stained); PCR

tests for ranavirus



parasite exams;

plasma cholesterol

and triglycerides;

radiograph for

skeletal density;

plasma calcium and

phosphorus; CBC

and other plasma

biochemistries


in question;

husbandry review


tests, soil pH,

temperature); fecal

parasite exams; PCR

tests for ranavirus

and chytrid; plasma

115

Hydrocoelom

Cloacal

prolapse

Lameness


mycobacteria, verminous granulomata,

filarids, other helminths

Noninfectious causes: toxicosis (e.g., heavy

metal, chlorine, ammonia, insecticide,

distilled or reverse osmosis water), hepatic

failure, renal failure, hypocalcemia,

xanthomatosis, gout, neoplasia (especially

ovarian, hepatic, or renal), failure to

oviposit, normal (e.g., ovulation)

Infectious agents: helminths, protozoa,

colitis/cloacitis (bacterial, fungal)

Non-infectious causes: mechanical ileus,

dehydration, gastric overload,

intussusception, hypocalcemia, nutritional

secondary hyperparathyroidism,

constipation, physiologic behavior,

iatrogenic (handling, sedation), straining

with oviposition (females), neoplasia

Infectious agents: virus, bacteria, mycobacteria,

mycoses, protozoa, myxosporeans,

microsporidia, helminths, fly larvae,

pentastomes, mites

Noninfectious causes: nutritional secondary

hyperparathyroidism, trauma, malnutrition

(e.g., hypovitaminosis B), thiaminosis,

hypervitaminosis D, gout,

xanthomatosis/hyperlipidosis, toxicosis

calcium and

phosphorus;

radiograph; aspirate


culture); plasma

biochemical analysis;

ultrasonography;

radiograph; skin and

blood cultures; CBC


in question;

husbandry review


tests, soil pH,

temperature); aspirate


culture); fecal parasite

exams; PCR tests for

ranavirus and

chytrid; plasma

biochemical analysis;

ultrasonography;

radiograph; skin and

blood cultures; CBC


in question;

husbandry review


tests, soil pH,

temperature); fecal

parasite

exams/impression

smear of prolapsed

tissue; radiograph;

ultrasonography;

plasma biochemical

analysis; CBC

Husbandry review (diet,

water quality tests,

soil pH, temperature);

radiograph; plasma

calcium and

phosphorus; plasma

cholesterol and

triglycerides; fecal

parasite exams; CBC

and other plasma

116

Spindly leg

(especially insecticides), neoplasia, drug

reaction

Infectious agents: iridovirus, larval cestodes or

trematodes, subcutaneous nematodes

Noninfectious causes: nutritional secondary

hyperparathyroidism, malnutrition (e.g.,

hypovitaminosis B, protein deficiency, iodine

deficiency, trace mineral deficiency, diet of

parents, outdated food or vitamin

supplements), toxicosis (ammonia, chlorine,

nitrites), water quality (pH, hardness,

temperature), crowding, poor illumination,

trauma, genetic, hybridization

chemistries


in question;

husbandry review

(water quality tests,

temperature); diet

(inspect actual food

items and

supplements in

original containers);

PCR tests for

ranavirus and

chytrid; necropsy;

physical exam of

cagemates and

parents; consider

euthanasia and

complete necropsy of

one or more

cagemates

a

This is based on the previous author’s (Dr. Kevin M. Wright) clinical impressions of the most common

underlying etiologies for gross symptomology; a patient’s differential list should be a comprehensive

review of all potential etiologies regardless of likelihood. Edited by current authors.

b

Suggested diagnostics are presented in prioritized order.

Table 3-10

Selected Disinfectants for Equipment and Cage Furniture. 40,a

Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis

• Sodium hypochlorite (household bleach) 1% for 1 min contact time

• Ethanol 70% for 1 min exposure time

• Benzalkonium chloride 1 mg/mL for 1 min contact time

• Desiccation and exposure to 50-60°C (122-140°F) heat for 30 min

• Exposure to 1:1000 quaternary ammonium compound Quat-128 (Waxie Sanitary

Supply, San Diego, CA; 800-995-4466; www.waxie.com) for 30 sec; this contains 6.8%

didecyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (DDAC) as the active ingredient

Ranavirus

• Nolvasan (chlorhexidine) 0.75% for 1 min contact time

• Sodium hypochlorite (household bleach) 3% for 1 min contact time

• Virkon S 1.0% for 1 min contact time

• Desiccation and exposure to 60°C (140°F) heat for 15-30 min

a

In order to increase efficacy of disinfectants, rinse all organic material and debris from the surface

before applying disinfectants.

117

Table 3-11

Guidelines for Managing Pet Amphibians with Nematode Parasites. 59

• Determine purpose of captive amphibian

• Pet amphibians are often kept for different purposes than captive assurance colonies

• Plan must be with owner’s informed consent

• Assess current health and body condition score (BCS)

• If unthrifty

• Consider any nematode ova, larvae, or adults significant. Treat for nematodes

appropriately in light of other clinical findings

• If well-fleshed, score the fecal parasite exam

• If diarrhea, blood, mucus, or visible nematodes are present at any stage of the

fecal parasite examination, treat

• If stool appears grossly normal

• and there are ≤5 RBC/HPF or <1 WBC/HPF, parasites may not be significant

• and there are >5-10 RBC/HPF or >1-5 WBC/HPF, parasites are likely significant,

treatment may be indicated

• or there are >5 strongyle larvae/HPF on direct or float, treat

• Treatment of amphibians that are apparently healthy, eating well, and maintaining or

gaining weight, should be done with caution despite the presence of a few nematode

ova or larvae per high-power field on direct or flotation fecal parasite exams

• If any amphibians in the collection appear unthrifty, there are mortalities with

nematodes implicated, or there are otherwise unexplained mortalities, treat for

nematodes

• Monitor with regular direct fecal parasite exams to evaluate a shift in cytology and

fluctuations in nematode ova and larvae; while there is often no correlation between

reduction in nematode ova or larvae in feces and actual reduction in nematode

numbers, improvements in BCS and weight often happen when the ova or larvae

counts go down and the feces has ≤5 RBC/HPF and <1 WBC/HPF

• Success is measured by an amphibian having a normal weight and BCS, producing

normal-appearing feces, and exhibiting normal behaviors

• With problematic pets, routine randomly collected feces should be assessed for

parasites

Table 3-12

Amphibian Quarantine Protocols. 59

Because of worldwide amphibian population declines and local extinctions, assurance

colonies are being brought into captivity in hopes of preserving species for the future.

The importance of these assurance colonies, and the possibility of future reintroduction

efforts, makes proper quarantine and infectious disease testing paramount. In most cases,

amphibians destined for use in reintroduction programs should remain in permanent

quarantine to prevent introduction of novel pathogens. A 30-day quarantine is the

minimum suggested time for quarantine of low risk amphibians, and moderate to highrisk

animals should be quarantined for 60-90 days. Release from quarantine is predicated

118

on interpretation of morbidity and mortality, appropriate testing to detect important

diseases, and a healthy body condition score and normal physical examination prior to

release. Any quarantine plan must have the owner’s informed consent before

implementation.

Husbandry

• Facilities and equipment

• Ideally, each quarantine area is spatially separated from areas containing other

animals. In addition, separate air-handling systems should exist for individual areas.

Tools should be designated for use only in quarantine areas. Some facilities may

employ shower-in/shower-out protocols, but at the very least boots, smocks/coveralls

should be worn when servicing quarantine animal areas.

• Enclosures

• Enclosures should be escape-proof and made of non-abrasive, non-toxic material that

is easy to clean and disinfect. Enclosures with spartan furnishings are easiest to

monitor and maintain in quarantine situations; however, many animals will not

thrive in such conditions. Critical husbandry requirements should always take

precedence over other needs.

• Food

• Transmission of infectious disease through food animals is possible. In cases where

this is of significant concern, it may be prudent to establish on-site breeding colonies

of prey items and occasionally screen for various pathogens.

Quarantine Examination

• Physical examination can be facilitated via manual restraint, restraint in a clear

container, or via anesthesia.

• To control the spread of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, new gloves should be changed

after handling each patient. Nitrile gloves are preferred for their ability to kill zoospores

on contact. Bare hands are preferred over rinsing the same pair of gloves between

patients. 36

• It is important to individually identify animals maintained in groups. Microchips and

subcutaneous polymers can be placed; however, retention can be a problem. Charting of

characteristic colors/patterns can be useful in some species (maintaining a database of

digital photographs can be helpful in this regard). Toe-clipping has been used as a last

resort, but is not recommended in zoological or private collections for humane and

health reasons.

• Body weight and body condition scores should be assessed on arrival, periodically

throughout quarantine, and immediately prior to release.

Diagnostic Testing

• Fecal flotation and direct examination

• Quality samples can be obtained by placing the animal in a small container lined with

damp, plain paper toweling overnight following a meal. It is best to assume wild

amphibians are parasitized even though fecal exams can often be negative for the

presence of parasites or ova.

• Complete blood count and chemistry panel

119

• A large percentage of amphibians are too small to safely take routine blood samples.

Even larger specimens can present venipuncture challenges. See Table 3.8 for

venipuncture sites in amphibians. Normal ranges for bloodwork parameters are not

available for the vast majority of species which creates interpretive challenges.

• Specific infectious disease testing

• It is paramount that all amphibians entering quarantine (whether wild caught or

captive bred) be screened for chytridiomycosis and ranavirus infection. Polymerase

chain reaction tests are available for both pathogens, although chytrid fungus may

also be detected via cytology of skin scrapings. Other specific pathogen testing will

depend on individual circumstances.

Prophylactic Treatment

• Fluid therapy

• Newly captured or shipped amphibians can be stressed and dehydrated. Amphibian

Ringer’s solution (see Table 3.6) can be used as a bath to help hydrate the animal and

replenish solutes.

• Deworming

• It is impractical to impossible to completely clear most amphibians of parasites.

Treatment is aimed at reducing overall parasite burden. Treatment should address the

results of diagnostic testing, otherwise empirical therapy with broad-spectrum

anthelminthics is recommended.

• Treatment for chytridiomycosis

• Animals brought into captivity from areas suffering local declines due to

chytridiomycosis should always be prophylactically treated. In other situations, it is

recommended to avoid treatment unless an infection is diagnosed to avoid

development of resistance to available drugs.

Maintenance and Hygiene

• A variety of disinfectants are available for use in amphibian applications. Care should be

taken to choose a product that meets the disinfection needs but is not unsafe for the

amphibians.

• Heat, desiccation, and ultraviolet light can be used, in some cases, to disinfect

equipment and materials without the hazards associated with chemical use.

• Proper disposal of solid waste/water is paramount to avoid exposure of native

amphibians in the area to novel pathogens. At the least, wastewater should only be

discarded into a sanitary sewer and solid waste be deeply buried or transferred to a

landfill. Best practices involve treating all waste that comes in contact with quarantined

amphibians as potential biohazardous waste and disposing of accordingly. Wastewater

and other materials should never be discarded into the environment in a manner where

exposure to native amphibians is likely.

Infectious Disease Screening

There are a number of laboratories that will perform various tests to document exposure to

or presence of chytrid fungus or ranavirus particles via PCR. It is up to the clinician to

evaluate the tests run by the various laboratories and interpret the results accordingly.

120

The following are contact information for laboratories that perform ranavirus and/or

chytrid testing. This list is by no means conclusive, and contact information was verified

as of September 16, 2016.

Amphibian Disease Laboratory

San Diego Zoo Institute for Conservation Research

15600 San Pasqual Valley Rd.

Escondido, CA 92027, USA

760-291-5472 or 760-291-5470

http://institute.sandiegozoo.org/resources/amphibian-disease-laboratory

Chytridiomycosis and ranavirus

Pisces Molecular

1600 Range St., Suite 201

Boulder, CO 80301, USA

303-546-9300

www.pisces-molecular.com

Chytridiomycosis

Research Associates Laboratory

14556 Midway Rd.

Dallas, TX 75244, USA

972-960-2221

www.vetdna.com

Chytridiomycosis

Zoologix

9811 Owensmouth Ave., Suite 4

Chatsworth, CA 91311, USA

818-717-8880

www.zoologix.com

Chytridiomycosis, ranavirus, and various Mycobacterium species

A more complete list of laboratories for Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis testing can be found

at: http://www.amphibianark.org/the-crisis/chytrid-fungus/

A more complete list of laboratories in various countries for ranavirus testing can be

found through the Global Ranavirus Consortium at:

http://www.ranavirus.org/resources/testing-labs/

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a

Note: Pessier AP, Mendelson JR 40 remains an important and convenient source of information on

amphibian medicine and is available free online.

126

C H A P T E R 4

Reptiles

Eric Klaphake; Paul M. Gibbons; Kurt K. Sladky; James W. Carpenter

Table 4-1

Antimicrobial Agents Used in Reptiles. a,b


127

Amikacin — Potentially nephrotoxic; maintain

hydration; frequently used

with a penicillin or

cephalosporin

26 µg/kg/hr via osmotic

infusion pump

implant 55,374

Snakes/PD; consider loading dose

at time of implant

3.48 mg/kg IM once 182 Pythons/PK (ball pythons)

5 mg/kg IM, then Gopher snakes/PD; house at high

2.5 mg/kg q72h 233 end of optimum temperature

range during treatment

5 mg/kg IM, then

2.5 mg/kg q72h 16,363 Lizards

5 mg/kg IM q48h 44 Gopher tortoises/PK; 30°C (86°F)

2.25 mg/kg IM q72h 172 Alligators/PD

50 mg/10 mL

saline×30 min

nebulization q12h 117

Amoxicillin 22 mg/kg PO q12-

24h 79,103

Most species/pneumonia;

aminophylline at 25 mg/9 mL of

sterile saline in nebulizer before

antibiotics for

bronchodilation 316

Most species/use with an

aminoglycoside

Ampicillin — May use with an aminoglycoside

10-20 mg/kg SC, IM

q12h 174

50 mg/kg SC, IM

q12h 343

Most species, including

chameleons

Chelonians

20 mg/kg IM q24h 117 Tortoises

50 mg/kg IM q12h 357 Tortoises/PD

Azithromycin 10 mg/kg PO q2-7d 59 Ball pythons/PK; single dose

study; may cause

nonregenerative anemia;

Mycoplasma, Cryptosporidium,

Giardia, and other susceptible

organisms; location dictates

dosage frequency: skin, q3d;

respiratory tract, q5d;

liver/kidneys, q7d

Carbenicillin — Discontinued; more stable than

ampicillin; extended G-

spectrum

128

200 mg/kg IM q24h 158 Carpet pythons/PK

400 mg/kg IM q24h 215 Snakes/PD; 30°C (86°F)

400 mg/kg IM q48h 214 Chelonians/PD (Testudo spp.)

Cefazolin 22 mg/kg IM q24h 307 Chelonians

Cefoperazone (Cefobid, Pfizer) 100 mg/kg IM q96h 106 Snakes/PD (false water cobras;

24°C [75°F])

125 mg/kg IM q24h 106 Lizards/PD (tegus; 24°C [75°F])

Cefotaxime 20-40 mg/kg IM q24h 117 Most species/may use with an

aminoglycoside

100 mg/10 mL

saline×30 min


Most species/pneumonia

Cefovecin — Short dosing interval is likely for

most reptile species 281,378

10 mg/kg SC q12h 281 Green iguanas/PD (25°C [77°F])

Ceftazidime

20-40 mg/kg SC, IM,

q48-72h 106,363,391

20 mg/kg SC, IM, IV

q72h 16,213

22 mg/kg IM, IV

q72h 165,366

Most species/chameleons use q24h

Snakes/PD; 30°C (86°F); often

effective against Gram-negative

aerobes (i.e., Pseudomonas)

Sea turtles

Ceftiofur 2.2 mg/kg IM q48h 79 Snakes/ceftiofur sodium

15 mg/kg IM q24-120h 1 Snakes/PK; ceftiofur crystalline-free

acid; ball pythons; 26.1°C

(79°F); dosing interval based on

MIC

5 mg/kg SC, IM q24h 26 Lizards/PK; ceftiofur sodium;

(green iguanas)

30 mg/kg IM, SC 54 Lizards/PK; ceftiofur crystallinefree

acid; bearded dragons 30°C

(86°F); interval may be q10-12d

2.2 mg/kg IM q24h 79 Turtles/ceftiofur sodium

4 mg/kg IM q24h 79 Tortoises/ceftiofur sodium; upper

respiratory infection

Cefuroxime 100 mg/kg IM q24h 79 Most species/30°C (86°F)

Cephalexin 20-40 mg/kg PO q12h 106 Most species/unknown absorption

Cephalothin 20-40 mg/kg IM q12h 106 Most species

129

Chloramphenicol — Most species/public health concern;

reserve for meningitis or

encephalitis caused by

susceptible organisms

40 mg/kg PO, SC, IM

q24h, or 20 mg/kg

PO, SC, IM q12h 106

Most species/20 mg/kg may be

given q24h in larger

crocodilians

40 mg/kg SC q24h 42 Snakes/PD (gopher snakes, 29°C

[84°F])

50 mg/kg SC q12-72h 56 Snakes/PD; q12h in indigo, rat,

king snakes; q24h in boids,

moccasin snakes; q48h in

rattlesnakes; q72h in red-bellied

water snakes

Chlorhexidine (Nolvasan 2%,

Fort Dodge)

Topical 0.05% aqueous

solution q24h 264

Topical 0.07% (1:30

[solution:water]) 35,277

All species/topical disinfection;

dermatitis; infectious stomatitis;

periodontal disease in lizards

q24h

Most species/topical disinfection;

infectious stomatitis; abscess

lavage; middle ear infection

flush in box turtles

Chlortetracycline 200 mg/kg PO q24h 106 Most species

Ciprofloxacin 10 mg/kg PO q48h 79 Most species

11 mg/kg PO q48-72h 198 Pythons/PD (reticulated pythons)

Ciprofloxacin ophthalmic

ointment or drops

(Ciloxan, Alcon)

Topical 117

All species/infectious stomatitis;

gingivitis

Clarithromycin 15 mg/kg PO q84h 397 Tortoises/PD (desert tortoises);

upper respiratory tract disease

(mycoplasmosis)

Clindamycin

10 mg/kg PO, IM, IV

q12h 135 Loggerhead sea turtles/PK; 29.1-

30.3°C (84.4-86.5°F) insufficient

to be effective

Danofloxacin 6 mg/kg SC, IM 247 Loggerhead sea turtles

6 mg/kg SC

q48h×30 days 117

Dihydrostreptomycin 5 mg/kg IM q12-

24h 103,117

Tortoises/upper respiratory tract

disease

Most species/maintain hydration

Doxycycline

(Vibramycin, Pfizer)

5-10 mg/kg PO

q24h×10-45 days 117

Most species/respiratory infection

(i.e., mycoplasmosis)

130

50 mg/kg IM, then Tortoises/Hermann’s tortoise; 27°C

25 mg/kg q72h 38,357 (81°F)

Enrofloxacin

5-10 mg/kg q24h PO,

SC, IM, ICe 117

Most species/IM administration is

painful and may result in tissue

necrosis and sterile abscesses;

may cause skin discoloration or

tissue necrosis if given SC; to

administer SC, dilute with

sterile NaCl

6.6 mg/kg IM q24h, or Pythons/PD (reticulated pythons);

11 mg/kg IM q48h 198 Pseudomonas

10 mg/kg IM

q48h 391,392,407

Snakes/PK (Burmese pythons,

rattlesnakes, pit vipers)

5 mg/kg PO, IM q24h 255 Lizards/PD (green iguanas);

marked pharmacokinetic

variability with PO

administration may make IM

more suitable in critically ill

animals

10 mg/kg IM q5d 160 Monitors/PK (savannah monitors);

preliminary data

5 mg/kg IM q24-48h 310 Chelonians and most other

reptiles/PD (gopher tortoises);

hyperexcitation,

incoordination, diarrhea

reported in a Galapagos

tortoise 49

5 mg/kg IM q12-24h 320 Chelonians/PK (Indian star

tortoises); q12h for Pseudomonas

and Citrobacter; q24h for other

bacteria

5 mg/kg IV, IM q48h 210 Sea turtles/PK (loggerhead sea

turtles)

10 mg/kg ICe q48h 123,332 Chelonians/PD (Hermann’s

tortoises; yellow-bellied sliders)

dilute with saline to 10 mg/mL

10 mg/kg IM q24h 357 Chelonians/PD (Hermann’s

tortoises)

5 mg/kg IV q36-72h 146,250 Crocodilians/PK; PO

pharmacokinetics not fully

determined; mycoplasmosis

Nasal flush

Tortoises/URT syndrome; use until

131

50 mg/250 mL sterile

water; 1-3 mL/naris

q24-48h 117

no more discharge (5-10 days);

may use concurrently with

parenteral antibiotics

Gentamicin — Nephrotoxicity has been

reported, 275 especially in snakes;

maintain hydration; use with a

penicillin or cephalosporin

2.5 mg/kg IM q72h 42,43 Snakes/PD (gopher snakes)

2.5-3 mg/kg IM, then

1.5 mg/kg q96h 154 Snakes/PK (blood pythons)

3 mg/kg IM q>96h 18 Turtles/PD (eastern box turtles;

29°C [84°F]); lower dose may be

more appropriate

6 mg/kg IM q72-96h 318 Turtles/PD (red-eared sliders; 24°C,

[75°F])

Gentamicin ophthalmic

ointment or drops

Gentamicin/betamethasone

ophthalmic drops

(Gentocin Durafilm,

Merck)

Kanamycin

1.75-2.25 mg/kg IM

q72-96h 172

Topical 103

1-2 drops to eye q12-

24h 178

10-15 mg/kg IM, IV

q24h (or divided

doses) 79,103

Crocodilians/PK (alligators);

respiratory infection

Most species/superficial ocular

infection; lesions in oral cavity

Tortoises/upper respiratory

infections; may also be given as

a reverse nasal flush q48-72h,

or intranasal q12-24h

Most species/24°C (75°F); give with

fluid therapy; avoid in cases of

dehydration or renal or hepatic

dysfunction

Lincomycin 5 mg/kg IM q12-24h 79 Most species/wound infection;

potentially nephrotoxic;

maintain hydration

10 mg/kg PO q24h 79 Most species

Marbofloxacin 10 mg/kg PO q48h 60 Ball pythons/PD

Metronidazole

20 mg/kg PO

q48h×≥7 days 107

Most species/anaerobes

50 mg/kg PO q24h×7-

14 days 198 Most species/may be administered

concurrently with amikacin for

broader spectrum; because of

potential side effects at this

dose, a lower dose may be

prudent

20 mg/kg PO q48h 32,206 Snakes/PK (corn and rat snakes)

132

20 mg/kg PO q24-48h 207 Iguanas/PK; use q24h for resistant

anaerobes

Oxytetracycline

6-10 mg/kg PO, IM, IV

q24h 79,103

Most species/may produce local

inflammation at injection site

10 mg/kg IM, IV q5d 145 Crocodilians/PK (alligators; 27°C

[81°F]); mycoplasmosis

Penicillin, benzathine

Penicillin G

Piperacillin

10,000-20,000 U/kg IM

q48-96h 106

10,000-20,000 U/kg SC,

IM, IV, ICe q8-12h 103

50-100 mg/kg IM

q24h 79,103

Most species/may use with an

aminoglycoside

Most species/infrequently used

Most species/broad-spectrum

bactericidal agent; maintain

hydration; may use with an

aminoglycoside

50 mg/kg IM, then

25 mg/kg q24h 79,117 Snakes

100 mg/kg IM q48h 155 Snakes/PK (blood pythons)

Polymyxin B sulfate,

neomycin sulfate,

bacitracin zinc ointment

Povidone-iodine solution

(0.05%) or ointment


(Silvadene, Marion)

100-200 mg/kg SC, IM

q24-48h 174

100 mg/10 mL

saline×30 min


Topical 117

Topical/lavage 103,300

Topical q24-72h 231

Chameleons


All species/rostral abrasions,

dermal wounds

All species/fungal dermatitis;

dermatophilosis; contaminated

wound; can soak in 0.005%

aqueous solution ≤1 hr q12-24h

All species/broad-spectrum

antibacterial for skin (i.e.,

wounds, burns) or oral cavity;

dressing is generally not

necessary

Streptomycin 10 mg/kg IM q12-24h 103 Most species/potentially

nephrotoxic; maintain

hydration; avoid in cases of

dehydration or renal or hepatic

dysfunction

Sulfadiazine 25 mg/kg PO q24h 117 Most species/maintain hydration

Sulfadimethoxine 90 mg/kg IM, then Most species/potentially

133

45 mg/kg q24h 103 nephrotoxic; maintain

hydration

Ticarcillin (Ticar, SmithKline-

Beecham)

50-100 mg/kg IM

q24h 103

50-100 mg/kg IM, IV

q24-48h 237

Most species/maintain hydration

Loggerhead sea turtles/PK

Tobramycin — Potentially nephrotoxic; maintain

hydration; potentiated by ß-

lactams

2.5 mg/kg IM q24-72h 79 Most species

10 mg/kg IM q24-48h 79 Chelonians/can be given q48h in

tortoises; fluid therapy

recommended

Trimethoprim/sulfadiazine or

sulfamethoxazole

— Maintain hydration; parenteral

form must be compounded

10-30 mg/kg PO q24h 117 Most species/maintain hydration

30 mg/kg IM

q24h×2 days, then

q48h 357

Tortoises/PD

Tylosin

5 mg/kg IM q24h×10-

60 days 79 Most species/mycoplasmosis

a

Because reptiles are ectothermic, pharmacokinetics of drugs are influenced by ambient temperature.

Antimicrobial therapy should be conducted at the upper end of the patient’s preferred (selected) optimum

temperature zone.

b

See Table 15-4 for antimicrobial combination therapies, some of which are commonly used in reptiles.

134

Table 4-2

Antiviral Agents Used in Reptiles.


Acyclovir 40-80 mg/kg PO 5 Box turtles/PK, low maximum plasma

concentrations; uncertain efficacy

≥80 mg/kg PO q24h 108

80 mg/kg PO q8h, or

240 mg/kg PO

q24h 258

Tortoises/PK; herpesvirus; poor oral absorption

Tortoises/herpesvirus; uncertain efficacy; unlikely

to eliminate infection; combine with

supportive care

80 mg/kg PO q24h 299 Mediterranean tortoises/decreased mortality in

those infected with TeHV-3

80 mg/kg PO q24h 63 Australian Krefft’s river turtles/herpesvirus;

uncertain efficacy

Chlorhexidine

solution

Famcyclovir

Topical (5%

ointment) q12h 103

0.5% dilution, topical

on oral lesions

q24h 191

10-30 mg/kg PO q24h

using allometric

scaling 348

All species/antiviral (i.e., herpesvirus-associated

dermatitis)

Tortoises/herpesvirus

Eastern box turtles/treated during outbreak of

concurrent terHV-1 and ranavirus (FV-3);

uncertain efficacy

Valacyclovir 40 mg/kg PO q24h 5 Box turtles/PK, effective plasma concentrations

compared to humans; uncertain efficacy or

toxicity

Table 4-3

Antifungal Agents Used in Reptiles.


Amphotericin B 0.5 mg/kg IV q48-

72h 104

Most species/nephrotoxic; can use in

combination with ketoconazole;

administer slowly

0.5-1 mg/kg IV, ICe

q24-72h×14-

28 days 79 Most species/aspergillosis

1 mg/kg IT Most species/respiratory infection; dilute

q24h×14-

with water or saline

28 days 173

135

Chlorhexidine (Nolvasan

2%, Fort Dodge)

Clotrimazole (Veltrim,

Haver-Lockhart;

Otomax, with

gentamicin and

betamethasone,

Schering-Plough)

F10 super concentrate

disinfectant (Health

and Hygiene,

Roodeport, S Africa)

0.1 mg/kg

intrapulmonary

q24h×28 days 147

1 mg/kg q24h

ICe×2-4 wk 218

5 mg/150 mL

saline×1 hr

nebulization

q12h×7 days 169

20 mL/g water

bath 398

Topical 328

1:250 nasal flush,

0.1 mL each

nare q24h 52

Greek tortoises/pneumonia

Crocodilians


Lizards/dermatophytosis

Most species/dermatitis; may bathe q12h

with dilute organic iodine prior to use

Terrestrial chelonians/benzalkonium

chloride/polyhexamethylene biguanide

HCl

Fluconazole 5 mg/kg PO q24h 398 Lizards/dermatophytosis

Griseofulvin

21 mg/kg SC once,

then 10 mg/kg

SC 5 days

later 136,235

15 mg/kg PO

q72h 175-177

20-40 mg/kg PO

q72h×5

treatments 328

Loggerhead sea turtles/PK

Most species

Most species/dermatitis; limited success

Itraconazole 5 mg/kg PO q24h 249 Most species/some hepatotoxicity noted

when used for Chrysosporium anamorph

of Nannizziopsis vriesii; can cause anorexia

in bearded dragons without evidence of

hepatotoxicity 114

10 mg/kg PO

q24h 271

Snakes

5 mg/kg PO q24h 142 Panther chameleons

10 mg/kg PO

q48h×60 days 29

Chameleons (Parson’s)/osteomyelitis

136

23.5 mg/kg PO Lizards/PD (spiny lizards); following a 3-

q24h 110 day treatment, a therapeutic plasma

concentration persists for 6 days beyond

peak concentration; treatment interval

was not determined

5 mg/kg PO q24h,

or 15 mg/kg PO

q72h 238

Kemp’s ridley sea turtles

Ketoconazole — May use antibiotics concomitantly to

prevent bacterial overgrowth; may use

concurrently with thiabendazole

15 mg/kg q72h

PO 175-177

25 mg/kg PO

q24h×21 days 170

Most species

Snakes, turtles

15-30 mg/kg PO Chelonians/PK (gopher tortoises); systemic

q24h×14-

infection

28 days 254,304

50 mg/kg PO

q24h×14-

28 days 117 Crocodilians

Malachite green

Miconazole (Monistat-

Derm, Ortho)

Nystatin

Terbinafine

Tolnaftate 1% cream

(Tinactin, Schering-

Plough)

Voriconazole

0.15 mg/L

water×1 hr

bath×14 days 79

Topical 328

100,000 U/kg PO

q24h×10 days 169

3.4 mg/kg PO

q24h×15 mo 369

Topical 186

Topical q12h prn 4

10 mg/kg per

cloacal 3×/wk×4

wk 261

Dermatitis


with dilute organic iodine before use

Most species/enteric yeast infections; limited

success

Aldabra tortoises/severe

phaeohyphomycosis

of carapace; non-responsive to

itraconazole

Use in conjunction with oral azoles for

Chrysosporium anamorph of Nannizziopsis

vriesii; expect long treatment calendar


with dilute organic iodine before use

Rattlesnakes/Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola;

crushed in suspension (Ora-Plus,

Paddock Laboratories)

10 mg/kg Bearded dragons for Chrysosporium

137

PO×47 days 347,383

anamorph of Nannizziopsis vriesii; possible

hepatocellular injury

5 mg/kg SC 162 Red-eared sliders/exceeded MIC only until

4 hr postinjection; 26°C (78°F)

Voriconazole (V)/F10

super concentrate

disinfectant (F10,

Health and Hygiene,

Roodeport, S Africa)

10 mg/kg SC

q12h×7 days 167

(V) 10 mg/kg PO

q24h×60 days+

(F10) 1:250

dilution for

20 min bath

q24h×60 days 335

Red-eared sliders/resulted in trough

concentrations considered

subtherapeutic in humans but may

reach MIC for some reptile fungal

isolates; possible side effects seen

Luthega skinks/systemic Lecanicillium sp.

infection; nonresponsive to oral

voriconazole and terbinafine ointment

Table 4-4

Antiparasitic Agents Used in Reptiles.


Albendazole 50 mg/kg PO 117 Most species/ascarids; most toxic of the

benzimidazoles

Carbaryl powder (5%)

Chloroquine

Lightly dust animal

and environment;

rinse after 1 hr;

repeat in 7

days 92,106

125 mg/kg PO q48h×3

treatments 117

Lizards, snakes/mites

Tortoises/hemoprotozoa

Dichlorvos (Vapona No-

Pest Strip; United

Industries)

Dimetridazole (Emtryl,

Rhône- Poulenc)

6 mm strip/10 ft 3 in Most species/mites; toxicity occurs; 106

cage×3 hr q48h×2- prevent contact with animals (e.g.,

4 wk 103,400 place strip above cage or inside

perforated container); avoid in cases of

renal or hepatic dysfunction; remove

water container; use is discouraged

— Not available in the United States

100 mg/kg PO once,

repeat in 2 wk 117

Most species/amoebae

40 mg/kg PO q24h×5- Snakes (except milk and indigo)/amoebae,

8 days 169 flagellates

138

40 mg/kg PO, repeat

in 14 days 117

Milk and indigo snakes/amoebae;

flagellates

Emodepside

(1.98%)+praziquantel

(7.94%) (Profender,

Bayer)

1.12 mL/kg 265,337 Many species/PD; nematodes; cestodes;

aquatic turtles must be kept dry for

48 hr after application; appears to be

safe, but need more safety and efficacy

data

Fenbendazole — Drug of choice for nematodes; least toxic

of the benzimidazoles; may have an

antiprotozoan effect; overdose may

cause leukopenia, avoid in septicemic

patients 285

25-100 mg/kg PO

q14d for up to 4

treatments 38,169,196

All species/nematodes

100 mg/kg once 113 Tortoises/nematodes; shedding of ova

continues for 30 days

Fipronil (0.29%;

Frontline Spray,

Merial)

Imidocloprid and

moxidectin

(Advantage

multi/Advocate,

Bayer)

Wipe on then wash

off in 5 min q7-

10d prn 88,92

0.2 mg/kg topical

q14d×3

treatments 130

Most species/mites, ticks; beware of

reactions to alcohol carrier; needs

safety evaluation 117

Lizards/eliminated hookworms and

pinworms; needs safety and

pharmacokinetic evaluation

Ivermectin — Do not use in chelonians, 377 crocodilians,

indigo snakes, or skinks 38,117,199

0.2 mg/kg PO, SC,

IM, repeat in 14

days 93,117

5-10 mg/L water

topical spray q3-

Snakes (except indigos), lizards (except

skinks) 38 /nematodes (including

lungworms), 223 mites; can dilute with

propylene glycol for oral use; colored

animals may have skin discoloration at

injection site; rare adverse effects

reported in chameleons, possibly

associated with breakdown of

parasites; 16 do not use within 10 days

of diazepam or tiletamine/zolazepam;

rare death and occasional nervous

system signs, lethargy, or inappetence

have been reported; 199 used for

pentastomids in monitor lizards (with

dexamethasone 0.2 mg/kg q2d) 93

Snakes (except indigos), lizards (except

skinks)/mites; less effective than

139

Levamisole (Levasole

13.65%,

Mallinckrodt)

Mebendazole

5d up to 28 days 199

5-10 mg/kg SC, ICe,

repeat in 14

days 16,117,169

20-25 mg/kg PO,

repeat in 14 days

prn 169

fipronil; spray on skin and in newly

cleaned cage, then allow to dry before

replacing water dish

Most species/lungworms; 5 mg/kg in

chelonians; 10 mg/kg in lizards,

snakes; very narrow range of safety;

main advantage is that it can be

administered parenterally; avoid

concurrent use with chloramphenicol;

avoid use in debilitated animals; low

dose may stimulate depressed immune

system; can be used IM, but less

effective

Most species/strongyles, ascarids, effective

dosage of 400 mg/kg; 208 may be toxic

Metronidazole — Protozoan (i.e., flagellates, amoebae)

overgrowth; may stimulate appetite;

may cause severe neurologic signs at

doses >200 mg/kg; 272 death occurred in

indigo and mountain king snakes at

100 mg/kg; 169 injectable form can be

administered PO; oral suspension is

not available in the United States, but

can be compounded

40-100 mg/kg PO,

repeat in 10-

14 days 103 Most species/flagellate overgrowth

20 mg/kg PO q48h 32 Corn snakes/PK; 28°C (82°F); protozoa

40 mg/kg PO, repeat

in 14 days 106,169

40-60 mg/kg PO

q7d×2-3 doses 364

40-200 mg/kg PO,

repeat in 14 days 268

Uracoan rattler, milk, tricolor king, and

indigo snakes/flagellates

Chameleons/flagellates; amoebae

Geckos/ocular lesions (40 mg/kg) and

subcutaneous lesions (200 mg/kg)

caused by Trichomonas

20 mg/kg ICe q48h 161 Red-eared sliders/PK; ICe administration

not recommended; needs further safety

evaluation

Milbemycin

25 mg/kg PO

q24h×5 days 117

0.25-0.5 mg/kg SC

prn 31

Chelonians/amoebiasis

Chelonians/nematodes; parenteral form is

not commercially available in United

140

States; fenbendazole preferred

Nitrofurazone 25.5 mg/kg PO 393 Most species/coccidia; seldom used

Olive oil Coat skin q7d 16,92 Most species, especially small, delicate

lizards/mites; wash animal with mild

soap (and rinse well) the next day;

messy to use; environment must be

treated with acaricide

Oxfendazole

(Benzelmin, Fort

Dodge)

66 mg/kg PO once 113 Most species/nematodes; may be repeated

after 28 days prn

Paromomycin

(Humatin, Parke

Davis)

Permethrin (Provent-a-

Mite, Pro Products)

Piperazine

35-100 mg/kg PO

q24h×≤28 days 103,169

100 mg/kg PO

q24h×7 days, then

2×/wk×3 mo 64

300-360 mg/kg PO

q48h×14 days 305

300-800 mg/kg PO

q24h prn 58

360 mg/kg PO

q48h×10 days 129

Environmental

treatment, 1 sec of

spray/ft 2 ; wait

until dry before

returning animal

to enclosure 92

Topical 92

40-60 mg/kg PO,


Most species/amoebae

Snakes/cryptosporidia; reduced clinical

signs and oocyte shedding; does not

eliminate the organism

Lizards (gila monsters)/cryptosporidia

Geckos/cryptosporidia; reduced clinical

signs; does not eliminate the organism

Bearded dragons/intestinal cryptosporidia

Lizards, snakes/mites; ticks; FDA

approved; safe and effective; wash

immediately if accidentally applied to

skin

Tortoises/ticks

Most species/strongyles, ascarids; poor

efficacy at <400 mg/kg 208

100-200 mg/kg PO 159 Crocodilians

Ponazuril

30 mg/kg PO q48h×2

treatments 33,273

Bearded dragons/coccidiosis

Praziquantel — See also emodepside

8 mg/kg PO, SC, IM,

repeat in 14

days 16,117,174

25-50 mg/kg PO

q3h×3

treatments 2,171

Most species/cestodes, trematodes; higher

dosages have been administered 106

Sea turtles (green, loggerhead)/PD;

spirorchidiasis

141

Pyrantel pamoate

5 mg/kg PO, repeat in

14 days 199 Most species/nematodes

Pyrethrin spray (0.09%)

Quinacrine (Atabrine,

Winthrop)

Quinine sulfate

Spiramycin (Spirasol,

May and Baker)

25 mg/kg PO

q24h×3 days;

repeat in 3 wk 106

Topical q7d×2-3

treatments 92

19-100 mg/kg PO

q48h×14-21 days 393

75 mg/kg PO

q48h×14-28 days 393

160 mg/kg PO

q24h×10 days,

then 2×/wk×3 mo 64

Most species/ascarids, hookworms,

pinworms

Most species/use water-based sprays

labeled for kittens and puppies; apply

with cloth; can also spray cage, wash

out after 30 min; use sparingly and

with caution; pyrethroids are safer (see

permethrin, resmethrin)

Most species/some hematozoa

Most species/some hematozoa; toxic at

>100 mg/kg q24h; ineffective against

exoerythrocytic forms

Snakes/cryptosporidia; may reduce clinical

signs and oocyte shedding; does not

eliminate the organism

Sulfadiazine,

sulfamerazine

— Most species/coccidia; avoid sulfa drugs in

cases of dehydration, urinary calculi,

or renal dysfunction 272

Sulfadimethoxine

75 mg/kg PO, then

45 mg/kg

q24h×5 days 103,393

25 mg/kg PO

q24h×21 days 16,393


5 days, then q48h

prn 199

Most species/coccidia

Snakes, lizards/coccidia

Most species/coccidia; ensure adequate

hydration and renal function

90 mg/kg PO, IM, IV, Most species/coccidia

then 45 mg/kg

q24h×5-

7 days 103,169,393

50 mg/kg PO

q24h×21 days 384

Bearded dragons/coccidia

Sulfadimidine (33%

solution)

0.3-0.6 mL/kg PO Most species/coccidia; alternatively, 0.3-

q24h×10 days 393 0.6 mL/kg, then 0.15-0.3 mL/kg

q24h×10 days

1 oz/gal drinking

water×10 days 393


142

Sulfamethazine

25 mg/kg PO, IM

q24h×21 days 393


50 mg/kg PO

q24h×3 days, off 3

days, on 3 days 117

75 mg/kg PO, IM, IV,

then 40 mg/kg

q24h×5-7 days 169


Most species/coccidia; ensure adequate

hydration and renal function

Sulfaquinoxaline

75 mg/kg PO, then

40 mg/kg q24h×5-

7 days 169 Most species/coccidia

Thiabendazole

Toltrazuril 5% (Baycox,

Bayer)

50-100 mg/kg PO,

repeat in 14

days 104,169

5-15 mg/kg

q24h×3 days 83

15 mg/kg

q48h×30 days 118

Most species/nematodes; fenbendazole

preferred

Bearded dragons/coccidiosis

Tortoises/coccidiosis; needs safety, efficacy,

and pharmacokinetic study

Trimethoprim/sulfa — Most species/coccidia; avoid potentiated

sulfa drugs in cases of dehydration or

renal dysfunction 272

30 mg/kg PO

q24h×2 days, then

q48h×21 days 16,393

30 mg/kg IM

q24h×2 days, then

15 mg/kg IM

q48h×10-28 days 393

30 mg/kg PO

q24h×14 days,

then 1-3×/wk×3-6

mo 64



Most species/cryptosporidia; can reduce

shedding but does not clear infection

Water Bath×30 min 92,228 Snakes, lizards/mites; use lukewarm (29°C

[85°F]) water; monitor to avoid

drowning; not 100% effective; does not

kill mites on head; must treat

environment with acaricide

Table 4-5

Chemical Restraint/Anesthetic Agents Used in Reptiles.

143


Acepromazine

0.05-0.25 mg/kg

IM 117

Most species/can be used as a preanesthetic

with ketamine

0.1-0.5 mg/kg Most species/preanesthetic; reduce by 50%

IM 269,303 if used with barbiturates

Acepromazine

(A)/propofol (P)

(A) 0.5 mg/kg IM +

(P) 5 mg/kg IV;

(A) 0.5 mg/kg IM

+ (P) 10 mg/kg

IV 6

Giant Amazon pond turtles/sedation with

both protocols, longer duration with

higher propofol dosage

Alphaxalone(Alfaxan,

Jurox)

6-9 mg/kg IV, or 9-

15 mg/kg IM 216 Most species/good muscle relaxation;

variable results; drug requires more

evaluation; may have violent

recovery; 19 don’t use within 10 days of

DMSO treatment

6-15 mg/kg IM, IV 344 Most species

9 mg/kg IV 336 Snakes,lizards/induction; not effective for

blotched blue-tongued skinks

15 mg/kg IM 269 Lizards, chelonians/induction, 35-40 min;

duration, 15-35 min; good muscle

relaxation; variable results

24 mg/kg ICe 131 Chelonians (red-eared sliders)/surgical

anesthesia with good relaxation

5 mg/kg IV 201 Turtles, tortoises/induction

10-20 mg/kg

IM 133,193,346

Horsfield’s tortoises (males only)/light to

moderate sedation with no to minimal

analgesia; red-eared slider turtles/light

sedation of short duration; PD turtles

administered 10 mg/kg at low

temperature more relaxed than warm

and turtles administered 20 mg/kg at

warm temperature were most relaxed

20 mg/kg IM 166 Red-eared slider turtles, Eastern painted

turtles, yellow-spotted Amazon river

turtles, other undocumented turtle

species/anesthetic induction

3 mg/kg IV 296 Crocodilians/induction, but unpredictable

results

Alfaxalone

(Al)/medetomidine

(Me)

(Al) 10 mg/kg+(Me)

0.10 mg/kg IM;

(Al) 20 mg/kg+

Horsfield’s tortoises (males only)/deeper

sedation than alfaxalone alone with

analgesia

144


Zoetis)

(Me) 0.05 mg/kg

IM 133

Give same volume

SC, IV, IP as

medetomidine, or

dexmedetomidine

(5×

medetomidine, or

10×

dexmedetomidine

dose in mg) a,95,355

Most species/medetomidine and

dexmedetomidine reversal; causes

severe hypotension in gopher tortoises

when given IV 69

0.2-0.5 mg/kg IM 94 Chelonians/shell repair 5-10 min before

finished

0.5-0.75 mg/kg IM, 319

0.75 mg/kg SC 244 Chelonians

Atropine

Bupivicaine (0.5%)

0.01-0.04 mg/kg SC,

IM, 34 IV, 104 ICe 341

0.5 mg/kg IM, IV, IT,

IO 272

1 mg/kg

intrathecal 240

0.1 mL/10 cm

carapace 17

Most species/preanesthetic; bradycardia;

rarely indicated; generally use only in

profound or prolonged bradycardia; 341

may help prevent intracardiac

shunting; 175 ineffective at this dose in

green iguanas 302

Most species/bradycardia, decrease

secretions, CPR

Turtles and tortoises/spinal anesthesia

Green sea turtles/spinal anesthesia

Butorphanol — Butorphanol combinations follow; see

ketamine for combinations; inadequate

for analgesia

0.4-1 mg/kg SC,

IM 341

0.5-2 mg/kg IM, or

0.2-0.5 mg/kg IV,

IO 24

1-1.5 mg/kg SC,

IM 341

Most species/sedation; preanesthetic

Most species/preanesthetic

Lizards/administer 30 min prior to

isoflurane for smoother, shorter

induction

0.2 mg/kg IM 139,319 Chelonians/minimal sedation

Butorphanol

(B)/medetomidine

(Me) a

(B) 0.4 mg/kg+(Me)

0.08 mg/kg IM 112 Green tree monitors/sedation

145

Butorphanol

(B)/midazolam (Mi)

Dexmedetomidine a

(Dexdomitor, Zoetis)

Dexmedetomidine

(De)/ketamine (K)

Dexmedetomidine

(De)/midazolam

(Mi)/ketamine (K)

(B) 0.4 mg/kg+(Mi) Most species/preanesthetic; administer

2 mg/kg IM 23 20 min before induction

— Dexmedetomidine combinations follow; α 2

agonist that has replaced

medetomidine; a reverse with

atipamezole

(De) 0.03 mg/kg+(K)

6 mg/kg IV 137 Hatchling leatherback sea

turtles/anesthesia; reversal with

atipamezole (0.3 mg/kg IM, IV)

(De) 0.1 mg/kg+(Mi)

1 mg/kg+(K)

2 mg/kg SC 245 Red-eared slider turtles/deep sedation

Dexmedetomidine

(De)/ketamine

(K)/morphine (Mo)

(De) 0.075 mg/kg+

(K) 8 mg/kg+

(Mo) 1 mg/kg

IM 263

Gopher tortoises/anesthesia, reversed with

atipamezole

Dextroketamine (DK) 10 mg/kg IV, ICe 156 Spectacled caiman/mild sedation ICe; PK

Dextroketamine

(DK)/midazolam (Mi)

(Mi) 0.5 mg/kg+(DK)

10 mg/kg IV,

ICe 156

Spectacled caiman/deep sedation IV; PK; no

analgesia

Diazepam — Diazepam has been replaced by the use of

midazolam in many cases; see ketamine

for combinations; muscle relaxation;

give 20 min prior to anesthesia;

potentially reversible with flumazenil;

drug interaction with ivermectin

0.5 mg/kg IM, IV 272 All species/seizures

2.5 mg/kg IM, IV 329 Most species/seizures

0.2-0.8 mg/kg IM 341 Snakes/use in conjunction with ketamine

for anesthesia with muscle relaxation

0.2-2 mg/kg IM, IV 344 Snakes, lizards

2.5 mg/kg PO 341 Iguanas/reduce anxiety which often leads

to aggression

0.2-1 mg/kg IM 341,344 Chelonians/use in conjunction with

ketamine for anesthesia with muscle

relaxation

Disoprofol

5-15 mg/kg IV to

effect 37

All species/anesthesia; similar

characteristics to propofol; not available

in United States

Doxapram 4-12 mg/kg IM, IV 341 Most species/respiratory stimulant

5 mg/kg IM, IV 23 Most species/respiratory stimulant; reduces

146

q10min prn

20 mg/kg IM, IV,

IO 272

recovery time; reported to partially

“reverse” effects of dissociatives 217

Most species/respiratory stimulant

5-10 mg/kg IV 349 American alligators/immediate dosedependent

increase in breathing

frequency

Epinephrine (1:1000)

0.5-1 mg/kg IV, IO,

IT 272

Most species/CPR, cardiac arrest

0.1 mg/kg IM 125 Snapping turtles/reduction in time to

spontaneous respiration after

isoflurane anesthesia

Etorphine (M-99, Wildlife

Pharmaceuticals)

Flumazenil (Romazicon,

Hoffman-LaRoche)

0.3-0.5 mg/kg Crocodilians, chelonians/very potent

IM 269 0.3-

narcotic; crocodilians: induction, 5-

2.75 mg/kg IM 216 30 min; duration, 30-180 min;

chelonians: induction, 10-20 min;

duration, 40-120 min; not very effective

in reptiles other than alligators; 303 poor

relaxation; adequate for immobilization

and minor procedures; requires an

antagonist; limited use because of

expense and legal restrictions

— All species/reversal of benzodiazepines,

including diazepam and midazolam;

seldom indicated

0.05 mg/kg IM, SC,

IV 241

1 mg/20 mg of

zolazepam 220 IM,

IV 319

All species/reversal of midazolam;

extrapolated from mammals and birds

Crocodilians, chelonians/reversal of

zolazepam

Fospropofol 25-50 mg/kg ICe 340 Red-eared slider turtles/muscle relaxation

and immobility especially at higher

dosage, but prolonged recovery, and

profound respiratory depression with

resuscitation in 2/8 subjects; use with

caution

Gallamine (Flaxedil,

American Cyanamid)

0.4-1.25 mg/kg Crocodiles/results in flaccid paralysis, but

IM 20 0.6-4 mg/kg no analgesia; larger animals require

IM 221

lower dosage; reverse with

0.7 mg/kg IM 276 neostigmine; 221 use in alligators

1.2-2 mg/kg IM 95 questionable; unsafe in alligators at

≥1 mg/kg, 303 deaths reported in

American alligators and false gharials 218

147

0.5-2 mg/kg IM 211 Crocodilians

Glycopyrrolate

0.01 mg/kg SC, 34 IM,

IV 23

Most species/preanesthetic; for excess oral

or respiratory mucus; rarely indicated;

generally use only in profound or

prolonged bradycardia; may be

preferable to atropine; 104 does not work

at this dose in green iguanas 302

Haloperidol 0.5-10 mg/kg IM q7-

14d 367

Boids/aggression management

Hyaluronidase (Wydase,

Wyeth)

25 U/dose SC 220 Crocodilians/combine with premedication,

anesthetic, or reversal drugs to

accelerate SC absorption

Isoflurane 3%-5% induction, 173

1%-3%

maintenance 38

3% in 100% O 2 and

21% O 2

292

5% via chamber in

5 L/min O 2

153

Most species/inhalation anesthetic of

choice in reptiles; induction, 6-20 min;

recovery, 30-60 min; not as smooth in

reptiles compared to other animals;

intubation and intermittent positive

pressure ventilation advisable; may

preanesthetize with low dose propofol,

ketamine, etc.

Bearded dragons/trend toward shorter

induction and recovery with 21% O 2

group compared to use of 100% O 2

Green iguanas/15-35 min loss of righting

reflex; mean MAC, 1.62%; pH 7.49

Ketamine — Ketamine combinations follow; muscle

relaxation and analgesia may be

marginal; prolonged recovery with

higher doses; larger reptiles require

lower dose; painful at injection site;

safety is questionable in debilitated

patients; avoid use in cases with renal

dysfunction; snakes may be

permanently aggressive after ketamine

anesthesia; 19 generally recommend use

only as a preanesthetic prior to

isoflurane for surgical anesthesia

10 mg/kg SC, IM

q30min 34

Most species/maintenance of anesthesia;

recovery, 3-4 hr

20-60 mg/kg IM, or Most species/muscle relaxation improved

5-15 mg/kg IV 117 with midazolam or diazepam

22-44 mg/kg SC,

IM 19,20

Most species/sedation

148

55-88 mg/kg SC,

IM 20

Most species/surgical anesthesia;

induction, 10-30 min; recovery, 24-96 hr

10-20 mg/kg IM 271,272 Snakes, chelonians/sedation

20-60 mg/kg SC,

IM 34,180

Snakes/sedation; induction, 30 min;

recovery, 2-48 hr

60-80 mg/kg IM 38 Snakes/light anesthesia; intermittent

positive pressure ventilation may be

needed at higher doses

5-10 mg/kg 271,341 Lizards, snakes/decreases the incidence of

breath-holding during chamber

induction

20-30 mg/kg IM 90 Iguanas/sedation (i.e., facilitates

endotracheal intubation);

preanesthetic; requires lower dose than

other reptiles

30-50 mg/kg SC,

IM 34,180

20-60 mg/kg

IM 157,180,303

Lizards/sedation; variable results

Chelonians/sedation; induction, 30 min;

recovery, ≥24 hr; potentially dangerous

in dehydrated and debilitated tortoises

25 mg/kg IM, IV 117 Sea turtles/sedation; used at higher doses

(50-70 mg/kg); recovery times may be

excessively long and unpredictable;

combination of ketamine and

acepromazine gives a more rapid

induction and recovery

38-71 mg/kg ICe 399 Green sea turtles/anesthesia; induction, 2-

10 min; duration, 2-10 min; recovery,

<30 min

60-90 mg/kg IM 180,269 Chelonians/light anesthesia; induction,

<30 min; recovery, hours to days;

requires higher doses than most other

reptiles

20-40 mg/kg SC, IM,

ICe (sedation), to

40-80 mg/kg

(anesthesia) 220

Crocodilians/induction, <30-60 min;

recovery, hours to days; in larger

animals, 12-15 mg/kg may permit

tracheal intubation; 341 not

recommended alone in Nile crocodiles 211

20-100 mg/kg IM 218 Crocodilians/lower dose for sedation,

higher for anesthesia (requires

intermittent positive pressure

ventilation for hours)

149

Ketamine

(K)/butorphanol (B)

See (K) dosages+(B) Snakes/anesthesia with improved muscle

≤1.5 mg/kg IM 341 relaxation

Ketamine

(K)/dexmedetomidine

(De)


(D)

(K) 10-30 mg/kg+(B)

0.5-1.5 mg/kg

IM 341

(K) 5-7 mg/kg+(De)

0.025-0.07 mg/kg

IV 166

(K) 10 mg/kg+(De)

0.05 mg/kg IM,

IV 311,312

See (K) dosages+(D)

0.2-0.8 mg/kg

IM 341

(K) 60-80 mg/kg 269 +

(D) 0.2-1 mg/kg

IM 341

Chelonians/minor surgical procedures (i.e.,

shell repair)

Red-eared slider turtles, Eastern painted

turtles, yellow-spotted Amazon river

turtles, other undocumented turtle

species/anesthetic induction

Desert tortoises/premedication

Snakes/anesthesia with improved muscle

relaxation

Chelonians/anesthesia; muscle relaxation

Ketamine

— Medetomidine is no longer commercially

(M) a reverse medetomidine with atipamezole

(K)/medetomidine

available, but can be compounded; a

(K) 10 mg/kg+(M)

0.1-0.3 mg/kg

IM 80

(K) 5-10 mg/kg+(M)

0.1-0.15 mg/kg

IM, IV 141

(K) 3-8 mg/kg+(M)

0.025-0.08 mg/kg

IV 222

Most species

Lizards (iguanas)

Giant tortoises (Aldabra)

(K) 4 mg/kg+(M)

0.04 mg/kg IM 144 Green sea turtles

(K) 4-10 mg/kg+(M)

0.04-0.14 mg/kg

IM 94

Chelonians/sedation and muscle relaxation

for shell repair

(K) 5 mg/kg+(M) Loggerhead sea turtles/induction of

0.05 mg/kg IV 51 anesthesia for intubation

(K) 5 mg/kg+(M)

0.05 mg/kg IM 291 Tortoises (gopher)/light anesthesia;

tracheal intubation; inconsistent

results

(K) 5-10 mg/kg IM +

(M) 0.1-

Tortoises (small-medium)

150

0.15 mg/kg IM,

IV 141

(K) 7.5 mg/kg+(M) Tortoises (gopher)/anesthesia; tracheal

0.075 mg/kg IM 291 intubation

(K) 10 mg/kg+(M)

0.1 mg/kg IM 200 Hybrid Galapagos tortoises/sedation

(K) 10-20 mg/kg IM

+ (M) 0.15-

0.3 mg/kg IM,

IV 141

(K) 5-10 mg/kg+(M)

0.1-0.15 mg/kg

IM 143

(K) 10-15 mg/kg+(M)

0.15-0.25 mg/kg

IM 143

Turtles (fresh water)

Alligators/adults

Alligators/juveniles

Ketamine

(K)/medetomidine

(Me)/midazolam (Mi)

Ketamine

(K)/medetomidine

(Me)/morphine (Mo)

Ketamine (K)/midazolam

(Mi)

(K) 5 mg/kg+(Me)

0.15 mg/kg+(Mi)

1 mg/kg SC 243 Leopard tortoises/deep sedation

(K) 2.5 mg/kg+(Me) African spurred tortoises/deep sedation

0.15 mg/kg+(Mo) and analgesia

1 mg/kg SC 244

(K) 20 mg/kg+(Mi) Giant Amazon river turtles/sedation with

2 mg/kg IM, (K) both combinations; more rapid and

60 mg/kg+(Mi) prolonged sedation with higher K

2 mg/kg IM 7 dosage

(K) 20-40 mg/kg+

(Mi) ≤2 mg/kg

IM 30

(K) 60-80 mg/kg 269 +

(Mi) ≤2 mg/kg

IM 341

Chelonians/sedation; muscle relaxation

Chelonians/anesthesia; muscle relaxation

Ketamine (K)/propofol

(P)

Ketamine (K)/xylazine

(X)

(K) 25-30 mg/kg Chelonians/administer propofol≈70-80 min

IM 269 +(P)

post-ketamine; see propofol

7 mg/kg IV 313

(K) 30 mg/kg+(X) Broad-snouted caiman juveniles/provided

1 mg/kg IM 47 mild sedation after either forelimb or

hind limb administration

Lidocaine (0.5%-2%) Local or topical 341 Most species/local analgesia; infiltrate to

effect (e.g., 0.01 mL 2% lidocaine used

for local block for IO catheter placement

in iguanas); 21 often used in conjunction

151

with chemical immobilization

0.158 mg/cm

intrathecal

(combined with

epinephrine

hemitartrate) 333

Green iguana/spinal anesthesia

2 mg/kg intrathecal

(IT) 240

Turtles and toroises/surgical

analgesia/anesthesia of caudal body

0.038 mL/kg Hybrid Galapagos tortoises/surgical

(1 mL/20-

analgesia/anesthesia for phallectomy

25 kg) 324

Medetomidine a — Medetomidine is no longer commercially

available, but can be compounded; a

0.1-0.15 mg/kg IM 23 Most species

0.06-0.15 mg/kg 342 Lizards

reverse with atipamezole; produces

poor immobilization alone; see

ketamine and butorphanol for

combinations

0.15 mg/kg IM 354,355 Desert tortoises, crocodilians/sedation;

incomplete immobilization; generally

produces bradycardia and bradypnea

0.04-0.15 mg/kg

IM 218

0.13-0.17 mg/kg

IM 294,295

0.5-0.75 mg/kg

IM 294,295

Crocodilians/need to reverse

Crocodilians/moderate

sedation/atipamezole (0.1 mg/kg IM) for

reversal

Crocodilians/sedation only when

administered in thoracic limb (versus

pelvic limb and tail), with atipamezole

(2.5 mg/kg) reversal

Meperidine

(Mp)/Midazolam (Mi)

Methohexital (Brevital,

Lilly)

(Mp) 1 mg/kg+(Mi)

1 mg/kg IM 17 Green sea turtles/premedication

— Recovery time of red-sided garter snakes at

21°C (70°F), 125 min; 26°C (79°F),

86 min; 31°C (88°F), 64 min; thinner

snakes had longer recovery times; if

within 5 wk of parturition, mean

recovery time 2× as long as nongravid;

time postfeeding had no effect at 1, 3, 10

days 309

5-20 mg/kg SC, 20 Most species/induction, 5-30 min; recovery,

152

IV 104 1-5 hr; use at 0.125%-0.5%

concentration; much species variability;

decrease dose 20%-30% for young

animals; avoid use in debilitated

animals

9-10 mg/kg SC, 287

ICe

Colubrids/induction, ≥22 min; recovery, 2-

5 hr; does not produce soft-tissue

irritation seen with other barbiturates;

may need to adjust dosage in obese

snakes

Metomidate 10 mg/kg IM 80,334 Snakes/profound sedation; not available in

the United States

Midazolam — See butorphanol, ketamine for

combinations; can be reversed by

flumazenil

0.1-1 mg/kg 12 Multiple species/mild to moderate sedation

2 mg/kg IM 19,20 Most species/preanesthetic; increases the

efficacy of ketamine; effective in

snapping turtles, not in painted

turtles 20

0.5-2 mg/kg 342 Lizards

1.5 mg/kg IM 298 Turtles (red-eared sliders)/sedation; onset,

5.5 min; duration, 82 min; recovery,

40 min; much individual variability

2-3 mg/kg IV 137 Hatchling leatherback sea turtles/sedation

Naloxone 0.04-2 mg/kg SC 350,353 Corn snakes, bearded dragons, red-eared

sliders/µ-opioid agonist reversal

4 mg/kg IM 112 Green tree monitors/reversal of

butorphanol

Neostigmine

0.03-0.25 mg/kg

IM 221

0.063 mg/kg IV 221

0.07-0.14 mg/kg

IM 276

Crocodiles/gallamine reversal; may cause

emesis and lacrimation; fast 24-48 hr

before use; effects enhanced if combined

with 75 mg hyaluronidase per dose

when administered SC, IM 221

Pentobarbital — Rarely used as an anesthetic agent in

reptiles

15-30 mg/kg ICe 269 Snakes/induction, 30-60 min; duration,

≥2 hr; prolonged recovery (risk of

occasional fatalities); venomous snakes

require twice as much as nonvenomous

snakes; 19 avoid use in lizards

153

10-18 mg/kg ICe 269 Chelonians

7.5-15 mg/kg ICe, or

8 mg/kg IM 19,269 Crocodilians

Propofol — If administered in supravertebral sinus, be

aware for potential submeningeal

delivery; 314 see ketamine for

combination; anesthesia; rapid, smooth

induction; may give 15-25 min

anesthesia and restraint in most

species; rapid, excitement-free recovery;

must be administered IV (slowly; no

inflammation if goes perivascularly);

may be administered IO; dosages may

be reduced by as much as 50% in

premedicated (e.g., ketamine) animals;

may cause apnea and bradycardia;

intubation and assisted ventilation

generally required; considered by many

to be parenteral agent of choice for

inducing anesthesia

0.3-0.5 mg/kg/min

IV, IO constant

rate infusion, or

0.5-1 mg/kg IV,

IO periodic

bolus 344

5-10 mg/kg IV,

intracardiac 10,334

10 mg/kg

intracardiac 262

Most species/maintenance anesthesia; must

provide respiratory and thermal

support

Snakes

Ball pythons/anesthetic induction for

isoflurane maintenance, but prolonged

recovery; mild, resolving cardiac lesions

15 mg/kg IV 28 South American rattlesnakes/anesthetic

induction

3-5 mg/kg IV, IO 140,141 Lizards (iguanas)/intubation and minor

diagnostic procedures; may need to

give an additional dose in 3-5 min; less

cardiopulmonary depression than with

higher doses

5-10 mg/kg IV, IO 25 Iguanas/higher dose is recommended for

induction for short-duration

procedures or intubation

10 mg/kg IV, IO 25,80,282 Lizards, snakes/0.25 mg/kg/min may be

given for maintenance; 117 green

iguanas/anesthetic induction 282

154

2 mg/kg IV 23 Giant tortoises

3-5 mg/kg IV

supravertebral

sinus 94

Chelonians/sedation (i.e., shell repair)

5 mg/kg IV 125 Snapping turtles/anesthetic induction

10 mg/kg IV

(supravertebral

sinus) 406

Red-eared sliders/40-85 min anesthesia

12-15 mg/kg IV 77,365 Chelonians/lower dosages (5-10 mg/kg

IV 341 ) may be used; 1 mg/kg/min may be

given for maintenance 341

20 mg/kg IV

(supravertebral

sinus) 406

Red-eared sliders/60-120 min anesthesia

10-15 mg/kg IV 220 Crocodilians/duration, 0.5-1.5 hr; maintain

on gas anesthetics; experimental IM

with hyaluronidase

Rocuronium

(Zemuron, Organon)

0.25-0.5 mg/kg IM 185 Box turtles/neuromuscular blocking agent;

no analgesia; for intubation only and

small, nonpainful procedures

Sevoflurane To effect 16,326 Most species/anesthesia; rapid induction

and recovery when intubated

Succinylcholine — No analgesia; narrow margin of safety;

generally not recommended, but

included for completeness; intermittent

positive pressure ventilation generally

required; paralysis occurs in 5-30 min;

avoid if exposed to organophosphate

parasiticides within last 30 days;

administer minimal amount required to

perform procedure

0.25-1 mg/kg IM 173 Most species

0.75-1 mg/kg IM 34 Large lizards

0.25-1.5 mg/kg IM 303 Chelonians/induction, 15-30 min; recovery,

45-90 min; facilitates intubation

0.5-1 mg/kg IM 35 Box turtles/induction, 20-30 min

0.25 mg/kg IM 211 Crocodilians

0.4-1 mg/kg IM 303 Alligators/rapid onset; 3-5 mg/kg in

smaller animals have been used

0.5-5 mg/kg IM 20,218 Crocodilians/variable induction and

155

recovery periods

Thiopental 19-31 mg/kg IV 399 Green sea turtles/anesthesia; induction, 5-

10 min; recovery, <6 hr; erratic

anesthesia



— Sedation, anesthesia; severe respiratory

depression possible (may need to

ventilate); 38 variable results; may have

prolonged recovery; use lower end of

dose range in heavier species; good for

muscle relaxation prior to

intubation; 96,319 other anesthetic agents

may be preferable

4-5 mg/kg SC, IM 20 Most species/sedation; induction, 9-15 min;

recovery, 1-12 h; adequate for most

noninvasive procedures

5-10 mg/kg IM 23 Most species

3 mg/kg IM 141 Snakes/facilitates handling and intubation

of large snakes; induction, 30-45 min;

prolongs recovery

3-5 mg/kg IM 272 Snakes, lizards/sedation

10-30 mg/kg IM 269 to

20-40 mg/kg

IM 173,339

3.5-14 mg/kg IM 269

(generally 4-

8 mg/kg)

Snakes, lizards/induction, 8-20 min;

recovery, 2-10 hr; variable results;

longer sedation and recovery times at

22°C (72°F) than at 30°C (86°F); 368 good

sedation in boa constrictors at

25 mg/kg IM; 368 generally need to

supplement with inhalation agents for

surgical anesthesia; some snakes died at

55 mg/kg

Chelonians/sedation; induction, 8-20 min;

does not produce satisfactory

anesthesia even at 88 mg/kg 303

5-10 mg/kg IM, IV 341 Large tortoises/facilitates intubation; if

light, mask with isoflurane rather than

redosing

1-2 mg/kg IM 218 Crocodilians/recovery takes several hours

2-10 mg/kg IM 341 Large crocodilians/may permit intubation

5-10 mg/kg SC, IM,

ICe (sedation),

10-40 mg/kg

(anesthesia) 220

Crocodilians

15 mg/kg IM 57 Alligators/induction, >20 min; adequate for

156

minor procedures

Xylazine — Infrequently used; variable effects;

potentially reversible with yohimbine;

preanesthetic for ketamine; see

ketamine for combination

0.1-1.25 mg/kg IM,

IV 104

Most species

0.1-1 mg/kg IM 218 Crocodilians/atipamezole better reversal

than yohimbine

1-2 mg/kg IM 220,303 Nile crocodiles

Yohimbine (Yobine,

Lloyd)

— Xylazine reversal; rarely indicated;

atipameazole commonly used to reverse

all α 2 agonists

a


compounding services; dosages are listed here as a guide for possible use with dexmedetomidine, an α 2

agonist that is the active optical enantiomer of racemic compound medetomidine; dexmedetomidine is

generally used at ½ the dose of medetomidine but the same volume due to higher concentration; both

compounds tend to have similar effects.

Table 4-6

Analgesic Agents Used in Reptiles.


Bupivacaine

1-2 mg/kg local

q4-12h prn 344

1 mg/kg

intrathecal 240

Most species/local anesthesia; 4 mg/kg maximum dose

Turtles, tortoises/regional analgesia/anesthesia

Buprenorphine 0.2 mg/kg SC 246 No evidence of analgesic efficacy in red-eared slider

turtles or other reptile species

Butorphanol — Recent studies call into question use of particular

doses or of this drug in general in providing

analgesia in reptiles, including red-eared sliders,

ball pythons, corn snakes, bearded dragons, and

green iguanas; respiratory depression is a

common side effect 338,351,353

0.4-1 mg/kg SC,

IM 341

Most species; sedation; preanesthetic; 0.2 mg/kg IM

used experimentally in tortoises 115

1 mg/kg IM 97 Green iguanas/ineffective for analgesia; presence of

observer may affect iguana response

20 mg/kg SC 190 Red-eared slider turtles/ineffective for surgical

analgesia

157

Carprofen

1-4 mg/kg PO, SC,

IM, IV q24h, 217

follow with

half the dose

q24-72h 259

Most species/nonsteroidal antiinflammatory; no

efficacy data in any reptile species

Etodolac

Fentanyl

Flunixin

meglumine

5 mg/kg PO

q72h×30 days 301

12.5 µg/hr

transdermal

patch to

cranial epaxial

muscles 188

12.5 µg/hr

transdermal

patch to

caudodorsal

lumbar

region 109

0.1-0.5 mg/kg IM

q12-24h 217

0.5-2 mg/kg IM

q12-24h 344

1-2 mg/kg IM

q24h×2

treatments 37,360

Komodo dragons

Ball pythons/high plasma concentrations (above

analgesic threshold in mammals); analgesic

efficacy not proven in any snake species, but

anecdotal evidence from certain snake clinical

cases demonstrated improved condition after

application of patch

Prehensile-tailed skinks/no side effects reported after

24 hr when skink blood levels reached human

therapeutic levels; environmental temperature can

significantly affect absorption

Most species/nonsteroidal antiinflammatory; use for

maximum of 3 days; no evidence of efficacy

Most species/nonsteroidal antiinflammatory; no

evidence of efficacy

Lizards/postsurgical nonsteroidal antiinflammatory;

no evidence of efficacy

Hydromorphone 0.5-1 mg/kg SC 246 Red-eared sliders/analgesic efficacy

Ketoprofen — Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory

2 mg/kg PO, SC,

IM q24-

48h 225,381

Most species/green iguanas/PK study; 381 loggerhead

sea turtles/frequently used due to historical

evidence of safety; 225 no efficacy data

Lidocaine

(0.5%-2%)

2-5 mg/kg local 344 Most species/10 mg/kg maximum dosage

Local or topical 341

Most species/local analgesia; infiltrate to effect (e.g.,

0.01 mL 2% lidocaine used for local block for IO

catheter placement in iguanas); 21 often used in

conjunction with chemical immobilization

Lidocaine

(L)/morphine

(Mo)

4 mg/kg

intrathecal 240

2 mg/kg

(L)+0.1 mg/kg

(Mo)

intrathecal 312

Turtles, tortoises/regional analgesia

Desert tortoises/orchiectomy analgesia

158

Meloxicam

0.1-0.5 mg/kg PO,

SC q24-48h 175-

177

Most species

0.3 mg/kg IM 293 Ball pythons/physiologic changes not consistent

with analgesia

0.2 mg/kg PO, IV

q24h 82

Green iguanas/PD; no evidence of efficacy

0.1 mg/kg IM, IV 209 Loggerhead sea turtles/PK; plasma concentrations

not consistent with analgesia

0.1-0.2 mg/kg PO,

IM q24h×4-

10 days 94 Chelonians; no evidence of efficacy

Meperidine

0.2 mg/kg IM,

IV; 382 SC 311,312

0.2-0.4 mg/kg

IM 166

0.5 mg/kg PO, IM,

or 0.22 mg/kg

IV 325

5-10 mg/kg IM

q12-24h 139

20 mg/kg IM q12-

24h 217

2-4 mg/kg ICe q6-

8h 175

1-5 mg/kg

IM 184,351,386

Red-eared slider turtles/PK; plasma concentrations

consistent with therapeutic efficacy for 48 hr by

IM and IV administration routes; 382 Mojave desert

tortoises, postsurgical nonsteroidal

antiinflammatory 311,312

Red-eared slider turtles, Eastern painted turtles,

yellow-spotted Amazon river turtles, other

undocumented turtle species/nonsteroidal

antiinflammatory; no evidence of efficacy

Red-eared sliders/PK; found better absorption IM vs

PO; 325 after IV administration, plasma levels

decreased rapidly and the elimination half-life was

7.57 hr

Most species/analgesia; no noticeable effect in snakes

even at 200 mg/kg

Most species/analgesia

Lizards

Turtles, crocodiles/analgesic efficacy of short duration

2-4 mg/kg ICe 4 Nile crocodiles/analgesia

Methadone

3-5 mg/kg SC,

IM 63,351

Aquatic turtles/analgesia

Morphine — No effective dose for analgesia documented in corn

snakes 353

10 mg/kg IM 353,394 Bearded dragons/analgesia; ball pythons/no analgesia

1.5-6.5 mg/kg SC, Red-eared sliders (long lasting respiratory

159

IM 90,350,351,353

depression), freshwater crocodiles, Anolis

lizards/may be effective thermal analgesia

0.1-0.2 mg/kg

intrathecal 240

Turtles, tortoises/thermal analgesia for 48 hr;

regional analgesia caudal body

2 mg/kg SC 190 Red-eared slider turtles/surgical analgesia

1 mg/kg IM 166 Red-eared slider turtles, Eastern painted turtle,

yellow-spotted Amazon river turtle, other

undocumented turtle species/analgesia

0.5-4 mg/kg ICe 355 Crocodilians/analgesia

Naloxone

Oxymorphone

0.04-2 mg/kg

SC 350a,350,353

0.025-0.1 mg/kg

IV 104

0.05-0.2 mg/kg

SC, IM q12-

48h 139

0.5-1.5 mg/kg

IM 104

Red-eared sliders, bearded dragons, corn snakes/µopioid

agonist reversal

Anecdotal evidence of analgesia in some lizard and

turtle species; no efficacy or PK/PD studies; avoid

in cases with hepatic or renal dysfunction; no

observable effects in snakes even at 1.5 mg/kg

Pethidine — See meperidine

Prednisolone

Proparacaine

(0.5%)

2-5 mg/kg PO,

IM 217

Topical to

eye 126,229,331,345

Most species/antiinflammatory

Iguanas/desensitizes surface of eye; ineffective in

animals with spectacles; bearded dragons/IOP by

rebound tonometry; 345 Kemp’s ridley sea

turtles/one drop provided 45 min duration of

action; 126 do not exceed toxic dose 2 mg/kg; 117

Yacare caiman/IOP by applanation tonometry 331

Tapentadol 10 mg/kg IM 121,122 Red-eared and yellow-bellied slider turtles/analgesia

Tramadol 11 mg/kg PO 128 Bearded dragons

5-10 mg/kg PO,

SC 14

Red-eared slider turtles, sea turtles/thermal analgesia,

higher doses may affect ventilation

5-10 mg/kg PO 289 Loggerhead sea turtles/PK; plasma concentrations

consistent with efficacy for 48 hr (5 mg/kg PO) or

72 hr (10 mg/kg PO)

10 mg/kg PO 356 Turtles, tortoises/analgesia

10 mg/kg IM 124 Yellow-bellied slider turtles/PK/PD comparing

forelimb and hind limb administration; analgesia;

plasma concentrations consistent with analgesia

in both forelimb and hind limb

160

Table 4-7

Hormones and Steroids Used in Reptiles.


Arginine vasotocin

(AVT) (Sigma

Chemical)

Calcitonin

0.01-1 µg/kg IV

(preferred),

ICe 219

q12-24h×several

treatments

1.5 U/kg SC

q8h×14-21 days

prn 104 50 U/kg

IM, repeat in 14

days 22,117

50 U/kg q7d × 2-3

doses 226,230

Most species/dystocias; administer 30-60 min

after Ca lactate/Ca glycerophosphate; more

effective in reptiles than oxytocin but not

commercially available for use in animals;

higher doses have been reported; 0.5 µg/kg

commonly recommended

Most species (e.g., iguanas)/severe nutritional

secondary hyperparathyroidism; administer

after Ca supplementation; do not give if

hypocalcemic

Green iguanas/salmon calcitonin; do not give if

hypocalcemic

Deslorelin acetate — No success with use in female reptile

reproductive issues

4.75 mg implant

SC 330

Bearded dragons/abnormal aggression in

juveniles; decreased serum testosterone,

behavior ceased

Dexamethasone 0.2 mg/kg IM, IV 343 Most species/laryngeal or pharyngeal edema and

inflammation

Dexamethasone

sodium

phosphate

Insulin

0.6-1.25 mg/kg IM,

IV 104

0.3-1.5 mg/kg IM,

IV, IO 177

0.1-0.25 mg/kg SC,

IM, IV 117

1-5 U/kg IM, ICe

q24-72h 362

5-10 U/kg IM, ICe

q24-72h 362

Most species/shock (septic/traumatic)

Chelonians/hyperthermia

Most species/shock (septic/traumatic)

Snakes, chelonians/doses are empirical and must

be adjusted based on response to therapy and

serial blood glucose; doses administered ICe

may take 24-48 hr before a response is noted

Lizards, crocodilians/see above

Leuprolide acetate

(Lupron Depot

1.875 mg/mL,

Abbott)

0.4 mg/kg IM 192 Iguanas/did not suppress testosterone levels in

males

161

Levothyroxine

0.02 mg/kg PO

q48h 132

Geckos/post-thyroidectomy, lifetime management

0.02 mg/kg PO

q48h 290

0.025 mg/kg q24h

in AM 101

Tortoises/hypothyroidism; stimulates feeding in

debilitated tortoises

Tortoises/monitor T 4 levels

Methylprednisolone 1 mg/kg IV q24h 177 Chelonians/ivermectin toxicity

Nandrolone (Deca-

Durabolin,

Orgamon)

0.5-5 mg/kg IM q7-

28d 149

Most species/hepatic lipidosis

1 mg/kg IM q7-28d 78 Lizards/anabolic steroid; reduces protein

catabolism; may stimulate erythropoiesis

Oxytocin — Dystocias; results are variable; works well in

chelonians, less so in snakes and lizards;

generally administer 1 hr after Ca

administration; use multiple doses with

caution

1-10 U/kg IM 90,117 Most species/higher end of the range is

commonly used; may be repeated up to 3

treatments at 90 min intervals with

increasing dosage 164

2 U/kg IM q4-6h×1-

3 treatments 11 Most species

1-5 U/kg IM, 76

repeat in 1 hr

1-2, 36 2-20, 254 or 10-

20 35 U/kg IM

1-20 U/kg IM

q90min×3

treatments at

increased doses,

or 50%-100%

first dose 1-12 hr

later, or IO

drip 373

Lizards/alternatively, 5 U/kg by slow IV or IO

over 4-8 hr 76

Chelonians

Chelonians

2 U/kg IV q2h 74 Red-eared sliders/faster onset vs IM; fewer

animals required second or third doses vs IM

route

Prednisolone 2-5 mg/kg PO, IM 217 Most species/analgesia (chronic pain)

0.5 mg/kg

q24h×14 days,

then q48h until

Lizards/autoimmune hemolytic anemia

162

Prednisolone Na

succinate (Solu-

Delta Cortef,

Pharmacia and

Upjohn)

PCV stable 175

5-10 mg/kg IM, IV, 95

IO 78

Most species/shock; brain swelling from

hyperthermia; may help reduce

nephrocalcinosis

Prednisone

0.5-1 mg/kg PO,

SC, IM, IV 253

Most species/lymphoma, leukemia,

myeloproliferative disease

0.8 mg/kg q48h 112 Most species/chronic T-lymphocytic leukemia;

may combine with chlorambucil, but need to

monitor uric acid levels

Stanozolol

(Winstrol-V,

Winthrop)

5 mg/kg IM q7d

prn 117

Most species/anabolic steroid; management of

catabolic disease states

Table 4-8

Nutritional/Mineral/Fluid Support Used in Reptiles. a


Calcium PO prn 84 Most species/dietary sources

include crushed cuttlebone,

oyster shell, egg shell, tablets

of Ca salts, or other

commercially available

products

Calcium carbonate (Rep-Cal,

Rep-Cal Labs; Repti

Calcium, Zoo Med;

Fluker’s powdered or

liquid forms of calcium)

Calcium glubionate (Neo-

Calglucon, Sandoz;

Calciquid, Breckenridge

Pharmaceuticals;

Calcionate, Rugby)

PO prn 84

10 mg/kg PO q12-24h

prn 107

25-50 mg/kg PO q24h

prn 242

360 mg/kg (1 mL/kg) PO

q12-24h prn 22,38

Omnivores, herbivores,

insectivores/dietary Ca

supplement

All species/nutritional secondary

hyperparathyroidism

All species/nutritional secondary

hyperparathyroidism

Most species/nutritional

secondary

hyperparathyroidism;

hypocalcemia; dystocia;

ensure adequate UVB

exposure and proper

nutrition

163

Calcium gluconate 50-100 mg/kg SC, IM, IV 242 Most species/hypocalcemia (low

ionized Ca); hypocalcemic

muscle tremors, seizures,

dystocia, or flaccid paresis in

lizards; when patient is stable,

switch to oral Ca; should be

diluted in fluids

100 mg/kg SC, IM,

ICe 234,259 q6-24h 22,38

Most species/hypocalcemia (low

ionized Ca); hypocalcemic

muscle tremors, seizures,

dystocia, or flaccid paresis in

lizards; when patient is stable,

switch to oral Ca

Calcium

gluconate/borogluconate

Calcium

glycerophosphate/calcium

lactate (Calphosan,

Glenwood)

10-50 mg/kg SC, IM 107 Most species/hypocalcemia;

hypocalcemic dystocia

1-5 mg/kg SC, IM 107 Most species/hypocalcemia;

hypocalcemic dystocia

10 mg/kg SC, IM, ICe

q24h×1-7 days 16,22

Lizards (iguanas)/hypocalcemia

Carnivore Care (Oxbow

Animal Health)

Clinicare—feline and canine

(Abbott Animal Health)

10-20 mL/kg PO or via

gavage/esophagostomy

q24-48h 115

30 mL/kg (3% of body

weight) PO or via


q24h; 71 range of

2%-10% body weight

PO or via


q24h 242

Gavage prn 401

Carnivores/short-term

nutritional support; anorexia;

prepare according to

directions; begin after

rehydration and stable

condition; more dilute in first

feeding after anorexia,

gradually increase

concentration over 3-5 days

Carnivores

Most species/post-omphalectomy;

use canine formula for

herbivores and omnivores,

and feline formula for

carnivores; initially dilute 1:1

with water and gradually

increase to full strength over

48 hr; generally precede

nutritional supplementation

164

Critical Care for Herbivores

(Oxbow Animal Health)

Dextrose in water (2.5%, 5%)

Electrolyte solutions

(Pedialyte, Abbott;

Gatorade, S-VC, Inc.)

Emeraid Exotic Carnivore

(Lafeber)

10-20 mL/kg PO or via


q24-48h 115

30 mL/kg (3% of body

weight) PO or via


q24h; 71 range of

2%-10% body weight

PO or via


q24h 242

PO, SC, IV, IO, ICe,

EpiCe, prn 191

Calculated water deficit IV,

IO 232

Voluntary drinking

(whole body soak) 115

10-20 mL/kg via gavage or

esophagostomy tube

q24h 115

5-30 mL/kg gavage or

esophagostomy tube

q24-72h 117

3% body weight PO or

via


q24h; 71 range of

2%-10% body weight

PO or via


with 48-96 hr of water or

electrolyte solution PO

Herbivores/long-term nutritional

support; prepare according to

directions; begin after

rehydration and stable

condition

Herbivores

All species/hyperkalemia; 191 can

mix with electrolye solutions

Most species/for intracellular

rehydration when mentation

is altered and plasma Na

>160 mEq/L; for acute Na

toxicosis replace deficit in 12-

24 hr; for chronic

dehydration slowly replace

deficit over 48-72 hr

All species/oral fluid therapy;

early treatment of anorexia;

dilute 1:1 with water; caution

against drowning

All species/rehydration; when

stable; first stage in

supplemental nutrition

Carnivores/nutritional support,

severely debilitated, cachectic

patients; prepare according to

directions; use when hydrated

and stable condition; greater

dilution in first few feedings

Carnivores

165

q24h 242

Emeraid Herbivore (Lafeber)

Emeraid Omnivore (Lafeber)

Hydroxyethyl starch

(Hetastarch, HES)

Iodine


esophagostomy tube

q12-48h 117


via


q24h; 71 range of

2%-10% body weight

PO or via


q24h 242


esophagostomy tube

q12-48h 115


via


q24h; 71 range of

2%-10% body weight

PO or via


q24h 242

3-5 mL/kg slow IV or IO

bolus prn 115,232

2-4 mg/kg PO q24h×14-21

days, then q7d 117

Herbivores/nutritional support,






Herbivores

Most species/nutritional support,






Omnivores

All species/hypoalbuminemia;

hypovolemic perfusion

deficits; increased capillary

permeability; use with

crystalloids; reduce crystalloid

volume 40%-60%; max

volume 20 mL/kg 390

Herbivores/iodine deficiency (i.e.,

goiter); use in species fed a

goitrogenic diet; can use a

multivitamin-mineral mixture

or iodized salt; suggested

daily dietary iodine

0.03 mg/kg BW 84

Iron dextran 12 mg/kg IM 1- Crocodilians/iron deficiency; in

166

2×/wk×45 days 371 other species for anemia 117

Lactated Ringer’s solution

(LRS)

15-40 mL/kg SC, IV, IO

prn 232

Land turtles/fluid replacement;

use extracoelomically after

warming the patient; avoid

lactate if hepatic insufficiency

LRS+0.9% saline (1:1

solution)

20 mL/kg/day ICe 46 Loggerhead sea turtles/highest

percentage of acid-base

recovery and electrolyte

balance compared to LRS,

saline, or 5% dextrose in

saline (1:1)

Maintenance crystalloid

solution: ½-strength LRS

and 2.5% dextrose

SC, IV, IO, ICe, EpiCe,

prn 232

All species/maintenance fluid

therapy after losses have been

replaced

Metronidazole 12.5-50 mg/kg PO 103 Most species/appetite stimulant

(anecdotal; presumably

associated with antiprotozoal

activity)

50-100 mg/kg PO 174 Chameleons/appetite stimulant

(anecdotal; presumably

associated with antiprotozoal

activity)

Multivitamin Products

(ReptiVite, Zoo Med;

Herptivite, RepCal; Repta-

Vitamin, Fluker’s; Exo-

Terra; Nekton)

Polymerized bovine

hemoglobin (Oxyglobin,

OPK Biotech)

Replacement crystalloid

solutions (Normosol-R,

Ceva; Plasma-Lyte,

Baxter)

Dust on vegetables, fruits,

or insects q84-168h 358

3-5 mL/kg slow IV or IO

bolus prn 115,232

15-25 mL/kg/d PO, SC, IV,

IO, ICe, EpiCe prn 37

10-30 mL/kg q24h, or

divided into 2-3

boluses several hours

Herbivores, omnivores,

insectivores/preformed

vitamin A; minerals;

multivitamin

All species/hemoglobin polymer;

hypoalbuminemia;

hemorrhage; severe anemia;

hypovolemic perfusion

deficits; increased capillary

permeability; use with

crystalloids; reduce crystalloid

volume 40%-60%; max

volume 20 mL/kg; 390 currently

under FDA testing by a new

manufacturer and unavailable

All species/replacement fluid

therapy; warm to 29°C

(84°F) 232

All species/ongoing regurgitation

or severe diarrhea

167

apart 191

Ringer’s solution for reptiles:

1 part Normosol-R+2

parts 2.5% dextrose in

0.45% saline 141 or, 1 part

Normosol-R+1 part 5%

dextrose+1 part 0.9%

saline

10-20 mL/kg q24h 117 All species/hypertonic

dehydration or to prevent

nephrotoxicity due to

aminoglycosides

15 (large reptiles) to 25

(small reptiles) mL/kg

q24h, or divided into 2

doses per day 37

All species/hypertonic

dehydration; warm fluids to

28°C (82°F)

20 mL/kg q12h 38 Chelonians/severe dehydration

Selenium 0.028 mg/kg IM 16 Lizards/deficiency; myopathy

Sodium chloride (0.45%)

Sodium chloride (0.9%)

PO, SC, IV, IO, ICe,

EpiCe, prn 191

SC, IV, IO, ICe, EpiCe,

prn 191,232

All species/hypertonic

dehydration; correct deficits

over 3 days

All species/hyperkalemia,

hypercalcemia, hypochloremic

metabolic alkalosis; 232 can mix

with other crystalloid

solutions, particularly 5%

dextrose; use SC, ICe, EpiCe

routes after patient is warm

Vitamin A — Overdose causes epidermal

sloughing; greater risk with

aqueous parenteral

formulation; for less severe

cases, commercial formulated

diets or reptile multivitamin

supplements may

suffice; 84,270,358 may help

infectious stomatitis

2000 U/kg PO, SC, IM q7-

14d×2-4 treatments 35,38

2000 U/30 g BW PO once,

repeat in 7 days 134,358

Most species/hypovitaminosis A

Chameleons/eye swelling,

respiratory disease,

hemipenile plugs, dysecdysis

200-300 U/kg 84 SC, IM Turtles/hypovitaminosis A; give

in conjunction with PO

vitamin A (2-8 U/g feed DM)

Vitamins A, D 3 , E (Vital

E+A+D, Stuart Products)

0.15 mL/kg IM, repeat in Most species/hypovitaminosis A,

21 days 117 D 3 , or E; product contains

alcohol and may sting when

administered; a product

without alcohol can be

168

compounded commercially

0.3 mL/kg PO, then Box turtles/hypovitaminosis A;

0.06 mL/kg q7d×3-4 parenteral use may result in

treatments 35 hypervitaminosis A and D;

given PO may enhance Ca

uptake

Vitamin B complex 0.3 mL/kg SC, IM q24h 117 Most species/anorexia;

hypovitaminosis B; use with

caution as B 6 toxicity may

occur

Vitamin B 1 (thiamine)

25 mg thiamine/kg PO

q24h×3-7 days 11

50-100 mg/kg PO, SC, IM

q24h 45

Most species/appetite stimulant;

hypovitaminosis B

Piscivores/thiamine deficiency

from thawed fish

30 g/kg feed fish PO 117 Crocodilians/treat or prevent

deficiency

Vitamin B 12

(cyanocobalamin)

0.05 mg/kg SC, IM 117 Snakes, lizards/appetite stimulant

Vitamin C

10-20 mg/kg SC, IM

q24h 102,264

All species/empirical for

hypovitaminosis C;

stomatitis; skin slough in

snakes; supportive therapy

for bacterial infections

Vitamin D 3 — Nutritional secondary


hypocalcemia; deficiency and

excess may result in softtissue

calcification

1000 U/kg IM, repeat in 1

wk 38

Most species/deficiency; use with

oral calcium glubionate and

carbonate, general dietary

management, and UVB

irradiation

200 U/kg PO, IM q7d 16,22 Lizards/PO may be safer than IM,

but absorption is poor in

some species 27,297

400 U/kg IM q7d×3

treatments 230

Green iguanas/nutritional

secondary

hyperparathyroidism; use

with calcitonin after

normocalcemic; also

supplement oral calcium

169

Vitamin E/selenium (L-Se,

Schering)

1 U vitamin E/kg 84 IM Piscivores/hypovitaminosis E;

myopathy, anorexia, swollen

subcutaneous nodule

50 U vitamin

E/kg+0.025 mg

selenium/kg IM 89

Lizards/hypovitaminosis E

(vitamin E/selenium)

Vitamin K 1 0.25-0.5 mg/kg IM 117 Most species/hypovitaminosis K 1 ;

coagulopathies

a

Also see Table 4-13.

Table 4-9

Miscellaneous Agents Used in Reptiles.


Activated charcoalkaolin

suspension

(ToxiBan, Vet-a-

Mix)

5-10 mL/kg PO

q24h×1-3 days 236

Sea turtles/reduce exposure to brevitoxin

Allopurinol — Careful when giving with urine acidifiers and

uricosuric drugs (probenecid) 66

Aluminum hydroxide

(Amphogel, Wyeth-

Ayerst)

10-20 mg/kg PO

q24h 78,254,315

25 mg/kg PO

q24h 151

50 mg/kg PO

q24h×30 days,

then q72h 204

100 mg/kg PO q12-

24h 227

Most species/gout; decreases production of

uric acid; 227 long-term therapy; tortoises

may respond best

Green iguanas

Chelonians/hyperuricemia

Most species/hyperphosphatemia (associated

with renal disease); decreases intestinal

absorption of P; use cautiously in patients

with gastric outlet obstruction

Amidotrizoate

(Gastrografin,

Squibb)

5-7.7 mL/kg PO 239 Gastrointestinal contrast agent; reported

faster transit vs barium; no risk if

regurgitation

7.5 mL/kg PO 267 Tortoises/gastrointestinal contrast agent; give

via gavage; mean transit times: 2.6 hr at

87°F (30.6°C); 6.6 hr at 71°F (21.5°C)

Aminophylline 2-4 mg/kg IM 104 Most species/bronchodilator

Atropine 0.01-0.04 mg/kg Most species/dries up excess mucous

170

IM, IV q8-24h 266

0.1-0.2 mg/kg IM

prn 117

secretions with infectious stomatitis

Most species/organophosphate toxicity

0.2 mg/kg SC, IM 329 Most species/respiratory distress associated

with excessive secretions

Barium sulfate 5-20 mL/kg PO 48 Most species/gastrointestinal contrast studies

Bleomycin with high

voltage electrical

pulses

Calcium EDTA

Carboplatin

Carboplatin 4.6 mg

implantable bead

(compounded,

Wedgewood

Pharmacy)

25 mL/kg PO, 35%

wt:vol

concentration 15

1 U/cm 3

intralesional,

repeat in 33

days 39

3.65 mg/kg

(1 mg/mL)

intralesional,

repeat in 2 wk 212

10-40 mg/kg IM

q12h 288

2.5-5 mg/kg IV,

intracardiac 253

≤10 mg/kg total

q3wk

intralesional or

surgical

excision sites 179

Ball pythons/best gastrointestinal image

quality

Green sea turtles/fibropapillomas

electrochemotherapy; use concurrent local

anesthesia

Yellow-bellied slider turtles/squamous cell

carcinoma, post-partial surgical excision

Most species/heavy metal chelation; ensure

hydration

Most species/carcinoma, osteosarcoma,

mesothelioma, carcinomatosis

Chameleons/squamous cell carcinoma,

carcinoma; cut bead into smaller pieces to

avoid overdose

Chlorambucil

(Leukeran, Glaxo

SmithKline)

0.1-0.2 mg/kg PO 253 Most species/lymphoma, leukemia,

myeloproliferative tumors

CHOP Therapy

(Modified)

Cimetidine

Cisapride (Propulsid,

Janssen)

See original paper

for full protocol

details 100

4 mg/kg PO, IM

q8-12h 117

0.5-2 mg/kg PO

q24h 117

Green iguanas/successful management of

lymphoma post-radiation therapy

Most species/gastric and duodenal ulceration;

esophagitis; gastroesophageal reflux; may

use in renal failure to increase phosphate

secretion

Most species/motility modifier;

gastrointestinal stasis; not commercially

available in the United States; may be

compounded; ineffective in desert tortoises

at 1 mg/kg 379

1-4 mg/kg PO q24h Bearded dragons/constipation

171

Cisplatin

Cyclophosphamide

until defecates 387

0.5-1 mg/kg IV

(prehydrate),

intracardiac,

intralesional (in

oil) 253

10 mg/kg SC, IM,

IV,

intracardiac 253

Most species/carcinoma, osteosarcoma,

infiltrative sarcoma (intralesional),

mesothelioma, carcinomatosis



Dioctyl Na

sulfosuccinate

1-5 mg/kg PO 119 Most species/constipation; use 1:20 dilution

Diphenhydramine 2 mg/kg IM q24h 236 Sea turtles/brevitoxicosis; rapidly reduced

conjunctival edema, prevented corneal

ulceration

Doxorubicin

1 mg/kg IV q7d×2

treatments,

then q14d×2

treatments,

then q21d×2

treatments 327

Snakes/chemotherapy for sarcoma (also

lymphoma, carcinoma, etc.); treatment

periods variable

Famotidine 0.5 mg/kg SC q3d 395 Kemp’s ridley sea turtles

Furosemide

2-5 mg/kg PO, IM,

IV q12-24h 175-177

5 mg/kg IM

q24h×1-3 days 236

Most species/diuretic for edema and

pulmonary congestion; while lacking loop

of Henle, may effect via other mechanisms

Sea turtles/intentional dehydration with

brevitoxicosis, no concurrent fluids given

Hydrochlorothiazide 1 mg/kg q24-72h 78 Lizards/promotes diuresis; monitor hydration

status

Iodine compound

(Conray 280,

Mallinckrodt)

Iohexol (240 mg I/mL;

Omnipaque, Sanofi

Winthrop)

500 mg/kg IV, IO 78 Lizards/IV urography; take radiographs 0, 5,

15, 30, and 60 min postinjection

5-20 mL/kg PO 117 Most species/gastrointestinal contrast studies;

nonionic, organic iodine solution; good

alternative to barium; 37 faster transit time

than barium; can be diluted 1:1 with water

75 mg/kg IV 187 Kemp’s ridley turtles (juveniles)/GFR

assessment

K-Y jelly (Johnson &

Johnson)

1-3 mL of 50% K-Y

jelly and 50%

warm

water/100 g 9

Most species/enema

Lactulose 0.5 mL/kg PO Lizards, chelonians/hepatic lipidosis

172

q24h 175,177,361

L-asparaginase (Elspar,

Merck)

Maropitant citrate

(Cerenia, Zoetis)

Melphalan (Alkeran,

Celegene)

Methimazole

Methotrexate

Metoclopramide

Milk thistle (Silybum

marianum)

Pentobarbital

Pimobendan

400 U/kg SC, IM,

intracardiac 253

1 mg/kg PO, SC

q24h 195

0.05-0.1 mg/kg

PO 253

2 mg/kg

q24h×30 days 134

0.25 mg/kg PO, SC,

IV 253

0.06 mg/kg PO

q24h×7 days 75,117

0.05 mg/kg PO

q24h×7 days 236

0.5 mg/kg IM

q24h 87

1-10 mg/kg PO

q24h 402

4-15 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 175,177

60-100 mg/kg IV,

ICe 8,41

0.2 mg/kg PO

q24h 175



Antiemetic; antinausea; no adverse effects

seen; Substance P conserved across classes



Snakes/excessive shedding from

hyperthyroidism; limited effectiveness



Most species/stimulates gastric motility

Sea turtles/intestinal motility stimulant

Sea turtles/supportive care

Tortoises/stimulates gastric motility;

ineffective in desert tortoises at 1 mg/kg 379

Lizards, chelonians/hepatoprotectant

Euthanasia

Lizards

Potassium chloride 2 mEq/kg IV, ICe 22 Most species/euthanasia; cardioplegic;

administer following a euthanasia

solution

Probenecid

S-adenosylmethionine

(Denosyl,

Nutramax)

250 mg/kg PO

q12h 308

30 mg/kg PO

q24h 280

Most species/gout; increases uric acid

excretion; can be increased prn

Savannah monitors/liver disease

Sodium bicarbonate 0.5-1 mg/kg IV 117 Most species/hypoxic acidosis postanesthesia

Sucralfate

500-1000 mg/kg PO

q6-8h 104

200 mg/kg PO

q24h 396

Most species/oral, esophageal, gastric, and

duodenal ulcers

Green iguanas/post-duodenoileal anastomosis

Tamoxifen 60-day time- Pellets containing Leopard geckos/inhibition of follicular

173

release pellets

(Innovative

Research of

America)

5 mg tamoxifen

implants ICe 68

development for 60 days if implanted

before vitellogenesis

Terbutaline

Tricaine

methanesulfonate

(MS-222)

0.01-0.02 mg/kg

IM 306

Nebulization, 15-

45 min/session

q4-12h×3+

days 306

250-500 mg/kg ICe

1% solution

followed by 0.1-

1 mL 50%

solution ICe or

intracardiac 13,61

Reduce bronchospasm

Lower respiratory tract particle size should be

≤0.5 µm, 2-10 µm for trachea; oxygen flow

rates <10 kg 1-2 L/min, 5 L/min for larger

reptiles; use bubble humidifier; possible

adverse cardiovascular effects

Fence lizards, desert iguanas, garter snakes,

house geckos, anole species/euthanasia

Vincristine 0.025 mg/kg IV 253 Most species/lymphoma, leukemia,


174

Table 4-10

Hematologic and Serum Biochemical Values of Reptiles. a

Measurement

Boa constrictor (Boa

constrictor) 50,117,224,376

Emerald tree boa

(Corallus

caninus) 117,376

Rainbow boa

(Epicrates

cenchria) 117,376

Hematology

PCV (%) 29 (12-40) 26 (7-44) 29 (15-44)

RBC (10 6 /µL) 0.71 (0.16-1.4) 2.16 (0.54-5.05) 0.87 (0.23-1.74)

Hgb (g/dL) 8.2 (3.1-13.2) 8.2 (6.1-11.4) 10.6 (8-13.1)

MCV (fL) 395 (122-669) 237 (37-360) 314 (45-619)

MCH (pg) 117 (51-184) 120 (113-128) 160

MCHC (g/dL) 31 (21-40) 34 (30-36) 36 (33-40)

WBC (10 3 /µL) 7.37 (1.47-19.6) 4.87 (0.48-11.1) 7.64 (1-21.23)

Heterophils (10 3 /

µL)

Lymphocytes

(10 3 /µL)

Monocytes (10 3 /

µL)

Azurophils (10 3 /

µL)

Eosinophils

(10 3 /µL)

Basophils (10 3 /

µL)

1.93 (0.20-6.50) 1.25 (0.18-3.64) 1.07 (0.03-3.67)

2.89 (0.34-11.9) 1.92 (0.14-5.68) 4.71 (0.1-14.1)

0.27 (0.03-2.38) 0.17 (0.02-1.11) 0.9 (0.03-3.06)

0.84 (0-4.74) 0.23 (0-3.22) 0.60 (0-2.47)

0.13 (0-0.60) 0.07 (0.06-0.08) 0.11 (0.04-0.22)

0.21 (0.03-1.01) 0.06 (0.03-0.21) 0.1 (0.02-0.27)

Chemistries

ALP (U/L) 189 (46-652) 87 (0-236) 27 (14-37)

ALT (U/L) 11 (0-30) 7 (0-27) 4 (1-6)

Amylase (U/L) 14 (0-76) 371 (61-847) —

AST (U/L) 15 (2-64) 23 (2-61) 18 (3-54)

Bilirubin, total

(mg/dL)

0.2 (0-0.6) 0.2 (0.2-0.3) 0.4 (0-0.8)

BUN (mg/dL) 2 (0-8) 2 (1-4) 2 (1-3)

Calcium (mg/dL) 15.3 (10-20) 12.8 (8.1-17.5) 13.8 (10.2-17.5)

175

Chloride (mEq/L) 125 (108-138) 131 (112-149) 129 (94-158)

Cholesterol

(mg/dL)

Creatine kinase

(U/L)

120 (46-289) 304 (77-614) 206 (140-314)

489 (57-2099) 454 (41-1445) 95 (0-347)

Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.2 (0-0.5) 0.6 (0.4-0.9) 0.4 (0.1-0.7)

GGT (U/L) 4 (0-23) 2 (1-2) 5

Glucose (mg/dL) 34 (7-74) 27 (5-64) 36 (2-80)

Iron (µg/dL) 113 (103-122) — —

LDH (U/L) 149 (0-452) 128 (14-754) 401 (141-661)

Lipase (U/L) 2730 — —

Magnesium

(mEq/L)

Osmolarity

(mOsm/L)

Phosphorus

(mg/dL)

2.95 (2.9-3) — —

306 — —

4.3 (2.4-8.6) 4.1 (1.8-8) 4.3 (1.6-7.1)

Potassium (mEq/L) 4.7 (3.1-7.3) 5 (3-8.7) 4.8 (2.4-6.7)

Protein, total

(g/dL)

7.0 (4.0-10.3) 4.5 (2.6-7.2) 6.8 (4.7-8.9)

Albumin (g/dL) b 2.9 (1.6-4.3) 2.6 (2-3.6) 2.4 (1.1-3.6)

Globulin (g/dL) b 3.9 (2.0-6.8) 2.8 (1.8-3.6) 4.2 (1.9-6.5)

Sodium (mEq/L) 159 (143-173) 157 (148-167) 162 (142-181)

Triglyceride

(mg/dL)

103 (3-457) 24 (10-49) 72 (64-90)

Uric acid (mg/dL) 4.0 (0.3-15.0) 4.7 (1.4-19.2) 3.6 (1.1-9.7)

Measurement

Rosy boa (Lichanura

trivirgata) 376

Ball python

(Python

regius) 181,376

Blood python

(Python curtus) 117

Hematology

PCV (%) 37 (20-54) 24 (10-33) 25 (15-49)

RBC (10 6 /µL) — 0.74 (0.31-1.16) 0.65

Hgb (g/dL) — 7.8 (4.5-11.1) —

MCV (fL) — 328 (131-524) 340

MCH (pg) — 102 (28-175) —

MCHC (g/dL) — 32 (24-40) —

176

WBC (10 3 /µL) 4.65 (0.57-8.73) 7.46 (2.22-21.6) 11.7 (1.13-42.5)

Heterophils (10 3 /

µL)

Lymphocytes

(10 3 /µL)

Monocytes (10 3 /

µL)

Azurophils (10 3 /

µL)

Eosinophils

(10 3 /µL)

Basophils (10 3 /

µL)

1.67 (0.39-4.13) 1.78 (0.32-6.17) 1.82 (0.31-3.99)

1.74 (0.18-4.92) 3.21 (0.35-13.8) 6.71 (0.34-33.6)

0.10 (0.03-0.65) 0.73 (0.01-3.26) 0.62 (0.13-2.12)

0.40 (0-1.68) 0.65 (0.01-4.12) 2.82 (0.27-6.8)

— 0.10 (0.02-0.53) 0.08

— 0.22 (0.04-1.08) 0.93 (0.32-1.83)

Chemistries

ALP (U/L) — 37 (11-98) 44 (8-56)

ALT (U/L) — 9 (1-25) 10 (3-17)

Amylase (U/L) — 1647 (383-2911) —

AST (U/L) 20 (1-107) 25 (4-97) 56 (6-209)

Bilirubin, total

(mg/dL)

— 0.1 (0-0.2) 0.3 (0.2-0.5)

BUN (mg/dL) — 2 (0-7) 1 (0-2)

Calcium (mg/dL) 13.1 (9.4-17.4) 14.7 (10.4-19.3) 14.7 (13.5-16.2)

Chloride (mEq/L) — 121 (107-134) 131 (123-138)

Cholesterol

(mg/dL)

Creatine kinase

(U/L)

— 111 (15-232) 214 (76-445)

— 526 (55-2136) 668 (327-1009)

Creatinine (mg/dL) — 0.2 (0-0.7) 0.9 (0.5-1.3)

GGT (U/L) — — 8 (0-16)

Glucose (mg/dL) 37 (3-73) 25 (8-53) 30 (13-74)

LDH (U/L) — 122 (4-376) 207 (49-364)

Phosphorus

(mg/dL)

2.9 (0.8-6.1) 3.0 (1.4-7.3) 3.7 (3.1-4.5)

Potassium (mEq/L) 5.9 (3.7-10.3) 5.5 (2.4-10.0) 6.3 (3.3-11.2)

Protein, total

(g/dL)

5.8 (3.7-8.3) 6.8 (3.6-9.0) 6.2 (3.6-8.1)

177

Albumin (g/dL) b 2.1 (1.2-2.9) 2.1 (1.1-3.6) 2.3 (1.6-2.8)

Globulin (g/dL) b 3.7 (2.3-4.8) 4.5 (2.1-6.5) 4.1 (3.1-4.9)

Sodium (mEq/L) 155 (115-174) 153 (137-171) 160 (155-164)

Triglyceride

(mg/dL)

— — 16 (13-22)

Uric acid (mg/dL) 6.4 (1.9-19.0) 3.0 (0.8-8.3) 4.3 (2.1-7.1)

Measurement

Burmese python (Python

bivittatus) 117,376

Reticulated

python (Python

reticulatus) 117,376

Green tree python

(Morelia

viridis) 117,376

Hematology

PCV (%) 28 (13-38) 26 (13-39) 25.3 (13-38)

RBC (10 6 /µL) 0.83 (0.13-1.54) 0.72 (0.41-1.25) 0.85 (0.4-1.3)

Hgb (g/dL) 9.0 (4-11) 10.7 (5.2-30) 5.9 (4-7)

MCV (fL) 319 (84-554) 343 (176-429) 229 (208-250)

MCH (pg) 98 (32-143) 138 (60-186) 100

MCHC (g/dL) 32 (18-44) 37 (29-45) 36 (33-40)

WBC (10 3 /µL) 7.6 (2.19-24.2) 7.48 (1.32-15.8) 7.28 (1.2-18.7)

Heterophils (10 3 /

µL)

Lymphocytes

(10 3 /µL)

Monocytes (10 3 /

µL)

Azurophils (10 3 /

µL)

Eosinophils

(10 3 /µL)

Basophils (10 3 /

µL)

2.25 (0.31-5.76) 1.92 (0.08-4.83) 1.59 (0.24-3.49)

3.73 (0.46-17.4) 2.24 (0.12-7.47) 3.46 (0.07-11.8)

0.17 (0.02-2.13) 1.22 (0.02-5.50) 0.61 (0.02-2.86)

0.27 (0.01-5.89) 0.10 (0.01-4.30) 0.72 (0.00-3.17)

0.45 (0.10-1.4) 0.68 (0.04-1.95) 0.16 (0.1-0.22)

0.12 (0.03-0.33) 0.06 (0.06-0.7) 0.17 (0.04-0.70)

Chemistries

ALP (U/L) 58 (4-230) 61 (4-211) 177 (43-425)

ALT (U/L) 7 (0-26) 16 (0-51) 18 (0-52)

Amylase (U/L) 3255 1690 (416-2963) 902 (564-1240)

AST (U/L) 14 (3-65) 12 (2-34) 18 (1-63)

Bilirubin, total

(mg/dL)

0.6 (0-2) 0.3 0.2

178

BUN (mg/dL) 2 (1-5) 2 (1-7) 2 (0-2)

Calcium (mg/dL) 16.1 (7.2-25.0) 16.3 (10.9-26.6) 13.8 (9.8-17.9)

Chloride (mEq/L) 118 (104-132) 118 (92-141) 124 (90-153)

Cholesterol

(mg/dL)

Creatine kinase

(U/L)

264 (120-479) 285 (81-531) 251 (72-561)

381 (39-1577) 351 (24-2338) 606 (21-1843)

Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.3 (0-1.6) 0.2 (0.1-0.4) 0.2 (0.2-0.5)

GGT (U/L) 25 (4-51) 22 —

Glucose (mg/dL) 24 (1-83) 31 (1-77) 37 (1-76)

LDH (U/L) 144 (12-807) 313 (43-1048) 206

Phosphorus

(mg/dL)

4.4 (2.3-9.2) 5.6 (2.4-13.0) 5.1 (2.3-10.2)

Potassium (mEq/L) 4.8 (2.6-7.0) 5.0 (3.4-8.1) 5.5 (3.6-7.9)

Protein, total

(g/dL)

7.2 (4.4-11.1) 7.8 (4.8-10.7) 7.2 (3.6-10.9)

Albumin (g/dL) b 2.3 (1.2-3.4) 2.1 (0.8-3.9) 2.0 (0.4-3.7)

Globulin (g/dL) b 4.9 (1.9-7.8) 5.0 (0.8-9.0) 4.9 (3.2-8.1)

Sodium (mEq/L) 158 (145-172) 160 (142-178) 161 (142-179)

Triglyceride

(mg/dL)

114 (16-532) 45 —

Uric acid (mg/dL) 4.3 (0.4-10.1) 7.8 (3.5-17.4) 3.6 (0-11.0)

Measurement

Carpet python (Morelia

spilota ssp) 40,117,376

Gopher snake

(Pituophis

catenifer) 117,234,376

Indigo snake

(Drymarchon

corais) 85,117,376

Hematology

PCV (%) 24 (16-32) 35 (13-49) 26 (10-41)

RBC (10 6 /µL) 0.89 (0.32-1.45) 0.67 (0.14-1.4) 0.62 (0.43-0.76)

Hgb (g/dL) 7.9 (4.9-9.7) 9.7 (4.3-12.3) 9.2 (7.3-11.1)

MCV (fL) 327 (260-386) 578 (246-1571) 369 (221-558)

MCH (pg) 111 (86-170) 111 (81-132) 258

MCHC (g/dL) 34 (29-39) 33 (27.5-36) 40 (33-46)

WBC (10 3 /µL) 13.4 (2.7-24.8) 7.31 (1.66-24.0) 8.4 (1.5-21.6)

Heterophils (10 3 /

µL)

7.13 (1.79-16.8) 1.58 (0.33-5.99) 1.64 (0.14-3.94)

179

Lymphocytes

(10 3 /µL)

2.59 (0.60-6.91) 4.06 (0.21-13.2) 3.89 (0.24-14.5)

Monocytes (10 3 /

µL)

Azurophils (10 3 /

µL)

Basophils (10 3 /

µL)

0.67 (0.03-2.67) 0.14 (0.01-0.86) 0.24 (0.04-2.50)

1.09 (0.01-5.72) 0.58 (0.01-3.23) 0.47 (0-3.51)

0.16 (0-1.01) 0.14 (0.01-0.44) 0.35 (0.03-1.09)

Chemistries

ALP (U/L) 36 (10-81) 61 (15-128) 123 (6-547)

ALT (U/L) 17 (6-78) 15 (1-70) 10 (3-16)

Amylase (U/L) — 711 (107-1315) —

AST (U/L) 17 (2-45) 20 (5-103) 15 (2-61)

Bilirubin, total

(mg/dL)

0.5 0.4 (0.3-0.6) 2.1 (0.6-3.5)

BUN (mg/dL) 3 (2-3) 2.2 (1-5) 7 (0-22)

Calcium (mg/dL) 14.3 (10.9-20.5) 15.5 (11.0-20.0) 39 (12-97) c

Chloride (mEq/L) 118 (102-131) 120 (103-138) 121 (104-138)

Cholesterol

(mg/dL)

Creatine kinase

(U/L)

318 (126-630) 368 (118-630) 93 (17-272)

349 (3-1230) 330 (34-1702) 15

Creatinine (mg/dL) 1.3 (0.3-3.7) 0.3 (0.1-0.6) 644 (68-1923)

GGT (U/L) 32 (9-55) 10 (0-34) 0.3 (0.2-0.3)

Glucose (mg/dL) 30 (3-57) 57 (23-99) 57 (16-103)

LDH (U/L) 201 (11-728) 112 (1-405) 46 (28-89)

Magnesium

(mEq/L)

Phosphorus

(mg/dL)

330 (48-547) 76 (20-191) 313 (13-1055)

4.1 (0.8-7.9) 3.6 (1.7-7.9) 10.1 (0.1-39.6) c

Potassium (mEq/L) 4.9 (3.0-7.1) 4.8 (2.2-7.4) 4.7 (2.1-7.3)

Protein, total

(g/dL)

7.2 (5.4-10.3) 6.0 (3.7-8.8) 8.1 (4.2-13.1)

Albumin (g/dL) b 2.1 (1.6-2.9) 2.0 (1.1-3.0) 2.4 (1.0-4.3)

Globulin (g/dL) b 5.1 (3.7-7.6) 4.0 (1.7-6.3) 5.1 (0.7-9.2)

Sodium (mEq/L) 156 (140-172) 163 (146-180) 162 (149-175)

180

Triglyceride

(mg/dL)

30 27 (16-37) 92 (76-118)

Uric acid (mg/dL) 4.1 (0-9.3) 4.6 (1.9-12.6) 3.8 (0-9.1)

Measurement

Corn snake (Pantherophis

guttata) 117,376

Common

kingsnake

(Lampropeltis

getula) 117,376

Rat snake (Elaphe

obsoleta) 117,317,376

Hematology

PCV (%) 30 (13-50) 31 (9-47) 30 (12-46)

RBC (10 6 /µL) 0.88 (0.40-1.60) 0.77 (0.10-1.88) 0.83 (0.23-1.43)

Hgb (g/dL) 11.5 (9.7-13.5) — 9.8 (2.8-16.2)

MCV (fL) 307 (67-546) 311 (28-618) 354 (73-636)

MCH (pg) 127 (110-143) — 121 (90-175)

MCHC (g/dL) 35 (32-40) — 31 (18-45)

WBC (10 3 /µL) 5.93 (1.12-16.9) 7.45 (1.55-27.7) 7.83 (1.02-25.2)

Heterophils (10 3 /

µL)

Lymphocytes

(10 3 /µL)

Monocytes (10 3 /

µL)

Azurophils (10 3 /

µL)

Eosinophils

(10 3 /µL)

Basophils (10 3 /

µL)

1.24 (0.23-5.08) 1.01 (0.16-5.50) 1.20 (0.10-3.89)

2.92 (0.29-11.8) 3.92 (0.35-20.9) 3.89 (0.41-16.1)

0.31 (0.03-1.78) 1.98 (0.05-5.83) 0.48 (0.02-2.52)

0.42 (0.01-3.29) 0.24 (0-4.77) 0.41 (0-3.50)

0.09 (0.03-0.48) 0.08 (0.02-0.37) 0.11 (0.01-0.55)

0.19 (0.04-1.04) 0.27 (0.04-1.08) 0.18 (0.01-0.72)

Chemistries

ALP (U/L) 35 (0-85) 41 (13-102) 70 (11-212)

ALT (U/L) 19 (1-57) 11 (0-50) 10 (0-32)

Amylase (U/L) 540 (255-2225) 1268 (371-2671) 1337 (630-2626)

AST (U/L) 25 (4-149) 20 (4-107) 19 (3-75)

Bilirubin, total

(mg/dL)

0.3 (0-1.0) 0.4 (0.1-0.7) 0.2 (0-0.8)

BUN (mg/dL) 3 (1-6) 2 (1-10) 2 (1-12)

Calcium (mg/dL) 15.6 (11.9-19.9) 14.9 (9.1-22.2) 15.3 (10.6-21.0)

181

Chloride (mEq/L) 122 (105-139) 119 (97-141) 121 (96-146)

Cholesterol

(mg/dL)

Creatine kinase

(U/L)

473 (267-678) 294 (75-513) 340 (92-588)

270 (31-967) 406 (59-1909) 228 (41-1049)

Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.6 (0.2-2) 9 0.3 (0-0.8)

GGT (U/L) 9 (0-25) 0.6 (0-1.6) 9 (1-35)

Glucose (mg/dL) 49 (17-92) 38 (8-92) 62 (11-121)

Iron (µg/dL) — 190 (30-488) —

LDH (U/L) 178 (10-585) 126 (15-417) 175 (4-452)

Lipase (U/L) — — 4 (3-4)

Magnesium

(mg/dL)

Phosphorus

(mg/dL)

— — 2.5

3.7 (1.8-8.0) 3.8 (1.7-11.3) 3.8 (1.5-9.3)

Potassium (mEq/L) 4.9 (1.8-9.1) 4.6 (2.3-9.2) 5.0 (1.2-8.7)

Protein, total

(g/dL)

7.0 (3.3-10.7) 6.4 (3.8-10.3) 6.3 (3.8-10.7)

Albumin (g/dL) b 2.1 (1.0-3.4) 1.8 (0.8-2.9) 2.3 (1.4-3.6)

Globulin (g/dL) b 4.7 (2.6-7.4) 4.4 (2.1-7.2) 4.0 (1.5-6.6)

Sodium (mEq/L) 162 (149-181) 161 (140-180) 164 (148-180)

Triglyceride

(mg/dL)

331 (47-1118) — 195 (21-1017)

Uric acid (mg/dL) 4.4 (1.0-13.6) 4.6 (1.4-16.0) 4.1 (0.9-14.0)

Measurement

Milk snake (Lampropeltis

triangulum) 117,376

Prehensile-tailed

skink (Corucia

zebrata) 376,403

Blue-tongued skink

(Tiliqua

scincoides) 117,376

Hematology

PCV (%) 30 (10-43) 32 (21-43) 28 (16-39)

RBC (10 6 /µL) 0.88 (0.36-1.45) 1.59 (0.91-2.28) 0.89 (0.30-2.00)

Hgb (g/dL) 10.4 (6.9-11.9) 9.3 (5.7-12.0) 10.4 (6-13)

MCV (fL) 354 (135-615) 213 (126-311) 297 (34-441)

MCH (pg) 119 (89-164) 61 (35-91) 98 (44-173)

MCHC (g/dL) 34 (29-45) 28 (19-35) 33 (16-57)

WBC (10 3 /µL) 7.33 (1.66-23.8) 11.5 (3.4-31.2) 5.93 (2.00-17.7)

182

Heterophils (10 3 /

µL)

1.29 (0.09-5.32) 3.66 (0.70-10.6) 2.24 (0.43-6.64)

Lymphocytes

(10 3 /µL)

Monocytes (10 3 /

µL)

Azurophils (10 3 /

µL)

Eosinophils

(10 3 /µL)

Basophils (10 3 /

µL)

3.55 (0.61-10.33) 3.87 (0.50-16.2) 1.93 (0.31-7.31)

0.12 (0.03-1.19) 0.68 (0.07-4.55) 0.16 (0.03-1.03)

0.76 (0.02-6.13) 0.11 (0.02-4.28) 0.16 (0.01-1.93)

— 0.45 (0.05-1.48) 0.37 (0.02-1.50)

0.24 (0.02-0.67) 1.26 (0.10-5.30) 0.67 (0.03-2.27)

Chemistries

ALP (U/L) 115 (27-338) 118 (33-344) 80 (25-159)

ALT (U/L) 8 (3-17) 6 (1-20) 20 (5-34)

Amylase (U/L) 665 792 (255-1971) —

AST (U/L) 19 (1-74) 14 (3-54) 20 (5-80)

Bilirubin, total

(mg/dL)

0.4 (0.1-0.9) 0.2 (0-0.5) —

BUN (mg/dL) 2 (1-14) 1 (0-4) 2 (1-27)

Calcium (mg/dL) 14.9 (11.0-18.9) 11.8 (8.9-15.2) 12.7 (10.0-15.9)

Chloride (mEq/L) 122 (106-137) 124 (107-138) 116 (100-132)

Cholesterol

(mg/dL)

Creatine kinase

(U/L)

446 (51-631) 97 (39-265) 207 (49-601)

157 (7-566) 234 (26-1319) 629 (59-5570)

Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.5 (0.3-1.1) 0.3 (0-0.6) 0.3 (0.1-0.6)

GGT (U/L) 8 (3-13) 2 (0-11) 8

Glucose (mg/dL) 52 (12-128) 107 (35-171) 127 (72-202)

LDH (U/L) 816 (18-2807) 183 (28-625) 735 (364-1106)

Lipase (U/L) — 25 (8-63) 364

Phosphorus

(mg/dL)

3.5 (1.0-7.3) 4.3 (2.3-9.8) 4.4 (2.3-10.8)

Potassium (mEq/L) 4.6 (2.2-8.1) 5.0 (2.9-8.1) 5.1 (3.3-7.9)

Protein, total

(g/dL)

6.5 (3.9-10.0) 5.8 (4.1-8.3) 6.1 (3.7-8.5)

183

Albumin (g/dL) b 2.0 (0.8-3.2) 2.3 (1.4-3.4) 2.1 (1.1-3.1)

Globulin (g/dL) b 4.6 (2.4-6.8) 3.5 (2.3-5.0) 3.9 (2.4-5.8)

Sodium (mEq/L) 164 (148-180) 160 (145-177) 151 (139-175)

Triglyceride

(mg/dL)

428 (68-1620) 48 (12-309) —

Uric acid (mg/dL) 4.9 (1.3-15.0) 1.8 (0.3-5.0) 2.7 (0.6-9.5)

Measurement

Panther chameleon (Furcifur

pardalis) 117,376

Veiled chameleon

(Chameleo

calyptratus) 376

Spiny-tailed lizard

(Uromastyx

spp.) 117,279

Hematology

PCV (%) 31 (17-46) 24 (12-37) 29 (4.9-44.5)

RBC (10 6 /µL) 0.83 (0.42-1.6) — 0.78 (0.33-4.1)

Hgb (g/dL) — — 9.9 (3.3-17.4)

MCV (fL) 330 (200-418) — 415 (119-614)

MCH (pg) — — 133 (1.2-203)

MCHC (g/dL) — — 33 (22-41)

Thrombocytes

(10 3 /µL)

— — 958 (290-2290)

WBC (10 3 /µL) 9.92 (0.47-25.1) 6.30 (1.20-21.0) 3.1 (1-8.1)

Heterophils (10 3 /

µL)

Lymphocytes

(10 3 /µL)

Monocytes (10 3 /

µL)

Azurophils (10 3 /

µL)

Eosinophils

(10 3 /µL)

Basophils (10 3 /

µL)

2.68 (0.09-6.64) 2.35 (0.50-8.32) 2 (0.59-5.36)

5.98 (0.21-16.8) 2.18 (0.07-10.8) 0.99 (0.27-4.05)

— — 0.04 (0-0.5)

0.46 (0-2.29) 0.50 (0-2.75) —

— — 0.04 (0-0.2)

0.13 (0.03-0.92) — 0.03 (0-0.33)

Chemistries

ALP (U/L) 32 (1-109) — 31 (5.9-139)

ALT (U/L) — — 11 (2.4-35)

Amylase (U/L) — — 134

AST (U/L) 23 (2-70) 397 (93-967) 73 (29-172)

184

Bilirubin, total

(mg/dL)

— — 0.3 (0.1-0.7)

BUN (mg/dL) — — 0.56 (0-3)

Calcium (mg/dL) 10.9 (7.1-14.6) 11.9 (8.7-14.5) 9.9 (7.2-13.2)

Chloride (mEq/L) — — 126 (111-135)

Cholesterol

(mg/dL)

Creatine kinase

(U/L)

— — 161 (64-295)

367 (47-1474) 1873 (5-8905) 1778 (141-10 k)

Creatinine (mg/dL) — — 0.4 (0.1-3)

GGT (U/L) — — 0.8 (0-5.0)

Glucose (mg/dL) 319 (174-465) 270 (125-444) 200 (68-356)

LDH (U/L) — — 209 (22-899)

Magnesium

(mg/dL)

Phosphorus

(mg/dL)

— — 3.48 (2.1-10.2)

9.8 (2.1-17.5) 8.4 (4.4-16.1) 4.5 (1.3-10)

Potassium (mEq/L) 5.5 (1.1-10.0) 6.5 (3.5-12.0) 3.7 (3-4.6)

Protein, total

(g/dL)

5.9 (3.3-8.5) 6.4 (4.4-10.9) 4 (2.6-7.4)

Albumin (g/dL) b 2.6 (1.2-4.1) 3.1 (1.4-4.2) 2 (1.2-3.1)

Globulin (g/dL) b 3.2 (2.0-4.4) 3.3 (2.0-5.9) 2.9 (2.2-4.6)

Sodium (mEq/L) 143 (127-159) 144 (132-169) 173±4

Triglyceride

(mg/dL)

— — 175 (111-238)

Uric acid (mg/dL) 5.1 (0-12.9) 5.6 (0-21.9) 2.94 (0.3-7.3)

Measurement

Bearded dragon (Pogona

vitticeps) 86,117

Gila monster

(Heloderma

suspectum) 62

Green iguana

(Iguana

iguana) 70,81,150,260,286,376

Hematology

PCV (%) 30 (17-45) 37 (22-50) 25-38

RBC (10 6 /µL) 1 (0.40-1.60) 0.50 (0.22-0.67) 1-1.9

Hgb (g/dL) 9.3 (4.7-14) 7.4 (6.0-9.5) 8-12

MCV (fL) 292 (77-506) 812 (415-1773) 165-305

MCH (pg) 90 (16-163) — 65-105

185

MCHC (g/dL) 32 (19-46) 21 (14-36) 20-38

WBC (10 3 /µL) 6.21 (1.45-19.0) 4.72 (3.30-6.40) 3-10

Heterophils (10 3 /

µL)

Lymphocytes

(10 3 /µL)

Monocytes (10 3 /

µL)

Azurophils (10 3 /

µL)

Eosinophils

(10 3 /µL)

Basophils (10 3 /

µL)

Fibrinogen

(mg/dL)

2.09 (0.24-7.77) 2.17 (1.35-3.31) 0.35-5.2

2.77 (0.29-11.3) 1.54 (0.58-3.39) 0.5-5.5

0.25 (0.03-1.39) 0.07 (0-0.19) 0-0.1

0.11 (0.01-1.98) 0.38 (0-1.14) 0-1.7

0.12 (0.01-0.37) — 0-1

0.26 (0.04-1.28) 0.57 (0.23-1.05) 0-0.5

180 (0-300) — 0-300

Chemistries

ALP (U/L) 133 (21-569) — 40 (4-170)

ALT (U/L) 9 (0-33) — 21 (0-97)

Amylase (U/L) 1670(497-3430) — 1815 (996-2988)

AST (U/L) 20 (2-90) 42 (20-66) 52 (2-100)

Bile acids (rest;

µmol/L)

Bile acids (7.5 h;

µmol/L)

Bilirubin, total

(mg/dL)

— 16.2 (2.6-55.1) 7.5 (2.6-30.3)

— — 32.5 (15.2-44.1)

0.4 (0-1.4) — 0.3 (0-4.9)

BUN (mg/dL) 2 (1-5) 15 (6-30) 2 (0-10)

Calcium (mg/dL) 11.9 (8.6-18) 12.2 (10.2-13.4) 12 (6-18) d

Ionized Ca ++

(mmol/L)

— 1.26 (1.09-1.50) 1.01-1.62

Chloride (mEq/L) 120 (94-149) — 117 (102-130)

Cholesterol

(mg/dL)

Creatine kinase

(U/L)

271 (79-606) — 104-333 d

563 (33-4042) 600 (144-1812) 1876 (174-8768) d

Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.2 (0-0.7) — 0.5 (0.2-1.3)

186

GGT (U/L) 1 (0-21) — 3 (0-10)

Glucose (mg/dL) 202 (108-333) 48 (4-109) 169-288

Iron (µg/dL) — — 88-133

LDH (U/L) 347 (25-1906) — 617 (36-7424) d

Lipase (U/L) — — 21 (17-24)

Magnesium

(mEq/L)

Phosphorus

(mg/dL)

— — 2.4-4

4.4 (2.1-10.6) 3.4 (1.1-8.6) 5 (2.5-21) d

Potassium (mEq/L) 4.0 (1.5-7.1) 3.9 (2.8-4.6) 1.3-3

Protein, total

(g/dL)

5.0 (3.0-8.1) 6.3 (5.4-6.9) 5.4 (4.1-7.4) d

Albumin (g/dL) b 2.5 (1.2-4.0) — 2.1-2.8

Albumin (PEP; — 2.61 (2.14-3.23) 1.8 (1.4-3.1)

g/dL) b

Globulin (g/dL) b 2.5 (1.1-4.5) — 2.5-4.3 d

α-1 (PEP; — 2.09 (1.48-2.60) 0.9 (0.4-1.2)

g/dL) b

α-2 (PEP; — 0.59 (0.44-0.76) —

g/dL) b

β (PEP; — 0.58 (0.41-0.77) 2.2 (1.6-3.8) d

g/dL) b

γ (PEP; — 0.33 (0.18-0.68) 0.3 (0.1-0.4)

g/dL) b

A/G ratio — — 0.5 (0.41-0.78)

Sodium (mEq/L) 157 (140-179) 144 (140-151) 158-183

Triglyceride

(mg/dL)

261 (93-437) — 383 (7-1323) d

Uric acid (mg/dL) 3.1 (0.5-9.8) 16.8 (9.8-24.7) 2.6 (0-8.2) d

Vitamin D 3 (25-

OH; nmol/L)

— — 51-393 d

Measurement

Green iguana (Iguana iguana)

male e,138,183

Green iguana

(Iguana iguana)

female e,138,183

Green iguana

(Iguana iguana)

juvenile e,138

Hematology

PCV (%) 34 (29-39) 38 (33-44) 38 (30-47)

187

RBC (10 6 /µL) 1.3 (1-1.7) 1.4 (1.2-1.8) 1.4 (1.3-1.6)

Hgb (g/dL) 8.6 (6.7-10.2) 10.6 (9.1-12.2) 9.6 (9.2-10.1)

MCV (fL) 266 (228-303) 270 (235-331) —

MCHC (g/dL) 25 (23-28) 28 (25-31) —

WBC (10 3 /µL) 15 (11-25) 15 (8-25) 16 (8-22)

Heterophils (10 3 /

µL)

Lymphocytes

(10 3 /µL)

Monocytes (10 3 /

µL)

Eosinophils

(10 3 /µL)

Basophils (10 3 /

µL)

Fibrinogen

(mg/dL)

3.6 (1-5.4) 3.2 (0.6-6.4) 2.2 (1-3.8)

9.7 (5-16.5) 9.9 (5.2-14.4) 12.9 (6.2-17.2)

1.3 (0.2-2.7) 1.2 (0.4-2.3) 0.4 (0.3-0.6)

0.1 (0-0.3) 0.1 (0-0.2) 0.3 (0-0.4)

0.4 (0.1-1) 0.5 (0.2-1.2) 0.5 (0.1-0.7)

100 (100-200) 100 (100-300) 100 (100-300)

Chemistries

ALP (U/L) 39 (14-65) 59 (22-90) —

ALT (U/L) 32 (4-76) 45 (5-96) —

Anion gap

(mEq/L)

22 (12-30) 29 (19-41) —

AST (U/L) 33 (19-65) 40 (7-102) 41 (13-72)

Bilirubin, total

(mg/dL)

0.8 (0.1-1.4) 1.5 (0.3-3.1) —

Calcium (mg/dL) 11.3 (8.6-14.1) 12.5 (10.8-14) 14.3 (12.1-23.2)

Chloride (mEq/L) 119 (115-124) 121 (113-129) —

Cholesterol

(mg/dL)

161 (82–214) 255 (204-347) —

CO 2 (mEq/L) 19.9 (15.2-24.7) 19 (16-23) —

Estradiol (pg/mL) 79 (36-162) 270 (81-512) —

Glucose (mg/dL) 166 (70-244) 170 (105-258) 273 (131-335)

Phosphorus

(mg/dL)

5.3 (3.2-7.6) 6.3 (2.8-9.3) 7.7 (4.3-9)

Potassium (mEq/L) 4 (2.8-6.1) 3.6 (2-5.8) —

Protein, total

(g/dL)

5.4 (4.4-6.5) 6.1 (4.9-7.6) 5 (4.2-6.1)

188

Albumin (g/dL) b 2 (1.3-3) 2.4 (1.5-3) 2.3 (2-2.8)

Globulin (g/dL) b 3.5 (2.5-4.4) 3.8 (2.8-5.2) 2.7 (2.2-3)

A:G (ratio) 0.6 (0.4-0.9) 0.7 (0.3-1) 0.8 (0.7-0.9)

Sodium (mEq/L) 157 (152-162) 163 (156-172) —

Testosterone

(ng/mL)

10.2 (2.2-15.7) 0.26 (0.07-0.35) —

Uric acid (mg/dL) 2.7 (1.5-5.8) 3.6 (0.9-6.7) 3.3 (0.7-5.7)

Measurement

Chinese (Asian) water dragon

(Physignathus cocincinus) 256

Crested gecko

(Rhacodactylus

ciliatus) male 257

Crested gecko

(Rhacodactylus

ciliatus) female 257

Hematology

PCV (%) 35 (32-40) 36 (23-45) 31 (24-43)

WBC (10 3 /µL) 13.5 (11.7-18.2) 15.4 (3.5-38.9) 15.4 (3.5-38.9)

Heterophils (10 3 /

µL)

Lymphocytes

(10 3 /µL)

Monocytes (10 3 /

µL)

Azurophils (10 3 /

µL)

Eosinophils

(10 3 /µL)

Basophils (10 3 /

µL)

5.1 (3.9-6.9) 1.5 (0.6-4.2) 1.5 (0.6-4.2)

7.2 (5.6-9.5) 10.7 (2.2-24.9) 10.7 (2.2-24.9)

1.1 (0.4-1.9) 1.9 (0.8-5.1) 1.9 (0.8-5.1)

0 (0-0.6) — —

0.2 (0.1-0.3) 0 (0-0.2) 0 (0-0.2)

0.5 (0.2-0.8) 0.3 (0-0.8) 0.3 (0-0.8)

Chemistries

AST (U/L) 16.5 (8-52) 30 (12-84) 30 (12-84)

Bile acids (µmol/L) — 43 (<35-89) 43 (<35-89)

Calcium (mg/dL) 12.4 (11.6-13.3) 12.5 (11.8-13.9) >20 (15.6-20.0)

Creatine kinase

(U/L)

1747 (19-6630) 489 (89-2104) 489 (89-2104)

Glucose (mg/dL) 157 (112-243) 107 (56-180) 107 (56-180)

Phosphorus

(mg/dL)

5.7 (3.4-8.2) 4.0 (2.6-6.2) 9.6 (3.8-18.8)

Potassium (mEq/L) 4.2 (3.8-4.5) 2.6 (1.5-4.5) 2.6 (1.5-4.5)

Protein, total 7 (6.6-7.5) 6.0 (4.9-7.7) 6.6 (5.2-8.0)

189

(g/dL)

Albumin (g/dL) b 2.2 (2.1-2.3) 2.7 (2.3-3.2) 2.9 (2.4-3.4)

Globulin (g/dL) b 4.7 (4.5-5.3) 3.5 (2.6-5.2) 3.5 (2.6-5.2)

Sodium (mEq/L) 150 (147-153) 143 (136-148) 143 (136-148)

Uric acid (mg/dL) 2.3 (1.9-2.7) 2.6 (0.9-6.0) 2.6 (0.9-6.0)

Measurement

Savannah monitor (Varanus

exanthematicus) 117,376

Water monitor

(Varanus

salvator) 117,376

Tegu lizard

(Tupinambus

spp.) f,117,380

Hematology

PCV (%) 34 (16-51) 34 (20-47) 25±2.6

RBC (10 6 /µL) 1.23 (0.63-1.58) 0.98 (0.42-1.42) 0.96±0.14

Hgb (g/dL) 10.5 (6.2-13.2) 10.5 (9.8-11.5) 11.4±1.6

MCV (fL) 284 (229-382) 335 (227-595) 261±23

MCH (pg) 94 (89-99) 140 (104-177) 119±12.5

MCHC (g/dL) 32 (26-38) 33 (30-40) 45.6±3.4

WBC (10 3 /µL) 4.67 (0.10-10.9) 9.49 (2.9-18.8) 16.8±2.5

Heterophils (10 3 /

µL)

Lymphocytes

(10 3 /µL)

Monocytes (10 3 /

µL)

Azurophils (10 3 /

µL)

Eosinophils

(10 3 /µL)

Basophils (10 3 /

µL)

Fibrinogen

(mg/dL)

1.58 (0.03-4.55) 4.30 (0.16-8.44) 2.2±0.45

1.87 (0.06-4.88) 2.84 (0.3-7.98) 7.5±0.58

0.42 (0.01-2.32) 0.81 (0.06-3.38) 1±0.41

0.02 (0-0.69) 0.75 (0.01-3.72) 1.8±0.56

— — 4.1±0.11

0.15 (0.07-0.28) 0.11 (0.06-0.14) 0.4±0.01

156 (100-300) 500 (200-700) 133 (0-200)

Chemistries

ALP (U/L) 20 (4-101) 176 (14-405) 160±85

ALT (U/L) 70 (7-374) 19 (1-93) 33±24

Amylase (U/L) — 1021 (265-1868) —

AST (U/L) 26 (5-80) 24 (2-58) 18±14

190

Bilirubin, total

(mg/dL)

0.1 (0-0.3) 0.1 (0-0.3) 0.3±0.2

BUN (mg/dL) 1 (0-5) 2 (1-5) 1±1

Calcium (mg/dL) 13.6 (10.8-16.5) 14.0 (9.8-18.2) 12.2±0.8

Chloride (mEq/L) 115 (93-133) 111 (97-124) 121±7

Cholesterol

(mg/dL)

Creatine kinase

(U/L)

116 (49-231) 78 (22-126) 206±67

1529 (7-6624) 772 (176-1818) 641±568

Creatinine (mg/dL) 8.7 (0-67) 0.5 (0-1) 0.3±0.1

GGT (U/L) 7 (1-11) 24 (7-48) 7

Glucose (mg/dL) 108 (54-163) 98 (29-170) 128±30

Iron (µg/dL) — 242 (111-429) —

LDH (U/L) 427 (29-3699) 157 (34-1288) 540±537

Magnesium

(mEq/L)

Osmolarity

(mOsm/L)

Phosphorus

(mg/dL)

3.1 2.5 (2.2-2.7) —

332 (319-345) — —

4.2 (0.8-7.7) 5.2 (2.9-8.9) 5.6±2.1

Potassium (mEq/L) 4.9 (3.0-6.9) 4.6 (3.5-6.1) 2.4±1.4

Protein, total

(g/dL)

6.6 (3.4-9.8) 7.0 (5.1-9.8) 6.6±1.3

Albumin (g/dL) b 2.0 (0.6-3.3) 2.4 (1.4-3.4) 3.6±0.7

Albumin (PEP; 3.2 (3.1-3.3) 3.1 (3-3.2) —

g/dL) b

Globulin (g/dL) b 4.6 (1.4-7.9) 4.7 (2.0-7.3) 2.9±1.2

α-1 (PEP; — 0.1 —

g/dL) b

α-2 (PEP; — 0.9 (0.8-1) —

g/dL) b

β (PEP; — 0.9 —

g/dL) b

γ (PEP; — 4.7 (2.6-6.8) —

g/dL) b

Sodium (mEq/L) 156 (142-169) 156 (143-170) 159±4

191

Triglyceride

(mg/dL)

135 (17-476) 35 (6-78) 31

Uric acid (mg/dL) 6.5 (2.0-14.6) 4.7 (1-12.2) 3.2±2

Measurement

American alligator (Alligator

mississippiensis) 117,376

Dwarf caiman

(Paleosuchus

palpebrosus) 117,376

Aldabra tortoise

(Aldabrachelys

gigantea) 376

Hematology

PCV (%) 24 (9-39) 22 (12-35) 22 (11-34)

RBC (10 6 /µL) 0.57 (0.21-1.3) 0.66 (0.43-0.89) 0.45 (0.13-0.77)

Hgb (g/dL) 7.8 (4.0-12.2) 7.7 (6.2-8.8) 7.1 (3.8-10.5)

MCV (fL) 430 (122-786) 362 (180-535) 469 (195-742)

MCH (pg) 135 (37-246) 98 154 (63-244)

MCHC (g/dL) 32 (18-45) 33 (23-38) 32 (21-42)

WBC (10 3 /µL) 6.39 (2.03-21.3) 6 (2.1-14.7) 5.45 (1.54-17.5)

Heterophils (10 3 /

µL)

Lymphocytes

(10 3 /µL)

Monocytes (10 3 /

µL)

Azurophils (10 3 /

µL)

Eosinophils

(10 3 /µL)

Basophils (10 3 /

µL)

Fibrinogen

(mg/dL)

2.51 (0.50-8.19) 2.95 (0.51-7.73) 3.17 (0.69-8.79)

2.21 (0.29-12.1) 2.10 (0.28-9.66) 1.52 (0.11-5.53)

0.31 (0.04-2.04) 0.10 (0.02-0.44) 0.14 (0.02-0.79)

0.05 (0.01-1.25) 0.04 (0.01-0.73) 0.04 (0-0.68)

0.22 (0.03-1.02) 0.12 (0.03-0.43) 0.13 (0.01-0.44)

0.71 (0.04-3.23) 0.15 (0.04-0.46) 0.11 (0.02-0.40)

267±115 100 (0-200) 100 (0-200)

Chemistries

ALP (U/L) 34 (12-105) 13 (2-26) 64 (15-142)

ALT (U/L) 37 (8-92) 37 (5-74) 3 (0-22)

Amylase (U/L) 58 (25-1067) 47 (25-234) 947 (144-3266)

AST (U/L) 246 (111-539) 88 (36-218) 59 (19-155)

Bilirubin, total

(mg/dL)

0.2 (0-0.8) 0.2 (0-0.6) 0.4 (0.1-1.2)

BUN (mg/dL) 2 (1-18) 2 (0-4) 18 (4-43)

192

Calcium (mg/dL) 11.2 (8.1-15.1) 10.4 (8.1-13.8) 11.7 (8.5-42.7)

Chloride (mEq/L) 112 (94-123) 121 (99-144) 93 (86-104)

Cholesterol

(mg/dL)

Creatine kinase

(U/L)

108 (32-291) 115 (29-241) 229 (69-564)

911 (145-7408) 1926 (89-9228) 59 (11-380)

Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.3 (0-0.7) 0.3 (0-0.6) 0.2 (0-0.4)

Glucose (mg/dL) 88 (34-177) 64 (13-146) 43 (12-85)

LDH (U/L) 346 (13-1726) 1269 (62-4058) 473 (131-1077)

Osmolarity

(mOsm/L)

Phosphorus

(mg/dL)

— 303 (301-304) —

4.3 (1.6-9.9) 4.4 (2.0-9.7) 3.9 (1.9-13)

Potassium (mEq/L) 3.8 (2.4-5.3) 4.3 (3.0-6.3) 5.5 (3.8-8.1)

Protein, total

(g/dL)

5.1 (2.6-7.8) 5.4 (2.6-7.8) 5.3 (2.5-7.7)

Albumin (g/dL) b 1.5 (0.4-2.6) 1.4 (0.6-2.7) 1.6 (0.7-3.0)

Albumin (PEP; — 2.2 (1.8-2.5) —

g/dL) b

Globulin (g/dL) b 3.3 (0.7-5.5) 4.0 (1.8-6.2) 3.7 (1.0-5.5)

Sodium (mEq/L) 147 (134-160) 151 (134-167) 128 (119-141)

Triglyceride

(mg/dL)

83 (7-505) 92 (9-174) 425 (17-1010)

Uric acid (mg/dL) 1.3 (0.2-4.0) 2.1 (0.4-5.6) 1.5 (0.2-3.4)

Measurement

Radiatedtortoise (Astrochelys

radiata) 248,376,405

Red-footed

tortoise

(Chelonoidis

carbonaria) 117,376

Indian star tortoise

(Geochelone

elegans) 117,376

Hematology

PCV (%) 10-51 25 (6-38) 23 (14-38)

RBC (10 6 /µL) 0.3-1.1 0.46 (0.14-0.19) 0.37 (0.24-0.55)

Hgb (g/dL) 5.6 (4-8) 7.5 (7-7.9) 7.9 (6.9-8.5)

MCV (fL) 454 (319-571) 482 (22-940) —

MCH (pg) 108 (82-133) 136 (123-149) —

MCHC (g/dL) 28 (26-33) 31 (29-32) 27 (26-28)

WBC (10 3 /µL) 2.5-14 6.51 (1.15-20.0) 6.71 (1.35-27.9)

193

Heterophils (10 3 /

µL)

Lymphocytes

(10 3 /µL)

Monocytes (10 3 /

µL)

Azurophils (10 3 /

µL)

Eosinophils

(10 3 /µL)

Basophils (10 3 /

µL)

Fibrinogen

(mg/dL)

0.7-8 1.67 (0.16-7.26) 2.56 (0.24-10.9)

0.4-5.8 1.89 (0.12-9.10) 2.83 (0.20-15.4)

0.02-0.5 0.16 (0.02-0.58) 0.20 (0.02-0.75)

0-0.82 0.05 (0-0.87) 0.05 (0.01-0.87)

0.03-0.82 0.17 (0.02-0.80) 0.26 (0.03-1.51)

0.1-2.5 0.92 (0.03-3.48) 0.49 (0.09-1.79)

117 (100-200) — —

Chemistries

ALP (U/L) 72-392 60 (6-145) 72 (20-164)

ALT (U/L) 0-17 7 (0-18) 4 (0-14)

Amylase (U/L) — — 1235

AST (U/L) 25-348 130 (20-406) 54 (14-152)

Bile acids (µmol/L) 0.3-31.3 — —

Bilirubin, total

(mg/dL)

0-0.5 0.5 (0.1-1.1) 0.2 (0-0.5)

BUN (mg/dL) 2-34 14 (1-34) 3 (0-9)

Calcium (mg/dL) 8.6-18 12.2 (7.1-24.1) 11.7 (7.6-21.2)

Chloride (mEq/L) 91-112 99 (81-111) 100 (88-112)

Cholesterol

(mg/dL)

Creatine kinase

(U/L)

56-154 121 (10-257) 115 (15-255)

33-5666 695 (54-3593) 374 (22-2644)

Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.1-0.5 0.4 (0.2-1.3) 0.3 (0.2-0.5)

GGT (U/L) 5 (0-11) 28 (7-130) 4 (0-5)

Glucose (mg/dL) 21-93 67 (13-154) 76 (37-186)

Iron (µg/dL) 60 107 —

LDH (U/L) 213-6444 638 (118-1644) 438 (12-863)

Lipase (U/L) 5-50 — 5

Phosphorus 2.5-7 3.5 (1.0-8.3) 3.6 (1.4-9.4)

194

(mg/dL)

Potassium (mEq/L) 3.1-5.8 5.5 (2.8-9.4) 4.8 (2.0-7.7)

Protein, total

(g/dL)

3-6.6 4.7 (1.9-7.4) 4.7 (2.2-7.6)

Albumin (g/dL) b 0.6-2.4 1.6 (0-3.0) 1.7 (0.4-3.0)

Albumin (PEP; 0.9-2.4 — —

g/dL) b

Globulin (g/dL) b 1.4-3.2 3.1 (0.2-4.8) 2.9 (1.3-4.6)

α-1 Glob 0.1-0.5 — —

(PEP; g/dL) b

α-2 Glob 0.6-1.9 — —

(PEP; g/dL) b

β Glob (PEP; 0.6-1.5 — —

g/dL) b

γ Glob (PEP; 0.4-0.9 — —

g/dL) b

Sodium (mEq/L) 121-146 130 (117-143) 127 (117-137)

Triglyceride

(mg/dL)

26-303 246 (28-480) 60 (27-110)

Uric acid (mg/dL) 0.3 (0-0.6) 0.6 (0.1-2.1) 3.3 (0.2-7.9)

Measurement

Desert tortoise (Gopherus

agassizii) 3,53,72,127

Gopher tortoise

(Gopherus

polyphemus) 375

Russian tortoise

(Testudo

horsfieldii) 202,252

Hematology

PCV (%) 15-39 23 (15-30) 23 (22-34)

RBC (10 6 /µL) 0.28-1.34 0.54 (0.24-0.91) —

Hgb (g/dL) 3.6-10.3 6.4 (4.2-8.6) —

MCV (fL) 197-688 — —

MCH (pg) 39-189 — —

MCHC (g/dL) 19-35 — —

WBC (10 3 /µL) 0.97-10.9 15.7 (10-22) 8.5 (5-12.5)

Heterophils (10 3 /

µL)

Lymphocytes

(10 3 /µL)

0.49-7.3 4.7 (1-12.5) g 3.7 (1.3-4.6)

0-3.8 — 4.7 (3.6-7.6)

Monocytes (10 3 / 0-0.57 8.9 (3.2-17.4) g 0.01 (0-0.02)

195

µL)

Azurophils (10 3 /

µL)

Eosinophils

(10 3 /µL)

Basophils (10 3 /

µL)

0-0.9 1.1 (0.3-2.9) g 0.05 (0.03-0.12)

0-0.95 — 0.05 (0.02-0.06)

0-4.3 0.94 (0.2-2.4) g 0.05 (0.02-0.08)

Chemistries

ALP (U/L) 43-176 39 (11-71) 498 (181-1188)

ALT (U/L) 21 (0-66) 15 (2-57) 1 (0-2)

AST (U/L) 41-106 136 (57-392) 20 (12-32)

Bile acids (µmol/L) 0-5.4 — —

Bilirubin, total

(mg/dL)

0-0.9 0.02 (0-0.1) 0.015 (0-0.09)

BUN (mg/dL) 0-4 30 (1-130) 12 (4-17)

Calcium (total;

mg/dL)

Ionized calcium

(mmol/L)

9.3-14.7 12 (10-14) 13.2 (9.9-19.5)

— — 1.28 (1-1.6)

Chloride (mEq/L) 94-112 102 (35-128) —

Cholesterol

(mg/dL)

Creatine kinase

(U/L)

56-233 76 (19-150) 109 (25-210)

2262 (944-3880) 160 (32-628) 123 (6-344)

Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.11-0.37 0.3 (0.1-0.4) —

GLDH (U/L) — — 1 (0.6-1.5)

Glucose (mg/dL) 92-165 75 (55-128) 59 (40-86)

LDH (U/L) 25-250 273 (18-909) —

Magnesium

(mEq/L)

Phosphorus

(mg/dL)

2.1 (1.8-2.4) 4.1 (3.3-4.8) —

1-6.3 2.1 (1-3.1) 2.6 (1.3-3.9)

Potassium (mEq/L) 3.5-4.7 5 (2.9-7) 5.3 (1.9-7.2)

Protein, total

(g/dL)

3-4.6 3.1 (1.3-4.6) 3 (2.5-4.6)

Albumin (g/dL) b 1.2-2.2 1.5 (0.5-2.6) 1.6 (1.2-2.3)

Albumin (PEP; — — —

196

g/dL) b

Globulin (g/dL) b 1.2-2.6 — 1.4 (1.3-2.3)

α-1 Glob 1 — —

(PEP; g/dL) b

α-2 Glob 1 — —

(PEP; g/dL) b

β Glob (PEP; 0.6 — —

g/dL) b

γ Glob (PEP; — — —

g/dL) b

Sodium (mEq/L) 122-139 138 (127-148) 138 (131-149)

Triglyceride

(mg/dL)

0-425 — —

Uric acid (mg/dL) 2.7-7.2 3.5 (0.9-8.5) 1.2 (0.8-3.9)

Vitamin A (µg/mL) 0.2-0.6 — —

Zinc (ppm) 0.4-3.7 — —

Measurement

African spurred tortoise

(Centrochelys sulcata) 117,376

Leopard tortoise

(Stigmochelys

pardalis) 117,376

Galapagos tortoise

(Chelonoidis

nigra) 376

Hematology

PCV (%) 28 (9-43) 23 (8-37) 18 (7-29)

RBC (10 6 /µL) 0.61 (0.08-1.15) 0.52 (0.15-1.06) 0.40 (0.16-0.63)

Hgb (g/dL) 7.7 (2.4-13.1) 16.1 (8.8-28) 5.5 (3.3-8.9)

MCV (fL) 418 (156-678) 488 (179-833) 535 (266-769)

MCH (pg) 116 (2.1-193) 83 160 (100-239)

MCHC (g/dL) 30 (20-40) 44 (42-46) 31 (24-38)

WBC (10 3 /µL) 4.41 (0.87-13.23) 4.24 (0.6-10.0) 4.57 (0.71-17.5)

Heterophils (10 3 /

µL)

Lymphocytes

(10 3 /µL)

Monocytes (10 3 /

µL)

Azurophils (10 3 /

µL)

1.92 (0.23-7.43) 1.92 (0.11-4.87) 1.57 (0.10-6.76)

1.41 (0.17-6.06) 1.61 (0.05-4.74) 1.45 (0.04-6.56)

0.01 (0.01-0.37) 0.08 (0.02-0.62) 0.08 (0.02-0.33)

0.04 (0-0.84) 0.02 (0-0.51) 0.03 (0-0.52)

Eosinophils 0.10 (0.01-0.43) 0.15 (0.02-0.37) 0.09 (0.02-0.40)

197

(10 3 /µL)

Basophils (10 3 /

µL)

0.12 (0.01-0.36) 0.11 (0.01-0.34) 0.34 (0.03-1.38)

Chemistries

ALP (U/L) 36 (10-70) 107 (21-278) 77 (27-235)

ALT (U/L) 9 (0-33) 8 3 (0-18)

Amylase (U/L) 1359 (399-2240) — 22 (3-41)

AST (U/L) 108 (34-401) 54 (5-119) 40 (16-122)

Bilirubin, total

(mg/dL)

0.1 (0-0.7) 0.1 0.3 (0-0.8)

BUN (mg/dL) 3 (1-6) 12 (1-36) 12 (3-35)

Calcium (mg/dL) 11.4 (7.8-21.2) 11.8 (6.5-18.3) 10.4 (6.6-17.8)

Chloride (mEq/L) 109 (93-124) 104 (90-119) 98 (83-112)

Cholesterol

(mg/dL)

Creatine kinase

(U/L)

129 (36-283) 111 (9-239) 172 (42-450)

407 (31-2088) 359 (223-704) 592 (35-2378)

Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.3 (0.1-0.4) 0.6 0.2 (0-0.4)

GGT (U/L) 14 (3-19) — 4 (0-11)

Glucose (mg/dL) 107 (55-220) 75 (10-152) 98 (35-312)

Iron (µg/dL) 81 (80-82) — 73 (8-593)

LDH (U/L) 977 (140-3264) 446 (346-546) 469 (71-1212)

Phosphorus

(mg/dL)

3.8 (1.5-6.5) 2.7 (1.1-5.2) 3.7 (2.0-8.0)

Potassium (mEq/L) 6.1 (3.3-11.9) 5.4 (2.3-8.8) 4.8 (3.4-7.2)

Protein, total

(g/dL)

3.8 (1.2-6.3) 3.3 (1.9-6.2) 4.7 (1.8-7.9)

Albumin (g/dL) b 1.5 (0-2.3) 1.6 (0.3-2.9) 1.6 (0.4-2.7)

Globulin (g/dL) b 2.3 (0.4-3.8) 2.6 (0.6-4.6) 3.1 (1.1-5.5)

Sodium (mEq/L) 139 (125-154) 132 (115-148) 130 (119-140)

α-tocopherol

(µg/dL)

Triglyceride

(mg/dL)

— — 2 (1,2)

163 (53-388) — 271 (29-1345)

Free T 3 — — 29

198

Uric acid (mg/dL) 4.6 (0.6-10.4) 2.5 (0.5-6.6) 1.7 (0.1-4.0)

Measurement

Eastern box turtle

(Terrapenecarolina) 73,99,103,189,376

Ornate box turtle

(Terrapene

ornata) 117,376

Wood turtle

(Glyptemys

insculpta) 376

Hematology

PCV (%) 24 (8-37) 23 (10-37) 25 (9-41)

RBC (10 6 /µL) 0.56 (0.08-1.03) 0.62 (0.46-0.8) —

Hgb (g/dL) 6.8 (2.6-11.0) 7.2 (6-9) —

MCV (fL) 396 (117-750) 408 (350-463) —

MCH (pg) 110 (30-207) 122 (108-136) —

MCHC (g/dL) 29 (14-43) 33 (31-33) —

WBC (10 3 /µL) 5.48 (1.34-15.9) 5.76 (1.2-13.4) 5.20 (0.8-20.0)

Heterophils (10 3 /

µL)

Lymphocytes

(10 3 /µL)

Monocytes (10 3 /

µL)

Azurophils (10 3 /

µL)

Eosinophils

(10 3 /µL)

Basophils (10 3 /

µL)

1.61 (0.15-6.4) 2.01 (0.10-5.9) —

1.61 (0.15-9.82) 2.19 (0.10-7.60) 3.15 (0.59-13.0)

0.19 (0.18-0.80) 0.13 (0.02-0.74) —

0.03 (0-0.80) 0.03 (0-0.13) 0.08 (0-1.11)

0.47 (0.42-3.01) 0.23 (0.03-1.32) —

0.55 (0.4-2.14) 0.25 (0.02-0.92) —

Chemistries

ALP (U/L) 77 (20-225) 61 (14-139) 71 (21-268)

ALT (U/L) 6 (0-20) 30 (25-33) —

Amylase (U/L) 1033 (87-2526) 691 (2-1893) —

AST (U/L) 64 (14-191) 61 (11-141) 79 (14-212)

Bilirubin, total

(mg/dL)

0.1 (0.1-0.4) 0.3 (0.1-0.4) —

BUN (mg/dL) 52 (6-121) 60 (4-154) —

Calcium (mg/dL) 10.5 (6.8-23.2) d 10.3 (6.2-17.5) 11.8 (6.3-29.4)

Chloride (mEq/L) 106 (89-121) 108 (93-124) —

Cholesterol 205 (42-483) 201 (20-469) —

199

(mg/dL)

Creatine kinase

(U/L)

153 (23-747) 196 (0-777) —

Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.2 (0-0.5) 1 (0.2-2.4) —

Glucose (mg/dL) 48 (23-114) 67 (13-120) 53 (13-108)

LDH (U/L) 307 (20-1032) 362 (300-424) —

Phosphorus

(mg/dL)

3.5 (1.7-7.5) 3.3 (1.9-5.8) 3.2 (1.6-10)

Potassium (mEq/L) 4.7 (3.1-9.4) 4.7 (2.4-8.2) —

Protein, total

(g/dL)

Protein, total

(male; g/dL)

Protein, total

(female; g/dL)

3.20 (3.10-3.90) 4.0 (1.4-6.6) 4.7 (1.5-6.5)

3.00 (1.80-5.20) — —

4.00 (2.20-6.20) — —

Haptoglobin 0.25 (0.27-0.38) — —

Albumin (g/dL) b 2.2 (1.2-3.2) 1.5 (0.2-2.8) —

Pre-alb (PEP; 0 (0-0.002) — —

g/dL) b

Albumin (PEP; 0.71-0.85 — —

g/dL) b

Globulin (g/dL) b 3.4 (2.5-4.7) 2.4 (0.6-4.3) —

α-1 Glob 0.25 (0.25-0.30) — —

(PEP; g/dL) b

α-2 Glob 0.80 (0.76-0.92) — —

(PEP; g/dL) b

β Glob (PEP; 1.27 (1.27-1.55) — —

g/dL) b

γ Glob (PEP; 0.26 (0.27-0.32) — —

g/dL) b

A:G ratio 0.27-0.31 — —

Sodium (mEq/L) 139 (120-155) 141 (129-154) —

Uric acid (mg/dL) 0.7 (0.1-2.9) 0.6 (0-1.9) 1.0 (0-4.1)

Measurement

Pacific pond turtle (Actinemys

marmorata) 376

Sliders

(Trachemys

scripta

spp.) 65,111,117,168,376

Painted turtle

(Chrysemys

picta) 111,168,376

200

Hematology

PCV (%) 24 (7-42) 26 (8-44) 25 (6-43)

RBC (10 6 /µL) 0.69 (0.24-1.20) 0.84 (0.33-2.21) 0.57 (0.41-0.68)

Hgb (g/dL) 7.6 (3.0-12.6) 11.1 (10-12.2) 11.2 (10.7-11.7)

MCV (fL) 377 (200-634) 409 (179-697) 271 (183-365)

MCH (pg) 107 (19-186) 108 —

MCHC (g/dL) 27 (18-42) 30 —

WBC (10 3 /µL) 5.94 (1.02-17.0) 6.73 (1.0-19.4) 9.49 (0.40-23.2)

Heterophils (10 3 /

µL)

Lymphocytes

(10 3 /µL)

Monocytes (10 3 /

µL)

Azurophils (10 3 /

µL)

Eosinophils

(10 3 /µL)

Basophils (10 3 /

µL)

1.83 (0.14-5.52) 2.33 (0.18-5.86) 2.30 (0.17-8.39)

2.46 (0.22-8.48) 2.28 (0.03-6.90) 2.60 (0.01-7.07)

— 0.18 (0.04-0.65) —

0.04 (0-0.43) 0.05 (0-0.48) 0.05 (0-0.26)

0.37 (0.02-1.81) 0.52 (0.01-3.06) —

0.62 (0.05-2.09) 1.07 (0.01-3.56) 1.95 (0.04-5.91)

Chemistries

ALP (U/L) — 113 (30-372) 208

ALT (U/L) — 14 (1-66) —

Amylase (U/L) — 493 (411-535) —

AST (U/L) 105 (26-228) 141 (44-358) 132 (45-284)

Bilirubin, total

(mg/dL)

— 0.2 (0.1-0.5) 0.1

BUN (mg/dL) — 23 (2-64) 37

Calcium (mg/dL) 10.0 (7.0-14.5) 12.6 (6.5-22.6) 11.7 (5.5-19.1)

Chloride (mEq/L) — 98 (88-112) 96 (73-109)

Cholesterol

(mg/dL)

Creatine kinase

(U/L)

— 162 (106-227) —

242 (63-747) 516 (108-2125) 352 (35-1608)

Creatinine (mg/dL) — 0.3 (0.2-0.5) —

GGT (U/L) — 7 (0-21) —

201

Glucose (mg/dL) 53 (4-113) 54 (21-143) 63 (10-133)

Iron (µg/dL) — — —

LDH (U/L) — 1713 (371-5763) 412

Lipase (U/L) — 6 (1-15) —

Magnesium

(mEq/L)

Phosphorus

(mg/dL)

— 2.2 4.8

3.6 (1.9-6.6) 4.0 (1.8-8.8) 3.6 (1.7-7.2)

Potassium (mEq/L) 4.3 (2.3-7.1) 3.8 (2.4-7.5) 3.6 (2.2-11.6)

Protein, total

(g/dL)

4.4 (1.8-7.0) 4.8 (1.1-8.8) 4.4 (1.8-7.7)

Albumin (g/dL) b 1.7 (0.7-2.7) 1.8 (0.6-3.3) 1.3 (0-2.7)

Globulin (g/dL) b 2.8 (1.0-4.6) 3.2 (1.1-5.9) 3.0 (0.1-5.9)

Sodium (mEq/L) 135 (123-147) 134 (123-147) 137 (119-146)

Triglyceride

(mg/dL)

— 304 (30-664) —

Uric acid (mg/dL) 0.9 (0-3.1) 0.8 (0.1-1.9) 0.7 (0.1-1.8)

Measurement

Loggerhead sea turtle

(Caretta caretta) 67,376

Green sea turtle

(Chelonia

mydas) 98,370,376

Hawksbill sea turtle

(Eretmochelys

imbricata) h,376,392

Hematology

PCV (%) 32 (18-40) 33 (23-45) 13-41

RBC (10 6 /µL) 0.52 (0.22-1.22) 0.52 (0.21-0.97) —

Hgb (g/dL) 10.7 10.7 —

MCV (fL) 416 (82-1027) 717 (320-1429) —

MCH (pg) 55 55 —

MCHC (g/dL) 36 36 —

WBC (10 3 /µL) 9.00 (5.00-12.50) 9.98 (3.76-21.7) —

Heterophils (10 3 /

µL)

Lymphocytes

(10 3 /µL)

Monocytes (10 3 /

µL)

Azurophils (10 3 /

µL)

3.67 (0.35-7.16) 6.69 (1.57-15.7) —

2.72 (0.30-4.83) 2.14 (0.94-4.34) —

0.96 (0.22-1.84) 0.91 (0.23-1.81) —

— — —

202

Eosinophils

(10 3 /µL)

Basophils (10 3 /

µL)

1.15 (0.45-2.10) 0.12 (0-0.48) —

— 0.13 (0-1.94) —

Chemistries

ALP (U/L) 64 (11-254) 6-67 7-80

ALT (U/L) — 32 (3-241) 1-23

Amylase (U/L) — 534 —

AST (U/L) 154 (10-480) 74-245 74-245

Bilirubin, total

(mg/dL)

— 0.03-0.2 0-10

BUN (mg/dL) 105 (19-162) 64 (13.9-173) 7-34

Calcium (mg/dL) 6.9 (2.2-11.5) 8-8.8 2.6-11.6

Chloride (mEq/L) 118 (103-137) 101-121 106-134

Cholesterol

(mg/dL)

Creatine kinase

(U/L)

— 221 (142-354) —

899 (258-3586) 326-2729 14-6008

Creatinine (mg/dL) — 0.25 (0.1-1.6) —

GGT (U/L) — 6 (0-21) —

Glucose (mg/dL) 120 (66-177) 67-178 79-162

Iron (µg/dL) — 362 (117-600) 6-67

LDH (U/L) — 75-477 —

Lipase (U/L) — — —

Magnesium

(mEq/L)

Phosphorus

(mg/dL)

— 4.8-12.2 3.4-7.1

9.3 (3.7-14.0) 4.9-11.1 1.9-8.7

Potassium (mEq/L) 3.9 (2.7-5.1) 3-7.1 3.0-5.3

Protein, total

(g/dL)

3.3 (1.2-6.9) 2.1-6.2 1.3-5.1

Albumin (g/dL) b 1.5 (0.7-2.6) 0.7-1.8 0.3-1.4

Globulin (g/dL) b 2.2 (0.2-4.9) 1.5-4.7 0.8-4.8

Sodium (mEq/L) 153 (142-164) 139-158 146-159

Triglyceride — 492 (124-932) —

203

(mg/dL)

Uric acid (mg/dL) 0.5 (0-1.2) 1.1 (0-2.7) 0.6 (0-1.8)

a

Listed values are median followed by either min-max or a confidence interval in parentheses depending

on reported methods and the authors’ judgment from the available evidence, unless a single value

indicating n=1, or a range that is not enclosed in parentheses indicating a reported reference interval.

b

Albumin is measured by colorimetry (e.g., bromocresol green) and globulin value is calculated unless

otherwise indicated (PEP=protein electrophoresis).

c

Remarkably high reference ranges for Ca (mean, 159 mg/dL; range, 30-337 mg/dL) and P (mean,

35 mg/dL; range, 8-69) have also been reported. 85

d

Can be elevated in gravid females 189,286

e

These data were obtained from iguanas housed outdoors with unfiltered sunlight.

f

Adults.

g

Calculated from data.

h

Juveniles.

Table 4-11

Environmental, Dietary, and Reproductive Characteristics of Reptiles. 117,284,322

Species

Environmental Preference

Temperature a-c RH (%)

Diet d

Method of

Reproduction e

Gestation/Incubation

Period (days)

Snakes

Ball (Royal) python

(Python regius)

Boa constrictor (Boa

constrictor)

Garter snake

(Thamnophis

sirtalis)

King snake

(Lampropeltis

getulus)

Sand boa (Eryx sp.)

Lizards

25-30°C

(77-86°F)

28-34°C

(82-93°F)

22-30°C

(72-86°F)

23-30°C

(73-86°F)

25-30°C

(77-86°F)

70-80

(use

humidity

box) g C Ov 90

50-70

(use

humidity

box) g C V 120-240

60-80

(use

humidity

box) g C V 90-110

50-70

(use

humidity

box) g Op/c Ov 50-60

20-30 C V 120-180

Bearded dragon 21-35°C — I—young Ov 65-90

204

(Pogona vitticeps) (70-95°F) (use

humidity

box) g

H--

adult

Crested gecko

(Correlophus

ciliatus)

Leopard gecko

(Eublepharis

macularius)

Uromastyx/spinytailed

lizard

(Uromastyx sp.)

25-28°C

(77-82°F)

25-30°C

(77-86°F)

26-49°C

(80-120°F)

Large cage

for

gradient

50-70

(use

humidity

box) g F/i Ov 60-150

20-30

(use

humidity

box) g I Ov 55-60

—

H/seeds Ov 60-80

(use

humidity

Veiled chameleon

(Chameleo

calyptratus)

20-30°C

(75-95°F)

50-70

Need good

ventilation

I Ov 200

Water dragon

(Physignathus

cocincinus)

Chelonians

Common box turtle

(Terrapene carolina)

Desert tortoise

(Gopherus agassizii)

Greek tortoise

(Testudo graeca)

Painted turtle

(Chrysemys picta)

25-34°C

(77-93°F)

24-29°C

(75-84°F)

25-30°C

(77-86°F)

20-27°C

(68-81°F)

23-28°C

(73-82°F)

80-90

Need

water with

filter h I/om Ov 90

60-80

(use

humidity

box) g C/f Ov 50-90

—

H Ov 84-120

(use

humidity

30-50

(use

humidity

box) g H/om Ov 60

80-90

Need

water with

filter h H/I/o Ov 47-99

Red-eared slider

(Trachemys scripta

elegans)

22-30°C

(72-86°F)

80-90

Need

water with

C Ov 59-93

205

Russian tortoise

(Agrionemys

horsfieldii)

21-32°C

(70-90°F)

—

filter h

H Ov 56-84

(use

humidity

Crocodilian

American alligator

(Alligator

mississippiensis)

30-35°C

(86-95°F)

80-90

Need

water with

filter h C/p Ov 62-65

C, carnivorous; F, frugivorous; H, herbivorous; I, insectivorous; O, molluscavorous; Om, omnivorous; Op,

ophiophagus; P, piscivorous; RH, relative humidity; V, viviparous; Ov, oviparous.

a

Temperatures shown are ideal ambient daytime temperature gradients. These should be allowed to fall

by approximately 5°C (9°F) during the night. “Hot-spot” temperatures should generally be 5°C (9°F)

greater than the highest temperature shown.

b

Preferred daytime temperature range for other commonly housed captive snakes are: rosy boa

(Lichanura trivirgata)=27-29.5°C (81-85°F); green tree python (Morelia viridis): 24-28°C (75-82°F); carpet

python (Morelia spilota): 27-29.5°C (81-85°F); corn snake (Pantherophis guttata): 25-30°C (77-86°F);

yellow rat snake (Elaphe obsoleta): 25-29°C (77-84°F); gopher/bullsnake (Pituophis melanoleucus): 25-

29°C (77-84°F).

c

Preferred daytime temperature range for other commonly housed captive lizards are: day gecko

(Pheluma sp.): 29.5°C (85°F); chameleons (montane) (Chamaeleo spp.): 21-27°C (70-81°F); chameleons

(lowland) (Chamaeleo spp.): 27-29°C (81-84°F); bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps): 26.7-29.5°C (80-

85°F); blue-tongued skink (Tiliqua sp.): 27-29.5°C (81-85°F); monitor lizards (Varanus spp.): 29-31°C

(84-88°F); tegus (Tupinambis spp.): 27-30°C (81-86°F).

d

Uppercase letters denote principal dietary requirements; lowercase denotes secondary preference.

e

Temperature-dependent.

f

Can have long hatch times dependent on incubation parameters.

g

This simulates humid underground burrow. Use dark colored plastic container with cut entrance,

moistened paper towels or sphagnum moss.

h

Need to set up water component like fish tank with proper filter (use one for koi or turtles), pump, water

quality testing, dechlorinator.

206

Table 4-12

Urinalysis Values of Chelonians. 116,163,203,205

Measurement Normal Values Abnormal Values

Specific gravity

pH

Color

1.003-1.014 (mean,

1.008)

Herbivores: alkaline

Omnivores: 5-8

Colorless to pale

yellow with white

urates

Up to 1.034

Acidic a

Dark yellow, yellow-brown, yellow-green

Turbidity Clear Cloudy

Protein Trace proteinuria Increased proteinuria

Glucose

Glucosuria up to

30 mg/dL

Glucosuria can be higher than 50 mg/dL with

anorexia

Renal casts None Various types present

Calcium,

phosphorus,

ammonia, urea,

creatinine

Detectable in urine

Significantly increased in urine of Testudo spp.

with renal disease

AST, CK, LDH Detectable in urine Significantly increased in urine of Testudo spp.

with renal disease

Crystals

Amorphous

urates/ammonium

biurates

Many other crystals found in renal failure;

uric acid crystals in gout; bilirubin and

tyrosine crystals in liver disease

a

May be associated with hibernation, anorexia, and improper diet.

Table 4-13

Selected Products and Guidelines Used in Force-Feeding Anorectic or Debilitated

Reptiles. a,b

Agent Guidelines Species/Comments

Alfalfa pellets

(e.g.,

iguana or

rabbit

pellets) or

powder

(Alfalfa

Blend (1:4) with

electrolyte

solution or

water; 20-

30 mL/kg PO

q48h (lizards)

to q84h

Herbivorous reptiles/administer via gavage or

esophagostomy tube; may clog feeding tube; for

iguanas, may gavage equal volume of water on

alternate days until patient is stable and eating; 359

soaked pellets can also be hand-fed (especially by

owner)

207

Powder,

NOW

Foods)

Baby foods

Commercial

dry or

moist diets,

which are

Genera

specific

(e.g.,

Fluker’s,

Zilla, Tetra,

Zoo Med,

etc.)

Dog/cat food,

canned (a/d,

Hill’s;

Maximum-

Calorie,

Iams;

Nutritional

Recovery

Formula,

Eukanuba)

Electrolyte

solutions

(Pedialyte,

Ross;

Gatorade,

Gatorade)

Emeraid

Omnivore,

Herbivore,

Carnivore,

and

Piscivore

Critical

Care

(chelonians) 36,359

Vegetable; blend in

with other food

sources

Meat (small

amount); blend

in with other

food sources

Blend (1:4) with

electrolyte

solution or

water; 20-

30 mL/kg or 3%

body weight

PO q48h

(lizards) to

q72h

(chelonians)

30 mL/kg POq7-

14d 117,197

15-25 mL/kg PO

q24h

Mix as labeled,

generally to

pancake batter

consistency,

feed small

amount to start

(see bag

suggestion)

Herbivorous reptiles/administer via gavage; for some

species, some fruit baby food can be added

Omnivorous species/administer by gavage

Herbivorous, omnivorous, insectivorous

reptiles/administer via gavage or esophagostomy

tube; may clog feeding tube; for iguanas, may

gavage equal volume of water on alternate days

until patient is stable and eating; soaked pellets can

also be hand-fed (especially by owner)

Carnivorous species/administer via gavage; although

low protein (8.5%), some concern over high purine

and vitamin A levels (probably OK unless

concurrent renal disease); in dehydrated animals,

dilute 1:1 with physiologic solution, pediatric oral

human electrolyte solution (Pedialyte, Ross), or

Gatorade (Gatorade); once stabilized, small whole

animals (lubricated with egg white) can be forcefed

Most species; no data with respect to costs/benefits

Herbivorous, omnivorous, insectivorous,

carnivorous, piscivorous reptiles/administer via

gavage or esophagostomy tube; may clog feeding

tube; typically follow the general feeding sequence:

first feed 1% body weight, second feed 2% body

weight, third feed 3% body weight

208

Powder

Formulas

once daily

High protein

powders

(Carnivore

Care,

Oxbow Pet

Products;

Emeraid

Carnivore,

Lafeber)

Vetark

Professional

Critical

Care

Formula

(CCF)

Powder

Mix as labeled,

generally to

pancake batter

consistency,

feed small

amount to start

(see bag

suggestion)

once daily

Mix as labeled

Insectivorous and carnivorous species/once

reconstituted, can be mixed 1:1 with an alfalfa or

timothy product for true omnivorous reptiles;

administer via gavage

Herbivorous, omnivorous reptiles/administer via

gavage or esophagostomy tube; may clog feeding

tube

a

General guidelines for force-feeding: generally provide nutrition following rehydration of patient; needs

may vary with specific disease (e.g., low protein with renal disease); force-feeding volumes are frequently

started at a low/modest level and gradually brought up to the desired level (for patients with severe

disease/cachexia, transition should be very gradual); concurrent to force-feeding and hydrating a patient,

highly palatable food items should be provided for voluntary food intake.

b

Dietary fiber supplements (alfalfa pellets or powder; barley powder; purified cellulose) should be an

integral part of enteral therapy for herbivorous reptiles.

209

Table 4-14

Guidelines for Tracheal/Pulmonary and Colonic Lavage in Reptiles. 19,251,278

Snakes

Tracheal/pulmonary

lavage

Anesthesia often not necessary in debilitated animals; pass red

rubber catheter through glottis to premeasured distance; infuse

with 5-10 mL/kg of tepid (29°C, 85°F), sterile 0.9% saline;

massage and rock the snake’s body to loosen debris; aspirate

Colonic lavage Pass lubricated soft red rubber catheter into cloaca; infuse with 10-

20 mL/kg of tepid (29°C, 85°F), sterile saline; massage coelomic

cavity and gently aspirate

Lizards

Tracheal/pulmonary

lavage

Colonic lavage

General anesthesia is typically necessary; if possible, intubate with

sterile endotracheal tube; pass sterile catheter inside lumen

(premeasure distance to sample site); infuse 5-10 mL/kg of tepid

(29°C, 85°F), sterile 0.9% saline and aspirate several times; not

all fluid will be recovered

Pass lubricated soft red rubber catheter into cloaca without

excessive force; infuse 10 mL/kg of tepid (29°C, 85°F), sterile

saline and gently aspirate several times

Chelonians

Tracheal/pulmonary

lavage

Colonic lavage

Sedation or anesthesia usually necessary; intubate with sterile

endotracheal tube if possible; pass radiomarked catheter into

affected lung lobe; may be helpful to bend it in the direction of

the lobe prior to insertion, though location cannot be assured

without orthogonal radiographic evidence of placement; infuse

with tepid (29°C, 85°F), sterile saline at 5-10 mL/kg; gently

aspirate

Pass lubricated red rubber catheter into cloaca; infuse with tepid

(29°C, 85°F), sterile saline at no more than 10 mL/kg; gently

aspirate; repeat several times

Table 4-15

Venipuncture Sites Commonly Used in Reptiles. a,148,152,321,372,385

Snakes

Ventral caudal

vein

Heart

Ventral aspect of tail caudal to cloaca under central scute; avoid

hemipenes and anal sacs, can be difficult to collect from in boas,

pythons, anacondas; may in rare cases lead to tail necrosis/paresis

Dorsal recumbency; insertion of needle under central abdominal scale at

210

45° angle caudal to heart; pericardial fluid contamination can occur

Lizards

Ventral caudal

vein

Ventral

abdominal

vein

Jugular vein

Ventral aspect of vertebral body under center of middle scale; avoid

hemipenes and anal sacs; this vein can also be approached laterally

by inserting needle under lateral process of vertebral body aiming

toward midline; ventral approach may in rare cases lead to tail

necrosis/paresis

Vein is located on caudal to middle midline within inner surface of

abdominal wall; insert 25-g needle (bent at 45° angle) cranially, at

acute angle to skin and in midline of abdomen, just caudal to

umbilicus; avoid urinary bladder in species that have one

Veins are lateral and deep; insert needle caudal to tympanum; best tried

in larger animals

Chelonians

Jugular vein

Lymphatic contamination can be a concern with most locations of

phlebotomy in chelonians, however, jugular considered less likely

Right vein often larger than left; runs level with tympanum to base of

neck with head extended; may require sedation

Subcarapacial

vein and

plexus

Dorsal caudal

vein

Brachial

vein/plexus

Interdigital

vessels of rear

flippers

The sinus accessed with patient’s head either extended or retracted;

depending on conformation of carapace, needle may be bent up to 60°

and positioned in midline just caudal to skin insertion of dorsal

aspect of neck and ventral aspect of cranial rim of carapace; needle is

advanced in caudodorsal direction, with slight negative pressure; can

cause significant internal hemorrhage or paresis in some cases

Close to carapace, dorsal to dorsal aspect of vertebral body; lymph

dilution common

Near triceps tendon at lateral aspect of radiohumeral joint (elbow),

foreleg grasped/extended, triceps tendon palpated near caudal aspect

of elbow joint, needle inserted ventral to tendon with syringe

perpendicular to forearm

Adult leatherback sea turtles, about 2.5 cm deep, near phalangeal

junctions, best at P1-P2; along side of phalanx, 20°-30° angle to

flipper surface

Crocodilians

Ventral caudal

vein

Supravertebral

vein

Ventral aspect of vertebral body under center of middle scale; avoid

hemipenes and anal sacs; this vein can also be approached laterally

by inserting needle under lateral process of vertebral body aiming

toward midline; ventral approach may in rare cases lead to tail

necrosis/paresis

Position needle in dorsal midline, just caudal to occiput and

perpendicular to skin surface, slowly advance needle with slight

negative pressure; excessive penetration can cause spinal trauma

211

a

Generally recommended to collect only 0.7% body weight in healthy reptiles, less in debilitated

animals, so 0.7 mL total in 100 g animal.

Table 4-16

Treatment of Dystocia in Reptiles. a,16,37,74,91,283,373

Etiologies

• Poor environmental conditions (improper thermal environment, lack of suitable nesting

substrate, shallow nesting substrate; underground obstructions [e.g., roots or buried

rocks], disturbance, lack of visual security, etc.)

• Social factors (e.g., competition, fighting, recent introduction of male)

• Dietary imbalances (e.g., calcium deficiency, hypovitaminosis A), malnutrition

• Endocrine imbalances

• Nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism

• Uterine inertia

• Dehydration

• Renal disease

• Egg yolk coelomitis

• Cystic or cloacal calculi

• Infections (e.g., uterus)

• Anatomic anomalies of the reproductive tract, eggs, pelvis, or shell of chelonians

• Other (substrate ingestion, overfeeding, other illness, inadequate exercise)

Diagnosis

• History and clinical signs (prolonged anorexia, lethargy, posterior paresis,

straining/tenesmus, increased pacing/seeking, excavating nests without oviposition,

straining to pass eggs, passage of a few eggs but not a full clutch, fluid discharge from

cloaca)

• Knowledge of normal egg retention time or usual season for laying

• Physical examination (gentle palpation of inguinal or prefemoral fossa or caudal

coelom; eggs may not be palpable)

• CBC (anemia, elevated or decreased WBCs)

• Plasma biochemical analysis (hyperproteinemia, elevated ALP activity, hypercalcemia

[total calcium elevated], hypocalcemia [ionized Ca <1 mmol/L])

• Coelomic effusion aspirate and cytology—carefully avoid aspirating from the urinary

bladder, oviducts, or eggs when collecting coelomic fluid samples

• Radiography (tortoise eggs have a calcified outer shell and appear radiographically

similar to avian eggs; turtles, lizards, and snakes generally have soft-shelled eggs with

soft-tissue density on radiographs)

• Ultrasound

• Coelioscopy—particularly to confirm coelomitis, salpingitis, or oviduct rupture;

determine whether early surgical management is appropriate

Treatment

• If patient is stable, provide proper environmental conditions (appropriate thermal

environment, humidity, nesting site, substrate material, substrate depth, and substrate

moisture; minimal stimulus; isolation)

212

• Handle gently and infrequently

• Tepid (~29°C; ~85°F) water soak, 30-60 min q24h

• Rehydration—fluid therapy prn; do not administer fluids intracoelomically

• Alert, strong, stable, responsive females that are eating well will often oviposit without

further therapy if given sufficient time

• Dextrose (SC, IV) may be of value in some cases

• Calcium (see Table 4-8; only if hypocalcemic; low Ca ++ not generally a problem in

snakes)

• Ca glycerophosphate/Ca lactate (Calphosan, Glenwood) (5 mg each/mL): 5 mg/kg SC,

IM

• Ca gluconate: 100-200 mg/kg SC, IM

• Oxytocin b (see Table 4-7)

• Generally administer 1 hr after Ca ++ injection

• 1-10 U/kg IM, ICe in lizards and snakes (results are variable); 1-20 U/kg IM, IV, ICe for

chelonians

• Repeat dose q1h; response is more rapid after IV administration in turtles

• Arginine vasotocin c (Sigma Chemical) (alternative to oxytocin) (see Table 4-7)

• 0.01-1 µg/kg IV (preferred), ICe

• Dinoprostone gel (Prepodil, Upjohn) 0.9 mg/kg intracloacally followed 20 min later by

prostaglandin F 2α (Lutalyse, Zoetis) 0.6 mg/kg IM

• Propranolol 1 mg/kg followed by prostaglandin F 2α 0.025 mg/kg d

• Prostaglandin F 2α (Lutalyse, 5 mg/mL)

• 1.5 mg/kg SC in turtles

• Efficacy may improve if given 20 min after an α 2 agonist (dexmedetomidine

0.035 mg/kg or xylazine 8 mg/kg)

• Lubricate cloaca with water soluble gel

• Manual massage may be useful in some situations—avoid causing oviduct rupture or

prolapse

• Salpingotomy may be required if declining clinical condition (i.e., anorexia,

dehydration, lethargy)

a

Although most reptiles are oviparous, some, including garter snakes, water snakes, boas (not

pythons), vipers, Jackson's chameleons, horned lizards, and Solomon Island prehensile-tailed skinks

are viviparous.

b

Use only if no evidence of obstructive dystocia or broken eggs.

c

Appears to be more effective than oxytocin in many reptiles, but it is not commercially available for use

in animals.

d

Effective in healthy Sceloporus sp., did not induce oviposition in iguanas; may be effective in

chelonians.

Table 4-17

Treatment of Metabolic Bone Diseases in Reptiles. 194

Etiology

• Improper Ca:P ratio; lack of dietary Ca

• Lack of vitamin D 3

213

• Lack of UVA and UVB light spectrum

• Renal disease

• Other: low ambient temperature, protein deficiency, small intestinal disease, parathyroid

disease, etc.

Clinical Signs

• Lethargy, reluctance to move

• Poor appetite or anorexia

• Weight loss or poor weight gain

• Softening of the mandible; shortened/rounded mandible and maxilla; symmetrical

swelling of the mandible (fibrous osteodystrophy)

• Fibrous osteodystrophy of the long bones of the legs

• Difficulty in lifting body off ground when walking

• Pathologic fractures

• Ataxia, paresis, or paralysis of the rear legs due to collapsed vertebrae or vertebral

luxation

• Osteoporosis

• Hypocalcemic muscle fasciculations and seizures

• Soft shell in chelonians

• Constipation

• Inability to evert/replace hemipenes

Diagnosis

• Dietary and environmental history

• Clinical signs

• Physical examination

• Radiography

• Serum Ca:P ratio; usually inverse (1:2+) with renal etiology

• Uric acid levels

• Ionized calcium levels

• Calcidiol (25-hydroxyvitamin D) levels (Michigan State University)

• UV meter readings of enclosure

• Dual energy x-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) scan

• Determination of glomerular filtration rate

• Renal nuclear medicine

• Renal biopsy

Treatment

• Provide species-correct environmental temperature ranges for day and night

• Correct diet as needed; usually changing to improve calcium:phosphorus ratio

• Use species-appropriate UVA/UVB lighting arrangement

• Use fluorescent or mercury vapor bulbs, or light emitting plasma lamps

• Provide areas to hide, as corneal and skin burns can occur

• In general:

• Desert-dwelling diurnal lizards/chelonians, high UVB levels (10% or full

unfiltered sun, 6 hr)

• Diurnal arboreal lizards/semiaquatic basking chelonians, moderate levels of UVB

(5%, 4 hr)

• Diurnal terrestrial lizards/chelonians from forested environment, low levels of

214

UVB (5%, 2 hr)

• Nocturnal lizards, low levels of UVB (2%, 2 hr)—focus more on oral vitamin D 3

• Snakes seem to get adequate levels of calcium/cholecalciferol from ingestion of

whole vertebrate prey (or earthworms); exceptions are diamond and green tree

pythons, indigo snakes, some aquatic species, rough/smooth green snakes, other

arboreal, diurnal snakes

• Albino (amelanistic), hypomelanistic, snow, blizzard, pastel, tangerine, lavender,

yellow, pied, anerythristic, leucistic, xanthochromistic, or any other genetic

mutant with less than normal levels of melanin are more susceptible to UV light

burns of the eyes and dorsal skin, so lower levels of UV supplementation (if any)

should be provided, oral vitamin D 3 may need to be considered

• Force-feeding (following rehydration) (see Table 4-13)

• Use species-appropriate diet, especially useful for immature animals as maintenance

until improving and closer to adult size, esophageal feeding tube usually needed for

chelonians to avoid beak fractures

• Ca supplementation options (see Table 4-8)—best to use human products

• Calcium carbonate (400 mg calcium/g product)

• Calcium citrate (210 mg calcium/g product)

• Calcium phosphate

• Maintain hydration

• Fluid therapy, as needed

• Soak in warm water (shallow) for 10-20 min q12-24 h to encourage drinking and

defecation (caution: head may need to be supported; do not leave unattended)

• Vitamin D 3 (see Table 4-8)

• Best source is UVA/UVB exposure from sun or appropriate lamp

• Some species may benefit from judicious oral supplementation

• Calcitonin to prevent further transfer of Ca from bone to blood (hormone therapies

should always be performed cautiously)

• 50 U/kg IM q7d×2 treatments

• Ca supplementation should be given prior to and during calcitonin therapy

• Serum Ca should be within normal limits prior to calcitonin therapy; if Ca levels

cannot be determined, administer calcium 7 days prior to calcitonin

• Gut-load invertebrates (crickets, mealworms, superworms, cockroaches) on high

calcium diet (high calcium leafy greens, Mazuri Hi-Ca Cricket Diet) for several days

before feeding to insectivores

• Feed high-calcium invertebrates such as phoenix worms, snails, and earthworms when

appropriate for diet in insectivores

• Dusting invertebrates may be beneficial; but they often remove dust quickly, can make

unpalatable, and be careful with dusts containing vitamins, avoid those with

phosphorus

• Feed only leafy greens and other high calcium plants for herbivores, minimizing thicker

vegetables and avoiding most fruits

• In mammals, condition considered painful, appropriate analgesics may be warranted

• Both short-term and long-term prognosis is often guarded at best

• Other

• Handle gently

• Remove climbing branches to prevent injuries

215

Table 4-18

Selected Sources of Diets and Other Commercial Products for Reptiles. a,b

Foods and Supplements

Fluker Farms 800-735-8537 www.flukerfarms.com

Drs Foster and Smith 800-443-1160 www.drsfostersmith.com

JurassiPet 706-343-6060 www.jurassipet.com

Mazuri 800-227-8941 www.mazuri.com

National

Geographic/Petsmart

888-839-9638 www.petsmart.com/featured-

shops/reptile/cat-36-catid-

800506

Oxbow Animal Health 800-249-0366 www.oxbowanimalhealth.com

Pretty Pets 800-356-5020 www.prettybird.com

Reliable Protein

Products

480-361-3940 www.zoofood.com

Repashy Superfoods 855-737-2749 www.store.repashy.com

Rep-Cal 800-406-6446 www.repcal.com

San Francisco Bay

Brand

510-792-7200 http://sfbb.com

Sticky Tongue Farms 951-244-3434 www.stickytonguefarms.com

Tetra Fauna 800-423-6458 www.tetra-fish.com

T-Rex Products 800-991-8739 www.t-rexproducts.com

Wombaroo (08)83911713(Aust) www.wombaroo.com.au/reptiles

Zilla 888-255-4527 www.zilla-rules.com

Zoo Med Laboratories 888-496-6633 www.zoomed.com

Live/Frozen Foods for Carnivores

American Rodent

Supply

317-899-1599 www.americanrodent.com Frozen mice, rats

Backwater Reptiles Unpublished www.backwaterreptiles.com Frozen mice, rats

Big Apple Herp 561-923-9510 www.bigappleherp.com Frozen mine, rats,

chicks, quail,

rabbits

Big Cheese Rodents 800-887-0921 www.bigcheeserodents.com Frozen mice, rats,

chicks

The Gourmet Rodent 352-472-9189 www.gourmetrodent.com Frozen mice, rats,

rabbits, and chicks

216

Hoosier Mouse Supply 317-831-1219 www.hoosiermousesupply.com Live (local) and frozen

mice, rats

Layne Laboratories, Inc Unpublished www.laynelabs.com Frozen mice, rats

Mack Natural Reptile

Food

888-372-9570 www.macksnaturalreptilefood.com Frozen mice, rats

Perfect Pets Inc 800-366-8794 www.perfectpet.net Frozen mice, rats,

hamsters, gerbils,

guinea pigs,

rabbits, chicks

Rodent Pro 812-867-7598 www.rodentpro.com Frozen mice, rats,

rabbits, guinea

pigs, chicks, quail

T-Rex Products 800-991-8739 www.t-rexproducts.com Frozen pinkies,

fuzzies, small mice

Live Foods for Insectivores

Arbico Organics 800-827-2847 www.arbico-organics.com Live Tiny Wigglers,

Tiny Wasp, Cocoon

Capers, many other

insects

Backwater Reptiles Unpublished www.Backwaterreptiles.com Crickets, roaches,

hornworms,

mealworms,

superworms,

silkworms

Bassett’s Cricket Ranch 800-634-2445 www.bcrcricket.com Crickets, mealworms

Big Apple Herp 561-923-9510 www.bigappleherp.com Butterworms,

mealworms,

waxworms,

nightcrawlers

Fluker Farms 800-735-8537 www.flukerfarms.com Crickets, mealworms,

superworms,

cockroaches, fruit

flies, soldier worms

Ghann’s Cricket Farm 800-476-2248 www.ghann.com Crickets, soldier fly

larvae, mealworms,

superworms, wax

worms

Grubco 800-222-3563 www.grubco.com Crickets, superworms,

mealworms, fly

larvae, wax worms

Josh’s Frogs 800-691-8178 www.joshsfrogs.com Fruit flies, mealworms,

hornworms,

217

soldier fly larvae,

roaches, rice flour

beetles

Knutson’s 800-248-9318 www.knutsonlivebait.com Night crawlers,

crickets,

mealworms, wax

worms

Millbrook Cricket Farm 800-654-3506 www.millbrookcrickets.com Crickets, superworms

Mulberry Farms 760-731-6088 www.mulberryfarms.com Silkworm larvae,

soldier fly larvae,

mealworms,

superworms,

waxworms,

roaches

The Phoenix Worm

Store

www.phoenixworm.com

Soldier fly larvae

Rainbow Mealworms 800-777-9676 www.rainbowmealworms.net Crickets, mealworms,

cockroaches

Reptile Food Unpublished www.reptilefood.com Mealworms, giant

mealworms,

zophobas worms,

waxworms,

nightcrawlers, red

worms, fruit flies,

crickets

Russell’s Cricket Farm 234-738-3663 www.livecrickets.com Crickets, mealworms,

superworms,

roaches

Timberline Fresh 800-423-2248 http://timberlinefresh.com Crickets, superworms,

hornworms,

waxworms,

mealworms

Top Hat Cricket Farm 800-638-2555 www.tophatcrickets.com Crickets, mealworms,

superworms,

hornworms,

waxworms

Lights

Exo Terra 800-724-2436 www.exo-terra.com Ultraviolet,

visible,infrared/heat

Fluker Farms 800-735-8537 www.flukerfarms.com Incandescent, heat

General Electric 800-435-4448 www.gelighting.com Incandescent, heat

Mac Industries, Inc 252-241-4584 www.reptileuv.com Brightrite halogen,

218

self-ballasted lamps,

heat projector

lamps, reptileUV

Philips 800-555-0050 www.lighting.philips.com Incandescent, heat

Sylvania 978-777-1900 www.sylvania.com 350BL blacklights

T-Rex Products 800-991-8739 www.t-rexproducts.com Mercury vapor UVB,

incandescent, heat

Zilla 888-255-4527 www.zilla-rules.com Incandescent, heat,

UVB fluorescent,

halogen

Zoo Med Laboratories 888-496-6633 www.zoomed.com Incandescent, heat,

mercury vapor

UVB, fluorescent

UVB

Heating Devices

Avitec 800-646-2473 www.avitec.com Ceramic heat elements,

infrared heat

panels, fluorescent

The Bean Farm 877-708-5882 www.beanfarm.com Heat tape, heat pads,

cords, ceramic

heaters

Big Apple Pet Supply 800-922-7753 www.bigappleherp.com Ceramic bulbs, heat

mats, heat tape,

incandescent bulbs

Fluker Farms 800-735-8537 www.flukerfarms.com Under-cage heat pads

Helix Controls 760-726-4464 www.helixcontrols.com Thermostats, heat

tape, heat panels

LLL Reptile 888-547-3784 http://lllreptile.com Pearlco conical ceramic

heat emitters

National

Geographic/Petsmart

888-839-9638 www.petsmart.com/featured-

shops/reptile/cat-36-catid-

800506

Heat lamps

Zilla 800-255-4527 www.zilla-rules.com Conical ceramic heat

emitters,

thermostats, heat

mats

Zoo Med Laboratories 888-496-6633 www.zoomed.com Thermostats,

rheostats, heat

pads, tape, cables,

cermaic heat

emitter, rock heater,

219

under tank heater

Humidity Devices

Exo Terra (Hagen) 800-724-2436 www.exo-terra.com Ultrasonic fogger,

Monsoon rainfall

Humidifirst 561-752-1936 www.humidifirst.com Mist Pac ultrasonic

humidifiers

Zoo Med Laboratories 888-496-6633 www.zoomed.com Ultrasonic fogger,

Repti fogger, Habba

mist, Hygro-Therm

humidity controller

Environmental Sensing and Monitoring Devices

The Bean Farm 877-708-5882 www.beanfarm.com Thermostats

Exo Terra (Hagen) 800-724-2436 www.exo-terra.com Remote digital

thermometers,

hygrometers

Onset Computer Corp 800-564-4377 www.onsetcomp.com Relative humidity,

temperature

Raytek 800-227-8074 www.raytek.com Digital infrared

thermometer

Solartech 800-798-3311 www.solarmeter.com Solarmeter 6.2 UVB

meter

Zilla 800-255-4527 www.zilla-rules.com Digital infrared

thermometer

Zoo Med Laboratories 888-496-6633 www.zoomed.com Hygro-Therm

humidity/heat

monitor and

controller,

ReptiTemp

rheostat, many

thermometer and

humidity gauges

a

Many pet stores sell live and frozen food for reptiles, and many of the products listed.

b

Numerous sources of information were used to compile this table, particularly Internet sources.

220

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246

C H A P T E R 5

Birds

Michelle G. Hawkins; David Sanchez-Migallon Guzman; Hugues Beaufrère; Angela M. Lennox; James

W. Carpenter

Table 5-1

Antimicrobial Agents Used in Birds.

247


Amikacin — Extended spectrum aminoglycoside;

least nephrotoxic of the

aminoglycosides; maintain

hydration and avoid concurrent use

of other nephroactive drugs 90

7 mg/kg IV

q24h 342

7.6 mg/kg IM

q8h 374

10 mg/kg IM

q12h 566

10-15 mg/kg IM

q24h 333

10-15 mg/kg IM

q12h 473

10-15 mg/kg IM,

IV q8-12h 333

10-20 mg/kg IM,

IV q8-12h 298

15 mg/kg IM

q12h, IV

q8h 721

15-20 mg/kg/day

divided q8-

24h 86

Emus/PD; mean serum levels declined

below a target trough of 4 µg/mL at

24 hr

Ostriches/PD; causes myositis; painful

injection

Cranes

Raptors

Amazon parrots, cockatiels,

cockatoos/PD

Most species, including psittacines

African grey parrots/PD

Blue-fronted Amazon parrots/PD

Red-tailed hawks/PD; use low end of

dose range for smaller hawks

15-20 mg/kg SC,

IM, IV q8-

12h 203 Passerines, pigeons/5 days maximum 686

15-20 mg/kg IM

q8-12h 637

15-30 mg/kg IM

q12-24h 203,822

528 mg/L

drinking

water 806

3 g/40 packet

bone cement 810

Cockatiels/PD

Most species, including passerines/use

in combination with other agents

for Mycobacterium; see Table 5-44

Ratites/egg dip

PMMA bead formation (1:14 ratio);

same dose for all aminoglycoside

beads

248

Amoxicillin/clavulanate

(Clavamox, Zoetis)

— β-lactamase inhibitor 90

7-14 mg/kg IM

q24h 112

Ostriches

10-15 mg/kg PO

q12h 806

60-120 mg/kg IM

q8-12h 204

125 mg/kg PO

q12h 255,607

125 mg/kg PO

q8h 575

125 mg/kg PO

q6h 148

125-250 mg/kg

PO q8-12h 204

Ratites

Collared doves/PD

Most species, including pigeons,

psittacines, raptors


Psittacines

Collared doves/PD

Amoxicillin sodium __ Broad-spectrum β-lacatamase-sensitive

penicillin 90

50 mg/kg IM q12-

24h 198,202

100 mg/kg IM, IV

q4-8h 697

150 mg/kg IM

q8h 689

250 mg/kg IM

q12-24h 198,202

Pigeons/PD; Gram-positive bacteria

Bustards/PD; administer q4h IM or q8h

IV to maintain blood levels

>2 mg/mL

Passerines, soft bills

Pigeons/PD; Gram-positive and Gramnegative

bacteria

Amoxicillin trihydrate — Broad-spectrum β-lacatamase-sensitive

penicillin; 90 may have minimal

activity for common Gram-negative

infections of birds; higher doses are

needed in birds to achieve the same

peak levels as in mammals 206

15-22 mg/kg PO

q8h 806

20 mg/kg PO

q12-24h 200

30 mg/kg IM

q12h × 5

days 112

Ratites

Pigeons/PD; mean half-life 66 min

Pigeons

40-80 mg/kg PO Pigeons

249

q12h × 5

days 112

55-110 mg/kg PO

q12h 318

100 mg/kg PO

q12-24h 207

100 mg/kg PO

q8h 51

100-150 mg/kg

PO q12h 149a

100-200 mg/kg

PO, IM

q4-8h 207

150 mg/kg SC,

IM q24h × 5

days

(administer

q48h with

long-acting

preparation) 697

150 mg/kg PO,

IV 753

150-175 mg/kg

PO q12h 148

150-175 mg/kg

PO q4-8h 689,808

65 mg/L drinking

water 806

200-400 mg/L

drinking

water 311

500-800 mg/L

drinking

water 318

1500 mg/L

drinking

water × 5

days 753

1500-4500 mg/L

drinking

water 148

Pigeons

Pigeons/PD

Most species, including raptors

Raptors

Pigeons

Pigeons

Pigeons/PD; Streptococcus bovis

Passerines (towhees), psittacines

Pigeons, psittacines

Ratites

Canaries/aviary use

Pigeons

Pigeons/Streptococcus bovis

Psittacines

250

300-500 mg/kg

soft feed 311

600 mg/kg soft

feed 148

Canaries/aviary use

Psittacines

Ampicillin sodium — Broad-spectrum β-lactamase-sensitive

penicillin 90

50 mg/kg IM q6-

8h 217

100 mg/kg IM

q4h 217

150 mg/kg IM

q12-24h 198,202

150 mg/kg IM

q12-24h 201

150-200 mg/kg

PO q8-12h 217

174 mg/kg PO

q24h 175

528 mg/L

drinking

water 175

Amazon parrots/PD; localized

infections

Amazon parrots/PD

Pigeons/PD


Amazon parrots/PD; therapeutic levels

not achieved in blue-naped

Amazons at this dosage



Ampicillin trihydrate — Broad-spectrum β-lacatamase-sensitive

penicillin; minimal activity for

common Gram-negative infections

of birds; poor gastrointestinal

absorption; may be useful for

treating sensitive gastrointestinal

infections 697

4-7 mg/kg SC, IM

q8h 806

11-15 mg/kg PO

q8h 806

15 mg/kg IM

q12h 111

15-20 mg/kg SC,

IM q12h 111

25 mg/kg PO

q12-24h 198,202

100 mg/kg PO

q12-24h 198,202

Ratites (excluding emus)

Ratites

Raptors/PD

Emus, cranes (PD)

Pigeons/PD

Pigeons/PD

251

q12-24h 198,202

100 mg/kg IM

q12h 566

Cranes

100 mg/kg IM

q4h 333

100-200 mg/kg

PO q6-8h 333

155 mg/kg IM

q12-24h 207

500 mg powder/L

drinking

water 333

1000-2000 mg/L

drinking

water 311

2000-3000 mg/kg

soft feed 311


Psittacines

Pigeons/PD; amoxicillin preferred over

ampicillin for IM use in pigeons

Psittacines/Pseudomonas

Canaries/aviary use

Canaries/aviary use

Azithromycin (Zithromax,

Pfizer)

— Macrolide antibiotic; effective against

most aerobic and anaerobic Grampositive

bacteria, may be effective

against Gram-negative organisms;

active against Mycobacterium

(including atypical species),

Chlamydia, and Mycoplasma 90

10-20 mg/kg PO

q48h × 5

treatments 124

40 mg/kg PO

q48h × 21

days 305

40 mg/kg PO

q24h × 30

days 124

43-45 mg/kg PO

q24h 333

50-80 mg/kg PO

q24h × 3 days

on, off 4 days,

repeat up to 3

Blue and gold macaws/PD;

nonintracellular infections

Cockatiels/PD; Chlamydia

Blue and gold macaws/PD; intracellular

infections (i.e., Chlamydia)

Most species including psittacines,

passerines/intracellular infections

including mycobacterial sp.; used

with ethambutol and rifabutin (see

Table 5-44)

Most species/mycobacterial sp.; do not

use if hepatic or renal disease; can

mix with lactulose (stable

refrigerated for 3-4 wk)

252

Bacitracin methylene

disalicylate (Solutracin 200,

A.L. Laboratories; BMD

Soluble, Alpharma)

wk 667

50-400 mg/L

drinking

water 333

100-500 mg/kg

feed 112

Ratites/Clostridium perfringens; prepare

daily

Ostriches <3 mo of age

Carbenicillin

(Geocillin, Roerig)

— Broad-spectrum β-lactamase-sensitive

penicillin with extended spectra

including Pseudomonas, Proteus, and

others 90

11-15 mg/kg IV

q8h 806

100 mg/kg PO

q12h 508

100 mg/kg IM

q8h 49

100 mg/kg

intratracheal

q24h 139

100-200 mg/kg

IM, IV q6-

12h 333

250 mg/kg IM

q12h 647

1058 mg/L

drinking

water 508

Ratites

Most species

Most species

Most species/Pseudomonas respiratory

infections

Most species, including psittacines,

passerines, soft bills, pigeons,

cranes, raptors

Raptors

Most species

Cefadroxil — First-generation cephalosporin; limited


pathogens 90

20 mg/kg PO

q12h 843

100 mg/kg PO

q12h × 7

days 318,685

Ratites

Most psittacines, pigeons/14-21 day

therapy may be indicated for severe

or deep pyodermas

Cefazolin — First-generation cephalosporin; limited


pathogens 90

25-30 mg/kg IM,

IV q8h 118

Cranes

253

25-50 mg/kg IM,

IV q12h 667

50-75 mg/kg IM

q12h 685

50-100 mg/kg PO,

IM q12h 619

Most species

Most species

Raptors

Cefotaxime

Third-generation cephalosporin with

broad-spectrum activity for many

Gram-positive and Gram-negative

pathogens; may penetrate

cerebrospinal fluid in some species 90

Cefovecin (Convenia, Zoetis)

25 mg/kg IM

q8h 809

50-100 mg/kg IM

q8-12h 566

75-100 mg/kg IM

q12h 358

75-100 mg/kg IM,

IV q4-8h 333

100 mg/kg IM q8-

12h 318

10 mg/kg SC, IM,

IV q1h 715

Ratites/young birds

Cranes

Raptors

Most species, including soft bills,

psittacines, passerines

Pigeons

Pigeons/PD; third-generation

cephalosporin; 90 not recommended

for use in birds due to short halflife;

cannot be used q14d as in dogs

and cats

Cefoxitin — Second-generation cephalosporin with

a wide range of activity against

many Gram-positive and Gramnegative

bacteria 90

50-75 mg/kg IM,

IV q6-8h 333

50-100 mg/kg IM,

IV q6-12h 333

Most species, including soft bills

Psittacines

Ceftazidime — Third-generation cephalosporin;

extensive activity against Gramnegative

bacteria; may penetrate

central nervous system 90

50-100 mg/kg IM,

IV q4-8h 333

Most species

Ceftiofur (Naxcel, Zoetis) — Third-generation cephalosporin with

254

activity against Pasteurella 90

10 mg/kg IM q8-

12h 795

Orange-winged Amazon parrots/PD

10 mg/kg IM

q4h 795

10-20 mg/kg IM

q12h 333

50 mg/kg IM

q12h 333

50-100 mg/kg q4-

8h 333

Cockatiels/PD; higher doses may be

required for resistant infections

Ratites

Ostrich chicks

Most species, including psittacines and

passerines

Ceftiofur extended release

formulation (Excede, Zoetis)

10 mg/kg IM 693 Red-tailed hawks/PK; 10 mg/kg may

allow targeted plasma levels for 36-

45 hr

10 mg/kg IM 403a Flamingos/PK; 10 mg/kg reached levels

above MIC through 96 hr in 9/11

birds

20 mg/kg IM 693 Red-tailed hawks/PK; may provide

target plasma levels for 96 hr

Ceftriaxone — Third-generation cephalosporin;

effective against Gram-positive and

Gram-negative bacteria including

some activity against Pseudomonas 90

75-100 mg/kg IM

q4-8h 333

Most species

Cephalexin — First-generation cephalosporin; active

against many Gram-positive and

some Gram-negative bacteria 90

15-22 mg/kg PO

q8h 806

35-50 mg/kg PO,

IM q6-8h 110

35-50 mg/kg IM

q2-3h 110

40-100 mg/kg PO,

IM q6-8h 333


Pigeons, emus, cranes, raptors,

psittacines >500 g/dose psittacines

q6h

Psittacines <500 g

Most species, including raptors,

psittacines, passerines

50 mg/kg PO q6h

× 3-5 days 333 Raptors, pigeons

255

100 mg/kg PO

q8-12h 318

100 mg/kg PO

q4-6h 110

Pigeons/14-21 day therapy may be

indicated for severe or deep

pyodermas

Pigeons, emus, cranes/PD

Cephalothin — First-generation cephalosporin; active



30-40 mg/kg IM,

IV q6h 806

100 mg/kg IM q8-

12h 358

100 mg/kg IM, IV

q6-8h 333

100 mg/kg IM

q6h 110

100 mg/kg IM, IV

q2-6h 203


Raptors


ratites

Pigeons, emus, cranes/PD

Passerines

Cephradine — First-generation cephalosporin; active



35-50 mg/kg PO

q4-6h 666

100 mg/kg PO

q4-6h 666

Most species/14-21 day therapy may be

indicated for severe or deep

pyodermas

Pigeons, emus, cranes

Chloramphenicol palmitate

(oral suspension)

— Phenicol; broad spectrum, including

anaerobes, but causes blood

dyscrasias in humans; 90 because

large differences in

pharmacokinetics exist between

birds and mammals, and even

between avian species, extrapolation

between species is not

recommended; 206 not commercially

available in the United States, but

can be compounded

25 mg/kg PO q8h

× 5 days 112 Pigeons

30-50 mg/kg PO

q6-8h 333

Psittacines, including budgerigars

35-50 mg/kg PO Ratites

256

q8h × 3 days 806

50 mg/kg PO q6-

12h 333

50-100 mg/kg PO

q6-12h 333

250 mg/kg PO

q6h 318

100-200 mg/L

drinking

water 667

Raptors

Most species, including passerines

Pigeons

Canaries

Chloramphenicol succinate

30 mg/kg IM q8h

× 3-5 days 255 Raptors

35-50 mg/kg SC,

IM, IV q8h × 3

days 806

50 mg/kg IM

q24h 136

50 mg/kg IM q8-

12h 203

50 mg/kg IM, IV

q6-12h 136,333

50 mg/kg IM

q6h 136

50-80 mg/kg IM

q12-24h 203

60-100 mg/kg IM

q8h 320

100 mg/kg SC

q8h 566

100 mg/kg IM

q6h 203

200 mg/kg IM

q12h × 5

days 364

Ratites

Eagles (PD)

Passerines

Most species, including budgerigars,

passerines, pigeons, raptors

Macaws, conures (PD)

Passerines

Pigeons

Cranes

Passerines

Budgerigars/PD

Chlorhexidine — Biguanides; antiseptic activity against

most Gram-positive and some

Gram-negative bacteria; not

bacterial spores 850

2.6-7.9 mL of 2%

solution/L

Most species/bacterial infection; topical

application may be fatal to nun and

257

solution/L

drinking

water 668

application may be fatal to nun and

parrot finches 667

7.9 mL/L water 806 Ratites/egg disinfectant spray at 104-

108°F (40-42°C)

Chlorine (Na hypochlorite)

Chlortetracycline (Aureomycin

Soluble Powder, Cyanamid)

5 mg/L drinking Water disinfectant; 0.1 mL of 5.25%

water 685 bleach/L approximates this

concentration

— Broad-spectrum tetracycline with

activity against a wide range of


bacteria including Chlamydia and

Mycoplasma 90

6-10 mg/kg IM

q24h 340

15-20 mg/kg PO

q8h 806

40-50 mg/kg PO

q8h (w/grit),

or q12h (w/o

grit) 333

100 mg/kg PO

q6h 148

250 mg/kg PO

q24h 340

130-400 mg/L

drinking

water 318,697,804

500 mg/L

drinking

water or

nectar 333

1000-1500 mg/L

drinking

water 333

5000 mg/L

drinking

water × 45

days 148

Raptors

Ratites

Pigeons/PD

Psittacines

Raptors

Pigeons

Most species/prepare fresh q8-12h

Canaries, psittacines/prophylaxis

against Chlamydia

Psittacines/Chlamydia

100 mg/kg feed 804 Pigeons/Salmonella

500 mg/kg feed 202 Budgerigars/Chlamydia

258

1000-2000 mg/kg

soft mixed

feed × 45

days 77,200,201

5000 mg/kg soft

feed × 45

days 148

Most psittacines, canaries

Psittacines/Chlamydia

0.5% pellets × 30- Small psittacines/reduce calcium

45 days 199 content of diet to 0.7%

1% pellets × 30- Large psittacines/reduce calcium

45 days 199 content of diet to 0.7%

Ciprofloxacin — Fluoroquinolone with wide spectrum

against Gram-negative and some

Gram-positive bacteria; activity

against Chlamydia and Mycoplasma 90

3-6 mg/kg PO

q12h 806

Ratites

5-20 mg/kg PO

q12h × 5-

7 days 686 Pigeons

10 mg/kg PO

q12h × 7 days 2

10-20 mg/kg PO

q12h 257

15-20 mg/kg PO,

IM

q12h 203,333,807

20-40 mg/kg PO,

IV q12h 333

50 mg/kg PO

q12h 363

80 mg/kg PO

q24h 822

Ostrich chicks

Raptors


passerines


canaries, raptors

Raptors/PD

Most species/Mycobacterium; use in

combination with other agents (see

Table 5-44)

250 mg/L Pigeons

drinking

water × 5-

10 days 686

Clarithromycin — Macrolide; effective against most

aerobic and anaerobic Grampositive



259




Chlamydia, and Mycoplasma; 90 see

Table 5-44

10 mg/kg PO

q24h 547

Penguins

60 mg/kg q24h 446 Psittacines

85 mg/kg PO

q24h 688

Most species/mycobacterial sp.;

allometrically scaled

Clindamycin — Lincosamide; broad spectrum against

anaerobic bacteria, limited against

aerobic pathogens; widely

distributed to tissues including

bone 90

5.5 mg/kg PO

q8h 525

12.5 mg/kg PO

q12h 312

25 mg/kg PO

q8h 240

50 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 242

Ostriches

Great horned owls/skin grafts; given in

combination with enrofloxacin

Psittacines, raptors

Most species/7-10 day course

recommended for raptors with

osteomyelitis 76


100 mg/kg PO

5 days 333 pigeons/Clostridium

q24h × 3- passerines, raptors,

100 mg/kg PO

q12h × 7

days 607

150 mg/kg PO

q24h 296

200 mg/L

drinking

water 158

Psittacines

Pigeons, raptors/osteomyelitis

Pigeons

Clofazimine

(Lamprene, Novartis)

— Antimycobacterial agent

1-5 mg/kg PO

q24h × 3-12

mo 333

Psittacines, raptors/Mycobacterium; use

in combination with other agents

(see Table 5-44)

6-12 mg/kg PO

q12h 333

Most species/Mycobacterium; use in


Table 5-44)

260

Table 5-44)

Cloxacillin — Narrow-spectrum β-lactamase-resistant

penicillin inactive against many

Gram-positive organisms 90

100-250 mg/kg

PO, IM

q24h 333

Most species

250 mg/kg PO

q12h × 7-

10 days 76 Raptors

Cycloserine (Seromycin, Lilly) 5 mg/kg PO q12-

24h × 3-12

mo 333

Raptors/Mycobacterium; use in


Table 5-44)

Danofloxacin mesylate (A180,

Zoetis)

— Fluoroquinolone with wide spectrum




5 mg/kg PO, IM,

IV 512

Hyacinth macaws

Doxycycline — Broad-spectrum tetracycline with



bacteria; drug of choice for

Chlamydia and Mycoplasma;

products or foods containing Al,

Ca, Mg, and Fe reduce or alter

absorption; readily penetrates

blood-brain barrier; 90 12.5-25 mg/kg

PO q12-24h resulted in elevations in

AST and serum bile acids as well as

hepatocellular damage in lorikeets 876

2-3.5 mg/kg PO

q12h 806

7.5-8 mg/kg PO

q12-24h 198,667

Ratites

Passerines, nectar feeders, pigeons/PD;

administer without grit 200


q24h × 3-

5 days 112

25 mg/kg (w/grit)

PO q12h 877

25 mg/kg PO

q12h 384

Pigeons/PD

Psittacines, raptors/some Gramnegative

bacterial infections and

possibly Leucocytozoon

261

25-50 mg/kg PO

q12-24h 333

35 mg/kg PO

q24h × 21

days 305

40 mg/kg PO

q24h 175

130 mg/L

drinking

water 148

200 mg/L

drinking

water 221

250 mg/L

drinking

water 200

280 mg/L

drinking

water 621

400 mg/L

drinking

water 224

500 mg/L

drinking

water 148,175

500 mg/L

drinking

water 577

Most species, including parrots

(African grey parrots, Amazon

parrots, cockatoos, macaws) and

pigeons/may cause regurgitation;

use low end of dose range for

macaws and cockatoos

Cockatiels/PD; Chlamydia


Psittacines

Pigeons

Canaries

Cockatiels/see Table 5-40 for recipe

Cockatiels/PD; spiral bacteria

Psittacines, pigeons/Streptococcus bovis in

pigeons

Fruit doves/PD; erratic drug

concentrations (while most birds

reached or exceeded therapeutic

drug levels, some birds did not)

800 mg/L African grey parrots, Goffin’s

drinking cockatoos/PD; protect solution from

water (mix exposure to light; make fresh daily

the contents

of 16 × 100 mg

capsules with

2 L water) 247

250-300 mg/kg

seed 76,239

Budgerigars

262

500 mg/kg wet

weight

seeds 621

1000 mg/kg

feed 333,626

Cockatiels/PD; see Table 5-40 for recipe

Large psittacines on dehulled seed

(PD), macaws on corn (PD),

canaries, large psittacines on soft

feed (10 mg/mL syrup mixed into

29% kidney beans, 29% canned

corn, 29% cooked rice, 13% dry

oatmeal cereal)

Doxycycline (Vibravenös,

Pfizer)

— Broad-spectrum tetracycline with



bacteria; 90 drug of choice for

Chlamydia and Mycoplasma; not

available in the United States

25-50 mg/kg IM

q5-7d × 5-7

treatments 333

60-100 mg/kg SC,

IM q5-7d 200

Psittacines

Psittacines, pigeons

75 mg/kg IM q7d

× 4-6 wk 51 Macaws

Doxycycline (Pharmacistcompounded

micronized

doxycycline hyclate)

75-100 mg/kg IM

q5-7d × 4-6

wk 333

100 mg/kg SC,

IM q5-7d × 7

doses 293

75-100 mg/kg IM

q7d 689

Psittacines, including macaws,

budgerigars

Houbara bustards/PD; Chlamydia

Cockatoos/anecdotal reports of sudden

death with compounded product;

inadequate drug levels achieved in

cockatiels at 100 mg/kg IM q10d; 621

adequate drug levels achieved with

100 mg/kg given IM in cockatoos,

Amazon parrots and SC in African

grey parrots, but severe soft-tissue

reactions seen 244

Doxycycline hyclate (injection) — Cardiovascular collapse associated with

the propylene glycol carrier can

occur after rapid IV injection 265

25-50 mg/kg slow

bolus IV q24h

Psittacines

263

× 3 days 689

Doxycyline hyclate capsule

75-100 mg/kg SC,

IM q5-7d 198

300 mg

doxycycline

mixed in

soybean

oil/kg low fat

psittacine

pellets 251

Pigeons/PD

Cockatiels/Chlamydia and spiral

bacterial infections; feed as sole diet

for 47 days

Doxycycline (Doxirobe gel,

Zoetis)

Topical 761

Most species/apply to beak or

pododermatitis lesions; use in

conjuction with debridement;

antibiotic is released for 28 days

Enrofloxacin — Fluoroquinolone with wide spectrum



against Chlamydia and Mycoplasma; 90

administration may be associated

with emesis; 697 given PO, the IM

formulation produces therapeutic

plasma concentration; 358 labeled for

single IM use only; multiple IM

dosages not recommended; best to

avoid IV use in raptors; 324 some

fluoroquinolones have been used in

PMMA beads with success; 213 joint

deformities reported in squab

chondrocytes with 200-800 mg/L

drinking water; 425 however

enrofloxacin has been commonly

used at the recommended dosages

without reports of adverse

effects; 248,667 no detected effect on

cartilage in day-old poultry chicks 601

1.5-2.5 mg/kg

PO, SC

q12h 806

2.2 mg/kg IV

q12h 343

5 mg/kg SC, IM

q12h 807

5 mg/kg PO, IM

q12-24h 807

Ratites

Emus/PD

Cockatiels

African grey parrots

264

5 mg/kg IM q12h

× 2 days 806 Ratites

5-10 mg/kg SC,

IM q24h 200,202

5-10 mg/kg PO

q8h 333

5-15 mg/kg PO,

SC, IM q12h 333


Passerines, pigeons (PD)

Raptors, psittacines, pigeons/drug of

choice for Salmonella typhimurium


q12-24h × 5-

10 days 333

10 mg/kg PO

q12h 113

10 mg/kg PO, IV

q24h 431

Cockatiels

Emus/PK

10-15 mg/kg PO, Raptors

IM q12h × 5-

7 days 333

10-20 mg/kg PO

q24h 200,203

15 mg/kg PO

q24h 607

15 mg/kg PO

q12h 469

15 mg/kg PO, IM,

IV q12h 234

15 mg/kg PO, SC

q12h 242

15-30 mg/kg PO,

IM q12h 246

20 mg/kg PO, SC,

IM q12h 333

20-30 mg/kg PO

q12-24h 221

30 mg/kg PO, IM

q24h 808

45 mg/kg PO

q24h 320

Passerines, psittacines, pigeons (PD)

Psittacines

Ostrich chicks, pigeons (administration

to adult birds led to therapeutic

levels in crop milk)

Raptors/PD; IV administration in owls

may result in weakness,

tachycardia, vasoconstriction

Most species


Pigeons/administer parenterally,

followed by oral treatment

Pigeons

Psittacines

Pigeons

265

q24h 320

25-50 mg/L

drinking

water 98

100-200 mg/L

drinking

water 194,686,697

Cranes (sandhill)/did not provide

sufficient plasma levels

Psittacines, pigeons/PD; may need up

to 300 mg/L to prevent recurrence of

infection in pigeons 697

190-750 mg/L

drinking

water 248

200 mg/L

drinking

water 245

200 mg/L

drinking

water 201

500 mg/L

drinking

water 458

200 mg/kg soft

feed 201


Psittacines/PD; maintains plasma

concentrations adequate only for

highly susceptible bacteria

Canaries

Psittacines

Canaries

250 mg/kg feed 200 Budgerigars/PD

250-1000 mg/kg

feed q24h 333

Psittacines, passerines

500 mg/kg feed 458 Psittacines, including Patagonian

conures/PD; mix into steamed corn

diet

1000 mg/kg feed 458 Senegal parrots/PD; mix into steamed

corn diet

0.2 mg/mL saline,

flush q24h ×

10 days 76 Raptors/nasal flush

Erythromycin — Macrolides antibiotic; effective against






Chlamydia, and Mycoplasma; 90 IM

injection may cause severe muscle

necrosis 331

5-10 mg/kg PO Ratites

266

q8h 806

10-20 mg/kg IM

q24h 202

10-20 mg/kg PO

q12h 697

50-100 mg/kg PO

q8-12h 202

60 mg/kg PO

q12h 347

71 mg/kg PO

q24h 175

Passerines

Psittacines

Passerines

Most species


100 mg/kg PO 823 Pigeons/PD; low plasma levels, but

higher lung and trachea levels

125 mg/kg PO

q8h 318

125 mg/L

drinking

water 201

Pigeons

Canaries

132 mg/L Most species, including canaries

drinking

water (10 days

on, 5 days off,

10 days on) 333

250-500 mg/L Psittacines

drinking

water × 3-

5 days 148

525-800 mg/L

drinking

water 318

1000 mg/L

drinking

water 175,823

1500 mg/L

drinking

water 697

200 mg/kg soft

feed 201

Psittacines

Pigeons/PD; Streptococcus bovis; plasma

levels low; one study reported that

lung and trachea levels were subtherapeutic

Most species

Canaries, psittacines

Ethambutol — Anti-mycobacterial agent; use in


267

Table 5-44)

10 mg/kg PO

q12h 51

15-20 mg/kg PO

q12h × 3-12

mo 333

15-30 mg/kg PO

q12-24h 203

30 mg/kg PO

q24h 688

Most species

Psittacines, raptors/Mycobacterium

Passerines/Mycobacterium

Most species/Mycobacterium

Flumequine (Biocik, Amacol) — Fluoroquinolone antibiotic with wide

spectrum against Gram-negative

and some Gram-positive bacteria;

activity against Chlamydia and

Mycoplasma; 90 not available in the

United States

30 mg/kg PO, IM

q8-12h 198

Passerines, pigeons (PD)

Furazolidone (NF180, Hess and

Clark)

— Nitrofuran antibiotic, wide spectrum

but potency is relatively low 90 in

birds linked with cardiomyopathy;

therapeutic action is confined to the

gastrointestinal tract

15-20 mg/kg PO

q24h 203

100-200 mg/L

drinking

water 667

200 mg/kg soft

food 667

Passerines

Canaries

Canaries

908 mg/kg feed 804 Pigeons/Salmonella

Gentamicin — Extended spectrum aminoglycoside;

potentially nephrotoxic; maintain


of other nephroactive drugs; 81,82,90

avoid doses higher than 2.5-

5 mg/kg q8-12h 82,250

1-2 mg/kg IM

q8h 806

2.5 mg/kg IM

q8h 82

Ratites (excluding emus)/use only as

last resort

Raptors/PD

268

3-10 mg/kg IM

q6-12h 203

Passerines

5 mg/kg IM

q8h 109,164,375 Emus/PD; cranes/PD 164

5-10 mg/kg IM

q8-12h 637

5-10 mg/kg IM

q4h 109,691

Cockatiels/PD

Pigeons/PD; 691 Salmonella

7 mg/kg q8h 374 Ostriches/PD; use with caution

40 mg/kg PO q8-

24h 203

2-3 drops

ophthalmic

solution

intranasal

q8h 807

Passerines/15-25 g

Most species

Isoniazid — Antimycobacterial agent; should be

used in combination with other

drugs (see Table 5-44)

5-15 mg/kg PO

q12h 333

30 mg/kg PO

q24h 822


Most species

Kanamycin — Extended spectrum aminoglycoside;

potentially nephrotoxic, maintain


of other nephroactive drugs 90

10-20 mg/kg IM

q12h 333


passerines/enteric infections

13-65 mg/L

drinking

water × 3-

5 days 333 Most species/make fresh daily

Lincomycin — Lincosamide antibiotic; broad spectrum

against anaerobic bacteria; limited

activity against aerobic organisms;

wide distribution, including bone 90

0.25-0.5 mL Raptors

intraarticular

q24h × 7-

10 days 697

269

25-50 mg/kg PO

q12h 315

35-50 mg/kg PO

q12-24h 203

Raptors/musculoskeletal surgical repair

Passerines

35-50 mg/pigeon Pigeons

PO q24h × 7-

14 days 499

50-75 mg/kg PO, Psittacines, raptors/pododermatitis,

IM q12h × 7- osteomyelitis

10 days 333

100 mg/kg PO

q24h 666

100 mg/kg IM

q12h 77

100-200 mg/L

drinking

water 201

Topical 315

Raptors

Psittacines

Canaries

Raptors/mixture of 50 mg/mL

lincomycin and 10 mg/mL

tobramycin was used to flush the

flexor tendon sheath

Lincomycin/spectinomycin (LS-

50 Water Soluble, Zoetis;

Linco-Spectin 100 Soluble

Powder, Zoetis)

— Lincosamide in combination with an

aminoglycoside; combination is

effective against Mycoplasma 90

50 mg/kg PO

q24h 333

Most species

¼-½ tsp/L Most species/using soluble powder

drinking 16.7 g lincomycin and 33.3 g

water × 10- spectinomycin per 2.55 oz packet of

14 days 139 powder

Marbofloxacin (Zeniquin,

Zoetis)

— Fluoroquinolone with wide-spectrum




2-3 mg/kg IV, IO

q24h 278,279

2.5-5 mg/kg PO

q24h 123

Raptors (buzzards, vultures)/PD

Blue and gold macaws/PD

5 mg/kg IM, IV 176 Ostriches/PD

10-15 mg/kg PO,

IM q12-

Raptors, bustards (PO dosage is PD) 277

270

24h 76,149a,277,697

Meropenem — Broad-spectrum β-lactamase-sensitive


including Pseudomonas, and many

anaerobes 90

175 mg/kg IM

q24h 722

Pigeons/PD

Metronidazole — Nitroimidazole antibiotic and

antiprotozoal agent active against

most anaerobes; penetrates bloodbrain

barrier; 90 see Table 5-4

10 mg/kg IM

q24h × 2

days 333

10-30 mg/kg PO

q12h × 10

days 808

Psittacines

Psittacines

50 mg/kg PO Most species, including raptors,

q24h × 5- psittacines/anaerobes

7 days 333

50 mg/kg PO

q12h × 30

days 685

Amazon parrots, cockatoos/anaerobic

and hemorrhagic enteritis

Minocycline — Broad-spectrum tetracycline with




Chlamydia and Mycoplasma; readily

penetrates blood-brain barrier 90

10 mg/kg PO

q12h 547

15 mg/kg PO

q12h 643

Penguins

Raptors

5000 mg/kg feed 13 Parakeets/use as antibiotic impregnated

millet

Neomycin — Aminoglycoside antibiotic; poorly

absorbed from gastrointestinal

tract; potentially nephrotoxic and

ototoxic 90

5-10 mg/kg IM

q12h 340

Raptors/toxic if overdosed

271

10 mg/kg PO

q24h 203

10 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 108

80-100 mg/L

drinking

water 667

Topical q6-12h 667

Passerines

Most species

Canaries

Most species/superficial wounds; cover

with bandage; may be absorbed

systemically and may cause

ototoxicity and nephrotoxicity

Nitrofurazone — Nitrofuran antibiotic; wide spectrum

but potency is relatively low; 90 may

be hepatotoxic; do not use in

finches or pigeons 686

0.3 mg/L

drinking

water × 7

days 666

Lories, mynahs/do not put in lory

nectar

0.6 mg/L Most species

drinking

water × 7-

10 days 508

Norfloxacin — Fluoroquinolone with wide spectrum




3-5 mg/kg PO

q12h 806

Ratites

Oleandomycin — Macrolide antibiotic; not available in

the United States

25 mg/kg IM

q24h 203

50 mg/kg PO

q24h 203

Passerines

Passerines

Ormetoprim-sulfadimethoxine

(Primor, Zoetis)

— Potentiated sulfonamide combination

antibiotic; broad spectrum 90

60 mg/kg PO

q12h 320

475-951 mg/L

drinking

water × 7-

Pigeons

Pigeons

272

water × 7-

10 days 320

Oxytetracycline — Broad-spectrum tetracycline with




Chlamydia and Mycoplasma; IM

administration may cause muscle

irritation or necrosis 90

2 mg/mL

nebulization

q4-6h 211

5 mg/kg IM

q12h 843

10 mg/kg IM

q3d 806

16 mg/kg IM

q24h 794

Parakeets/requires ultrasonic nebulizer;

therapeutic concentrations of

antibiotic were present in lung and

trachea; not effective in treating

systemic infections outside the

respiratory tract

Ratites

Ratites

Great horned owls/PD

25-50 mg/kg PO, Raptors

IM q8h × 5-

7 days 76

48 mg/kg IM

q48h 358

Owls

50 mg/kg IM

q24h × 5-

7 days 697 Psittacines

50 mg/kg PO q6-

8h 318

Pigeons

50-75 mg/kg SC 240 Goffin’s cockatoos, blue and gold

macaws

50-100 mg/kg SC,

IM q2-3d 203,249

50-200 mg/kg IM

q3-5d 697

58 mg/kg IM

q24h 794

80 mg/kg IM

q48h 697

Cockatoos (PD), passerines

Raptors

Amazon parrots/PD

Pigeons <400 g

200 mg/kg IM Most species, including

273

200 mg/kg IM

q24h 51,76

130-400 mg/L

drinking

water 85,318


waterfowl/Pasteurella

Pigeons

650-2000 mg/L Psittacines

drinking

water × 5-

14 days 148

300 mg/kg soft

feed × 5-

14 days 148 Psittacines

8 g/40 g packet

bone cement 810 PMMA beads (ratio 1:5)

Penicillin benzathine/

procaine

— Anecdotal reports suggest procaine

penicillin should not be used in

birds <1 kg BW because of possible

toxic effects 807

200 mg/kg IM

q24h 51

Most species

Penicillin G 6 mg/kg IV 137 Ostriches, emus/PD; rapidly eliminated;

small volume of distribution

Penicillin procaine — Anecdotal reports suggest procaine

penicillin should not be used in

birds <1 kg BW; adverse reactions

(possible toxic effects) described in

finches, canaries, budgerigars,

cockatiels 237,807

Piperacillin — Broad-spectrum β-lactamase-sensitive


including Pseudomonas, Proteus, and

others; 90 see piperacillin/tazobactam

25 mg/kg IM 807 Ratites (chicks <6 mo of age)

75-100 mg/kg IM

q4-6h 807,808

100 mg/kg IM

q12h 200

100 mg/kg IM

q12h 1

100 mg/kg IM, IV

q8-12h 566,643,697

Amazon parrots

Psittacines/PD

Ostrich chicks/administer concurrent

with amikacin (20 mg/kg IM q12h)

Pigeons, raptors, cranes

100 mg/kg IM q4- Red-tailed hawks, great horned

274

6h 674

owls/PD

100-200 mg/kg

IM, IV

q6-12h 689,697

200 mg/kg IM

q8h 660

200 mg/kg IM, IV

q4-8h 242,689,807


Budgerigars (PD), raptors


0.02 mL (4 mg) in

macaw eggs;

0.01 mL

(2 mg) in

small eggs 507

Eggs/inject 200 mg/mL solution into air

cell on days 14, 18, and 22

Piperacillin/tazobactam — β-lactamase-protected penicillin

combination; synergistic effect

allows activity against organisms

resistant to piperacillin alone; 90

broad-spectrum activity

100 mg/kg IM q3-

4h 125

100 mg/kg IM, IV

q8-12h 553

Hispaniolan Amazon parrots/PK; to

control infections attributed to

susceptible bacteria with an MIC of

≤4 µg/mL


psittacines/reports of good clinical

response; recommended at

100 mg/kg IV q6h for severe

polymicrobic bacteremia

Polymyxin B — Polypeptide antibiotic; toxicity limits

use to topical preparations or PO

for gastrointestinal infections;

narrow spectrum against some

Gram-negative bacteria 90

Povidone-iodine

10-15 mg/kg IM

q24h 340

50,000 U/L

drinking

water 377

50,000 U/kg soft

feed 377

Topical to

lesions, then

wash off 76

275

Raptors/not absorbed if given PO

Canaries

Canaries

Raptors/wound cleansing;

antibacterial, antifungal activity

Rifabutin (Mycobutin, Pfizer)

wash off 76

15-45 mg/kg PO

q24h 333

Antimycobacterial agent; use in


Table 5-44)

Rifampicin — See rifampin

Rifampin — Most species/Mycobacterium; use with

other agents (see Table 5-44); may

cause/be associated with hepatitis,

CNS signs, depression, and

vomiting; yellow-orange urates

observed in bustards 697

10-20 mg/kg PO

q12-24h 203,697,807

45 mg/kg PO

q24h 752,822

Silver sulfadiazine Topical q12-

24h 226,667

Most species, including passerines,

psittacines/Mycobacterium

Most species, including Amazon

parrots, cranes

Most species/topical sulfonamide,

specifically for burn wounds; 90

ulcers; Amazon foot necrosis;

bandage application preferred

Spectinomycin Aminoglycoside antibiotic 90

10-30 mg/kg IM

q8-12h 77

25-35 mg/kg IM

q8-12h 319

165-275 mg/L

drinking

water 320

200-400 mg/L

drinking

water 201

400 mg/kg soft

feed 201

Psittacines

Pigeons

Pigeons

Canaries

Canaries

Spiramycin — Macrolide antibiotic; effective against


bacteria; may be effective




Chlamydia, and Mycoplasma; 90 not


20 mg/kg IM

q24h 340

Raptors

276

250 mg/kg PO

q24h 500

200-400 mg/L

drinking

water 201

400 mg/kg soft

feed 201

Most species, including raptors/poorly

absorbed

Canaries

Canaries

Streptomycin — Narrow-spectrum aminoglycoside;


aerobic bacteria 90 and Mycobacterium;

use in combination with other

agents (see Table 5-44)

30 mg/kg IM

q12h 51

Most species

Sulfachlorpyridazine — Potentiated sulfonamide combination

antibiotic and antiprotozoal; broad

spectrum 90

150-300 mg/L

drinking

water 667

Canaries

400 mg/L Pigeons

drinking

water × 7-

10 days 684

Sulfadimethoxine — Potentiated sulfonamide combination

antibiotic, broad spectrum;

antiprotozoal 90

25-55 mg/kg PO Raptors/loading dose at higher end × 1

q24h × 3- day

7 days 382,659

50 mg/kg PO

q24h 119

190-250 mg/L

drinking

water 500

Cranes

Pigeons/loading dose 375 mg/L

drinking water

330-400 mg/L Pigeons

drinking

water on day

1 followed by

200-265 mg/L

× 4 days 320

277

Tetracycline — Broad-spectrum tetracycline with




Chlamydia and Mycoplasma 90

50 mg/kg PO

q8h 203,667

200-250 mg/kg

PO q12-24h 666

40-200 mg/L

drinking

water 333

100 mg/L

drinking

water 639

200 mg/L

drinking

water 685

666 mg/L

drinking

water 697


Most species/gavage

Most species, including game birds

Rheas

Pigeons

Pigeons

Tiamulin (Denagard; Elanco) — Tiamulin fumarate antibiotic; activity

against Gram-positive organisms

including anaerobes 90

25-50 mg/kg PO

q24h 180

Most species

Ticarcillin (Ticar, SmithKline

Beecham)

— Broad-spectrum β-lactamase-sensitive


including Pseudomonas and many

anaerobes 90

75-100 mg/kg IM

q4-6h 689

150-200 mg/kg IV

q2-4h 203

200 mg/kg IM, IV

q6-12h 333

200 mg/kg IM q2-

4h 721

Amazon parrots



raptors/Pseudomonas 240


Ticarcillin/clavulanate

(Timentin, Glaxo

SmithKline)

100 mg/kg IM,

IV 147

200 mg/kg IM, IV Most species

Most species/frequency not reported

278

200 mg/kg IM, IV

q12h 685

Most species

Tilmicosin (Micotil 300

Injection, Provitil-powder

and Pulmotil AC-liquid,

Elanco)

— Macrolide antibiotic; effective against


bacteria; may be effective




Chlamydia, and Mycoplasma; 90 handle

with caution; potentially fatal to

humans; 614 see Table 6-1 for poultry

dosages

Tobramycin — Extended spectrum; potentially

nephrotoxic; maintain hydration

and avoid concurrent use of other

nephroactive drugs 90

0.25-0.5 mL Raptors/septic arthritis

intraarticular

flush q24h ×

7-10 days 76

2.5-5 mg/kg IM,

IV q8-12h 148

Psittacine, passerines, raptors

10 mg/kg IM

q12h × 5-

7 days 333 Raptors

Topical

A mixture of lincomycin (50 mg/mL)

and tobramycin (10 mg/mL) was

used to flush the flexor tendon

sheath 315

Trimethoprim — Bacteriostatic activity against some


bacteria

10-20 mg/kg PO

q8h 198,202,500

Psittacines, passerines, pigeons (PD)

Trimethoprim/sulfadiazine — Potentiated sulfonamide combination


8 mg/kg SC, IM

q12h 566

Cranes

12-60 mg/kg PO Raptors/useful for sensitive infections

q12h × 5- in neonates

7 days 76

16-24 mg/kg PO

q8-12h 566

Cranes

279

q8-12h 566

20 mg/kg SC, IM

q12h 148

30 mg/kg PO

q8h 341

30 mg/kg PO, IM,

IV q12h 314

60 mg/kg PO

q12h 320

Psittacines

Psittacines/combine with

pyrimethamine for treatment of

sarcocystosis

Ostriches/PD

Pigeons

107 mg/L

drinking

water 85

Galliformes

475-950 mg/L Pigeons

drinking

water × 7-

10 days 320

Trimethoprim/sulfatroxazole — Potentiated sulfonamide combination


10-50 mg/kg PO

q12h 203

Passerines

Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole — Potentiated sulfonamide combination


8 mg/kg IM

q12h 697

10-50 mg/kg PO

q24h 203

20 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 697

21 mg/kg PO

q12h 1

40-50 mg/kg PO

q12h 242

48 mg/kg PO, IM

q12h 384

60 mg/kg PO

q24h 198

60-72 mg/kg PO

q12h 118

Psittacines

Passerines

Psittacines

Ostriches

Psittacines

Raptors

Pigeons/PD

Cranes

75 mg/kg IM Most species/reduce dose if

280

q12h 51 regurgitation occurs 240

100 mg/kg PO

q12h 51

144 mg/kg PO

q8-12h 689


Most species

360-400 mg/L

drinking

water × 10-

14 days 684 Most species, including pigeons

Tylosin — Macrolide antibiotic; effective against






Chlamydia, and Mycoplasma;

potentially irritating to muscles

when administered IM 90

3-5 mg/kg IM, IV

q12h 806

5-10 mg/kg PO

q8h 806

15 mg/kg IM

q8h 461

15-30 mg/kg IM

q12h × 3

day 333

17 mg/kg IM

q24h × 7

days 520

20-40 mg/kg IM

q8h 697

25 mg/kg IM

q8h 461

25 mg/kg IM

q6h 461

30 mg/kg IM

q12h 76

50 mg/kg PO

q24h 333

Ratites

Ratites

Cranes/PD

Raptors

Emus/Mycoplasma

Psittacines

Emus/PD

Pigeons, quail/PD

Most species/Mycoplasma

Passerines, pigeons

281

50 mg/L drinking

water 685

250-400 mg/L

drinking

water 201

300 mg/L

drinking

water × 6

wk 558

Most species

Canaries

House finches/Mycoplasma

500 mg/L

drinking

water × 3-

28 days 333 Pigeons, emus/Mycoplasma

800 mg/L

drinking

water 320

1000 mg/L

drinking

water × 21

days 501

2000 mg/L

drinking

water 333

Pigeons

House finches/Mycoplasma; give in

conjunction with ophthalmic

ciprofloxacin

Pigeons/Mycoplasma, Haemophilus

a

Most drug doses used in birds should be considered experimental. Patients should be monitored for

adverse effects and treatment failure. 240

Table 5-2

Antifungal Agents Used in Birds.


Acetic acid

(vinegar)

16 mL/L drinking

water 377

Most species/gastrointestinal yeast infections

Amphotericin B — Polyene macrolide antifungal agent; broad activity

against various types of fungi, but susceptibility

varies as to species; ineffective against

dermatophytes; primary use is for systemic

fungal infections 91

1.5 mg/kg IV q8h ×

3-7 days 333,644 Most species

1 mg/kg

intratracheal

Psittacines, raptors/aspergillosis

282

q8-12h, dilute

to 1 mL with

sterile water 644,667

1 mg/kg

intratracheal

q12h × 12 days,

then q48h × 5

wk 76

Raptors/syringeal aspergilloma

Budgerigars/Macrorhabdus; compound in simple

100-109 mg/kg PO

× 10-30 days 526 Australia 607

by gavage q12h syrup; resistance reported in budgerigars in

0.05 mg/mL sterile

water 52

Most species/nasal flush

0.2 mL PO q12h ×

10 days 148 Budgerigars/Macrorhabdus; use IV formulation

(5 mg/mL)

0.25-1 mL PO q24h

× 4-5 days 76 Raptor neonates/candidiasis

Amphotericin B

(3% cream)

1000 mg/L drinking

water × 10

days 229

Topical 148

1.35 mg/kg topical

q24h of a

liposomally

encapsulated

formulation in

a sterile, watersoluble

lubricating gel 87

7 mg/mL saline

q12h 810

1 mg/kg

intralesionally 625

Topical to affected

area q12h 667

Budgerigars/Macrorhabdus

Apply 10% solution to oropharynx

Herons

Most species/nebulization × 15 min

Conures/pulmonary lesions; administered

endoscopically with injection needle along with

systemic therapy

Most species/mycoses

Clotrimazole — Imidazole antifungal agent; variable sensitivity

between yeasts and fungi; superficial mycoses

and candidiasis 91

2 mg/kg

intratracheal

Psittacines/syringeal aspergilloma; apply with

catheter directly into syrinx during anesthesia

283

q24h × 5 days 685

Inject 10 mg/kg

into air sacs 685

10 mg/mL saline

flush 607

Psittacines/dilute in propylene glycol to 2.5 mg/mL;

divide total dose between the 4 most accessible

air sacs; toxic and may result in death in African

grey parrots and other birds if injected into the

viscera or IM 685

Most species/effective against Aspergillus at sites that

can be flushed; nasal flush using 1% solution

1% solution 810 Nebulization × 30-60 min

Enilconazole

emulsion

— Imidazole antifungal agent; variable sensitivity

between yeasts and fungi; superficial mycoses

and candidiasis; 91 used topically and for nasal

flush

6 mg/kg PO q12h 13 Eclectus parrots/glossal candidiasis; an elevation of

AST was seen after 7 days of treatment

1 mg (0.5 mL)/kg Falcons/aspergillosis

intratracheal of

a 1:10 dilution

q24h × 7-

14 days 697

200 mg/L drinking

water 13

Canaries/cutaneous dermatophytosis

Topical 1:10

dilution q12h ×

21-28 days 76 Raptors/cutaneous aspergillosis, candidiasis

Topical or

intratracheal

1:10-1:100

dilution 77

3 topical soakings

q3d 644

Psittacines/aspergillosis, candidiasis

Raptors, ostriches/dermatophytosis

0.1 mL/kg in 5 mL Raptors/aspergillosis

sterile water,

nebulize ×

30 min, 5 days

on, 2 off, up to

3 mo 338

Fluconazole — Imidazole antifungal agent; variable sensitivity

between yeasts and fungi; systemic mycoses and

candidiasis; realtively good penetration into

CSF; 91 death observed in budgerigars at

10 mg/kg PO q12h (this dose was also ineffective

against avian gastric yeast) 607

284

2-5 mg/kg PO q24h Most species, including raptors/gastrointestinal,

× 7-10 days 76,583 systemic candidiasis; CNS, ocular mycoses

4-6 mg/kg PO

q12h 238

5 mg/kg PO q24h 641

10 mg/kg PO

q48h 641

5-10 mg/kg PO

q24h 50

Juvenile psittacines/candidiasis

Cockatiels/candidiasis

Gouldian finches/candidiasis

8 mg/kg PO q24h ×

30 days 808 Psittacines/cryptococcosis

10-20 mg/kg PO ×

30 days 377 Red-tailed hawks, gyrfalcons/aspergillosis

15 mg/kg PO q12h

× ≥28 days 687 Pigeons/aspergillosis

15 mg/kg PO q12h

× 30 days

following

cessation of

clinical signs 10

20 mg/kg PO

q48h 238

Psittacines/chronic nasal aspergillosis

Psittacines/PD; mucosal, systemic yeast infections;

2-3 treatments for resistant candidiasis

25 mg/L nectar 329 Hummingbirds/aspergillosis

50 mg/L drinking

water × 14-

60 days 685 Most species/systemic mycoses; candidiasis

100 mg/L drinking

water × 8 days 641

150 mg/L drinking

water 50

100 mg/kg soft

food 50

Cockatiels/candidiasis



Flucytosine — Fluorinated pyrimidine antifungal agent; as

resistance develops rapidly, not used as sole

antifungal agent; effective against Cryptococcus,

Candida, and Aspergillus; excellent CSF, aqueous

humor penetration; 91 use prophylactically in

raptors (especially falcons) to prevent

aspergillosis a

20-30 mg/kg PO Raptors/aspergillosis

285

q6h × 20-

90 days 358

20-75 mg/kg PO

q12h × 21

days 697

Psittacines/generalized yeast or fungal infections

50 mg/kg PO q12h

× 14-28 days 148,572 Psittacines, passerines, raptors

50-75 mg/kg PO

q8h 644

75 mg/kg q12h

× 5-7 days, then

q24h × 14

days 644

75-120 mg/kg PO

q6h 572

80-100 mg/kg PO

q12h 806

100-250 mg/kg PO

q12h 386

Raptors/aspergillosis prophylaxis; consider

treatment 1 wk prior to and 2 wk after move;

used routinely for domestically raised gyrfalcons

and gyrfalcon hybrids from age 45 days

Most species

Ratites

Psittacine neonates

250 mg/kg PO q12h Finches/endoventricular mycoses; can use with

× 14-17 days 782 chlorhexidine in drinking water

50-250 mg/kg feed 667 Psittacines, mynah birds

Griseofulvin — Systemic antifungal agent; effective against common

dermatophytes 91

10 mg/kg PO q12h

× 21 days 697 Pigeons/dermatophytosis; gavage

Iodine, 1%

solution

30-50 mg/kg in

drinking water

q24h 806

Topical 644

Ostriches/mycotic dermatitis

Most species/oral or cutaneous candidiasis

Itraconazole — Imidazole antifungal agent; variable sensitivity

between yeasts and fungi; systemic mycoses and

candidiasis; relatively good penetration into

CSF; 91 commercially available suspension is

recommended as a first choice; use caution using

compounded formulations because bulk drug

may not be bioavailable or stable 107,170

5-10 mg/kg PO

q24h 574

Blue-fronted Amazon parrots/PD; aspergillosis;

10 mg/kg is required to achieve therapeutic

concentrations in poorly perfused tissues;

anorexia, depression, and toxicity reported at

286

higher doses in African grey parrots 239,607

5-10 mg/kg PO

q12-24h × 10-14

days, then

q48h 358

Raptors/aspergillosis prophylaxis a

5-10 mg/kg PO

q12h × 5 days,

followed by

q24h for a total

of 14 days 644

Raptors/suggested for Class I aspergillosis (mild,

vague signs with inconclusive diagnostics or

without histologic confirmation)

5-10 mg/kg PO Raptors/Class II-IV aspergillosis

q12h × 5 days,

followed by

q24h × 60-

90 days 644

5-10 mg/kg PO

q12h 394,666

Passerines (towhees), penguins/aspergillosis

prophylaxis in passerines; aspergillosis,

candidiasis, and cryptococcosis in others

6 mg/kg PO q12h 475 Pigeons/PD; dosage will achieve fungicidal plasma

concentrations

6-8 mg/kg PO q12h

× 5-7 days then

q24h × 14

days 644

Raptors/prevention of aspergillosis; consider

treating for 1 wk prior and 2 wk after move, and

routinely for domestically raised gyrfalcons and

gyrfalcon hybrids from age 45 days

6-10 mg/kg PO 375 Ratites

10 mg/kg PO

q24h 333,383

10 mg/kg PO q24h

× 14-90 days

with food 572,573,607

Red-tailed hawks (PD), gentoo penguins

Psittacines/use in combination with non-azoles

10 mg/kg PO q12h Finches/endoventricular mycoses; can use with

× 21-60 days 148,782 chlorhexidine in drinking water

15 mg/kg PO q12h

up to 4-6 wk 358

20 mg/kg PO

q24h 107

26 mg/kg PO

q12h 475

200 mg/kg feed up

to 100 days 657

Raptors/aspergillosis

Penguins/PD

Pigeons/PD; fungicidal levels achieved in respiratory

tissue; further toxicologic studies are required

Gouldian finches/PD; dermatomycoses; beads from

capsules were mixed with small amount of oil

and seed

287

Ketoconazole — Imidazole antifungal agent; fungistatic; variable

sensitivity between yeasts and fungi; systemic

fungal infections 91

5-10 mg/kg PO

q24h 806

Ratites

8 mg/kg PO q12h ×

30 days 85 Ostriches

10-20 mg/kg PO

q24h 85

15 mg/kg PO

q12h 384

Ostriches

Raptors/candidiasis

20 mg/kg PO q8h ×

7-14 days 607 Psittacines/refractory candidiasis

20 mg/kg PO q24h

× 14 days 148 Psittacines, passerines, raptors

20-30 mg/kg PO

q8h 326

Cockatoos


q12h × 15-

60 days 686

25 mg/kg PO q12h

× 14 days 697 Ratites, raptors/aspergillosis

30 mg/kg PO q12h

× 7-14 days 415 Amazon parrots/PD

50 mg/kg/day PO 150 Toucans

60 mg/kg PO

q12h 837

Raptors, common buzzards (PD)/aspergillosis

200 mg/L drinking Canaries, hummingbirds, Gouldian finches/dissolve

water, nectar, or crushed tablet in ½-1 tsp vinegar

soft feed × 7-

14 days 50,201,329

Miconazole — Imidazole antifungal agent, topical preparations for

local dermatophytosis; 91 injectable product not


5 mg/kg

intratracheal

q12h × 5 days 333

Psittacines/10 mg/mL solution diluted with saline;

syringeal mycoses; use with flucytosine;

clotrimazole may be an alternative

10 mg/kg IM q24h

× 6-12 days 697 Raptors/generalized aspergillosis

20 mg/kg IV q8h 697 Psittacines/candidiasis, cryptococcosis

288

Topical to affected

areas q12h 644

Most species/cutaneous fungal infections; used in

conjunction with oral itraconazole;

dermatophytosis

Nystatin — Polyene macrolide antifungal agent; used topically

or orally to treat GI candidiasis; can be effective

against other yeast and fungi; poorly absorbed

from the GI tract 91

5000 U/bird PO

q12h × 10

days 229,230

Goldfinches/Macrorhabdus; ineffective in budgerigars

20,000-100,000

U/bird PO q24h

× 7 days 85,697 Pigeons/candidiasis

100,000 U/kg PO

q12h 319,384

250,000-430,000

U/kg PO q12h 148

250,000-500,000

U/kg PO q12h 806

Pigeons, raptors

Hummingbirds

Ratites

300,000 U/kg PO

q12h × 7-

14 days 76,236 Most species

300,000-600,000 Psittacines

U/kg PO q8-12h

× 7-14 days 148

500,000 U/kg PO

q8h × 5 days 159

Topical q6h 362

Toucannettes (safron)/candidiasis

Hummingbirds/candidiasis; direct application using

a cotton swab

25,000 U/L nectar 362 Hummingbirds

Povidone-iodine

100,000 U/L

drinking

water 50,201

200,000 U/kg soft

feed 50,76

Topical to lesions,

then rinse 76

Canaries, finches

Canaries, finches

Raptors/wound cleansing; antibacterial, antifungal

activity

Sodium benzoate 1 tsp/L water × 5

wk 354

Budgerigars/cleared infection in nonbreeding birds;

0.5 tsp/L resulted in neurologic signs and death

in breeding birds, likely due to increased water

289

Silver

sulfadiazine

STA solution

(salicyclic

acid 3 g,

tannic acid

3 g, ethyl

alcohol to

100 mL)

Topical to affected

areas

q12-24h 226,667

Topical 697

intake 354

Most species/bandage application preferred

Fungal dermatitis

Terbinafine — Allylamine antifungal used topically for

dermatophtyes; fungicidal; data are emerging to

potentially support its use for systemic fungal

infections; 90 questionable therapeutic potential

for the treatment of aspergillosis in avian species;

higher dose or use in combination with

itraconazole may be more effective 243

10-15 mg/kg PO

q12-24h 169

15 mg/kg PO

q24h 68

15-30 mg/kg PO

q12h 243

22 mg/kg PO

q24h 69

1 mg/mL solution

via

nebulization 216

Most species

Penguins/PD

Most species

Raptors/PD

Hispaniolan Amazon parrots/raw powder

maintained MIC concentrations for 4 hr vs. 1 hr

for crushed tablets

Voriconazole — Imidazole antifungal agent; indicated for

aspergillosis infections in humans; 91 used in

avian species for the treatment of aspergillosis,

but there are limited PK studies; some strains in

pigeons found to be resistant; 73 difficult to

extrapolate drug doses between species; safety

unproven in birds; increased anecdotal reporting

of voriconazole toxicity in penguins; 359b PO and

IV solutions available; may need to adjust dose

for long-term treatment to maintain therapeutic

concentrations; 243 compounded suspensions

stable up to 30 days at room temperature 556

10 mg/kg PO q12h

or 20 mg/kg

Pigeons/PD

290

q24h 71-73

10 mg/kg PO q8h 725 Red-tailed hawks/PD

12-18 mg/kg PO

q12h 252


12.5 mg/kg PO

q12h 720

Falcons/PD; red-tailed hawks

18 mg/kg PO q8h 306 Amazon parrots/PD

20 mg/kg PO q24h

× 21 days 584 Many species

a

Prophylatic use of antifungal agents may be indicated in newly captured or admitted birds of

susceptible species, and in birds undergoing change of management or transfer of enclosure. 644

Table 5-3

Antiviral and Immunomodulating Agents Used in Birds.


Acyclovir — Antiviral agent; useful against DNA viral

infections, particularly herpesvirus; available in

topical and parenteral formulations; IM

injection of the water-soluble sodium salt (IV

formulation) may cause severe muscle necrosis;

phlebitis and neurologic signs may occur with

IV administration; most effective when

administered before clinical signs begin; birds

should be treated for a minimum of 7 days; the

reconstituted solution is unstable and should

be divided into aliquots and frozen 333

20-40 mg/kg IM

q12h 681

29 mg/bird PO

q8h × 7

days 76

80 mg/kg PO

q8h × 7

days 561

Psittacines/psittacine herpesvirus

Pigeons/herpesvirus

Quaker parakeets/PD; psittacine herpesvirus

prophylaxis or treatment

330 mg/kg PO

q12h × 4-

7 days 387 Psittacine neonates/psittacine herpesvirus

330 mg/kg PO

q12h × 7-

Raptors/falcon and owl herpesvirus; may cause

vomiting

291

14 days 358

1000 mg/L

drinking

water 157,665

≤400 mg/kg

feed 157

Quaker parakeets/herpesvirus; gavage

Quaker parakeets/herpesvirus

Amantadine — Antiviral agent; inhibits replication of influenza A

viruses

Cyclosporine

1 mg/kg PO

q24h × 3

wk 289

10 mg/kg PO

q12h 273,412

African grey parrots/no effect on avian bornavirus

infection 289

Psittacines/immunosuppressant agent; palliative

treatment of proventricular dilatation disease

(3/6 cockatiels treated survived) 412,273

Echinacea (Echinacea

solution,

Biobotania)

0.5 mL/kg per L

drinking

water q24h

× 5 days 697 Psittacines/herbal immunostimulant

1 mL/L

drinking

water 666

Psittacines/use alcohol-free formulation

Imiquimod cream __ Immune response inhibitor used to inhibit viralinduced

tumor formation; has no direct

antiviral activity

Apply topically

3×/wk

several hr

before the

morning

feeding 445

Psittacines/cloacal papillomatosis; thought to boost

host cell-mediated immunity; masses decreased

in size in one report, but not in another; 443

complete remission did not occur in either

Interferon α 2 — Antiviral cytokine glycoprotein with

immunomodulating and antiproliferative

capabilities as well as antiviral activity

60-240 U/kg Most species/stock solution: mix 1 mL (3,000,000

SC, IM U/mL) with 100 mL sterile water (30,000 U/mL);

q12h 731 or can freeze as 2 mL vials up to 1 yr; mix 2 mL of

300-1200 stock into 1 L LRS (=60 U/mL); refrigerate up to

U/kg PO 3 mo

q12h 685

1500 U/kg PO

q24h 13

Psittacines

1,000,000 U IM African grey parrots/circovirus; birds treated with

292

q2-7d × 3

treatments 762

poultry origin gamma interferon survived,

those treated with α feline origin did not

1000 U/L Pigeons/circovirus

drinking

water × 14-

28 days 684

Propionibacterium

Acnes,

(ImmunoRegulin,

Neogen)

Silymarin (milk

thistle)

0.13 mg/kg (up

to 0.08 mg

[0.2 mL]

max) SC,

IM days 1,

3, 7, 14, 28,

42, then

q30d 40

100-150 mg/kg

PO divided

q8-12h 10

Psittacines/immunomodulatory drug; used to

manage FIV infection in cats; anecdotally

reported as an alternative therapy for chronic

feather destructive disease 40

Most species/hepatic antioxidant; used in patients

with liver disease and as ancillary to

chemotherapy; use an alcohol-free liquid

formulation

Vaccines — See Table 5-47 (Vaccines Used in Birds)

Table 5-4

Antiparasitic Agents Used in Birds.


Albendazole (11.36%) (Valbazen,

Zoetis)

— Broad-spectrum

anthelmintic; may be

toxic in keas, some

columbiformes and other

spp. at 50-100 mg/kg 356,760

5.2 mg/kg PO q12h × 3

days, repeat in 14

days 806

Ratites/flagellates, cestodes

6 mg/kg PO once 178 Ostriches/100% effective

against Libyostrongylus

dentatus and L. douglassii

15-20 mg/kg PO once 333 Toucans

20 mg/kg PO, repeat in 7

days 482

25 mg/kg PO q24h × 90

days, then repeat ×

120 days when signs

returned 610

Cranes/effective against some

trematodes

Cockatoos/Encephalitozoon

hellem

keratoconjunctivitis

293

25-50 mg/kg PO q24h ×

3-4 days 760 Doves, rock

partridges/Capillaria;

toxicity occurred in some

birds, use with caution

50 mg/kg PO q24h × 5

days 115

113-116 mg/23 kg q12h ×

3 days, repeat in 14

days 38

Amazon

parrots/microsporidian

keratoconjunctivitis

Ratites/protozoal infections

Amprolium — Pyridimine derivative

coccidiostat; although

rarely encountered,

efficacy can be reduced by

high doses of thiamine; 759

resistance common; some

coccidial organisms of

mynahs, toucans have

shown resistance 38

2.2 mg/kg PO 122 Sandhill cranes/ineffective in

preventing

experimentally induced

disseminated visceral

coccidiosis

15-30 mg/kg PO q24h ×

1-5 days 194 Most species/treatment

should be repeated after 5

days due to coccidial

prepatent period 194

30 mg/kg PO q24h 432b Merlins/thiamine deficiency


days 38,432b

5-100 mg/L drinking

water × 5-7 days 38,747

Raptors

Most species/flock treatment

50-100 mg/L drinking Most species, including

water × 5-

passerines, parakeets

7 days 171,194,333

60 mg/L drinking

water 333

200 mg/L drinking

water 321

Cranes

Pigeons/flock treatment

250 mg/L drinking water

× 7 days 333 Psittacines (keas)/Sarcocystis;

use in combination with

294

pyrimethamine and

primaquine

¼ tsp/L drinking water ×

3-5 days 333 Pigeons/20% soluble powder

0.0125 mg/kg feed 482 Cranes/coccidiosis

prophylaxis

0.025 mg/kg feed × 14

days 482

Cranes/coccidiosis treatment

115-235 mg/kg feed 333 Poultry/coccidia; Sarcocystis;

lower dose is

prophylactic; higher dose

is therapeutic

Cambendazole (Equiben, Merial) 60-100 mg/kg PO q24h ×

3-7 days 194,333 Most species

Carbaryl 5% (Sevin Dust, Garden

Tech)


day 38,323

Topical; light dusting of

plumage or nest box

litter (1-2 tsp) 38,482

Pigeons

Most species/ants,

ectoparasites; remove

treated litter after 24 hr

Carnidazole (Spartrix, Wildlife

Pharma-ceuticals)

— Treatment for Trichomonas,

Hexamita, Histomonas 38

5 mg/bird PO 333 Doves (adults), pigeons

(squabs)

10 mg/bird PO 788a Pink pigeons

(adults)/Trichomonas;

squabs ≤18 days old

administer 5 mg

12.5-25 mg/kg PO

once 38,135

Pigeons, raptors/Trichomonas,

use lower dose with

juvenile birds; combine

with dimetridazole to

treat flock

20 mg/kg PO once 333 Pigeons

20 mg/kg q24h PO × 2

days 333

20-25 mg/kg PO

once 38,194,432b

Raptors

Raptors/single dose not

always effective in falcons,

bustards with advanced

infections; use lower dose

for juveniles

20-30 mg/kg PO q24h × Most species, including

295

1-2 days 38,135 pigeons, psittacines

20-30 mg/kg PO q24h × 5

days 20,747

Passerines/Trichomonas; house

finches reliably cleared

Trichomonas gallinae if

caught prior to clinical

signs

30 mg/kg PO once 256 Raptors/Trichomonas

30 mg/kg PO q12-24h × 3

days 382,654

30-50 mg/kg PO, repeat

in 10-14 days 667

Raptors/Trichomonas

Cockatiels/Giardia

33 mg/kg PO, repeat in Society finches, Gouldian

14 and 28 days 50 finches/flagellates;

0.5 mg/adult (based on

15 g); 0.25 mg/nestling

(based on 7.5 g)

50 mg/kg PO once 358 Raptors

120 mg/kg PO as single American kestrels, screech

dose or divided over owls/Trichomonas

2-5 days 811 infections resistant to

treatment with lower

doses

Chloroquine phosphate a — Generally used with

primaquine for

Plasmodium, Haemoproteus,

and Leucocytozoon;

overdose can result in

death 38

10 mg/kg PO q7d 333 Most species/preventive

treatment for Plasmodium

once bird is stable; use

with primaquine

(1 mg/kg PO q7d)

10 mg/kg PO, then

5 mg/kg at 6, 12,

18 hr, then q24h × 10

days 38,826

Magellanic penguins/upon

diagnosis of Plasmodium;

if still positive on blood

smear after this regime,

continue with

sulfadiazine-trimethoprim

40 mg/kg PO × 10 days

Raptors/use with 0.3 mg/kg

10 mg/kg PO, then

48 hr 120 following the initial

5 mg/kg at 6, 24, primaquine (at 24 hr

296

chloroquine dose) q24h ×

7 days

10-15 mg/kg PO q12h × 2

doses, then q24h 432b

Raptors/Plasmodium; use

with primaquine

10-25 mg/kg PO, then 5- Use in conjunction with

15 mg/kg at 6, 18, primaquine

24 hr 194

20 mg/kg PO or IV, then Raptors/Plasmodium; IV is

10 mg/kg at 6, 18, recommended for initial

24 hr; repeat q7d × 3- dose in acute cases; use

5 treatments 333 with 1 mg/kg primaquine

q24h × 2 days

25 mg/kg PO, then Most species, including

15 mg/kg PO at 12, raptors/use with 0.75-

24, 48 hr 38,333,714a 1.3 mg/kg primaquine at

0 hr


days 333

2000 mg/L drinking

water q24h × 14

days 135

Raptors/Haemoproteus; use in

conjunction with

mefloquine and

primaquine

Passerines/juice covers bitter

taste of drug

Chlorsulon (Curatrem, Merial) — Benzenesulfonamide

anthelmintic and flukicide

20 mg/kg PO q2wk × 3

treatments 432b

Raptors

Clazuril (Appertex, Janssen) — Benzene-acetonitrile

anticoccidial

2.5 mg/bird PO once; can

repeat monthly 827a

Pigeons/oocyst shedding

commences 20 days posttreatment

5 mg/kg PO once 135 Pigeons

5-10 mg/kg PO q24h × 2

days 340,432b

5-10 mg/kg PO q72h × 3

treatments 38,149a,432b

Raptors

Raptors

6.25 mg/kg PO once 38 Pigeons

7 mg/kg PO × 3 days, off

2 days, on 3 days 38,194 Most species

297


1.1 or 5.5 mg/kg feed 122 Sandhill cranes/ineffective in

preventing



coccidiosis

Coumaphos (Powder containing

3% w/v coumaphos 2% w/v

propoxur

5% w/v sulphanilamide

Negasunt, Bayer)

Crotamiton (Eurax, Westwood-

Squibb)

Cypermethrin (5%) (Max Con, Y-

Tex)

Topical dust onto

feathers 38

20 mg/kg PO q14d × 3

treatments 38,432b,666

Topical to affected areas 38

Spray or dip with 2%

solution 38

Most species/ectoparasites;

useful for fly-blown

wounds, contains

carbamate propoxur

Psitacines,

raptors/trematodes,

cestodes

Most species/mites (i.e.,

Knemidokoptes); use in

combination with

ivermectin

Pigeons, ostriches/lice, mites;

treatment of premises

infested with Dermanyssus

spp.

Deltamethrin 50 mg/L topical spray 333 Ostriches/lice; spray until

runoff

Dichlorophene (Tapeworm tablets,

Happy Jack)

100 mg PO q10d × 2 Pigeons/cestodes; administer

treatments, repeat in after a 12-hr fast

10 days prn 402

Diclazuril (Protazil, Merck) — Benzene-acetonitrile

anticoccidial; some Eimeria

resistance in poultry

documented recently; 4,640

rotation suggested for

long-term prevention

5 mg/L drinking water 194 Passerines/Toxoplasmosis

Passerines, including

10 mg/kg PO q12h on

10 194,502 crows/Toxoplasma

days 0, 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, Hawaiian

Dimetridazole (Emtryl 40%

powder, MedPet)

— Trichomonas, Giardia,

Hexamita, Spironucleus,

Histomonas; low

therapeutic index;

hepatotoxic to lories,

some passerines (e.g.,

298

robins) and fledgling

birds; 38 not recommended

for finches; highly toxic

to geese, ducks, and

pigeons; 759 not available

in many countries

(United States, European

Union) because of human

health risks; Canada has

banned use in foodproducing

animals; 548 do

not give during breeding

season

50 mg/kg PO q24h × 10

days 534

Falcons/Enterocytozoon bieneusi

50 mg/kg PO or in Pigeons

drinking water q24h

× 6 days 135

100 mg/L drinking

water 201

200-400 mg/L drinking

water × 5 days 194,333

Canaries, finches

Psittacines/caution toxic if

overdosed; do not use in

finches and Pekin robins;

use lower dose in

lorikeets and mynahs 194


× 4-6 days 333 Gouldian

finches/Cochlostoma,

Trichomonas

265 mg/L drinking

water 333

Pigeons

300 mg/L drinking water Bustards/prevention of

× 10 days 38 Trichomonas

400 mg/L drinking water Pigeons/PD; bioavailability

× 3 days 361 reduced with feed


× 7-12 days 38 Pigeons/Trichomonas, Giardia,

Hexamita

900 mg/L drinking water Bustards/treatment of choice

× 5 days, followed by for Trichomonas

700 mg/L × 10 days 38

¼-½ tsp/gal drinking

water × 3-5 days 320

Pigeons/CNS symptoms if

overdosed; because of

variable water

consumption, use lower

299

dose in hot weather and

higher dose in cool

weather

200-500 mg/kg feed 112 Ostriches (≤3 mo of

age)/Trichomonas

Doramectin (Dectomax, Zoetis) 1 mg/kg SC, IM, 38,432b

repeat in 2 wk 135

Doxycycline 20 mg/kg PO q12h × 10

days 295

Raptors, bustards/used to

treat GI nematodes,

lungworms, eyeworms,

mites 38

Humboldt

penguins/Plasmodium

Febantel (Vercom, Bayer) 5 mg/kg PO 500 Ostriches

20 mg/kg PO 500 Ostriches

30 mg/kg PO once 34,194 Pigeons/PD; ascarids;

repeated doses required to

eliminate Capillaria

obsignata

37.5 mg/kg PO once 38 Pigeons

Fenbendazole (Panacur, Merck) — Most species/anthelmintic

effective against cestodes,

nematodes, trematodes,

Giardia,

acanthocephalans;

toxicity documented in

pigeons and

doves; 286,356,582,671 may be

toxic for other species,

including raptors, 685

8-10 mg/kg q24h × 3-

4 days 194 Most species

vultures, 88,358 lories, 582

storks, 88,840 pelicans; 457 can

cause feather

abnormalities if

administered during

molting; 38 ineffective

against finch ventricular

worms; 38 can be toxic to

bone marrow causing

leukopenia 194

10-20 mg/kg PO q24h × 3

days 135

Pigeons/nematodes

10-50 mg/kg PO, repeat Raptors/nematodes,

300

in 14 days 358,384

trematodes

15 mg/kg PO 149b,333 Ostriches/“wire worms,”

nematodes, cestodes


days 38

15 mg/kg PO × 5 days,

then off 5 days × 4

treatment periods 510

Psittacines

Umbrella

cockatoos/proventricular

Spiruroidea

15 mg/kg PO q3wk 149b Ratite chicks/nematodes;

administer at this

frequency until 4 mo old,

then at adult prophylaxis

dosing intervals

15-25 mg/kg PO × 4-

5 days 740 Tinamous

15-45 mg/kg PO 333 Ostriches

20 mg/kg PO q24h × 10-

14 days 149a Raptors/filarids

20-25 mg/kg PO q24h × 5

days 149a,256,432b,650

Raptors/Capillaria

20-50 mg/kg PO q24h 38,333 Psittacines, pigeons/ascarids

in psittacines, treat once

and repeat in 10 days;

trematodes and

microfilaria, treat for 3

days; Capillaria, treat for 5

days

20-50 mg/kg PO q24h × 3

days, repeat in 2 wk 838

20-50 mg/kg PO q24h × 3

days, repeat in 21

days 358

Penguins a

Raptors

25 mg/kg PO, repeat in Most species, including

14 days 144,749 owls/ascarids


days, 135 repeat in 10-

14 days 358 Raptors/Capillaria, spirurids

25 mg/kg PO q6wk 149b Ratites/cestode prophylaxis

25-50 mg/kg PO once 194 Most species

30 mg/kg PO once 38 Bustards

301

30 mg/kg PO q24h × 5-

8 days 16 Falcons/eliminated

Serratospiculoides fecal eggs

and larvae


days 148

Psittacines, passerines,

raptors/microfilaria,

trematodes

50 mg/kg PO q24h × 3- Most species, including

5 days 194,333,560,747 pigeons, Bali

mynahs/nematodes,

trematodes, Giardia


days 482


days 333

Cranes/Capillaria, gapeworms

Cockatoos/filarid adulticide

treatment; use with

ivermectin (0.2 mg/kg

once)

50 mg/kg q24h × 5 days 220 Scops owls

(fledglings)/treatment of

Gongylonema pulchrum oral

plaques


in 14 days 482

100 mg/kg PO once,

repeat in 10-14

days 432b

100 mg/kg PO q24h × 5

days 118

Cranes/intestinal strongyles,

ascarids

Raptors/Capillaria, spirurids

Cranes/Capillaria

50 mg/L drinking water ×

5 days 333 Finches


× 5 days 333 Most species/nematodes

Fipronil — Do not use spot-on

preparation; use with

caution in raptors,

pigeons,

passerines/ectoparasites;

apply via pad to base of

neck, tail base, and under

each wing; avoid

plumage during

application; alcohol may

create dry, brittle feathers;

do not soak bird; do not

302

exceed 7.5 mg/kg; in zebra

finches 406 and wild 281

species; significant

toxicity reported from

mortality to sublethal

effects such as cytotoxic

effects, 189 impaired

immune function, 464 and

reduced growth and

reproductive success, 407

often at concentrations

well below those

associated with

mortality; 281,407

environmental

contamination and

secondary intoxication

are of concern 281,405

Flubendazole (Flutelmium 7.5%,

Janssen-Cilag)

3 mg/kg spray on skin

once 194

7.5 mg/kg; spray on skin

once, repeat in 30

days prn 38,135,256,747

30-60 mg/kg feed × 7

days 333

Tinamous; follow VFD

guidelines

Hydroxychloroquine sulfate — Antimalarial


× 6 wk 333 Pigeons/Plasmodium

Hygromycin B (Hygromix 8,

Elanco)

Imidocarb dipropionate (Imizol,

Merck)

— Aminoglycoside antibiotic

used as anthelmintic feed

additive; follow VFD

guidelines

— Antiprotozoal effective

against Babesia

5-7 mg/kg IM once,


Raptors/Babesia; some cases

require a total of 3

treatments

Ipronidazole (Ipropran, Roche) — Giardia, Trichomonas,

Histomonas; not available

in the United States;

61 g/2.65 oz

130 mg/L drinking water Most species, including

× 7 days 333 pigeons

303


× 3-7 days 333 Psittacines, pigeons

Ivermectin — All species/most nematodes,

acanthocephalans,

leeches, most

ectoparasites (including

Knemidokoptes,

Dermanyssus); can dilute

with water or saline for

immediate use; dilute

with propylene glycol for

extended use; parenteral

ivermectin may be toxic

to finches and

budgerigars; 333 brain

inflammation detected as

an adverse effect in king

pigeons; 132 suspected

toxicity reported in a

nanday conure at

0.2 mg/kg 600

0.2 mg/kg PO, SC, IM Most species, including

once, can repeat in psittacines, passerines,

10-

pigeons, raptors, guinea

14 days 38,135,320,375,482,571,747 fowl, ratites, cranes/use in

combination with

fenbendazole at 50 mg/kg

PO q12h × 5 days for

microfilaria in

cockatoos 333

0.2 mg/kg IM once 173,178 Ostriches/only 60% effective


dentatus and L. douglassii

0.2-0.4 mg/kg PO, SC,

repeat 7-14 days 838

0.2-1 mg/kg PO, SC, IM

q14d × 2-3

treatments 432b

0.2 mg/kg SC, topical on

skin; can repeat 1-2

wk for 3-4

applications 135,171,205,738

Penguins

Raptors

Canaries, finches/quill mites,

Knemidokoptes; dilute to

0.02% solution with

propylene glycol, can

apply directly to lesions

on cere, legs; also effective

304

against the tracheal mite

Ptilonyssus morofskyi 24

0.4 mg/kg SC once 333 Raptors, passerines/Capillaria

in towhees

0.4 mg/kg IM q7d × 7

treatments 694

0.5-1 mg/kg PO, IM

once 320

1 mg/kg SC, repeat in 7

days 700

Golden eagles/required

additional treatment with

selamectin to achieve

eradication of a novel

Micknemidokoptes spp. mite

Pigeons

Falcons/Serratospiculum

2 mg/kg IM once 792 Falcons/Capillaria; no adverse

effects observed at this

dose

0.8-1 mg/L drinking

water 201

1 drop (0.05 mL) to skin

q7d × 3 treatments 38

Canaries

Pigeons,

passerines/Knemidokoptes,

Dermanyssus

Levamisole (Tramisol, Schering-

Plough)

— Many species/nematodes;

immunostimulant; low

therapeutic index (toxic

reactions, deaths

reported); do not use in

debilitated birds; 38 IM

administration may cause

severe toxicity; limb

paralysis, vomiting,

dyspnea reported in a

parakeet; do not use in

white-faced ibis or in

lories; withhold food

before treatment to

prevent regurgitation 333

1.5 mg/kg split into 2

doses and

administered topically

in eyes 532

2-5 mg/kg SC, IM, repeat

in 10-14 days × 3

treatments 38

Ostriches/PD; effective

against Philophthalmus

gralli

Psittacines/immunostimulant

305

7.5 mg/kg PO, SC 112 Ostriches

7.5 mg/kg IM once; can

repeat in 7 days 38

10-20 mg/kg PO, SC

q24h × 2 days 149a,358

10-20 mg/kg SC

once 38,333,432b

15-20 mg/bird PO once,


Pigeons

Raptors

Most species

Pigeons

20 mg/kg PO once 38 Psittacines, pigeons, raptors

20-40 mg/kg IM

once 194,432b

Raptors

20-50 mg/kg PO × 1- Psittacines/low therapeutic

3 days 38 index

25 mg/kg PO once 482 Crane chicks/Capillaria,

intestinal strongyles,

ascarids

30 mg/kg PO q3wk 149b Ratite chicks/administer at

this dosage until 4 mo of

age, then reduce to adult

prophylaxis interval

thereafter

30 mg/kg PO q10d 149b Ratites/cestodes, nematodes

40 mg/kg PO once 38,432b,482 Psittacines, pigeons, raptors,

cranes/Capillaria,

intestinal strongyles,

ascarids

Mebendazole (Telmin Suspension,

Telmintic Powder, Schering-


water × 3 days, repeat

in 2 wk 135,194




water for 24 hr, repeat

in 7 days 38


as sole water source

for 24 hr, repeat in 7

days 38

5-6 mg/kg PO q24h × 3-5

days, repeat in 21


raptors


pigeons

Pigeons/loft treatment for

capillariasis, ascaridiasis

Pigeons

Pigeons

306

Plough) days 333



days 333

10-25 mg/kg q12h × 5

days 194

Canaries/avoid use during

breeding season

Most species

20 mg/kg PO q24h × 10-

14 days 38,149a,432b Raptors/filarids


days 159


days, repeat q30d 358

Psittacines, ramphastids

(toucans)/nematodes;

may not be effective for

proventricular and

ventricular parasites

Raptors/intestinal

nematodiasis

50 mg/kg PO, repeat in Raptors/intestinal

10-14 days 358 nematodiasis

10-20 mg/L drinking

water × 3-5 days 194,333

Pigeons

Mefloquine HCl (Lariam,

Hoffman-LaRoche)

— Antimalarial; active against

erythrocytic and tissue

schizonts of some

Plasmodium 659,793

30 mg/kg PO q12h × 1 Raptors

day, then q24h × 1-

2 days 385,432b,793,851


day, then q24h × 2

days, then q7d 432b

Raptors/long-term

administration up to 6

mo reported

30 mg/kg PO q7d 295 Penguins/Plasmodium routine

prevention during insect

season

50 mg/kg PO q24h 541 Raptors/Haemoproteus; used

in conjunction with

chloroquine at doses up

to 60 mg/kg


days 135

Raptors/Plasmodium

Melarsomine dihydrochloride

(Immiticide, Merial)

— Organic arsenical

0.25 mg/kg IM q24h × 4 Raptors/Leucocytozoon

307

days 135


(M)/ivermectin (I)

(M) 0.25 mg/kg IM q24h Falcons/Serratospiculum;

× 2 days followed 10 reduced clinical signs and

days later with (I) eliminated shedding of

1 mg/kg IM 790 embryonated eggs

Mepacrine HCl __ Nonsteroidal

antiinflammatory used as

an antiprotozoal for

Giardia in humans

0.24 mg/kg PO q12h 194 Canaries/Plasmodium

Metronidazole — Most species/antiprotozoal,

including alimentary

tract protozoa (especially

flagellates such as Giardia,

Histomonas, Spironucleus,

Trichomonas); resistance

identified in racing

pigeons 682

10-20 mg/kg IM q12-24h

× 2 days 333 Pigeons, psittacines

10-30 mg/kg PO, IM

q12h × 10 days 38,808

Psittacines

20-25 mg/kg PO q12h 806 Ratites

25 mg/kg PO q12h × 2-

10 days 333 Psittacine neonates

25-50 mg/kg PO q12-24h Companion birds/treatment,

× 5-10 days 333 control, or prevention of

Giardia, Trichomonas, and

Hexamita

25-50 mg/kg PO q12-

24h 333

30 mg/kg PO via gavage

once 228,747

Pigeons/use lower dose with

twice daily dosing

Passerines, including

finches/Cochlosoma

30 mg/kg PO q12h × 5- Raptors, Gouldian finches,

10 days 50 psittacines/Trichomonas

30-50 mg/kg PO q24h ×

3-5 days 654 Raptors/Trichomonas

40 mg/kg PO q24h 333 Rheas


days 333

Budgerigars/Trichomonas

308

40-50 mg/kg PO q24h ×

5-7 days 135 Pigeons

50 mg/kg PO q12-24h 194 Most species/Trichomonas,

Giardia, Cochlosoma

50 mg/kg PO q24h × 5-

7 days 38,149a,256,358 Raptors/Trichomonas, Giardia


days 135,400

Pigeons, passerines, raptors

50-100 mg/kg PO q24h 432b Raptors

100 mg/kg PO q24h × 3

days 702

100-150 mg PO total dose

divided over 5 days 38

40 mg/L drinking

water 228

40-80 mg/L drinking

water × 3 days 194

100 mg/L drinking

water 333

Falcons/Trichomonas

Pigeons

Finches/Cochlosoma

Most species/Trichomonas,

Giardia, Cochlosoma

Canaries


× 7 days 135 Passerines

370 mg/L drinking

water 333

Passerines/protozoal sinusitis


× 5-15 days 333 Passerines/protozoal sinusitis

1057 mg/L drinking

water 333

1250 mg/L drinking


Pigeons

Ratites

100 mg/kg soft feed 333 Canaries

Milbemycin oxime 2 mg/kg PO once 194 Budgerigars, African finches,

and European finches

may be more sensitive

Monensin (Coban 45, Elanco) — Ionophore antibiotic

anticoccidial feed additive

94 mg/kg feed 121 Cranes/coccidia (including


coccidiosis)

309

99 mg/kg feed 122,482 Sandhill cranes/prevented



coccidiosis

Moxidectin (ProHeart, Zoetis) — Falcons/Serratospiculum,

Capillaria,

acanthocephalans,

Paraspiralatus sakeri, and

Physaloptera alata 38

0.2 mg/kg PO 135,700 Raptors/nematodes

0.2 mg/kg IM once 159 Ramphastids

(toucans)/repeat if

necessary

0.2 mg/kg IM once 178 Ostriches/100% effective


dentatus, L. douglassii

0.2-0.4 mg/kg PO, IM

once 194

0.5 mg/kg PO 38,432b Raptors

0.5-1 mg/kg PO 135 Raptors/Capillaria

1 mg/bird topically once,

or can repeat q10d × 2

treatments 333

Budgerigars/Knemidokoptes;

no adverse effects seen at

this dose in this species

Niclosamide (Yomesan, Bayer) — Cestodes, trematodes; rarely

used since praziquantel is

more efficacious; may be

toxic for geese and some

Anseriformes; not

available in the United

States


in 10-14 days 194,333

Ostriches

100 mg/kg PO q6wk 149b Ostriches/cestode

prophylaxis


10-14 days 333 Most species

250 mg/kg PO q14d

prn 117


wk 333

Cranes

Finches

310


(Primor, Zoetis)

0.015% ormetoprim and

0.026%

sulfadimethoxine in

food × 3 wk 482

Cranes/coccidiosis

Oxfendazole (Benzelmin, Syntex) 5 mg/kg PO once 333 Ostriches/nematodes

5 mg/kg PO q6wk 149b Ratites/cestode, nematode

prophylaxis

5 mg/kg PO q3wk 149b Ratite chicks/nematodes;

administer at this

frequency until 4 mo of

age, then reduce to adult

prophylactic dosing

interval

10-40 mg/kg PO

once 194,494,768


finches/nematodes

15-25 mg/kg PO once 159 Ramphastids

(toucans)/repeat in 15

days prn


Paromomycin — Highest efficacy of all drugs

tested thus far against

Cryptosporidium; oocyst

output decreased by

67%-82% in chickens; 758

may result in secondary

bacterial or mycotic

infections; use with

caution if ulcerative

bowel lesions are

suspected because renal

toxicity may occur; 333

ineffective against

Histomonas 357

100 mg/kg PO q12h × 7

days 1,194,256

1000 mg/kg soft food or

hulled millet 333


macaw chicks,

falcons/mix a 250 mg

capsule with 10 mL water

to facilitate dosing;

poorly absorbed

Gouldian

finches/Cryptosporidium;

may predispose to fungal

infections

311

Permethrin Dust plumage lightly 38 Pigeons/lice, fleas

Permethrin, high-cis (Harker’s

Louse Powder, Harkers)

Topical application 38

Raptors,

psittacines/ectoparasites

Piperazine (Wazine, Fleming

Laboratories)

— Most species/ascarids,

oxyurids; less efficacious

than fenbendazole;

seldom used in

companion birds


days 333

50-100 mg/kg PO

once 333,759

Pigeons/ascarids

Emus, ostriches


14 days 333,494 Raptors

100-250 mg/kg PO once 194 Ascarids, resistance common

250 mg/kg PO once 333 Psittacines, pigeons


2 days 333 Pigeons/ascarids

1000 mg/L drinking

water × 3 days 333,494


water × 1-2 days 135,333

3700 mg/L drinking

water × 12 hr, repeat

in 14-21 days 135

Raptors, pigeons

Game birds, pigeons

Passerines

Piperonyl butoxide/pyrethrin

(Ridmite Powder, Johnson)

Dust plumage, repeat in

10 days 38,194 Psittacines

Dust plumage, repeat in

21 days 38 Raptors

Piperonyl

butoxide/pyrethrin/methoprene

(Avian Insect Liquidator,

Vetafarm)

Apply to plumage, spray

cages, aviaries, bird

rooms, and

surroundings 38

Most species/fleas, lice,

mosquitoes, moths, and

some mites

Ponazuril (Marquis 5% paste;

Bayer)

— Triazine coccidiocidal drug;

metabolite of toltrazuril

20 mg/kg q24h × 7 days 825 Falcons/respiratory

Cryptosporidium baileyi

Praziquantel (Droncit, Bayer) — Most species/cestodes,

trematodes; injectable

312

form toxic in finches and

associated with

depression, death in some

species 38,333

1 mg/kg PO 38 Bustards/well tolerated


after 2-4 wk 38,149a,432b


raptors

5-10 mg/kg PO, SC q24h

× 14 days 333,358 Raptors/trematodes

6 mg/kg PO, IM, repeat

in 10-14 days 482

Cranes/cestodes, trematodes

7.5 mg/kg PO 525 Ostriches

7.5 mg/kg SC, IM repeat

in 2-4 wk 135,148

9 mg/kg IM, repeat in 10

days 38,333

10 mg/kg PO, SC, IM

once; repeat in 7

days 256

10 mg/kg SC, IM q24h ×

3 days, then PO × 11

days 358,808

Most species, except finches

Psittacines/cestodes

Raptors/cestodes, trematodes

Psittacines,

raptors/trematodes

10 mg/kg IM q24h × 3 Toucans/trematodes

days, then PO q24h ×

11 days 282

10 mg/kg PO, SC, IM

q24h × 14 days 159


in 10-14 days 38,135,194,321

15-20 mg/kg PO, SC, IM,

repeat in 2 wk as

necessary 838

25 mg/kg PO, IM, repeat

in 10-14 days 562,747

30-50 mg/kg PO, SC, IM,


Toucans/trematodes; follow

with 6 mg/kg PO q24h ×

14 days 333

Most species

Penguins/user higher dose

PO

Passerines, including Bali

mynahs/cestodes

Passerines, raptors/cestodes;

use lower dose in

passerines

12 mg crushed and Finches/withhold regular

baked into 9″ × 9″ × feed

2″ cake 333

313

Primaquine a — Pigeons, raptors, game birds,

penguins a /hematozoa

(i.e., Plasmodium,

Haemoproteus,

Leucocytozoon); use in

conjunction with

chloroquine; dosage

based on amount of

active base rather than

total tablet weight

0.3 mg/kg PO (at 24 hr

following the initial

chloroquine dose)

q24h × 7 days 333

0.3 mg/kg PO q24h × 10

days 295,838

Raptors/use with

chloroquine (10 mg/kg at

0 hr, then 5 mg/kg at 6,

24, 48 hr)

Penguins a /Plasmodium; use

with chloroquine (10

mg/kg at 0 hr, then 5

mg/kg at 6, 18, 24 hr)

0.3-1 mg/kg PO q24h × 3-

10 days 194 Most species/Atoxoplasma,

Sarcocystis; use with

chloroquine

0.75 mg/kg PO q3-

7days 295

0.75 mg/kg PO q24h × 5

days 791

African and Humboldt

penguins a /during vector

season, depending on

institution

Falcons/Haemoproteus

tinnunculi

0.75-1 mg/kg PO once 750 Raptors/Plasmodium; use


mg/kg at 0 hr, then 15

mg/kg at 12, 24, and 48

hr); palliative therapy

1 mg/kg PO on day 2,

then q24h × 3 days 106

Magellanic

penguins a /Plasmodium,

use with chloroquine (10

mg/kg at 0, 6, 12, 18, 24

hr on day 1, then 5

mg/kg q24h × 3 days)

1 mg/kg PO q7d 655 Most species/use with

chloroquine (10 mg/kg

q7d) as a preventive

regimen for birds

recovering from

314

Plasmodium infection


days, repeat q7d × 3-5

treatments to prevent

relapse 655

1 mg/kg at 0, 24 hr then

q24h × 10-14 days 295,851


days 845

Raptors/Plasmodium; use


mg/kg IV initially,

followed by 10 mg/kg PO

at 6, 18, 24 hr)

African penguins, a

raptors/upon diagnosis of

Plasmodium, administer

with mefloquine 30

mg/kg PO at 0, 12, 24, 48

hr

Psittacines (keas)/Sarcocystis;


amprolium, enrofloxacin,

and pyrimethamine

1.25 mg/kg PO q24h ×

10-14 days 598 Medium sized (3-5 kg)

penguins a /upon diagnosis

with Plasmodium with

chloroquine 10 mg/kg PO

q24h × 10-14 days; then 5

mg/kg PO q12h × 3 days;

some institutions stop

here, others continue

primaquine and

chloroquine 5 mg/kg PO

q24h

1.25 mg/kg PO q24h

(March until October,

Northern

hemisphere) 295,838

3.75 mg/kg PO q3-7days

(March until October;

Northern

hemisphere) 295


penguins a /prophylactic

therapy against

Plasmodium


penguins a /prophylactic

therapy against

Plasmodium

4 mg PO q48h 838 Medium sized (3-5 kg)

penguins a /during vector

season (or year round,

depending on location of

institution) in capsule

with sulfadiazine 125 mg

and folic acid 0.4 mg

Pyrantel pamoate — Intestinal nematodes; poorly

absorbed, so increased

315

safety margin 194

4.5 mg/kg PO, repeat in

10-14 days 38,482,856 Cranes, psittacines,

including cockatoo

chicks 856


7 mg/kg PO, repeat in 14

days 144

Most species

7-20 mg/kg PO, repeat in

14 days 358 Raptors

7-25 mg/kg PO once 194 Nematodes

20 mg/kg PO once 38,149a,432b Raptors

20-25 mg/kg PO 321 Pigeons

70 mg/kg PO once 159 Ramphastids

(toucans)/repeat if

necessary

Pyrethrins (0.15%) (Adams, Pfizer)

148 mg/L drinking

water 333

Dust plumage lightly to

moderately prn 194,333,482

Psittacines,

pigeons/medication floats


psittacines,

pigeons/ectoparasites

Pyrimethamine — Toxoplasma, Atoxoplasma,

Sarcocystis; may be

effective for Leucocytozoon;

supplement with folic or

folinic acid

0.25-0.5 mg/kg PO

q12h 432b

Raptors

0.25-0.5 mg/kg PO q12h

× 30 days 38,149a Raptors/Sarcocystis,

Toxoplasma

0.5 mg/kg PO q12h × 14- Most species/use for 28 days

28 days 135,194 for Leucocytozoon in

raptors

0.5 mg/kg PO q12h × 45

days 845

0.5-1 mg/kg PO q12h × 2-

4 days, then 0.25

mg/kg PO q12h × 30

days 333

Psittacines (keas)/Sarcocystis;


amprolium and

primaquine

Companion birds/Sarcocystis;


trimethoprim-sulfa 5

mg/kg IM q12h or 30-100

316

mg/kg PO q12h × 7 days

0.5-1 mg/kg PO q12h ×

30 days 580 Eclectus, Amazon

parrots/use with

trimethoprim-sulfadiazine

(30 mg/kg)

100 mg/kg feed 333 Most species

Quinacrine HCl a (Atabrine,

Sanofi)

— Most species/Atoxoplasma,

Plasmodium; chloroquine

and primaquine are

preferred; overdosage

may cause hepatoxicity

5-10 mg/kg PO, IM

q24h 432b

Raptors/Plasmodium

5-10 mg/kg PO q24h × 7-

10 days 38,194,382 Most species/use higher

doses for Lankesterella,

Plasmodium

7.5 mg/kg PO q24h × 10

days 38,333

26-79 mg/L drinking

water × 10-21 days 38,321

Most species/Atoxoplasma

Pigeons

Rafoxanide (Flukex, Univet;

Ranide, MSD)

10 mg/kg PO 194 Raptors/trematodes, cestodes;

not available in the

United States

Resorantel (Terenol-S, Intervet) 130 mg/kg PO 149b,333 Ostriches/highly effective

against H. struthionis

when administered with

or without fenbendazole

Ronidazole (Ronivet-S, Vetafarm) — Antiprotozoal used against

trichomoniasis; toxicity

documented with

overdose in drinking

water in society finches 861

2.5 mg/kg PO × 6 days 321 Pigeons

6-10 mg/kg PO q24h × 6-


10-20 mg/kg PO q24h × 7

days 135

12.5 mg/kg PO q24h × 6

days 38

Pigeons

Pigeons

50-400 mg/L drinking Passerines

317

water × 5 days 135

60 mg/L drinking

water 228


water × 7 days 333



Finches/Cochlosoma

Cockatiels, pigeons/higher

dosage required for

resistant strains in

pigeons

Pigeons

Canaries, pigeons/flock


2016) 201 preventive dose 38

× 5-7 days (Bailey, treatment; Trichomonas;


× 5-7 days 38 Pigeons/Trichomonas; flock

treatment

1000 mg/L drinking Pigeons/equivalent to 12.5

water q24h 135 mg/kg/day

400 mg/kg soft feed 201 Canaries

Selamectin (Revolution, Zoetis) — No adverse effects, including

neurologic signs, were

seen in healthy zebra

finches with doses up to

92 mg/kg 84

23 mg/kg topically, repeat

in 3-4 wk 83

Budgerigars/Knemidokoptes

improvement in 13/14

birds at 4 wk, with no

neurologic signs

identified but monitor for

weight loss

23 mg/kg topically q7d ×

4 treatments 694 Golden eagle/treatment for

Micnemidocoptes spp.; no

evidence of toxicity at this

dosage

Sulfachlorpyrazine (ESB3,

Novartis)

— Coccidiostat; affects the

intestinal stages of

Atoxoplasma; 201 not


States, but can be

obtained through the Bali

mynah Species Survival

Plan 562

1 g of 30% powder/L

drinking water × 5

Bali mynahs/Atoxoplasma;

significantly reduced or

318

days, off 3 days, on 5 totally cleared oocyst

days, then repeat shedding for extended

cycle × 4 treatments; time; it is uncertain if the

administer treatment drug is safe to use when

3× annually 562 parents are feeding

chicks; supplement with

vitamin B 6

Sulfachlorpyridazine (Vetisulid,

Boehringer-Ingelheim)

— Coccidiostat; used as

replacement for

sulfachlorpyrazine in the

United States;

contraindicated with

dehydration, liver disease,

renal disease; 194 treatment

>2 wk may require folic

acid supplementation 194


water × 3-5 days/wk;

repeat 194

Passerines/repeat after 5 days

to allow for prepatent

period of coccidia

150-300 mg/L drinking Passerines, including

water; 201 5 days/wk × canaries/may need to treat

2-3 wk 171 for months for systemic

coccidiosis

300 mg/L drinking water Passerines, including Bali

× 5 days, off 3 days, mynahs/Atoxoplasma

on 5 days, then

repeat cycle × 4

treatments;

administer treatment

3× annually 562,747


× 7-10 days 321 Pigeons


water × 3 days, off 2

days, then repeat

course 135

Pigeons


× 30 days 333 Cockatiels,

budgerigars/mixture is

stable for up to 5 days if

refrigerated; change daily;

mix well


water × 5 days, off 2

days, on 5 days 333

Most species

319

Sulfadimethoxine (12.5%) 20 mg/kg PO q12h 333 Most species/treatment and

prophylaxis of coccidian;






20-50 mg/kg PO q12h ×

3-5 days/wk; repeat

treatment 194


days 321

25-50 mg/kg PO q24h × 3

days 333

25-50 mg/kg PO q24h × 3

days, off 2 days, then

q24h × 3 days 358


to allow for prepatent

period of coccidia 194

Most species

Raptors

Raptors

25-55 mg/kg PO q24h ×

3-7 days 652 Raptors/Eimeria, Sarcocystis

50 mg/kg PO once, then Raptors

25 mg/kg PO q24h ×

7-10 days 358


days, off 3 days, on 5

days 808

50 mg/kg PO q24h × 14

days 482

250 mg/kg IM q24h × 3


days 105


water × 5-7

days/week; repeat

treatment 194

Psittacines

Cranes/coccidiosis

Pigeons/PK, PD; close to

toxic level


to allow for coccidial


330-400 mg/L drinking Pigeons/supplement with

water × 1 day then vitamin B for 5 days

200 mg/L × 4 days 321

Sulfadimidine sodium (33.3%) — Contraindicated with





320

40-50 mg/kg PO q24h × 7

days or 3 days on, 2

days off 135

Pigeons

50-150 mg/kg PO, IM

q12h × 3-5 days/wk;

repeat treatment 194

50-150 mg/kg PO, IM

q24h × 5-7 days 333


water × 5 days 194


water × 3-5 days on, 2

days off repeated

twice 38




Raptors/coccidia; lack of

efficacy reported in

merlins 333




Pigeons/coccidia; may be

effective against

Toxoplasma

Sulfamethazine (Sulmet,

Boehringer-Ingelheim)

— See sulfonamides;

coccidiostat;






50-65 mg/pigeon PO × 3

days, off 2-3 days,

repeat × 2-3 days 426

50-65 mg/pigeon PO × 5

days 321,426



days 333

Pigeons

Pigeons/supplement vitamin

B for 5 days 321

Parakeets

75-185 mg/kg PO q24h × Passerines/repeat after 5 days

3 days 194 to allow for prepatent

period 194


× 3 days, off 2 days,

on 3 days 333

Most species

400 mg/L drinking water Pigeons

once, then 200-

270 mg/L × 4 days 321

Sulfaquinoxaline (Sulquin 6-50,

Zoetis)

— Sulfonamide used for

prevention and treatment

321

of coccidiosis;






100 mg/kg PO q24h × 3


days 194,333

Lories, pigeons, passerines

250 mg/L drinking water Passerines/repeat after 5 days

× 5-7 days 194 to allow for prepatent

period of coccidia

500 mg/L (1.8 mL/L)

drinking water × 6


days 686

Pigeons

Sulfonamides — Competitvely inhibit paraaminobenzoic

acid,

required by schizonts for

folic acid synthesis; 426



or bone marrow

suppression;

gastrointestinal upset,

regurgitation are

common, especially in

macaws; use for longer

than 2 wk may require

vitamin B (folic acid)

supplementation

Tetracycline (T)/furaltadone (F)

400 mg (T) + 400 mg

(F)/L drinking water

for 7 days

Pigeons/indicated for

trichomoniasis,

hexamitiasis; avoid in

adults feeding young less

than 10 days of age

Thiabendazole — Most species/nematodes

(especially Syngamus

trachea),

acanthocephalans;

generally less efficacious

than fenbendazole; may

be toxic to cranes and

ratites 38

322

40-100 mg/kg PO q24h ×

7 days 38,194,333 Most species


14 days 333 Ostriches

100 mg/kg PO once, Raptors, cranes/intestinal

repeat in 10-

strongyles, ascarids

14 days 38,333,482

100 mg/kg PO q24h × 7- Most species/gapeworms,

10 days 333 ascarids

100-200 mg/kg PO q12h

× 10 days 149a Raptors/nematodes; may

interfere with egg laying

100-500 mg/kg PO

once 38,194,333

Most species

250-500 mg/kg PO, Most species, including

repeat in 10-

psittacines/ascarids

14 days 38,808

425 mg/kg feed × 14

days 120

Cranes

Toltrazuril (Baycox, Bayer) — Coccidiocidal; 426 efficacious

for refractory coccidiosis;

has been successful in

reducing mortality from

Atoxoplasma in canaries

and other passerines and

may affect systemic stages

of the disease; 562 not very

effective against

Atoxoplasma when given

in water; bitter taste,

mixing with soft drink

(i.e., cola) increases

palatability; 38 2.5%

solution is very alkaline

and should not be

gavaged directly into the

crop 426

7 mg/kg PO q24h × 2-

3 days 350,384 Budgerigars, raptors

7-15 mg/kg q24h × 3

days 194


days 652

Passerines/Atoxoplasmosis

Raptors/preferred treatment

for Caryospora

323


treatments 38

12.5 mg/kg PO q24h × 14

days 562,747

12.5 mg/kg PO q24h × 2

days, off 5 days,

repeat prn 368

12.5 mg/kg PO q24h × 2

days in hand-feeding,

then 45 mg/L

drinking water × 2

days, repeat prn 509

15-25 mg/kg PO q24h × 2

days 38,432b

15-25 mg/kg PO q48h × 3

treatments 432b

20-35 mg/kg PO

once 194,827a

Raptors/treatment of choice

for coccidiosis in falcons

Passerines including Bali

mynahs/Atoxoplasma;

dosage is based on a

limited number of clinical

cases

Blue-crowned laughing

thrush/PD; reduced

clinical signs and all


Isospora spp. within 7

days, white blood cell

effects within 3 mo

Cirl buntings/PD; reduced


Isospora spp., 72/75

affected birds released

Raptors

Raptors

Pigeons/higher dose prevents

shedding up to 4 wk;

lower dose is minimum

dose required to suppress

oocyst shedding

25 mg/kg q24h × 2 days 486 Pigeons/PD; not effective

against S. chalchasi when

administered on day 0,

10, or 40 postinoculation


treatments 135,256


2 consecutive

days/wk 148

Raptors/Caryospora,

coccidiosis

Psittacines

Lories/10 mg/L administered


21 days 463 treatment

2 days, repeat in 14- during second course of

20 mg/kg in drinking

water × 2 days 426

Pigeons

324

Cockatiels, passerines,


21 days 463 manikins, siskins/coccidia

2 days, repeat in 14- including goldfinches,

25-75 mg/L drinking

water × 5 days 194

Canaries/Atoxoplasma spp.


2 days/wk × 4 wk 171 Passerines


5 days 323 Pigeons


× 5 days 38 Pigeons

Trimethoprim/sulfadiazine — See sulfonamides

5 mg/kg IM q12h 333 Companion birds/Sarcocystis;

use in conjunction with

pyrimethamine (0.5-


days, then 0.25 mg/kg PO

q12h × 30 days)

30 mg/kg PO q8-12h 78,358 Most species, including

psittacines,

raptors/Sarcocystis (treat

for at least 6 wk); coccidia

30-100 mg/kg PO q12h ×

7 days 333 Companion birds/Sarcocystis;

use in conjunction with

pyrimethamine (0.5-


days, then 0.25 mg/kg PO

q12h × 30 days)

60 mg/kg PO, SC q12h × Raptors/coccidia

3 days, off 2 days, on

3 days 38

80 mg (trimethoprim) +

40 mg

(sulfadiazine)/mL

drinking water 854

Canaries/Toxoplasma gondii

Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole 10-50 mg/kg q24h 747 Passerines

16-24 mg/kg (based on

trimethoprim) PO

q12-24h 482

Cranes/coccidiosis

25 mg/kg PO q24h 333 Toucans, mynahs/coccidia

30 mg/kg PO q12-24h 135 Passerines/antiprotozoal

325


q24h 135

Pigeons/antiprotozoal

a

Because adult penguins regurgitate food to chicks, usage of these regimens must be considered

carefully during chick rearing.

326

Table 5-5

Chemical Restraint/Anesthetic/Analgesic Agents Used in Birds. a,b


Acepromazine — Phenothiazine tranquilizer; see

etorphine and ketamine for

combinations

0.1-0.2 mg/kg IV 333 Ratites/most commonly used in

0.25-0.5 mg/kg IM 333 combination with other anesthetics;

rarely used in other bird species

Alfaxalone (Alfaxan, Jurox) — Not to be confused with dosing

information for alfaxalone/alfadalone

(Saffan, Schering-Plough); this is a

completely new formulation, so

doses cannot be extrapolated from

older literature using

alfaxalone/alfadalone; see

dexmedetomidine for combination

2 mg/kg IV 831 Flamingos/induction; induction

significantly shorter and quality

smoother than with isoflurane

alone; decreased isoflurane

maintenance requirements but

produced moderate cardiorespiratory

effects not seen in isoflurane-only

group; recovery times similar with

both groups, without significant

differences in quality or length

10 mg/kg IM 847 Quaker parrots/lower dose significantly

25 mg/kg IM 847 longer induction time (13.5 ±

4.5 min) compared to higher dose

(6.0 ± 1.3 min), while recovery time

significantly longer in the high-dose

group (86.2 ± 13.4 min) than the

low-dose group (44.4 ±10.8 min);

muscle tremors and hyperexcitation

evident in both groups

20 mg/kg IM 579 Yellow legged gulls/loss of righting

reflex only achieved in 1/6 birds after

20 min; could not intubate; some

birds manifested adverse effects like

muscle twitches, wing and tail

flapping, and opisthotonus

327

Alfaxalone (A)/fentanyl (F)

(A) 20 mg/kg + (F)

20 µg/kg IM 579 Yellow legged gulls/loss of righting

reflex only achieved in 2/6 birds after

12.5 min; could not intubate;

significant reduction in respiratory

rate; some birds manifested adverse

effects like muscle twitches, wing

and tail flapping, and opisthotonus

Alfaxalone (A)/fentanyl

(F)/midazolam (Mi)

(A) 20 mg/kg + (F)

20 µg/kg + (Mi) 1

mg/kg IM 579

Yellow legged gulls/loss of righting

reflex achieved in 6/6 birds after 20

min; could not intubate; significant

heart rate and respiratory rate

reduction; a number of birds

manifested adverse effects like muscle

twitches, wings and tail flapping,

and opisthotonus

Alfaxalone (A)/midazolam

(Mi)

(A) 10 mg/kg + (Mi) Quaker parrots/lower induction time

1 mg/kg IM 847 than same dose (A) alone (6.5 ±

2.9 min) but significantly longer

recovery time (103.5 ± 15.1 min);

reduced muscle tremors and

hyperexcitability

(A) 20 mg/kg + (Mi) Yellow legged gulls/loss of righting

1 mg/kg IM 579 reflex in 5/6 birds after 8 min; a

number of birds manifested adverse

effects like muscle twitches, wings

and tail flapping, and opisthotonus

Alphachloralose (Fisher

Scientific)

— Chloral derivative of glucose which

depresses cortical centers of the

brain; induces hypothermia; low

therapeutic index in chickens

suggests only marginally safe in

domestic species or for field

applications where dosage difficult

to control 333

250-430 mg/cup of

bait 333

Cranes, American

crows/immobilization; 160-

210 mg/4.5 kg sandhill crane; cranes

could generally be approached

within 1-2 hr of feeding and

releasable 8-22 hr later


Zoetis)

— α 2 -adrenergic antagonist; 1:1 volume

reversal of dexmedetomidine is

general rule; although the same

effect is expected as with

medetomidine (no longer available) 799

328

2.5-5 × medetomidine

dose IM, IV 711,713

0.25-0.5 mg/kg

IM 333,355,618,711,713

0.4 mg/kg ½ IV, ½

SC 435

6 mg/kg

intranasally 829

Psittacines, pigeons, raptors/righting

reflex regained 2-10 min after

administration


pigeons

Ostriches

Ring-necked parakeets/dose divided

evenly between nares and given

slowly; significantly reduced

recumbency time after detomidine

administration

Atropine sulfate — Anticholinergic agent

0.01-0.02 mg/kg SC,

IM, IV 333

0.04-0.1 mg/kg SC,

IM, IV, IO,

intratracheal 333


Most species/bradycardia; higher doses

with CPR

Azaperone (Stresnil,

Elanco)

— Butyrophenone neuroleptic agent; see

metomidate for combination; not


0.73 mg/kg IM 806 Ratites/sedation

1-4 mg/kg IM, IV 333 Ostriches/premedication, sedation

Benzocaine Topical anesthesia 333 Small birds/minor wound repair

Bupivacaine HCl — Local anesthetic agent; 4-6 hr duration

of action in mammals; may be

shorter acting in some birds;

recommend minimizing dose to limit

potential toxic effects; see

bupivacaine combination 333

2 mg/kg infused

SC 333

Buprenorphine HCl — Partial µ-opioid agonist c

0.1 mg/kg IM 588 African grey parrots/PD; ineffective for

analgesia

0.1-0.6 mg/kg IM 128,300 American kestrels/PK, PD; resulted in

thermal antinociception for ≥6 hr

0.25 mg/kg IM q7h 589 African grey parrots/PD; dose required

to reach human analgesic plasma

concentrations; analgesic effect not

evaluated at this dose

329

0.25 mg/kg IM 505 Red-tailed hawks/PD; did not change

any scored pain behaviors

0.25-0.5 mg/kg IM 270 Pigeons/PD; dose-dependent increased

withdrawal time from noxious

stimulus for 2-5 hr

Buprenorphine (Simbadol,

Zoetis)

Concentrated formulation; not to be

confused with compounded

sustained-release product, as dosing

may differ

0.3 mg/kg SC

q24h 332b

1.8 mg/kg SC

q48h 332b

Red-tailed hawks/PK; plasma

concentrations of >1 ng/mL were

maintained for these time periods

Buprenorphine sustained

release (Bup-SR,

ZooPharm)

Compounded sustained-release product;

not to be confused with

concentrated formulation, as dosing

may differ

1.8 mg/kg SC, IM

q24h 709

American kestrels/PK, PD; thermal antinociceptive

response for 12-24 hr

Butorphanol tartrate — Opioid agonist-antagonist; c PO

bioavailability <10% in Hispaniolan

Amazon parrots; PO route not

recommended; 707 butorphanol

combination follows; see

dexmedetomidine, ketamine, and

xylazine for combinations

0.05-0.25 mg/kg IV 806 Ratites

0.5 mg/kg IM, IV q1- Raptors/PK: IM, IV very short

4h 663 (approx. 1-2 hr); more rapid

clearance and shorter when

given IV medial metatarsal vein than

IV median ulnar vein

0.5-4 mg/kg IM, IV

q1-

4h 162,270,410,588,663,707,746

Most species, including psittacines/no

isoflurane-sparing effects detected in

harlequin ducks when administered

IM 15 min prior to induction 533

1-2 mg/kg IM 161,162 African grey parrots, cockatoos, bluefronted

Amazon parrots/PD;

significantly reduced ED 50 of

isoflurane for African greys and

cockatoos but not for Amazon

parrots; African grey parrots had

330

more significant reduction of

withdrawal response to electrical

stimulus at 2 mg/kg

1-6 mg/kg IM 303a American kestrels/PD; did not cause

thermal antinociception suggestive

of analgesia; sex-dependent

responses were identified

2-5 mg/kg IM, IV q2-

3h 410,707,746

3 mg/kg

(premedication) +

75 µg/kg/min IV

CRI

(maintenance) 453

Hispaniolan Amazon parrots/PK; low

mean plasma concentrations at 2 hr

postinjection; PD: withdrawal from

electrical stimuli reduced after 2

mg/kg IM; effective pre-emptive

analgesia with sevoflurane

anesthesia for endoscopy 410

Psittacines/PD; significantly reduced

isoflurane MAC

3-6 mg/kg IM 588 Hispaniolan Amazon parrots/PD;

electrical stimuli to assess

withdrawal thresholds

Butorphanol

(B)/midazolam (Mi)

(B) 1 mg/kg IM +

(Mi) 0.5 mg/kg

IM 429

Psittacines/induction time and

isoflurane concentration were

reduced in the B + Mi group;

induction quality scores were

improved in the B + Mi group and

no adverse effects on anesthesia and

cardiovascular stability were

observed

Carfentanil (Wildnil,

Wildlife

Pharmaceuticals)

— Super-potent opioid agonist; c

carfentanil combination follows; not

generally recommended for use in

birds; no longer commercially


0.024 mg/kg IM 333 Ostriches (free-ranging)/darted from

helicopter

0.03 mg/kg IM 333 Ratites

Carfentanil (C)/xylazine (X) (C) 3 mg + (X) 150

mg IM per

ostrich 630

Ostriches (free-ranging)/darted from

helicopter

Desflurane (Suprane,

Baxter)

— Fluorine halogenated ether; fast

induction, rapid recovery; 337

currently no studies evaluating its

331

use in any avian species

Detomidine (Dormosedan,

Zoetis)

— α 2 -adrenergic agonist

12 mg/kg

intranasally 829

Ring-necked parakeets/dose divided into

each nare and given slowly; sedation

<3 min but did not allow dorsal

recumbency or manipulation;

reversal with atipamezole

significantly reduced time to

recovery

12-15 mg

intranasally 830

Canaries/dose divided into each nare

and given slowly; higher dose

prolonged sedation but could not

place in dorsal recumbency;

prolonged duration of effect (257.5 ±

1.5 min); completely reversed with

yohimbine intranasally

Dexmedetomidine HCl


— α 2 agonist; active optical enantiomer of

racemic compound medetomidine; ½

the dose of medetomidine but same

volume due to concentration has

been used as a general guideline; d

although the same effects would be

expected as with medetomidine (not

commercially available, but can be

compounded); limited data on the

efficacy and safety of

dexmedetomidine in birds to date;

dexmedetomidine combinations

follow

25 µg/kg IM 713 Common buzzards/adequate restraint

to prevent reaction to handling but

did not allow for intubation; loss of

righting reflex = 3.5 ± 1 min; no

arrhythmias, excitement, or major

adverse effects noted; complete


75 µg/kg IM 713 Common kestrels/adequate restraint to

prevent reaction to handling but did

not allow for intubation; loss of

righting reflex = 7 ± 1.2 min; no

arrhythmias, excitement, or major

adverse effects noted; complete


Dexmedetomidine (D) 0.4 mg/kg + (A) Domestic doves/time to loss of

332

(D)/alfaxalone (A) 20 mg/kg IM 872 consciousness = 102 ± 48 sec, loss of

righting reflex = 240 ± 135 sec; 2

birds could not undergo endoscopic

procedure; 1 bird died due to

prolonged recovery; significant

variability in heart rate and

respiratory rate; not recommended

at these doses for minimally invasive

procedures

Dexmedetomidine

(D)/midazolam (Mi)

(D) 80 µg/kg + (Mi) 5 Pigeons/PD; effective immobilization 20

mg/kg

to 30 min after intranasal

intranasally 355 administration; birds tolerated

postural changes without resistance;

significant decreases in heart rate

and respiratory rate that persisted

until the end of sedation;

atipamezole antagonized sedation

and cardiorespiratory side effects

within 10 min

Dexmedetomidine

(D)/ketamine

(K)/butorphanol (B)

(D) 0.4 mg/kg + (K)

40 mg/kg + (B) 1

mg/kg IM 872

Domestic doves/mean time to loss of

consciousness and loss of righting

reflex was 79.6 ± 44.4 sec and 162.6 ±

102.3 sec, respectively; all birds

experienced a prolonged recovery

period (>1 hr); significant variability

in heart rate and respiratory rate;

not recommended at these doses for

minimally invasive procedures

Dexmedetomidine

(D)/thiafentanil oxalate

(Th)/tiletaminezolazepam

(Tz)

— Ultra-short-acting opioid agonist (Th)

not currently available in the United

States; α 2 agonist (D); dissociative

anesthetic (Tz)

(D) 0.2 mg +(Th) 7

mg +(Tz) 100 mg

IM per bird 798

Greater rheas/anesthesia administered

via remote injection; smooth

induction/recovery; respiratory

depression in 1/8 birds but recovered

with reversal

Diazepam — Benzodiazepine; used alone for

sedation, seizure control,

tranquilization, and/or appetite

stimulation; IM administration may

cause severe muscle irritation and

absorption may be delayed; reversal

with flumazenil; see ketamine for

combinations

333

0.05-0.5 mg/kg IV 333 Most species

0.1-0.3 mg/kg IV 333,375 Ratites/tranquilization; smooth

anesthetic recovery

0.2-0.5 mg/kg IM 195 Most species/premedication; onset in 15-

20 min

0.25-0.5 mg/kg IM,

IV q24h × 2-

3 days 779 Raptors/appetite stimulant

0.5 mg/kg PO 333 Passerines/calms fractious species while

improving acceptance to a novel

captive diet; oral solution (1 mg/mL,

Roxane Laboratories) works best

0.5-1 mg/kg IM, IV

q8-12h 38

Raptors/sedation; anticonvulsant

0.8 mg/kg

Ostriches (juvenile)/slower onset (4.3 ±

intranasally 25 0.4 min) than midazolam (2.9 ±

1.2 min); moderate sedation was

achieved for standing chemical

restraint, with the maximum

duration effect of 9.2 ± 2.5 min

1-2 mg/kg IV 333 Ostriches/administer just prior to

recovery from teletamine/zolazepam

to counter its undesirable effects

2.5-4 mg/kg PO 333 Most species/sedation

5 mg/kg PO 333 Ostriches/standing sedation

5 mg/kg IV 262,333 Emus, rheas/sedation

6 mg/kg IM 812 Rock partridges/decrease in cloacal

temperature; prolonged recoveries

(149 ± 8.3 min)

10 mg/kg IM 623 Zebra finches/deep sedation, dorsal

recumbency achieved in minutes and

lasted for several hours; reversed

completely with flumazenil

12 mg/kg

intranasally 829


each nare and given slowly; time to

onset 3.5 ± 1.2 min, dorsal

recumbency 11.0 ± 6.4 min; not

sedate enough for any

manipulation; flumazenil

intranasally significantly reduced

recumbency time

334

12.5-15.6 mg/kg

intranasally 830

13 ± 1 mg/kg

intranasally 80

13.6 ± 1.1 mg/kg

intranasally 695


and given slowly; dorsal

recumbency for approx. 35 min;

flumazenil intranasally significantly

reduced recumbency time

Finches/onset of sedation significantly

slower (1.8 ± 0.2 min) compared

with midazolam (1.0 ± 0.3 min);

longer duration of dorsal

recumbency observed after diazepam

(68 ± 12.7 min) than with midazolam

(32.0 ± 8.1 min); diazepam produced

significantly longer duration of

sedation (182.0 ± 18.4) than

midazolam (74.2 ± 8.7)

Budgerigars/onset of sedation

significantly longer after diazepam

(2.8 ± 0.88 min) than midazolam (1.3

± 0.44 min); diazepam produced

significantly longer duration of

sedation (165.4 ± 19.2 min) than

midazolam (71.6 ± 8.9 min); adequate

sedation for diagnostic, minor

therapeutic procedures

Diprenorphine 0.04-0.06 mg/kg IV 703 Ostriches/opioid antagonist

Dobutamine — β 1 -adrenergic agonist, with weak β 2

activity, and selective α 1 activity;

used to treat anesthetic-induced

hypotension

15 µg/kg/min IV 718 Hispaniolan Amazon parrots/PD;

significant increase in direct arterial

pressure within 4-7 min

Dopamine HCl — Catecholamine neurotransmitter

activating dopamine receptors;

inotropic vasopressor used to treat

anesthetic-induced hypotension

7-10 µg/kg/min IV 718 Hispaniolan Amazon parrots/PD;

significant increase in direct arterial

pressure within 4-7 min; greater

effects on direct arterial pressures

than dobutamine

Etorphine HCl (M-99,

Wildlife

Pharmaceuticals)

— Super-potent opioid agonist; c may be

inadequate when used as sole

agent; 375 see etorphine combinations

335

0.025 mg/kg IM 333 Ostriches

Etorphine (E)/acepromazine

(A)

(E) 0.04-0.07 mg/kg +

(A) 0.19 mg/kg

IM 703

Ostriches (10-12 mo of age)

(E) 3.6 mg/bird + (A)

15 mg/bird IM 703 Ostriches

Etorphine (E)/acepromazine

(A)/xylazine (X)

Etorphine (E)/ketamine (K)

(E) 0.04 mg/kg + (A) Ostriches/sedation for simple procedures

0.16 mg/kg + (X) lasting 10-20 min

0.66 mg/kg IM 703

(E) 6-12 mg/bird IM

+ (K) 200-

300 mg/bird IM 333 Ostriches (adults)

Fentanyl citrate — Short-acting µ-opioid agonist c

20 µg bolus + 0.2-

0.5 µg/kg/min IV

CRI 332b,593

20 µg bolus +1.5-

6 µg/kg/min IV

CRI 332b

Red-tailed hawks/PD; reduced

isoflurane MAC 31%-55% in a doserelated

manner, without significant

effects on heart rate, blood pressure,

paCO 2 , or paO 2

Hispaniolan Amazon parrots/PK; PD;

reduced isoflurane in a dose-related

manner similar to red-tailed hawks

but with much higher dosages;

significant decreases in heart rate,

indirect blood pressure; monitor

closely

0.02 mg/kg IM 351 Cockatoos/PK; PD; rapid absorption,

elimination; no effect withdrawal to

thermal, electrical stimulus

0.2 mg/kg SC 351 Cockatoos/PK; PD; some analgesia;

large dose and volume; hyperactivity

first 15-30 min in some birds

Fentanyl (F)/midazolam

(M)

(F) 30 µg bolus +

(M) 1-2 mg/kg IM

then (F) 30

µg/kg/h IV CRI +

(M) 1 mg/kg/h IV

CRI 578

Wild birds/partial IV anesthesia (PIVA)

with isoflurane anesthesia for

orthopedic surgery; recovery = 63.2 ±

24.0 min with excellent quality; no

significant change in HR detected

Flumazenil — Benzodiazepene antagonist

0.02-0.1 mg/kg IM,

IV 6,333

0.05 mg/kg

intranasally 490

Most species

Hispaniolan Amazon parrots

336

0.13 mg/kg

intranasally 829



slowly; significantly reduced

recumbency time

0.25-0.31 mg/kg

intranasally 830

Canaries/dose divided evenly between

nares and given slowly; significantly

reduced recumbency time

0.3 mg/kg IM 623 Zebra finches/smooth, complete

recovery after deep sedation with

diazepam

Gabapentin — GABA analogue; used to treat human

neuropathic pain

3 mg/kg PO q24h 745 Senegal parrots/analgesia; used with

fluoxetine so difficult to determine

sole efficacy; bird appeared sedated 3

days after initiation of

administration

10 mg/kg PO

q12h 193,194

Little corella/long-term (>90 days)

analgesia; sole analgesic for selfmutilation;

no adverse effects noted

11 mg/kg PO q12h 734 Prairie falcons/long-term (>90 days)

analgesia; adjunct to multimodal

therapy for self-mutilation; bird

exhibited neurologic signs, diarrhea

when dosed at 110 mg/kg, but no

adverse effects at 82 mg/kg

11 mg/kg PO q8h 864 Great horned owls/PK; maintained

plasma concentrations >2 µg/mL

approx. 8 hr

15 mg/kg PO q8h 43 Hispaniolan Amazon parrots/PK;

maintained plasma concentrations ≥

human analgesic concentration

approx. 8 hr

Glycopyrrolate — Anticholinergic agent; slower onset

than atropine

0.01-0.02 mg/kg IM,

IV 333

Most species/preanesthetic; rarely

indicated

0.04 mg/kg IV 806 Ratites

Hydromorphone 0.1-0.6 mg/kg IM q3- American kestrels/PK; PD: doses of 0.1,

6h 303b,304 0.3, and 0.6 mg/kg IM significantly

increased thermal foot withdrawal

responses; appreciable sedation with

337

0.6 mg/kg

0.1, 0.3, and

0.6 mg/kg IM 708 Cockatiels/PD; doses did not

significantly increase thermal foot

withdrawal responses; 0.3 and

0.6 mg/kg produced mild sedation 708

Isoflurane — Inhalant anesthetic agent of choice in

birds; dose-dependent hypotension

with all inhalants; raptors, macaws

may be more likely to exhibit

isoflurane-induced arrhythmias; 333

no significant differences in

ventilation or O 2 transport between

dorsal and lateral recumbency in

red-tailed hawks 334

0.5%-4% (usually Ostriches/use following preanesthetic

1.5%-2%) 333 medication

1%-3% 732 Cinereous vultures/dose-dependent

increases in heart rate and ETCO 2

and decreases in direct blood

pressure and respiratory acidosis

during spontaneous ventilation

1.115% 748 Emus/PD; minimum anesthetic

concentration

1.3% 470,471 Cranes, ducks/minimum anesthetic

concentration

1.46 ± 0.30% 130 Crested serpent eagles/minimum

anesthetic concentration; timerelated

increase in ETCO 2 and

decreases in body temperature and

respiratory rates

1.44 ± 0.07% 162 Cockatoos/PD; ED 50

1.8 ± 0.4% 93 Pigeons/PD; minimum anesthetic

concentration; dose-dependent

hypercapnia, hypotension, mild

hypothermia and 2nd- and 3rddegree

atrioventricular blocks

2.05 ± 0.45% 593 Red-tailed hawks/PD; minimum

anesthetic concentration

3%-5% 333 Ostriches/when used without

preanesthetic medication

3%-5% induction,

1.5%-2.5%

Most species

338

maintenance 333

Ketamine HCl — Dissociative anesthetic; seldom used as

sole agent because of poor muscle

relaxation and prolonged (up to 3

hr), violent recovery; may produce

excitation or convulsions in

pigeons, gallinules, water rails,

golden pheasants, Hartlaub’s

turacoes, ratites, and vultures; 375,705

may fail to produce general

anesthesia in some species including

great horned owls, snowy owls,

Cooper’s hawks, sharp-shinned

hawks; See dexmedetomidine and

etorphine for combinations;

ketamine combinations follow

5 mg/kg IV q10min

prn 375

5-30 mg/kg IM,

IV 38,333

10-50 mg/kg SC, IM,

IV 195,333

Ratites/maintenance

Raptors/sedation

Psittacines, pigeons, ratites,

waterfowl/restraint 30-60 min;

smaller species require a higher dose;

large birds tend to recover more

slowly

25 mg/kg IM 333 Emus/may need to supplement 5-

9 mg/kg IV q10min

50 mg/kg IO 393 Pigeons/provided effective anesthesia

Ketamine (K)/acepromazine

(A)

50-100 mg/kg PO in

bait 33,76,149a

(K) 10-25 mg/kg +

(A) 0.5-1 mg/kg

IM 846

Raptors/sedation to catch an escaped

bird; place in a 30 g piece of meat

Most species/high dose for birds <250 g

Ostriches/ketamine may be given 15-

Ketamine (K)/diazepam (D) (K) 2-5 mg/kg IV +

IV 333

(D) 0.25 mg/kg 30 min after diazepam

(K) 3-8 mg/kg + (D)

0.5-1 mg/kg IM 340 Eagles, vultures

(K) 5-30 mg/kg + (D) Most species/psittacines and pigeons

0.5-2 mg/kg IV 333 lower end of range is preferred

(K) 8-15 mg/kg + (D)

0.5-1 mg/kg IM 340 Falcons

339

(K) 10 mg/kg + (D)

0.2 mg/kg IM 31 Pigeons/rapid induction with an

increase in anesthesia duration;

good muscle relaxation and a

smooth, slow recovery

(K) 10 mg/kg + (D) Amazon parrots/PD; significantly

0.5 mg/kg IM 586 reduced sevoflurane MAC

(K) 10-40 mg/kg IV +

(D) 1-1.5 mg/kg

IM, IV 653

(K) 20-40 mg/kg IM

+ (D) 1-1.5 mg/kg

IM 531

(K) 20 mg/kg + (D) 1

mg/kg IV 159

Raptors, waterfowl/induction or

surgical anesthesia (rapid bolus may

produce apnea, arrhythmia, and

increased risk of death)

Birds >250 g

Toucans/short procedures (15-20 min)

Ketamine (K)/butorphanol

(B)/medetomidine (Me)

— Medetomidine no longer available, but

can be compounded; see

dexmedetomidine

(K) 3 mg/kg + (B) 1

mg/kg + (Me) 40

µg/kg IM 865

(K) 50 mg + (B) 50

µg + (Me) 50 µg

IM per pigeon 29

Psittacines/premedication or supplement

to isoflurane; reduces isoflurane

requirement and improves

ventilation

Pigeons/PD; satisfactory anesthesia in

7/8 pigeons; heart rate, respiratory

rate decreased within 10 min

following Me + B injection;

arrhythmias in 3/8 pigeons; cloacal

temperature decreased gradually

during anesthesia

Ketamine (K)/medetomidine

(Me)

— Unreliable level of sedation in pigeons

at (K) 5 mg/kg + (Me) 80 µg/kg IM; 618

medetomidine not currently

available, but can be compounded

(K) 1.5-2 mg/kg +

(Me) 60-85 µg/kg

IM, IV 333

Pigeons/sedation

(K) 2 mg/kg + (Me)

80 µg/kg IM 435 Ostriches/sedation

(K) 2-4 mg/kg + (Me)

25-75 µg/kg IV 366 Raptors

(K) 2.5-7 mg/kg +

(Me) 50-

100 µg/kg IV 367 Large psittacines

340

(K) 3-5 mg/kg + (Me)

50-100 µg/kg

IM 366

Raptors

(K) 3-7 mg/kg + (Me)

75-150 µg/kg

IM 367

Large psittacines

(K) 25 mg/kg + (Me)

100 µg/kg IM 658 Psittacines/anesthesia


(Mi)


(Mi)/butorphanol (B)

(K) 10-40 mg/kg +

(Mi) 0.2-4 mg/kg

SC, IM 194,333,531

(K) 40-50 mg/kg +

(Mi) 3.65 mg/kg

intranasally 829

(Mi) 0.2 mg/kg + (B)

0.4 mg/kg IM

followed by (K)

8.7 ± 0.5 mg/kg

IV 36



each nare and given slowly; onset of

action <3 min, dorsal recumbency

for 70.7 ± 46.7 min recovery times

reduced with flumazenil intranasally

Ostriches/PD; anesthesia; followed by

intubation and isoflurane anesthesia

Ketamine

(K)/tiletamine/zolazepam

(Tz)

(K) 15 mg/kg + (Tz)

10 mg/kg IM 427 Raptors/anesthesia

Ketamine (K)/xylazine (X) — Often associated with cardiac depressive

effects and rough recoveries

(K) 0.45 mg/kg + (X)

25 mg/kg IM 500 Ostriches

(K) 2-3 mg/kg IV +

(X) 5-10 mg/kg

IM 112

(K) 2-5 mg/kg IV +

(X) 0.25 mg/kg

IV 112

(K) 2.2-3.3 mg/kg +

(X) 2.2 mg/kg

IM 375

Ostriches

Ostriches

Ratites/administer xylazine 10-15 min

before ketamine

(K) 4.4 mg/kg + (X)

2.2 mg/kg IV 358,440 Psittacines, raptors

(K) 5 mg/kg + (X) 1

mg/kg IM 85

Ostriches

341

(K) 8 mg/kg IV + (X) Ostriches/ketamine administered 20 min

4 mg/kg IM 15 after xylazine; as an adjunct to

isoflurane anesthesia produced

sufficient surgical plane of anesthesia

(K) 10 mg/kg + (X)

0.5-1 mg/kg

IM 14,503

(K) 10-15 mg/kg +

(X) 2 mg/kg IM 531

(K) 10-30 mg/kg +

(X) 2-6 mg/kg

IM 531

(K) 20 mg/kg + (X) 1-

2 mg/kg IV slow

bolus 159

Ratites, turkey vultures

Owls

Psittacines/birds <250 g require dose at

higher end of range

Toucans

(K) 25 mg/kg + (X)

2.5 mg/kg IM 531 Cockatiels

(K) 25-30 mg/kg +

(X) 2 mg/kg IM 531

Falcons, hawks

(K) 30 mg/kg + (X)

6.5 mg/kg IM 531 Budgerigars

(K) 40-50 mg/kg +

(X) 10 mg/kg

intranasally 829



slowly; time to sedation, 7.7 ±

1.4 min; dorsal recumbency, 12.2 ±

14.1 min; yohimbine IM shortened

recovery


(X)/acepromazine (A)

(K) 34 mg/kg + (X) Ostriches

0.2 mg/kg + (A)

0.1 mg/kg IM 375

Lidocaine — Local anesthetic agent with a duration

of action in mammals of 90-

200 min; 152 previous reports state

that the dose of lidocaine used in

birds should be ≤3.3 mg kg; 333 a

recent study in chickens showed 6

mg/kg IV was not associated with

adverse cardiovascular effects 100

1-3 mg/kg 333 Most species

1 mg/kg perineurally

each nerve 208

Raptors/sciatic-femoral nerve block

under inhalant anesthesia

2 mg/kg Hispaniolan Amazon parrots/brachial

342

perineurally 167

plexus block via palpation or

ultrasound-guided; onset of block

tended to be faster when

ultrasonography was used but

neither technique produced an

effective block

Medetomidine d (Domitor,

Pfizer)

— No longer commercially available; can

be compounded; dosages listed here

as a general guide for possible

dexmedetomidine dosing; α 2 -

adrenergic agonist; 80-2000 µg/kg

IM was associated with inadequate

sedation in the pigeon; 618,711 100

µg/kg IM did not immobilize ostrich

chicks; 824 see ketamine and

thiafentanil for combinations; see

dexmedetomidine for more details

60-85 µg/kg IM 4 Psittacines

150-350 µg/kg IM 39 Raptors

Meperidine HCl — Short-acting opioid agonist c

1-4 mg/kg IM 667,806 Most species, including ratites (at 1

mg/kg)/sedation; analgesia

Midazolam HCl — Benzodiazepine; shorter acting than

diazepam, water soluble; see

butorphanol, dexmedetomidine, and

ketamine for combinations

0.1-2 mg/kg IM, IV 6 Most species/premedication at lower

doses, onset approx. 15 min when

administered IM

0.15 mg/kg IV 375 Ostriches/rapid sternal recumbency in

adults

0.2 mg/kg SC, IM 38 Psittacines/for use in combination with

ketamine

0.3-0.4 mg/kg IM 375,503 Ostriches, emus/premedication; sedation

of adult emus

0.4 mg/kg

intranasally 25

Ostrich (juvenile)/significantly shorter

onset time (2.9 ± 1.2 min) compared

with diazepam (4.3 ± 0.4 min) with

longer duration of sedation;

moderate sedation for standing

chemical restraint, with maximum

duration effects of 7.0 ± 1.4 min; deep

sedation achieved with 0.8 mg/kg

343

intranasally with sternal

recumbency for 21.7 ± 4.9 min

0.4 mg/kg IV 375 Emus

0.5-1 mg/kg IM, IV

q8h 38

2 mg/kg

intranasally 491

Raptors/anticonvulsant

Hispaniolan Amazon parrots/mild to

moderate sedation in 3 min; reduced

vocalizations, struggling and

defensive behaviors for 15 min;

reversed with flumazenil

intranasally

2 mg/kg IM 814 Canada geese/sedation for 15-20 min

5 mg/kg

intranasally 355

2 mg/kg

intranasally 714b

7.3-8.8 mg/kg

intranasally 829,830

12.5-15.6 mg/kg

intranasally 830

13 ± 1 mg/kg

intranasally 80

Pigeons/PD; minimal side effects on

vital functions but caused

inadequate immobilization of

pigeons for restraint in dorsal

recumbency

Wild macaws/PD; provided

approximately 20 min of sedation in

80% of macaws


each nare and given slowly; time to

onset, 3 min; dorsal recumbency,

57.7 ± 24.4 min; flumazenil

intranasally significantly reduced

recovery time


and given slowly; time to onset,

<3 min; dorsal recumbency, 17.1 ± 5

min; flumazenil intranasally

significantly reduced recovery time

Finches/time to onset of sedation

significantly faster (1.0 ± 0.3 min)

than xylazine or diazepam; shorter

duration of dorsal recumbency

observed (32.00 ± 8.09 min)

compared with diazepam (68.2 ±

12.7 min); significantly shorter

duration of sedation (74.2 ± 8.7 min)

than diazepam (182.00 ± 18.37 min)

and xylazine (360.2 ± 41.31 min); no

complications noted

13.2 ± 1.3 mg/kg Budgerigars/time to onset of sedation

344

intranasally 695

significantly shorter (1.3 ± 0.44 min)

than xylazine (2.6 ± 0.89 min) and

diazepam (2.8 ± 0.88 min); sedation

significantly shorter (71.60 ±

8.9 min) than with xylazine and

diazepam; adequate sedation for

diagnostic and minor therapeutic

procedures

Morphine sulfate — Opioid agonist; c early work in chickens

demonstrated confusing clinical

dosage results

Nalbuphine HCl — Opioid partial κ-agonist and partial µ-

antagonist; c due to its low abuse

potential, this opioid is currently

not a DEA scheduled substance at

the time of writing

12.5 mg/kg IM q2-

3h 397,710a


excellent IM bioavailability; little

sedation and no adverse effects;

rapidly cleared after IM and IV

dosing; thermal foot withdrawal

threshold values increased ≥3 hr;

higher dosages (25, 50 mg/kg IM)

did not significantly increase

withdrawal values

Naloxone HCl — Opioid antagonist; shorter acting than

naltrexone

0.01 mg/kg IV 36 Ostriches

2 mg IV q14-21h 333 Most species, including psittacines

Naltrexone HCl — Opioid antagonist; longer acting than

naloxone

300-330 mg IM,

IV 396,500,630

Ostriches/opioid antagonist

Nitrous oxide — Sufficient oxygen must be provided to

avoid hypoxic mixtures; may cause

some cardiovascular depression; 337 do

not use in birds with normal

subcutaneous air pockets (e.g.,

pelicans, hornbills) or in birds with

marginal respiratory reserves 6,337

Nitrous oxide

(N)/isoflurane

(I)/vecuronium (V)

(N) 0.3 L/kg/min of

oxygen and (1:1,

min 33% O 2 ) + (I)

345

Most species/mydriasis and anesthesia;

gases are administered via air sac

cannulation; vecuronium effective

up to 256 min in pigeons

1-2.4% + (V)

0.2 mg/kg IV 416,418a

Pentobarbital sodium — Short-acting barbiturate; see Table 5-17

for other indications

13.3 mg/kg IV 500 Emus/premedicate with diazepam

Propofol — IV sedative-hypnotic agent; intubation,

ventilation, and supplemental

oxygen is strongly

recommended 479,723

1-5 mg/kg IV 195 Many species/give slowly for induction

to minimize apnea; intubation and

IPPV required

1.33 mg/kg IV 38,358 Psittacines, raptors

2.9-4.7 mg/kg IV

(induction); 0.4-

0.55 mg/kg/min

IV

(maintenance) 335

3 mg/kg IV

(induction);

0.2 mg/kg/min IV

(maintenance) 435

3.7 mg/kg IV

(induction);

0.3 mg/kg/min IV

(maintenance) 79

4 mg/kg IV

(induction);

0.5 mg/kg/min IV

(maintenance) 488

5 mg/kg IV

(induction);

0.5 mg/kg/min IV

(maintenance) 723

5 mg/kg IV

(induction); 1

mg/kg/min IV

(maintenance) 437

Red-tailed hawks, great horned

owls/PK; PD; minimal blood

pressure effects, but ventilation

significantly reduced; prolonged

recoveries with moderate-to-severe

excitatory CNS signs may occur in

these species at these doses

Ostriches/PD; anesthesia

King penguins/rapid and smooth

induction and calm recovery

Barn owls/anesthesia

Wild turkeys/PD; anesthesia

Hispaniolan Amazon parrots/PD;

recovery times (15.4 ± 15.2 min) were

prolonged when compared with

isoflurane; 6/10 birds had agitated

recoveries; light anesthetic plane in

8/10 birds

346

14 mg/kg IV 235,358 Pigeons, raptors/anesthesia; 2-7 min

duration; severe respiratory

depression and apnea documented in

pigeons

Sevoflurane 2.35% 605 Thick-billed parrots/PD; minimum

anesthetic concentration when

using mechanical stimulation;

minimum anesthetic concentration

was much higher (4.24%) when

using electrical stimulus

3 ± 0.6% 94 Pigeons/PD; minimum anesthetic

concentration; SAP decreased

significantly, PECO 2 increased

significantly despite an increase in

respiratory rate; sinus arrhythmias

were detected in 2 birds; time to

tracheal intubation and recovery

were 2.5 ± 0.7 and 6.4 ± 1.7 min,

respectively; recovery was rapid and

uneventful in all birds

6% induction; 3.5%

maintenance 219

Incremental

increases up to

7% prn

(induction) 410,627

Crested caracara/PD; smooth

induction/recovery; reduced

respiratory rate and arterial blood

pressures

Psittacines/anesthesia; similar to

isoflurane; provides more rapid

recovery; less incidence of ataxia

during recovery 337,416,627

Thiafentanil oxalate

(T)/medetomidine (Me)

— Ultra-short-acting opioid agonist c (T);

α 2 agonist (Me); neither drug

currently available in the United

States

(T) 0.175 mg/kg +

(Me) 0.092 mg/kg

IM 163

Emus (adults)/anesthesia via remote

injection; rapid induction (6.8 min)

and recovery (3.2 min)

Tiletamine/zolaze-pam

(Telazol, Zoetis)

— Dissociative anesthetic associated with

prolonged, rough recoveries; see

dexmedetomidine and ketamine for

combinations; tiletamine/zolazepam

combinations follow

1-8 mg/kg IV 375,531 Ratites (adults)/induction and/or short

procedures

2-12 mg/kg IM 455,770 Ratites (adults)/induction and/or short

347

procedures; 263 recommend 3-5 mg/kg

IM for captive birds and 5 mg/kg IM

for free-ranging birds

4-25 mg/kg

IM 149a,719,824

5-10 mg/kg

IM 38,76,358,396,427,440,441


raptors, ostriches,

flamingos/sedation

Ostrich (chicks), raptors,

psittacines/good immobilization

9-30 mg/kg IM 719 Owls, wood partridges/restraint

10 mg/kg IM 427,719 Raptors

15-22 mg/kg IM 531,719 Budgerigars, emus

40-80 mg/kg PO 149a Raptors

80 mg/kg in feed 370,870 Eurasian buzzards/sufficient in most

birds to allow safe handling after 30-

60 min; birds receiving drug in

powder form reached a deeper plane

of anesthesia more quickly

Tiletamine-zolazepam (Tz)

thiafentanil oxalate

(Th)/dexmedetomidine

(D

— Ultra-short-acting opioid agonist c (Th)

not currently available in the United

States; α 2 agonist (D); dissociative

anesthetic (Tz)

(Th) 7 mg + (D)

0.2 mg + (Tz) 100

mg IM per bird 799

Greater rheas/anesthesia administered

via remote injection, smooth

induction/recovery; respiratory

depression in 1/8 birds but recovered

when reversed

Tolazoline HCl (Tolazine,

Akorn)

— α 2 -adrenergic antagonist

1 mg/kg IV 396 Ostriches

15 mg/kg IV 14 Turkey vultures

Tramadol HCl — Synthetic analog of codeine with

opioid, α-adrenergic, and

serotonergic receptor activity; O-

desmethyltramadol (M1) metabolite

is more potent µ-opiate agonist in

mammals

5 mg/kg PO, IV

q12h 755a,756

Bald eagles/PK; similar plasma

concentrations to humans for

analgesia but analgesia not

evaluated; PO bioavailability in bald

eagles higher than in humans,

dogs; 756 sedation evident after

multiple dosing; monitor for

348

sedation and reduce dose and/or

frequency prn

5 mg/kg PO q2-9h 303c American kestrels/PD

8-11 mg/kg PO Red-tailed hawks/PK; only 3 birds; 15

q12h 755a,757 mg/ kg PO q12h data model

suggested more frequent dosing to

achieve human analgesic plasma

tramadol concentrations; analgesia

not evaluated; 755a birds sedated after

multiple dosing; monitor for

sedation and reduce dose and/or

frequency prn 755a

10 mg/kg PO q24h 403b African penguins/PK: maintained

plasma concentrations for 24 hr

30 mg/kg PO

q6h 710b,755b


similar plasma concentrations to

humans for analgesia; effectively

reduced thermal withdrawal

response for 6 hr

Xylazine — α 2 -adrenergic agonist; not recommended

by itself for tranquilization and

seldom used in pet birds due to

adverse effects—excitement,

convulsions, bradycardia,

arrhythmias, bradypnea,

hypoxemia, hypercarbia, and death

when used alone; reversible with

yohimbine, atipamezole; most useful

in ratites; 705 see carfentanil,

etorphine, and ketamine for

combinations

0.2-1 mg/kg IM 375,630 Ratites/calming sedation

1-2.2 mg/kg IM, IV 38 Raptors, psittacines/in combination

with ketamine (1:3 or 1:5); still

widely used in raptors in some

countries

1-20 mg/kg IM, IV 358 Raptors/sedation

20 mg intranasally 829 Ring-necked parakeets/time to onset, 7.9

± 2.8 min but sedation not adequate

for manipulation; reversed with

yohimbine intranasally

24-30 mg

intranasally 830

Canaries/heavy sedation; prolonged

sedation but could not place in

349

dorsal recumbency at either dose;

reversed with yohimbine

intranasally

25.6 ± 2.2 mg/kg

intranasally 695

Budgerigars/time to onset 2.6 ± 0.9 min;

significantly longer sedation that

midazolam or diazepam; quality of

sedation insufficient to perform

clinical procedures

Xylazine (X)/butorphanol

(B)

Yohimbine HCl (Yobine,

Akorn)

Ratites, including rheas/sedation,

(X) 1.06-2.75 mg/kg +

0.55 mg/kg IM 455 needed in rheas

(B) 0.1-

premedication; higher doses were

— α 2 -adrenergic antagonist; excitement

and mortality observed at doses

>1 mg/kg 337

0.1-0.2 mg/kg IV 38 Psittacines, raptors

0.1-0.2 mg/kg IM,

IV 358

Raptors

0.1-1 mg/kg 333 Most species

0.11-0.275 mg/kg IM,

IV once 339

0.125 mg/kg

IV 375,396,630

12 mg/kg

intranasally 829

12-15 mg/kg

intranasally 830

Budgerigars

Ratites


evenly between nares and

administered slowly; successful

reversal of xylazine intranasally

Canaries/dose divided evenly between

nares and administered slowly;

successful reversal of xylazine and

detomidine

a

For other analgesic recommendations, refer to Table 5-6 (nonsteroidal antiinflammatory agents).

b

The anesthetic agents of choice in most avian species are the inhalant agents, isoflurane and

sevoflurane.

c

All opioid agonists and agonist-antagonists may cause respiratory depression; profound bradypnea

may occur with potent opioid agonists.

d

The effects of the volume:volume use of the dexmedetomidine and medetomidine may not be

equivalent, so the dose of dexmedetomidine may need to be adjusted based on clinical response.

Table 5-6

Nonsteroidal Antiinflammatory Agents Used in Birds. a-c

350


Acetaminophen

5 mg/L drinking

water 333

Most species/antipyretic, analgesic; overdosage

may be associated with hepatotoxicity

Aspirin

(acetylsalicylic

acid)

— Contraindicated with tetracycline, insulin, or

allopurinol therapy 5

5 mg/kg PO

q8h 333

Most species

25 mg/kg IV 32,33 Ostriches, pigeons/PK; rapid clearance except

longer in pigeon

50 mg/kg PO

q8h 212

Psittacines

150 mg/kg PO 333 Psittacines

325 mg/250 mL

drinking

water 333

Most species/make fresh q8-12h; alters taste of

water (may not be well accepted)

Carprofen — Caution should be used when administering to

Gyps vultures 165,261 and pigeons 874

Celecoxib (Celebrex,

Pfizer)

1-2 mg/kg PO,

IM, IV q12-

24h 149a,358

2-10 mg/kg IM

q24h up to 7

days 874

2-10 mg/kg SC,

IM 38,212,333

3 mg/kg IM

q12h 592

5-10 mg/kg PO,

IM 333

10-20 mg/kg PO

q24h × 6-24

wk 140,168


Pigeons/PD; 2, 5, and 10 mg/kg associated with

increases in plasma AST, ALT, mottled yellow

livers, pale muscle injection sites, and

histologic changes in the kidney, liver

(lipidosis, necrosis, portal hepatitis), and

muscle injection sites

Psittacines, passerines, raptors

Hispaniolan Amazon parrots/PD; markedly

reduced arthritis pain 2 hr postadministration,

but short-term effect thus more frequent

dosing recommended

Raptors/postoperative analgesia

Psittacines/clinical proventricular dilatation

disease; clinical improvement may be seen

within 7-14 days; compounded formulation of

10 mg/mL stable for approximately 90 days at

room temperature 196

Diclofenac — Recent massive mortalities in three vulture species

351

lead to banning of diclofenac in India,

Pakistan, and Nepal; severe renal lesions

suggested toxicity of the kidneys or the renal

supportive vascular system; 165,514,543,564,786

diclofenac toxicity has also been reported in

Steppe eagles in India 733 and is suspected in

other species; aceclofenac is rapidly metabolized

to diclofenac in cattle, thus should also be

avoided for its potential toxicity 272

Dimethylsulfoxide

(DMSO) (90%)

(Domoso, Zoetis)

Dipyrone

12.5 mg PO

once 38

1 mL/kg topical

to affected

area q4-7d 333

20-25 mg/kg SC,

IM, IV q8-

12h 806

Pigeons/arthritis

Most species/antiinflammatory, analgesic; systemic

absorption; use gloves during application

Ratites/analgesic for intestinal disorders;

antipyretic

Flunixin meglumine — Potential nephrotoxicity; hydration is essential;

use only for short duration (<5 days); 149b 5

mg/kg led to renal ischemia and necrosis in

Siberian cranes; 587 histologic lesions occurred in

budgerigars administered 5.5 mg/kg and

severity increased with duration of therapy; 599

0.2 mg/kg IM 806 Ratites

histologic glomerular changes were

demonstrated in bobwhite quail given doses as

low as 0.1 mg/kg (severity of lesions was

directly correlated to dose); 411 avoid in Gyps

vultures; 165,261 IM administration caused muscle

necrosis in ducks; 481 regurgitation may occur

after administration 385

0.5 mg/kg IM 337 Most species, including psittacines

1-10 mg/kg IM,

IV

q24h 331,358,371,649

Most species, including raptors, psittacines

1.1 mg/kg IV 32,33 Ostriches, pigeons/PK; ostrich = 10 min

1.1 mg/kg IM

q12h 1,3 Ostriches/myositis 3

1.5 mg/kg IM

q24h × 3

days 112

Ostriches

5 mg/kg IV 540 Budgerigars, Patagonian conures/PK: elimination

half-life and mean residence time rapid and

352

half-life and mean residence time rapid and

similar in both spp.

5.5 mg/kg IM

q24h × 3 or 7

days 599

Budgerigars/some renal changes at 3 days;

birds had tubular necrosis at 7 days

Ibuprofen — Avoid in Gyps vultures 165

5-10 mg/kg PO

q8-12h 212

Psittacines/use pediatric suspension for small birds

Ketoprofen — Avoid in Gyps vultures, mortalities reported at

clinical doses;261,544 Cape Griffon vultures

1 mg/kg IM

q24h × 1-

10 days 38,76 Raptors

administered 5 mg/kg PO died within 48 hr 546

1-5 mg/kg IM

q12h 648

2.5 mg/kg IM

q24h × 3 or 7

days 599

Raptors

Budgerigars/low frequency of glomerular

congestion, degeneration/dilation of tubules

occurred at 3-7 day treatment

Meloxicam — No reported mortalities in over 700 cases of 60

species of birds, including Gyps vultures, 165,786,787

but few studies to date evaluating renal effects

of higher doses; 190,524b,744 the combination of

avian bornavirus challenge and meloxicam

treatment resulted in severe disease and death

in cockatiels, whereas challenge alone or

meloxicam treatment alone were not lethal

within the duration of this study 352,353

0.1 mg/kg IM

q24h × 3 or 7

days 599

0.5 mg/kg PO

q12h × 14

days 524b

Budgerigars/mild glomerular congestion and

tubular degeneration at 3 and 7 days

African grey parrots/PD; mild to no hematological

or biochemical changes, and no histologic

lesions in 9 of 10 birds after 14 days of

treatment

0.5 mg/kg IV 32 Ostriches, pigeons/PK; variable distribution,

ostrich had more rapid (0.5 hr) than other

species studied

0.5 mg/kg PO,

IV 433

Red-tailed hawks, great horned owls/PK;

significant differences in pharmacokinetics

between species strongly discourages

extrapolation between species; hawks had

353

shortest half-life (0.49 hr) of any species

recorded to date; once daily dosing not

applicable at this dose in these species

0.5 mg/kg PO,

IM q8-12h 875

0.5-1 mg/kg PO

q12h 857

0.5 mg/kg IM

q6-8h 89 –

1.5 mg/kg SC

q8-12h 456

0.5-2 mg/kg PO,

IM q12h × 9

days 188

0.5-3 mg/kg PO

q8-12h 89,456

1 mg/kg PO, IM,

IV 524a

1 mg/kg PO, IM,

IV q12h 146,521

1.6 mg/kg PO

q12h × 15

days 190

Lesser flamingos/PK; PO had higher

bioavailability and longer elimination half-life

than IM, but the plasma concentrations may be

insufficient to provide analgesia; IM

administration achieved the desired plasma

concentration but would require more frequent

administration

Ring-necked parakeets/PK; no analgesic evaluation

Caribbean (American) flamingos/PK

Pigeons/PD; 0.5 mg/kg dose ineffective in

minimizing postoperative orthopedic pain;

2 mg/kg provided quantifiable analgesia that

appeared safe under experimental conditions

Caribbean (American) flamingos/PK; oral

bioavailability only 45% when compared with

SC administration; fasting status may change

absorption; 456 results in these two studies differ

significantly (possibly associated with fasting

vs. nonfasting or other differences in the

population); higher dose than 0.5 mg/kg may

be required for PO administration; 89 selecting a

dose midway between the two extremes may be

the most reasonable

African grey parrots/PK; slower absorption and

lower bioavailability than IM (40%)

Hispaniolan Amazon parrots/PD; improved

weight-bearing on arthritic limb compared

with lower doses; PO lower bioavailability

than parenteral; PO did not attain plasma

concentrations similar to humans for

analgesia; concentrations similar to humans

for analgesia for IM, IV for 6 hr

Hispaniolan Amazon parrots/PD; no apparent

negative changes in several renal,

gastrointestinal, or hemostatic variables in

healthy birds

2 mg/kg PO, Cape Griffon vultures/PD; rapid metabolism and

354

2 mg/kg PO,

IM 545

2, 10, 20 mg/kg

PO q12h × 7

days 785

Cape Griffon vultures/PD; rapid metabolism and

short elimination

potential for drug accumulation

(<45 min) suggests low

American kestrels; histologic evaluation showed a

significant correlation between hepatic lipidosis

and meloxicam dose; birds developed

gastric ulcers at highest dose

Phenylbutazone — Caution with use in Gyps vultures; mortalities

associated with use 165,261

3.5-7 mg/kg PO

q8-12h 212

10-14 mg/kg PO

q12h 806

20 mg/kg PO

q8h 333

Psittacines

Ratites

Raptors

Piroxicam — Indicated for chronic osteoarthritis; has been used

to treat pain associated with chronic

degenerative joint disease in cranes and other

species

0.5 mg/kg PO

q12h 333

0.5-0.8 mg/kg

PO q12h 333

Psittacines

Whooping cranes/acute myopathy, chronic

degenerative joint disease

a

Unless otherwise noted, drugs provide analgesic, antipyretic, and antiinflammatory effects.

b

Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory agents may potentially cause gastrointestinal upset and hemorrhage, as

well as adverse renal effects ranging from fluid retention to renal failure.

c

For other analgesic recommendations, refer to Table 5-5.

Table 5-7

Hormones and Steroids Used in Birds.


Adrenocorticotropic

hormone (ACTH)

1-2 U/kg IM 333 Psittacines/ACTH stimulation test

16-26 U/bird IM 466,871 Psittacines/obtain baseline sample,

administer ACTH, then sample in 1-

2 hr; stress of handling and

venipuncture may invalidate results

50-125 µg/bird IM 333 Pigeons

Boldenone undecylenate

(Equipoise, Zoetis)

1.1 mg/kg IM

q21d 806

Ratites/anabolic steroid

355

Buserelin (Receptal,

Intervet India)

0.5-1 µg/kg q48h up

to 3 treatments 38

Psittacines/used to suppress chronic egglaying

8 µg/kg IM 467 Cockatiels, sulfur-crested

cockatoos/increased circulating

testosterone after single injection

Buserelin acetate depot

(Suprefact, Sanofi

Aventis Canada)

10 µg/kg SC

implant 153

Budgerigars/when administered in

inguinal region increased reproductive

activity and egg laying

Cabergoline 10-50 µg/kg q12-

24h 38

Calcitonin 4 U/kg IM q12h × 14

days 333

Psittacines/egg laying

Most species/reduce hypercalcemia (caused

by cholecalciferol rodenticide toxicity)

10 µg/kg IM 863 Pigeons/significant reduction in plasma

calcium over 5 days

Chorionic gonadotropin

(hCG)

500-1000 U/kg IM

on day 1, 3, 7

q3-6wk prn 333

Most species/inhibits egg laying; administer

on days 3 and 7 if hen lays after day 1

Delmadinone 1 mg/kg 38 Antiandrogen sometimes effective for

neurotic regurgitation in budgerigars

Deslorelin (Suprelorin,

Virbac)

— GnRH agonist available as 4.7 mg and

9.4 mg long-term implants; also used

for long-term management of ovarian

neoplasia in cockatiels 399,551 and Sertoli

cell tumors in budgerigars; 774 anecdotal

evidence of decreased efficacy over time

with repeated administration; 27 to date,

only approved for use in adrenocortical

disease in ferrets in the United States

4.7 mg implant

placed SC

intrascapularly 784

4.7 mg implant

placed IM 154

Cockatiels/suppressed egg laying for

≥180 days; implanted birds laid

first egg between 192 and 230 days

following implant placement; no

difference in egg shape, color, shell

quality or number of eggs per clutch

was observed between treated and

control groups

Domestic pigeons/effectively controlled egg

laying for at least 49 days; significantly

reduced serum LH concentrations in

males and females compared to

pretreatment levels for 56 and 84 days,

respectively

356

5 mg/kg implant

SC 537

Male zebra finches/transiently suppressed

testosterone concentrations, reversible

when implant removed

Desmopressin 4.6 µg/kg IM q12h 766 African grey parrots/long-term treatment

of central diabetes insipidus; dosage

adjusted as needed up to 24 µg/kg 16

mo after initial diagnosis

Dexamethasone a

0.2-1 mg/kg IM, IV

once or q12-24h

× 2-7 days, then

q48h × 5 days 38,333

Most species

Dexamethasone sodium

phosphate a

Diethylstilbestrol

diphosphate

(Stilphostrol, Bayer)

2-4 mg/kg IM, IV

q12-24h 38,333

2-8 mg/kg SC, IM,

IV q12-24h 566

2-4 mg/kg SC, IM,

IV q6-24h 38,333

0.025-0.075 mg/kg

IM 333

0.4 mg/L drinking

water 333

Most species, including ratites/shock,

trauma

Cranes/reduce doses for long-term therapy

Most species, including raptors/head

trauma, shock, hyperthermia; higher

dose for shock, head trauma, and

endotoxemia

Most species/narrow therapeutic index

Most species

Dinoprost tromethamine — See prostaglandin F 2 α

Dinoprostone — See prostaglandin E 2

Estradiol benzoate — Estrogens have been associated with severe

adverse reactions in mammals; 615

anemia, hypercholesterolemia, and

hyperlipidemia were observed in

penguins 345

0.3-0.5 mg/kg PO

q24h × 1 mo 345

Penguins/induces molt

10-15 mg/kg IM q7d

× 4 treatments 345 Penguins/induces molt

Flumethasone (Flucort,

Glenmark) a

1-1.5 mg/kg PO, SC,

IM, IV 806

Ratites/glucocorticoid; antiinflammatory

Glipizide 1 mg/kg PO q12h 359a Most species

Hydrocortisone a

3-4.5 mg/kg PO

q12h 806

Ratites

10 mg/kg IM, IV 333 Psittacines, passerines, raptors

357

Insulin

40-50 mg/kg IV

q24h 806

0.002 U/bird IM

q12-48h 333

0.01-0.1 U/bird IM

q12-48h 333

0.1-0.5 U/bird IM

q24h or prn 333

0.2-10.7 U/kg SC,

IM q12h 48

Ratites

Budgerigars/NPH insulin

Amazon parrots/NPH insulin

Toco toucans

Bali mynah/PZI insulin: commercial and

compounded products used with

differing results, so increase/change

dose/product with caution

0.5-3 U/kg IM 333 Psittacines/NPH insulin

1.4 U/kg IM q12-

24h 333,377

Cockatiels, toco toucans/NPH insulin

2 U/bird IM 333 Toco toucans/ultralente or PZI insulin;

adjust dose or frequency based on

glucose curves

Lecirelin (Dalmarelin;

Selecta, Germany;

Vetcare, Finland;

Fatro, Ireland, Israel,

Italy, Netherlands;

Ufamed, Switzerland;

Reprorelin:

Vetoquinol, France)

5-21 µg/kg

transcutaneous

(combined with

cream vehicle)

administered

skin over right

jugular 672

Canaries/time from start of treatment to

onset of egg laying was significantly

shorter for treated birds than controls,

irrespective of photoperiod given

Leuprolide acetate

(Lupron Depot, TAP

Pharmaceuticals;

Lupron Kit, Florida

Infusion Pharmacy

[single-dose

leuprolide acetate

available from

Professional

ArtsPharmacy,

Baltimore, MD])

— Synthetic GnRH agonist depot drug;

prevents ovulation; may be indicated in

some cases of sexually related feather

picking or mutilation; 285 variable results

obtained; in treating reproductive

diseases, administration before onset of

egg laying may be more successful than

treatment during breeding; single

report of anaphylaxis following chronic

administration in 2 elf owls; 777 rarely

seen in humans unless impurities in

formulation

(No. of days for Cockatiels/PD

desired effect) ×

(52 or 156 µg/kg)

= dosage IM 517

358

100 µg/kg q14d × 3

treatments 333,372

200-800 µg/kg IM

q2-6wk 333,378

Most species/feather-damaging behavior

Most species

375 µg/bird IM 39,518 Cockatiels/inhibits ovulation

400-1000 µg/kg IM

q2-3 wk 489 Psittacines

500 µg/kg IM

q14d 867

Psittacines (>300 g)/for most problems,

begin with 3 treatments

750 µg/kg IM

q14d 867

Psittacines (≤300 g)/for most problems,

begin with 3 treatments

800 µg/kg IM 409 Hispaniolan Amazon parrots/hormonal

effects may taper off between 7 and 21

days after administration

1250 µg/kg IM

once 345

Penguins/induced molt in 1 of 2 birds

dosed

Levothyroxine (lthyroxine)

— May induce molt; monitor blood levels and

body weight

5-200 µg/kg PO

q12h 678

20 µg/kg PO q12-

24h 38,135,333

Amazon parrots


pigeons, and raptors

25 µg q24h × 7 days, Raptors (750-1000 g)/induces molt; scale

then 50 µg q24h dose up or down by up to 50% for

× 7 days, then 75 larger or smaller birds

µg q24h × 7

days, then 50 µg

q24h × 7 days,

then 25 µg q24h

× 7 days 358

Medroxyprogesterone

acetate

— This agent is not recommended; previously

used for sexually related feather picking

or chronic egg laying; high incidence of

adverse effects, including lethargy,

polydipsia, polyphagia, polyuria,

immunosuppression, weight gain, liver

disease, thromboembolism, diabetes

mellitus, salpingitis, sudden death 285

5-25 mg/kg SC, IM,

repeat q4-6wk

prn 316,333

Psittacines/suppresses ovulation;

antipruritic (feather picking in male

parrots)

359

5-50 mg/kg SC, IM

q4-6wk 38

15-30 mg/kg IM q7d

× 4-5

treatments 656

30 mg/kg SC, repeat

in 90 days prn 333

Psittacines/higher dosages recommended

for smaller birds (e.g., 50 mg/kg for 150

g bird) 500

Penguins/induces molt 60-90 days

postinjection

Most species

1000 mg/kg feed 333 Pigeons/inhibits ovulation

Megestrol acetate — Progestin; adverse effects can be severe

(diabetic-like); not generally

recommended, so dosages are not

provided

Methylprednisolone

acetate a

0.5-1 mg/kg PO,

IM 333

200 mg/bird IM,

repeat prn 806

Most species/allergies (Amazon foot

necrosis); 666 use orally once weekly, then

taper to once monthly, then stop

Ratites (adults)

Nandrolene laurate

(Laurabolin, Intervet)

— Testosterone derivative; used in the

treatment of chronic, debilitating

disease; may be hepatotoxic

0.2-2 mg/kg IM

once 333

0.4 mg/kg SC, IM

q21d 38

Most species

Psittcines, raptors, bustards

Oxytocin — Use of oxytocin should be preceeded by

calcium administration for egg binding;

contraindicated unless uterovaginal

sphincter is well dilated and uterus is

free of adhesions; used alone to stop

uterine bleeding 333

0.5-5 U/kg, may

repeat q30min 333


5-10 U/kg IM once 333 Psittacines/in some cases, multiple

injections are recommended

Prednisolone

(prednisone) a

20-30 U/bird IM

q24h × 2

treatments 806

0.5-1 mg/kg IM,

IV 333

Ratites (adults)/egg binding

Most species

1-1.25 mg/kg PO Ratites

360

q48h 806

2 mg/kg IM, IV q12-

24h 566

Cranes/shock, trauma, chronic lameness

2-4 mg/kg IM, IV 358 Raptors/shock

Prednisolone sodium

succinate (Solu-Delta-

Cortef, Zoetis) a

0.5-1 mg/kg IM,

IV 333

1.5-2 mg/kg IM

q12h 806

Psittacines/antiinflammatory

Ratites/immunosuppression (see

prednisolone for prolonged therapy)

2-4 mg/kg IM, IV

once 333

Psittacines/shock; trauma; endotoxemia;

immunosuppression

5-8.5 mg/kg IV

q1h 806

10-20 mg/kg IM, IV

q15min prn 333

Ratites/shock

Most species/head trauma;

cardiopulmonary resuscitation

Prednisone — See prednisolone

Prostaglandin E 2

(dinoprostone)

(Prepidil Gel, Pfizer)

Prostaglandin F 2α

(Dinoprost

tromethamine)

(Lutalyse, Zoetis)

Somatostatin

0.02-0.1 mg/kg

applied topically

to uterovaginal

sphincter 333

0.02-0.1 mg/kg IM,

intracloacal

once 697

0.003 mg/kg SC

q12h 391


raptors/dystocia; relaxes uterovaginal

sphincter; lower dosage may be

effective; freeze into aliquots

Most species, including psittacines, raptors,

and waterfowl/dystocia; may be helpful

when the egg is located distally and the

uterovaginal sphincter is dilated; can

result in uterine rupture,

bronchoconstriction, hypertension,

death

Toucans (sulfur-breasted)/diabetes mellitus;

some clinical improvement observed,

hyperglycemia and elevated glucagon

levels persisted

Tamoxifen citrate — Nonsteroidal antiestrogen

2 mg/kg PO q24h

given on 2

consecutive days

per wk for 38-46

wk 478

Budgerigars/effects suggested by change in

cere color from white/brown to blue;

leukopenia was the most significant

adverse effect

40 mg/kg IM 345 Penguins/induces molt

Testosterone — Anabolic steroid; may adversely affect

spermatogenesis; contraindicated with

hepatic or renal disease 138

361

2-8 mg/kg SC, IM

once 38

8-8.5 mg/kg IM q7d

prn 13

Most species/stimulates sexual behavior in

the male; baldness in canaries

Most species, including psittacines/anemia

due to debilitation; increases libido; use

with caution

10-15 mL stock Canaries/finish molt or regain singing;

solution/L

stock solution: 100 mg parenteral

drinking water × suspension/30 mL drinking water

5 days-2 mo 333 (3333 mg/L); mix fresh daily

Thyroid releasing

hormone

15 µg/kg IM once 333 Most species

Thyroid stimulating

hormone

(thyrotropin; TSH)

0.1 U/bird IM

(Bovine) 322

0.2 U/kg IM

(Human) 291

1 U/kg IM

(Human) 290,291,871

1-2 U/kg IM

(Human) 465

Cockatiels/3-24-fold higher T 4 6 hr after

receiving TSH

Macaws/PD; T 4 doubled in 6/11 birds 4 hr

after receiving TSH

Hispaniolan parrots, blue-fronted Amazon

parrots, African grey parrots,

pigeons/PD; T 4 doubled in Hispaniolan

and blue-fronted parrots 6 hr after

receiving TSH

Psittacines/obtain blood at 0 hr, then 4-6 hr

after TSH stimulation

a

Steroid administration may predispose birds to aspergillosis and other mycoses. 358 Administration may

also be associated with the development of polyuria/polydypsia/polyphagia, increased protein

catabolism, glucosuria, and diabetes mellitus. Toxic levels may be attained even with topical

application. 344 Administration should ideally not exceed 5 days. Rapid onset, shorter-acting drugs are

generally less likely to cause serious adverse effects.

Table 5-8

Nebulization Agents Used in Birds. a


N-acetyl-L-cysteine

10%-20%

(Mucomyst,

Bristol)

Amikacin

— See other antimicrobials and drugs for

combinations

22 mg/mL sterile

water until

dissipated 333

Most species/mucolytic agent; tracheal irritation

and reflex bronchoconstriction reported in

mammals; use is preceded by

bronchodilators in mammals 662

5-6 mg/mL sterile

water or saline ×

15 min q8-12h 333 Most species/discontinue if polyuria develops

362

Aminophylline

3 mg/mL sterile water

or saline × 15

min 333

Most species/bronchial and pulmonary

vasculature smooth muscle relaxation;

incompatible with amikacin, cephalothin,

clindamycin, erythromycin, oxytetracycline,

methylprednisone, penicillin G, tetracycline;

consult with specialized references for more

information 615

Amphotericin B

(Fungizone,

Squibb)

— May lead to hypokalemia; corticosteroids may

exacerbate this effect; 615 minor systemic

absorption with aerosol administration; can

be nebulized long-term; 615 mix with sterile

water, may precipitate with saline and other

electrolytic solutions

0.1-1 mg/mL sterile

water × 15-60 min

q12-24h 37,53,333,838

Most species including birds of prey, penguins,

and parrots (0.5-1 mg/mL q30-40 min is

usually used)

0.25 mg/mL saline × Hummingbirds/low efficacy; may cause weight

15 min q12h 329 loss

Amphotericin B

liposome

(AmBisome,

Astellas

Pharma)

Carbenicillin

(Geocillin,

Roerig)

1-4 mg/mL sterile

water × 15-60 min 55

20 mg/mL saline × 15

min q12h 333

Most species; do not mix with saline or other

drugs

Psittacines

Cefotaxime 10 mg/mL saline × 10-

30 min q6-12h 53 Most species

Chloramphenicol 13 mg/mL saline 333 Most species/human health concerns; the

development of aplastic anemia reported in

humans; prohibited by the FDA for use in

food animals

Clotrimazole (1%)

(Lotrimin,

Schering)

10 mg/mL propylene

glycol or

polyethylene

glycol × 30-45 min

q24h × 3 days, off

2 days, repeat prn

for up to 4 mo 53,333

Most species/treatment of aspergillosis; can be

toxic to psittacines at this dose

10 mg/mL

Raptors, psittacines/used in combination with

polyethylene

systemic antifungals

glycol × 30-

60 min 333

363

Dexamethasone

sodium

phosphate

5%-10% clotrimazole

in propylene

glycol with 5%

DMSO × 1 hr 645

0.16 mg/mL in

saline 511

Raptors

Eclectus parrot/tracheal stent placement

Doxycycline

hyclate

(Vibramycin,

Zoetis)

13 mg/mL saline 53,333 Psittacines

Enilconazole

(Imaverol,

Janssen;

Clinafarm,

Schering)

0.2 mg/5 mL saline

q12h × 21 day 333

10 mg/mL sterile

water 53,333

50 mg in 25 mL saline

× 30-45 min q12h 37 Raptors

Most species, including raptors, psittacines

Most species/antifungal

Enrofloxacin 10 mg/mL saline 37,53,333 Most species

Erythromycin 5-20 mg/mL saline ×

15 min q8h 333 Most species

F10 1:250 dilution 37 Raptors/prevention and treatment of

aspergillosis

Gentamicin

0.2%

superconcentrate 828

3-6 mg/mL saline or

sterile water and 1-

2 mL

acetylcysteine

(20%) × 20 min

q8h 37,53,333

Falcons/using a fogging system, prevention

and treatment of aspergillosis

Most species, including cranes and raptors

Itraconazole 1%-10%

nanoparticulate

suspension × 30

min 683

4% nanoparticulate

suspension × 30

min q24h 860

10% nanoparticulate

suspension × 30

min q24h 860

Japanese quail/PD; reached high lung levels

Japanese quail/PD; less effective than 10% in

experimental aspergillosis

Japanese quail/PD; experimental aspergillosis,

blocked lethality in low spore load group

and delayed disease progression in high

spore load group

364

Lincomycin 250 mg/mL water 333 Most species

Chickens/PD; antibiotic; therapeutic

250 mg aerosolized

15-30 min 129 for up to 24 hr

drug/m 3 chamber × concentrations in blood, lungs, and trachea

Miconazole

(Daktarin,

Janssen)

Nebulize 15 min q8h

× 10 days 333 Raptors/aspergillosis

Oxytetracycline 2 mg/mL × 60 min q4-

6h 333

Piperacillin 10 mg/mL saline × 10-

30 min q6-

12h 37,53,333

Parakeets/PD; therapeutic concentrations in

lungs and trachea, low plasma

concentrations

Most species

Polymyxin B

sulfate

66,000 U/mL saline 333 Psittacines/poorly absorbed from respiratory

epithelium

Praziquantel 56.8-85.2 mg in 100%

oxygen × 5-15 min

q24h 185

Sodium chloride 0.9% or 3%

(hypertonic)

Blue-crowned motmots, fairy

bluebirds/treatment of air sac flukes,

decreased parasite burden

Viscosity of respiratory secretions may be

decreased by hydration, mucolytic

properties 333

Spectinomycin

(Spectam, Ceva)

13 mg/mL saline 333 Most species

Sterile water — Viscosity of respiratory secretions may be

decreased by hydration 333

Sulfadimethoxine 13 mg/mL saline 333 Most species

Terbinafine

Hispaniolan Amazon parrots/PD; plasma levels

1 mg/mL crushed pills

15 min 216 was lower than expected at 0.9 mg/mL

in sterile water × above MIC for 1 hr; solution concentration

1 mg/mL raw powder Hispaniolan Amazon parrots/PD; plasma levels

in sterile water × above MIC for 4 hr

15 min 216

Terbutaline

0.01 mg/kg with 9 mL

saline 53,333

Psittacines/bronchodilation

Tylosin 10 mg/mL saline × 10-

60 min q12h 333 Most species

20 mg/mL DMSO or

distilled water × 1

hr 460,461

Most species, pigeons, quail/PD

20 mg/mL DMSO and Psittacines

365

0.5 mL saline 333

Voriconazole

10 mg/mL of saline Pigeons/PD; low plasma concentrations; no

0.9% × 15 min 71 measurable drug in the lungs 1 hr after

nebulization; plasma and lung levels below

MIC for Aspergillus

10 mg/mL saline × 15-

30 min q8-12h 53 Most species

a

Nebulization is an adjunctive therapy indicated for rhinitis, sinusitis, tracheitis, pneumonia,

airsacculitis, and syringeal aspergilloma, where there is air movement occurring in the patient’s disease

state; optimal particle size for deposition in the trachea is 2-10 μm; optimal particle size for peripheral

airways and air sacs is 0.5-5 μm; treatments of 30-45 min repeated q4-12h are recommended (longer

nebulization periods of 1 to several hours may be required 720,796 ); caution: do not overhydrate airways. 333

Saline or propylene glycol can be used as a carrier. 720 A variety of nebulizers exist, including air jet

nebulizer (most commonly used) and ultrasonic nebulizers. Air jet nebulizers are better to nebulize

viscous liquid. 53 Pressurized metered-dose inhalers are air jet nebulizers and should be used with a

holding chamber (e.g., Aerokat®). 53

Table 5-9

Agents Used in the Treatment of Toxicologic Conditions of Birds.


Atropine sulfate — Antidote for muscarinic effects of

organophosphate/carbamate

(acetylcholinesterase inhibitors) toxicosis; does

not treat nicotinic effects

0.01-

0.02 mg/kg

SC, IM 333

0.03-

0.05 mg/kg

SC, IM, IV

q8h 806

0.04-0.1 mg/kg

IM 333

0.1 mg/kg IM,

IV q3-4h 333

0.2-0.5 mg/kg

IM, IV q3-

4h 333

0.5 mg/kg IM,

IV q6-8h 651

Most species/facilitates bronchodilation in acutely

dyspneic animals; treatment of choice for

anticholinesterase-induced respiratory distress

Ratites

Psittacines/bronchodilation in acutely dyspneic

animals; treatment of choice for

anticholinesterase-induced respiratory distress

Raptors, waterfowl


raptors/cholinesterase inhibitors toxicosis

Raptors/cholinesterase inhibitors toxicosis

Bismuth sulfate 1-2 mL/kg Most species/weak adsorbent, demulcent; may be

366

(Bismusal, Bimeda) PO 333 useful for toxin removal

Botulinum type C

antitoxin (100

U/mL) (National

Wildlife Health

Center)

1 mL IP 498 once Waterfowl/not commercially available; produced for

experimental use in migratory birds

Botulinum antitoxin 0.05-

1 mL/day 699 Most species

Calcium EDTA

(edetate calcium

disodium)

— Preferred initial chelator for lead and zinc toxicosis;

may cause renal tubular necrosis in mammals;

maintain hydration and monitor patient for

PU/PD; SC, IM absorbed well; 615 poorly effective

at removing lead in soft tissues; combine with

DMSA in severe cases 651

10-40 mg/kg

IM q12h ×

5-10 days 699 Raptors, most species

20-70 mg/kg

IV 174

30 mg/kg SC

q24h × 5

days 613

30-35 mg/kg

IM q12h ×

3-5 days,

off 3-4

days,

repeat

prn 333

35-50 mg/kg

SC diluted

with

saline 651

40 mg/kg IM

q12h 187

50 mg/kg IM

q12h × up

to 23

days 701

Most species/empirical diagnosis; signs should

resolve for up to 48 hr; diluted 1:4 in saline

Vultures

Most species

Raptors

Cockatiels/PD; reduces lead levels when used alone

or with DMSA

Raptors/no deleterious effects observed

100 mg/kg IM

q12h × 5-

25 days 699 Falcons/no observed deleterious effects

367

Charcoal, activated — Adsorbs toxins from the intestinal tract; may be

mixed with hemicellulose to act as a bulk

laxative to aid in the passage of ingested toxins;

administration prior to cathartic use may help

bind small particles of heavy metal; 613 see

magnesium hydroxide for combination

52 mg/kg PO

once 519

A component of oiled bird treatment; alternatively,

may use bismuth

1-3 g/kg 859 Most species

2-8 g/kg PO 333 Most species

Deferiprone

(Ferriprox,

Apotex)

50 mg/kg PO

q12h × 30

days 333,849

Toucans, pigeons/iron chelation; may produce

rust-colored urates

50 mg/kg PO

q12h 848

Pigeons/PK

75 mg/kg PO

q24h × 90

days 712 Hornbills/PD; n = 3

Deferoxamine

mesylate

— Iron chelator for hemochromatosis; may take 3 mo

to see response; may cause reddish discoloration

of urine; avoid in birds with renal disease;

combine with a low-iron diet; 333,438 poorly

absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract 615

20 mg/kg PO,

IM q4h

until

recovery 333

40 mg/kg IM

q24h × 7

days 559

50 mg/kg IM

q12h × 14

days 274

100 mg/kg SC,

IM q24h up

to 3.5

mo 151,438,789

100 mg/kg SC

q24h × 16

wk 569

Most species

Bali mynahs

Macaws

Most species, including toucans

European starlings/PD

Dimercaprol (BAL in 2.5-5 mg/kg Most species/heavy metal toxicosis; arsenical

368

Oil, Becton

Dickinson)

IM q4h × 2

days, then

q12h × 10

days or

until

recovery 333

compound toxicosis; occasionally used for lead,

mercury, and gold intoxication (if ingestion

<2 hr); 333,615 crosses blood-brain barrier,

nephrotoxic, and painful upon injection 651,859

25-35 mg/kg

PO q12h ×

3-5 wk 333 Most species/give 5 days/wk

Dimercaptosuccinic

acid (DMSA or

succimer) (DMSA,

Aldrich; Chemet,

Bock Pharmacal)

— Oral chelator for lead or zinc; may be effective for

mercury toxicity; does not chelate lead from

bones; combine with Ca-EDTA in severe

cases 333,859

25-35 mg/kg

PO q12h ×

5 day/wk ×

3-5 wk 333 Most species, including raptors/lead toxicosis

25-35 mg/kg

PO q24h ×

10 days 333 Psittacines, raptors/lead and zinc toxicosis

Diphenhydramine

30 mg/kg PO

q12h ×

≥7 days 349

35 mg/kg PO

q12h × 34

weeks 477

40 mg/kg PO

q12h × 21

days 187

2 mg/kg PO,

IM q12h 765

Most species/lead toxicosis

Budgerigars/PD; prevented experimental lead

toxicosis

Cockatiels/PD; lead toxicosis; reduces lead levels

when used alone or in combination with

CaEDTA; 80 mg/kg resulted in death in >60% of

cockatiels

Macaws/used to treat extrapyramidal effects of

clomipramine/haloperidol

Grit 3-5 pieces 210 Most species/reduce size of metal particles

80 particles of Budgerigars/PD; experimental lead particle

fine grit administration, faster elimination time than

(silica

controls but not statistically significant

0.2 mm) or

20 particles

of coarse

grit (silica,

1-2 mm) 477

Magnesium hydroxide (M) 10-12 mL + Most species/cathartic; a adsorbent

369

(M)/activated

charcoal (C)

Magnesium sulfate

(Epsom salts)

Peanut butter

(C) 1 tsp

powder 333

500-

Raptors, waterfowl/cathartic used in lead toxicosis

1000 mg/kg to reduce lead absorption; a give 30 min after

PO q12-24h activated charcoal treatment or can cause

× 1-

lethargy 333

3 days 333

1 mL

Budgerigars/PD; cathartic; a experimental lead

combined particle administration, faster elimination time

with

than controls but not statistically significant

mineral oil

(2:1) 477

Penicillamine

(Cuprimine,

Merck)

— Preferred chelator for copper toxicosis; may be used

for lead, zinc, and mercury toxicosis; 333

significant gastrointestinal side effects (emesis) 615

30 mg/kg PO

q12h ×

≥7 days 349

Most species/initially supplemented with CaEDTA

once in severe neurologic disease

30-55 mg/kg

PO q12h ×

7-14 days 333 Most species, including raptors, waterfowl

Most species, including psittacines, raptors/use in

50-55 mg/kg

1-6 wk 333 followed by penicillamine × 3-6 wk 713

PO q24h × combination with CaEDTA for several days

55 mg/kg PO

q12h × 10

days 699

Most species

Phytonadione — See vitamin K

Pralidoxime (2-PAM)

(Protopam, Wyeth-

Ayerst)

— Administer within 24-36 hr of organophosphate

intoxication; use lower dose in combination

with atropine; 333 contraindicated for some

carbamate poisoning 651

10-100 mg/kg

IM q24-48h

or repeat

once q6h 333

100 mg/kg IM

once 735

100 mg/kg IM

once 736

Psittacines, raptors, waterfowl

Raptors/monocrotophos toxicosis

Goslings/PD; experimental diazinon toxicosis;

lower dosages (25-50 mg/kg) were less effective

Psyllium (Metamucil) 1 mL of a Budgerigars/PD; cathartic; a experimental lead

370

solution

made of ½

tsp diluted

in 60 mL of

water 477

particle administration, similar elimination time

than controls

Sodium sulfate

(Glauber’s salt)

(GoLytely,

Braintree;

Anydrous sodium

sulfate, ACS

Grade, Fisher

Scientific)

— Cathartic; a contraindicated with impaired

gastrointestinal function; maintain hydration 333

500 mg/kg PO

q48h 187

500-

2000 mg/kg

PO 333

Cockatiels/PD; did not result in further decrease in

lead concentrations when given to birds

receiving CaEDTA alone or in combination

with DMSA

Most species

2000 mg/kg

PO q24h ×


Succimer (Chemet,

Bock Pharmacal)

Tea (black tea leaves)

(Ceylon CO 2 -

decaffeinated tea

leaves, Frontier

Natural)

Tetanus antitoxin

(equine)

Vitamin K 1

— See dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA)

8 g/kg diet 727 Starlings/hepatic iron concentrations did not

increase significantly in starlings on an ironenriched

diet when supplemented with tea

leaves; tea containing approximately 20% (by

weight) condensed tannins were blended

directly into the food mixture (8 g/kg diet)

50 U IV over

15 min 61 Falcons/tetanus

0.2-2.2 mg/kg Most species, including raptors/rodenticide

IM q4-8h anticoagulant toxicosis

until

stable, then

q24h PO,

IM × 14-

28 days 333,651

2.5 mg/kg SC

q12h 538

Red-tailed hawks/secondary brodifacoum toxicosis

a

Cathartics increase gastrointestinal motility and are used to evacuate the gut and prevent absorption of

toxins.

Table 5-10

Psychotropic and Antiepileptic Agents Used in Birds. a

371


Amitriptyline — Tricyclic antidepressant; inhibits serotonin and

norepinephrine reuptake; strong antihistamine

effect 497,818

1-5 mg/kg PO q12-

24h 333

Most species/feather-damaging behavior, anxiety,

phobia; 497 severe extrapyramidal side effects

encountered in a blue and gold macaw at 5

mg/kg PO 55

1.5-4.5 mg/kg 835 African grey parrots, cockatoos/PK; erratic plasma

concentrations generally below therapeutic

levels

2 mg/kg PO q24h 223 Psittacines/minimum of 30 days

9 mg/kg 835 African grey parrots, cockatoos/PK; good levels but

unpredictable half-life, toxicity in 1/3 African

grey parrots

Buspirone HCl

Carbamazepine

0.5 mg/kg PO

q12h 389

3-10 mg/kg PO

q24h 333

166 mg/L drinking

water 333

Anxiolytic; used to control behavior interpreted as

paradoxical anxiety caused by clomipramine

Most species/anticonvulsant, analgesic; may cause

bone marrow suppression (including aplastic

anemia and agranulocytosis) and

hepatotoxicity; combination with

chlorpromazine or haloperidol recommended

for initial treatment during the first 2 wk 333

Chlorpromazine — Phenothiazine; dopamine antagonist 333 used in

some cases of feather picking; correct

underlying problems and discontinue within 30

days; efficacy diminishes in 14-30 days when

given PO; may cause ataxia, regurgitation,

drowsiness 333

0.1-0.2 mg/kg IM

once 333

Mix 1 mL stock

solution/120 mL

drinking water

or 0.2-1 mL/kg

stock PO q12-

24h prn 333

Cockatoos, ringneck parakeets/use with

carbamazepine following removal of

Elizabethan collar; mild sedation and decreases

obsessive behaviors

Most species/stock solution: crush five 25 mg

tablets and mix with 31 mL simple syrup; start

at low dose initially; mild sedation

Clomipramine — Most selective for serotonin reuptake inhibition

among tricyclic antidepressants; antihistamine;

may cause regurgitation, drowsiness; adverse

effects in mammals include cardiac conduction

372

effects in mammals include cardiac conduction

abnormalities, tachyarrhythmias, postural

hypotension, dry mucous membranes, urinary

retention, constipation, and lowering of the

seizure threshold; 389 anecdotal reports of death

in birds possibly associated with preexisting

arrhythmias; 333 wait 2-3 wk before adjusting

dose; 333 reports of illness, extrapyramidal signs,

and death reported in macaws; 765 indicated for

compulsive disorders, feather-damaging

behavior, and anxiety; 497,818 contraindicated for

aggressive behaviors 497

0.5-1 mg/kg PO

q12-24h 333

Psittacines/feather-damaging behavior; selfmutilation;

start with low dose and gradually

increase over 4-5 days

Psittacines/feather-damaging behavior; occasional

1 mg/kg PO q24h

× 6 wk 636 birds decreased feather picking 636

or divided q12h regurgitation and drowsiness observed; 2/11

1-2 mg/kg PO

q24h 333

Psittacines/begin with 1 mg/kg and increase if

needed

3 mg/kg PO q12h 730 Cockatoos/PD; placebo-controlled clinical trial; no

appreciable deleterious side effects; no

significant differences between baseline and

post-treatment bloodwork or body weight;

significant decrease in feather-damaging

behavior at 3 and 6 wk

Clonazepam

4-8 mg/kg PO

q12h 389

0.5 mg/kg PO

q12h 62

African grey parrots/behavior interpreted as

paradoxical anxiety; combine with anxiolytic

therapy (buspirone)

African grey parrot/antiepileptic; developed

tolerance after 7 mo

Delmadinone

(Tardak,

Pfizer)

Deslorelin

(Suprelorin,

Virbac)

1 mg/kg IM once 333 Psittacines/sexual behavior problems; not available

in the United States

4.7 mg implant 254 Parrots, birds of prey/decrease reproduction-related

behavior

Diazepam — Benzodiazepine sedative; anxiolytic/stressassociated

feather picking; useful as sole agent

or in combination with phenobarbital for

seizure control

0.25-0.5 mg/kg IM,

IV q24h × 2-

3 days 779 Raptors/appetite stimulant

373

0.5 mg/kg PO 280 ’Amakihi/calm fractious species while improving

acceptance to a novel captive diet; oral solution

(1 mg/mL; Roxane Laboratories) worked best

0.5-0.6 mg/kg IM 333 Most species/facilitates acceptance of Elizabethan

collar, especially in lovebirds

0.5-1.5 mg/kg IM,

IV q8-12h 333

2.5-4 mg/kg PO q6-

8h 333

10-20 mg/L

drinking

water 333

1 mg/kg/h IV, CRI,

decrease after

12-24 hr

without

seizures 186

Most species/control of seizures

Psittacines/sedation

Most species

Most species

Diphenhydramine — Antihistamine; mild hypnotic effects; suspected

allergic feather picking

2 mg/kg PO, IM

q12h 765

2-4 mg/kg PO

q12h 333,497

2 mg/L drinking

water 333,497

Blue and gold macaw/treatment of extrapyramidal

side effects of a haloperidol/clomipramine

combination

Most species

Most species

Doxepin — Tricyclic antidepressant; antihistamine; dose may

be increased at 14-day intervals; 333 may cause

sedation 333

0.5-1 mg/kg PO

q12h 333

1-2 mg/kg PO

q12h 333

Most species/feather picking

Psittacines/anxiety; pruritis

Fluoxetine — Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor;

antidepressant; adjunctive treatment for

depression-induced feather picking, compulsive

disorders, phobia, aggression 497

0.4-4 mg/kg PO

q24h 333

Psittacines/compulsive feather picking

1 mg/kg PO Psittacines

374

q24h 333,728

1-4 mg/kg q24h, up

to 20 mg/kg 497

2-3 mg/kg PO q12-

24h 333

Parrots


Gabapentin 11 mg/kg PO q8h 864 Great horned owl/PK

15 mg/kg PO q8h 43 Hispaniolan Amazon parrots/PK

20 mg/kg PO

q12h 62

African grey parrot/seizures

Haloperidol

(Haldol,

McNeil)

— Butyrophenone dopamine antagonist tranquilizer;

may work best with self-mutilators; 818 may

cause anorexia, depression, hypotension,

bradycardia, ataxia, sedation; 818 extrapyramidal

signs and/or death reported in various species of

macaw; 447,765 Quaker parrots and cockatoos may

be more sensitive to side effects 818

0.1-0.2 mg/kg PO

q12-24h 333

0.1-0.4 mg/kg PO

q12-24h 333

0.2-0.9 mg/kg PO

q24h 333,497

1-2 mg/kg IM q14-

21d 333

6.4 mg/L drinking

water × 7 mo 360

Birds weighing >1 kg

Psittacines/dose may be increased in increments of

0.1 mg/kg if no response is seen in 5-7 days and

no adverse effects are observed

Most species/stereotypic preening behavior


African grey parrots/feather picking

Hydroxyzine — Antihistamine with mild sedative effects

2 mg/kg PO q12h 333 Most species/pruritis

Leuprolide acetate

2-2.2 mg/kg PO

q8h 333,428,497

30-40 mg/L

drinking

water 333

100-1000 µg/kg

q2wk for 3

treatments 497

Most species/feather picking

Most species

Parrots/hormonal feather-damaging behavior

500 µg/kg; BW

>300 g 497 Parrots/sexual behaviors

375

Levetiracetam

750 µg/kg; BW

≤300 g 497

5.4-190 mg/kg PO

q8-12h 834

50 mg/kg PO q8h 717

or 100 mg/kg

PO q12h 717

50-100 mg/kg PO

q8h 62

Parrots/sexual behaviors

African grey parrots/PK; population PK; short

half-life (2.3 hr); no dose recommendation, but

q8h recommended

Hispaniolan Amazon parrots/PK

African grey parrot/seizures; therapeutic drug

monitoring was performed

Lorazepam — Benzodiazepine with anxiolytic and sedative effects

0.1 mg/kg PO

q12h 333

Macaws/aggression; feather picking; use alone or

with haloperidol

Megestrol acetate

(Ovaban,

Schering)

— Progestin providing nonspecific calming effects;

side effects can be severe (diabetic-like); seldom

used 333

2.5 mg/kg PO q24h

× 7 days then 1-

2×/wk 333

Psittacines/feather picking; reproductively

associated behavior problems

Naloxone HCl 2 mg/kg IV 333 Psittacines/opioid antagonist; may be used to

determine the response of stereotypic behavior

to antagonist therapy; reduction of the

behavior should be observed within 20 min

Naltrexone HCl 1.5 mg/kg PO q8-

12h × 1-18 mo 333

Most species/opioid antagonist; feather-damaging

behavior; self-mutilation; contraindicated in

patients with liver disease; may need to increase

dosage 2-6 × to be effective; dissolve tablet in 10

mL sterile water; preservative does not go into

solution

Nortriptyline

(Pamelor,

Sandoz)

Paroxetine

16 mg/L drinking

water (2 mg/120

mL) 333,497

1-2 mg/kg PO

q24h 333,497

Most species/tricyclic antidepressant; featherdamaging

behavior; seldom used; decrease dose

or discontinue if hyperactivity develops; taper

dose to discontinue

Macaws, ibis/selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor

(SSRI); feather-damaging behavior; selfmutilation;

generally requires long-term

therapy; fewer side effects than tricyclic

antidepressants and other SSRIs 818

3 mg/kg PO q24h 395 Waldrapp ibis

4 mg/kg PO q12h,

bulk chemical

African grey parrots/PK; slow absorption and low

oral bioavailability; bioavailability increased

376

compounded in

water 820

with repeated dosing; commercial oral

suspension (Seroxat) resulted in nondetectable

plasma levels; large individual differences

Phenobarbital

sodium

— Barbiturate anticonvulsant; mild sedative effect;

long-term seizure management; adjust dosage

based on blood levels; may cause deep sedation

and inability to perch; hepatotoxic; oral

formulations may not reach therapeutic plasma

levels in parrots 62,620

1-5 mg/kg IV

bolus 333

1-7 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 333

Most species/status epilepticus; begin at low end of

dosage range and increase for refractory

seizures

Most species/feather picking; mild sedative effect

2 mg/kg PO q12h 62 African grey parrot/antiseizure, therapeutic drug

monitoring did not show detectable plasma

level

2-7 mg/kg PO

q12h 333

Most species, including Amazon parrots/seizures;

self-mutilation

17 mg/kg PO 620 African grey parrots/PD; used diluted commercial

intravenous solution and compounded

suspension, plasma levels below therapeutic

levels

50-80 mg/L

drinking

water 333

Most species, including Amazon parrots/idiopathic

epilepsy

Potassium

bromide

— Long-term seizure management; use as sole agent

or in conjunction with phenobarbital; monitor

blood levels which may take up to several

weeks to establish steady state; not available in

approved dosage forms in North America; may

be obtained from chemical companies or

compounding pharmacies; for a concentration

of 250 mg/mL, add distilled water as needed to

25 g of potassium bromide for a final volume of

100 mL

25 mg/kg PO

q24h 333

50-80 mg/kg PO

q24h 333

Most species

Pigeons

75 mg/kg PO 333 Psittacines

377

80 mg/kg PO

q24h 95

80 mg/kg PO q12h

× 3 days, then

20-200 mg/kg

PO q12h 62

Umbrella cockatoo/serum drug levels ranged from

1.7-2.2 mg/mL

African grey parrot/antiseizure; therapeutic drug

monitoring showed plasma level below

therapeutic levels (<0.7 mg/mL)

Zonisamide 20 mg/kg PO q8h 62 African grey parrot/antiseizure; therapeutic drug

monitoring performed

20 mg/kg PO Hispaniolan Amazon parrots, chickens/PD; 2/8

q12h 706 chickens of multiple escalating dose study

developed immune-mediated anemia

19.8-80 mg/kg PO

q8-12h 834

African grey parrots/PK; population PK; half-life

was highly variable (10.9 ± 18 hr), no dose

recommendation but q8-12h recommended

a

The use of psychotropic agents in birds is controversial because safety, efficacy, and pharmacologic

effects are poorly documented; 818 anxiolytics or tricyclic antidepressants may be useful for stereotypic

behaviors or mutilation; selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors may prove helpful for compulsive

behaviors; consider metabolic scaling when calculating dosages; these treatments should be used as

components of a structured behavior-change strategy.

378

Table 5-11

Nutritional/Mineral Support and Supplementation Used in Birds.


Biotin

0.05 mg/kg PO

q24h × 30-60

days 333

Raptors/beak and nail regrowth

Brewer’s yeast 30 mg/bird in feed 333 Pigeons/brittle plumage; use daily during molt

Calcium — Recommended dietary levels; a

higher dietary levels than in commercial

food were found in wild macaw chicks

(1.4%) 103

3-7 mg/kg feed

(0.3%-0.7%) 177 Maintenance diet for most birds

3-10 mg/kg feed

(0.3%-1%) 333 Laying parrots

3.5 mg/kg feed

(0.35%) 422 Egg-laying cockatiels

8.5 mg/kg feed

(0.85%) 422 Egg-laying budgerigars

Calcium

borogluconate

(10%)

10 mg/kg PO

q24h 764

50-100 mg/kg IM,

IV 333

100-500 mg/kg SC,

IV (slow) once 333

African grey parrots/hypocalcemia; in addition

to UV b supplementation and diet correction

Psittacines/20% solution

Raptors/hypocalcemia

300 mg/kg IV 333 Goshawks

Calcium chloride

150-200 mg/kg IM,

IV (slow) q8h 333

Hypocalcemia; seldom used

Calcium glubionate — Most species/hypocalcemia, calcium

supplementation

23 mg/kg PO

q24h 333

Psittacines (neonates)

25 mg/kg PO 333 Most species, including raptors

150 mg/kg PO

q12h 333

Most species

750 mg/L drinking Most species

379

Calcium gluconate

(10%)

— Hypocalcemia; dilute 1:1 with saline or sterile

water for IM or IV injections

5-10 mg/kg IV

slowly to

effect 333

5-10 mg/kg SC, IM

q12h prn 333

Psittacines/hypocalcemic tetany

Psittacines

10-100 mg/kg IM 333 Psittacines/acute presentation of hypocalcemia

Calcium

lactate/calcium

glycerophosphate

(Calphosan,

Glenwood)

Calcium levulinate

25-50 mg/kg SC, IV

(slow) 333

50-100 mg/kg IM

(diluted), IV

(slow) 333

50-150 mg/kg IV

over 15-20

minutes 54

100-300 mg/kg SC

diluted 1:1-2

with fluids 55

100-500 mg/kg SC,

IV (slow) once 333

1 mL/30 mL (3300

mg/L) drinking

water 333

5-10 mg/kg IM q7d

prn 333

50-100 mg/kg IV

(slow bolus)

once 333

75-100 mg/kg IM,

IV 333

Pigeons

Most species, including psittacines, pigeons,

raptors

Ionized hypocalcemia, hyperkalemia

Most species

Raptors/hypocalcemia

Psittacines/calcium supplementation

Most species, including raptors/hypocalcemia


Most species/hypocalcemia

l-carnitine 1000 mg/kg feed 179 Budgerigars/PD; lipomas; average lipoma size

decreased significantly

Dextrose (50%)

50-100 mg/kg IV

(slow bolus) to

effect 333

500-1000 mg/kg IV

(slow bolus) 333

Psittacines/hypoglycemia; can dilute with fluids

Hypoglycemia; can dilute with fluids

Diatrizoate

meglumine

— Parenteral treatment of goiter is generally

reserved for emergency situations

380

sodium (37%

iodine)

(Renografin-76,

Solvay)

122 mg/kg IM 333 Budgerigars/thyroid hyperplasia

Essential fatty acids

0.5 mL/kg PO q24h

× 50 days or

indefinitely 333

Raptors/pruritic dermatitis (atopy)

Fatty acids (omega-

3, omega-6)

0.1-0.2 mL/kg of Psittacines, pigeons/glomerular disease; used to

flaxseed oil to reduce thromboxane A 2 synthesis in platelets

corn oil mixed and glomerular cells; adjunct therapy for

at a ratio of 1:4 arthritis, feather picking, mutilators, and

PO or added to neoplasia; 2-4 wk of therapy are required to

food; ratio of recognize effects; may increase dietary

omega-6:omega- vitamin E requirements; consider

3 is 4-5:1 333 supplementation with chronic use

0.11 mL/kg q24h in

a 5:1 ratio of

omega-6:omega-

3 333 Psittacines/glomerulonephritis, pancreatitis

10% flaxseeds 604 Quaker parrots/PD; shift in HDL subgroups,

higher plasma phospholipid omega-3 fatty

acids

α-linolenic acid,

0.2%-4% of daily

energy 603

Quaker parrots/PD; no change in blood

cholesterol compared to control group,

changes in polyunsaturated fatty acid blood

profile

Hemicellulose

(Metamucil,

Searle)

— For bulk in diet; facilitates defecation in bowel

deficit disorders and other conditions

0.5 tsp/60 mL handfeeding

formula

or baby food

gruel 333

Psittacines/bulk diet to delay absorption of an

ingested toxin

1 Tbs/60 mL water

q24h 806

Ostrich chicks/impaction

1 mL of solution of Budgerigars/no difference from controls in

½ tsp diluted in elimination rate of ventricular lead particles

60 mL of water 477

Inositol 20 g/kg of food 569,570 Starlings/PD; not effective to decrease liver

stored iron but prevented an increase in

stored iron concentration

Iodine (Lugol’s

iodine)

0.2 mL/L drinking

water daily 333

Most species/thyroid hyperplasia

2 parts iodine + 28 Budgerigars/thyroid hyperplasia

381

parts water; 3

drops into 100

mL drinking

water 333

Iodine (sodium

iodide 20%)

— Parenteral treatment of goiter is generally

reserved for emergency situations or initial

treatment of severe thyroid dysplasia;

continue with oral therapy when

improvement is noted

Iron

Iron dextran

2 mg (0.01 mL)/bird

IM prn 333

60 mg (0.3 mL)/kg

IM 333

20-60 mg/kg

feed 333,438,468,569

10 mg/kg IM, repeat

in 7-10 days

prn 333

Budgerigars

Most species/thyroid hyperplasia

Species susceptible to iron storage disease/levels

recommended for a low-iron diet

Most species, including raptors, waterfowl/iron

deficiency anemia; use cautiously in species

in which iron storage disease is common

(e.g., toucans, mynahs, starlings, birds of

paradise, other passerines)

Lactobacillus (Bene-

Bac, Pet-Ag)

1 pinch/day/bird 333 Psittacines/stimulation of normal

gastrointestinal flora regrowth

Lactobacillus

acidophilus

0.25 g/dose mixed

with diet, 2.5-

6×10 6

CFU/dose 805

1 tsp/L handfeeding

formula 333

Neonatal cockatiels/PD; increased growth rate

in birds receiving the gel form, no effect in

birds receiving the powder form; no overall

benefit noted

Most species

Magnesium sulfate 20 mg/kg IM 404 African grey parrot/dietary hypomagnesemia

and seizures

Niacin (nicotinic

acid)

Pancreatic enzyme

powder (Viokase-

V Powder, Fort

Dodge)

50 mg/kg PO q8h 333 Psittacines/yolk emboli; give with gemfibrozil

(30 mg/kg PO)

— Most species/exocrine pancreatic insufficiency;

maldigestion; mix with food and let stand 30

min 333

2-5 g/kg 333 Most species

tsp/kg feed 333

tsp/60-120 g

lightly oilcoated

seed 333

Most species

Most species

382

tsp/30-120 mL

hand-feeding

formula prn 333

Psittacine neonates

Phytonadione — See vitamin K 1

Potassium chloride

(KCl)

Selenium (Seletoc,

Schering)

0.5 mEq/kg PO

q12h 55

0.05-0.1 mg Se/kg

IM q14d 333

0.06 mg Se/kg IM

q3-14d 333

Most species/hypokalemia

Most species/neuromuscular diseases (capture

myopathy, white muscle disease, some

cardiomyopathies); may be useful in some

cockatiels with jaw, eyelid, and tongue

paralysis

Sodium chloride

(buffered salt

tablet)

450 mg PO daily 333 Penguins/prevents atrophy of salt gland; may

not be needed 838

Tannic acid 20 g/kg feed 569,570 Starlings/PD; not effective to decrease liverstored

iron but prevented an increase in

stored iron concentration

Tea (black Ceylon

decaffeinated)

Vitamin A (Aquasol

A Parenteral,

Astra)

8 g/kg feed 727 Starlings/PD; effectively limited iron absorption

— 1 µg = 14 U; 1 µg retinol = 3.3 U; 1 µg betacarotene

= 1.7 U; 3000 µg/kg dietary vitamin

A after 269 days induced increased plasma

retinol, splenic hemosiderosis and altered

vocalization patterns in cockatiels; 423

toxicosis may follow

oversupplementation 423,583

200 U/kg IM 333 Raptor juveniles/supplemental therapy for pox

infection

2000 U/kg PO, IM 333 Psittacines/adjunctive therapy for pox infection

5000 U/kg IM q24h

× 14 days, then

250-1000 U/kg

q24h PO 333

Psittacines/adjunctive therapy for respiratory or

epithelial disease

20,000 U/kg IM 333 Most species/hypovitaminosis A; maximum

dose; improves skin healing

33,000 U/kg (10,000

U/300 g) IM

q7d 333

50,000 U/kg IM

q7d 333

Most species/hypovitaminosis A

Psittacine neonates

1 mL/135 kg IM 333 Ostriches/hypovitaminosis A

383

Vitamin B1

(thiamine)

— Thiamine deficiency; requirements may be

higher if thiaminase is present in diet b

1-2 mg/kg PO

q24h 333

1-2 mg/kg IM

q24h 333

Raptors, penguins, cranes/daily supplement

Vultures, raptors, cranes, penguins/CNS signs

1-3 mg/kg IM q7d 333 Most species, including raptors

1-50 mg/kg PO

q24h × 7 days or

indefinitely 333

Raptors

2 mg/kg IM 806 Ratites/curly toe paralysis

3-30 mg/kg IM

q7d 333

4 mg/kg IM once,

then 2 mg/kg

PO q12h × 5

days 116

Raptors/stimulates appetite, hematopoiesis;

neuromuscular disease; liver disease;

supportive therapy; adjunct to sulfa therapy

Juvenile goshawks/thiamine deficiency with

neurologic signs

1-2 mg/kg feed 333 Vultures

Vitamin B 12

(cyanocobalamin)

25-30 mg/kg fish

(wet basis) 74

2850 mg/L drinking

water q7d 333

0.25-0.5 mg/kg IM

q7d 333

Piscivorous species/recommended level of

supplementation

Pigeons


raptors/anemia

2-5 mg/bird SC Pigeons/vitamin B 12 deficiency

Vitamin B complex — Usually dosed based on thiamine (see vitamin

B 1 ); death has been reported in falcons

following injections, which was attributed

to an overdose of vitamin B 6 (pyridoxine); 699

has been used to treat folate and cobalamin

dietary deficiency in a hyacinth macaw 299

Vitamin C (ascorbic

acid)

Vitamin D 3 (Vital E-

A + D, Schering)

20-50 mg/kg IM q1-

7d 333

150 mg/kg PO

q24h 313

Most species, including raptors/nutritional

support; supplemental therapy for pox

infection

Willow ptarmigan chicks/PD; supplemental

daily requirements over 265 mg/kg diet

1 µg = 40 U; macaws are more susceptible to

toxic side effects; vitamin D 2 is poorly

effective in birds 177

384

Most species/hypovitaminosis D 3 ;

3300 U/kg (1000

prn 333 excessive use

U/300 g) IM q7d hypervitaminosis D may occur with

5000 U IM once, Red-legged seriema chicks/hypovitaminosis D,

then 200 U PO in combination with UV b supplementation

q24h × 88d 424

6600 U/kg IM

once 333

Most species

Vitamin E (Vitamin

E20, Horse

Health Products;

Bo-SE, Schering

Plough)

— 1 mg d α-tocopherol acetate = 1.5 U; 1 mg dL α-

tocopherol acetate = 1.1 U; injectable vitamin

E may have lower efficacy than oral 487

0.06 mg/kg IM

q7d 333

Psittacines/hypovitaminosis E

0.06 mg/kg IM 2806 Ratites/prevention or treatment of capture

myopathy

15 mg/kg PO

once 487

70 mg/kg IM q24h

for up to 5

days 873

Swainson’s hawks/PK; administer without food

Pelicans/hypovitaminosis E; steatitis

200-300 mg/kg IM 333 Ostrich chicks

Vitamin E/γlinolenic

acid

(2%), linoleic acid

(71%) (Derm

Caps, DVM

Pharmaceuticals)

Vitamin K1

(phytonadione)

200-400 mg/bird PO

q24h 333

73.5 mg/kg fish

(wet basis) 873

100 mg/kg fish (wet

basis) 74,873

4400-8800 mg/kg

feed 333

0.1 mL/kg PO

q24h 333

0.025-2.5 mg/kg IM

q12h 333

0.2-2.2 mg/kg IM

q4-8h until

Great blue herons

Pelicans/supplementation; excessive

supplementation (550-10,560 U/kg) has been

associated with coagulopathy in pinkbacked

pelicans 557

Piscivorous species/recommended level of

supplementation

Ostrich chicks/hypovitaminosis E

Most species/feather picking; use liquid from gel

caps

Most species

Most species, including raptors/rodenticide

toxicity

385

stable, then

q24h × 14 days 333

2.5 mg/kg SC

q12h 538

2.5 mg/kg IM q24h

until

hemostasis,

then q7d prn 333

5 mg/kg IM q24h

for several

days 806

10-12.5 mg/kg SC

q12h × 4 days 873

10-20 mg/kg IM

q12-24h 333

Red-tailed hawk/treatment of brodifacoum

toxicosis

Psittacines/vitamin K responsive disorders;

hematochezia; coagulopathy

Ratites/coagulopathy

Pelicans/coagulopathy

Psittacines

0.1 mg/kg feed 333 Turkeys/PD; as effective as 1-2 mg/kg in

reducing plasma prothrombin time

5 mg/kg feed 333 Budgerigars/vitamin K responsive bleeding

disorders; mix contents of gel cap into small

grain seed mix and coat seed lightly

a

Grains and seeds commonly fed to parrots contain calcium levels of approximately 0.02%-0.1% DM.

b

Food items known to contain appreciable amounts of thiaminase include clams, herring, smelt, and

mackerel. 74

Table 5-12

Ophthalmologic Agents Used in Birds. a


Amphotericin B

Amphotericin B ointment (4%)

(formulated)

125 µg/5 mL sterile

water

subconjunctival 156

Topical q24h 156

Ducks

(ornamental)/candidiasis of

third eyelid

Ducks

(ornamental)/candidiasis of

third eyelid; administered

in conjunction with

systemic antifungal therapy

Atracurium 0.05 µL intracameral 127 Great horned owls/mydriasis

for cataract surgery

0.01 mg intracameral 55 Parrots/mydriasis for cataract

surgery

386

Atropine (0.4%-0.5%) 0.6 mg/bird topical 633 Cockatoos/PD; partial

mydriasis; some birds have

iridal smooth muscle; may

cause ocular irritation,

weakness, shallow

breathing; dilute with 0.9%

saline a

Topical 333

Ratites/partial mydriasis; use in

combination with

curariform drugs; some

ratites have iridal smooth

muscle a

Atropine (1%) 1 drop topical 462 Double-crested

cormorants/PD; no

mydriasis when used alone

Bacitracin/neomycin/polymyxin B

sulfate

Small bead topical 333

Most species/antibiotic; corneal

ulcers, conjunctivitis;

excessive amounts will

cause eye wiping and soiled

plumage

Chloramphenicol ophthalmic

drops

Ciprofloxacin HCl (0.3%) (Ciloxan,

Alcon)

1 drop topical q6-8h 333 Pigeons/antibiotic

1 drop topical q4-8h 333 Most species/antibiotic; corneal

ulcers, conjunctivitis (e.g.,

Chlamydia, Mycoplasma)

1 drop topical q12h;

use in conjunction

with tylosin 1

mg/mL drinking

water × 21-77

days 501

House finches/PD; Mycoplasma

gallisepticum conjunctivitis

Demecarium bromide (0.125%) 1 drop topical 333 Most species/topical anesthetic;

allows removal of Thelazia

Dexamethasone (0.1%) ophthalmic

drops

— Pigeons/PD; ophthalmic

administration results in

significant adrenocortical

suppression for 24 hours at

4 µg/drop 844

1 drop topical q4-8h 333 Raptors/traumatic anterior

uveitis without corneal

ulceration

Diclofenac 1 drop topical q12h 55 Most species/caution in species

susceptible to toxicosis

387

Edetate disodium ophthalmic

drops

1 drop several times

daily 333

(Gyps vultures, pigeons) 563

Most species/used to treat

calcific keratopathy

Fumagillin (Fumidil B; Mid-

Continent Agrimarketing)

1 drop topical q2h 115 Amazon parrots/fungal and

microsporidial

keratoconjunctivitis in

combination with oral

albendazole

0.114 mg/mL drops q2-

3h until 1 wk

postclinical signs 751

60 mg in sterile water

topical 751

Lovebirds/Encephalitozoon hellem

conjunctivitis; use in

combination with

albendazole

Most species/filter solution to

remove bacteria before

applying

Gentamicin sulfate 1 drop topical q4-8h 333 Most species/antibiotic; corneal

ulcers; causes irritation

1 drop topical q12h ×

21 days 842 House finches/PD;

mycoplasmosis treatment,

in combination with oral

enrofloxacin, was not

effective

Isoflurane 1%-2% maintenance 333 Most species/mydriasis a

1%-2.4% maintenance

by air sac

perfusion 120,418b

Most species/mydriasis, a ocular

surgery

Miconazole (Monistat IV, Janssen) 1 drop topical q2h 115 Amazon parrots/fungal

keratitis

Miconazole vaginal cream (2%)

(Monistat, Ortho-McNeal)

Topical 7

Topical q24h × 7d 401


Ring-billed gulls/third eyelid

candidiasis

Natamycin (Natacyn, Alcon) 1 drop topical q6h 333 Most species/antifungal;

gradually taper off

Neomycin/polymixin

B/dexamethasone (0.1%)

1 drop topical q8-

24h 127

Great horned owl/post cataract

surgery

Neomycin/polymyxin B/gramicidin 1 drop topical q2-8h 333 Most species/antibiotic; corneal

ulcers; conjunctivitis

Oxybuprocaine (0.45%) Topical 421 Pigeons, buzzards/topical

anesthetic of choice due to

reliable effect with minimal

388

Oxytetracycline/polymyxin B

(Terramycin, Zoetis)

Small bead topical 333

side effects

Most species/antibiotic;

conjunctivitis; excessive

amounts will cause eyewiping

and soiled plumage

Phenylephrine (2.5%) Topical 333 Ratites/partial mydriasis; use in

combination with

curariform drugs; some

ratites have iridal smooth

muscle a

Phenylephrine (4%-5%) — 4%-5% ophthalmic solution is

not available in the United

States

6 mg/bird topical 633 Cockatoos/PD; partial

mydriasis; a some birds have

iridal smooth muscle; may

cause ocular irritation,

weakness, shallow

breathing; dilute with 0.9%

saline

Topical 462

Cormorants/PD; mydriasis;


vecuronium bromide and

atropine

Phenylephrine (10%)

2 drops topical, Various species/diagnosis of

diluted to

Horner’s syndrome

1% 275,276,852

Pimaricin (Natacyn, Alcon)

1 drop topical q6h,

taper after 14-21

days 333

Most species/polyene

antifungal

Prednisolone acetate — Pigeons/PD; ophthalmic

administration results in

significant adrenocortical

suppression for 4 hr at 35

µg/drop 844

Prednisolone acetate (1%) 1 drop topical q4-8h 333 Raptors/traumatic anterior


ulceration

Prednisolone acetate (0.12%) 1 drop topical q4h 330 Macaw/treatment of uveitis

and hyphema secondary to

lymphoma

Proxymetacaine (proparacaine) Topical 421 Topical anesthetic

389

(0.5%) 1 drop/eye topical 773 Hispaniolan Amazon

parrots/PD; at 10 minutes:

no difference in phenol red

thread test values, lower

Schirmer tear test values

Rocuronium bromide (1%) 20 µL/eye 602 Hispaniolan Amazon

parrots/PD; mydriasis from

20 to 360 min; some birds

had transient palpebral

paresis

0.12 mg/eye 47 European kestrels/PD;

maximal mydriasis at 90

min, onset of action 20 min,

duration of action 250 min

0.15 mg/eye 41 Hispaniolan Amazon

parrots/PD; mydriasis

starting at 5-10 min and

lasting 360 min

0.2 mg/eye 45 Little owls/PD; maximal

mydriasis at 40 min, onset

of action 20 min, duration

of action 290 min

0.35-0.7 mg/eye 46 Tawny owls/PD; maximal

mydriasis at 60-80 min

(depending on dose), onset

of action 20 min, duration

of action 240 min

0.4 mg/eye 45 Common buzzards/PD;

maximal mydriasis at 90

min, onset of action 20 min,

duration of action 240 min

Tetracaine (6%) Topical 421 Topical anesthetic

Tissue plasminogen activator

(rTPA) (activase)

Tissue plasminogen activator

(rTPA) (TNKase Tenecteplase,

Genetech)

400 µL via injection 22 Great horned owls/hyphema

25 µg intracameral 55 Prevention of hyphema postcataract

surgery

50 µg via injection 419 Raptors/hyphema (use

paracentesis into the

anterior eye chamber);

intraocular hemorrhage

(use intravitreous injection)

Tobramycin 1 drop topical q6-12h 55 Most species

Triamcinolone (Vetalog, Fort 0.075 mg/kg Great horned owls/cataract

390

Dodge) subconjunctival 127 surgery

0.1-0.25 mL

subconjunctival 333

Raptors/traumatic anterior


ulceration in patients

where restraint is a concern

d-Tubocurarine (Curarin-Asta,

Asta-Werke)

— Mydriatic agent; a

recommended for

therapeutic use only;

administer into anterior

chamber; high risk of

intraocular injury; topical

application has no effect 418a

Tylosin

0.01-0.03 mL of 0.3%

solution,

intracameral 120,418b,536

Topical (mix powder

1:10 with sterile

water) 7


pigeons, raptors/dilation

within 15 min, duration 4-

12 hr

Cockatiels/conjunctivitis; use

in conjunction with

systemic treatment

Vecuronium bromide — Mydriatic agent; may cause

respiratory paralysis or

shallow breathing, ataxia,

death (especially when

applied bilaterally); 516

neostigmine may

counteract systemic effects a

0.096 mg/bird of 0.08%

solution topical 633

0.16 mg/eye (0.4%

solution) 462

0.18-0.22 mg/kg

topical 633

0.18-0.29 mg/kg

topical 633

0.24-0.28 mg/kg

topical 633

Cockatoos, blue-fronted

Amazon parrots, African

grey parrots/PD

Doubled crested

cormorants/PD; mydriasis;

combination with atropine

and phenylephrine

provided more consistent

and longer mydriasis


Cockatoos/PD

Blue-fronted Amazon

parrots/PD

0.96 mg/bird topical 633 Cockatoos/use caution with

391

bilateral application

1 drop of 0.4%

solution topical 853

Cormorants, loons/dilation at

30-45 min; duration >2 hr

2 drops of 0.4%

solution topical

q15min × 3

treatments 516

0.5% solution

topical 333,516

Kestrels/PD; maximal effect in

65 ± 12 min

Raptors/duration 1 hr

Vecuronium (V)/nitrous oxide

(N)/isoflurane (I)

(V) 0.2 mg/kg IV + 1:1 Most species/mydriasis and

ratio of oxygen to anesthesia; gases are

33% (N) at 0.3 administered via air sac

L/kg/min + (I) cannulation; vecuronium

1%-2.4% 333 effective up to 256 min in

pigeons a

a

Variable amounts of skeletal muscle are present in the avian iris, giving birds voluntary control over

pupil dilation. In many avian patients, the pupils are best dilated by restraining the animal in a dark

room. Consensual pupillary light reflex is generally absent in birds.

Table 5-13

Oncologic Agents and Radiation Therapy Used in Birds.


Acemannan

Asparaginase (Elspar,

Merck)

2 mg/kg

Cockatoos/use prior to surgical debulking in

intralesional q7d fibrosarcoma

× 4 treatments 333

400 U/kg IM q7d 333 Cockatoos/lymphosarcoma; premedicate with

diphenhydramine

1650 U/kg SC

once 692

Great horned owl/sarcoma; associated with

severe bone marrow suppression

Carboplatin

5 mg/kg IV, IO over

3 min 233,484 Sulphur-crested cockatoos (PD),

budgerigars/mix with 5% dextrose to

400 mg/L; renal adenocarcinoma (leg

paresis showed improvement over 2 mo;

mass continued to grow); mix with saline

5 mg/kg

intralesional 333

Amazon parrots/squamous cell carcinoma;

mix with sesame oil or plasma at a

concentration of 10 mg/mL

5 mg/kg IO q4wk × Green-winged macaw/pancreatic

3 doses 868 adenocarcinoma

392

15 mg/kg IV q5wk ×

4 doses 133 Mallard duck/sertoli cell tumor, survival of 13

months

17.2 mg/kg q3-10wk Amazon parrot/choanal squamous cell

× 4 doses 868 carcinoma, survival of 9 months

24 mg/kg q4wk × 4

doses 868

Amazon parrot/cutaneous squamous cell

carcinoma, survival of 1 year

Chlorambucil

(Leukeran,

GlaxoSmithKline)

Cisplatin

27 mg/kg q4wk × 4

doses 868

125 mg/m 2 IV (slow

bolus)

q14-21d 866

1 mg/bird PO

2×/wk 555

1 mg/kg PO

2×/wk 310

1.5 mg/kg PO

q72h 271

2 mg/kg PO

2×/wk 673

0.2 mg/kg

intralesional 227

Intralesional

(undisclosed

dose) 635

1 mg/kg IV over 1

hr 231,232

Cockatiel/cutaneous squamous cell

carcinoma, survival of 3 mo

Amazon parrot/bile duct carcinoma; dilute

with 5% dextrose a

Pekin duck/lymphocytic leukemia or

lymphosarcoma; responded to treatment

initially, but was euthanatized 1 mo after

presentation because of respiratory

distress and hemorrhages

Green-winged macaw/chronic lymphocytic

leukemia, in combination with

chlorambucil, died after 29 weeks

Starling/chronic lymphocytic leukemia;

follow up of 6 mo

Umbrella cockatoo/cutaneous

lymphosarcoma

Black-footed penguin/choanal squamous cell

carcinoma; remission for 13 mo

Blue and gold macaw/facial fibrosarcoma; in

combination with radiation therapy;

remission for 29 mo

Cockatoos/PK; may cause nephrotoxicity;

administer IV fluids 1 hr before and 2 hr

after infusion

African grey parrot/multiple integumentary

17.5 mg/m 2

× 4 treatments 408 effective

intralesional q7d squamous cell carcinomas, did not seem

Cyclophosphamide 200 mg/m 2 IO q7d 333 Cockatoo/lymphosarcoma a

300 mg/m 2 PO

once 692

Great horned owl/sarcoma; a dose associated

with severe bone marrow suppression

Deslorelin implant 4.6 mg SC q4-6mo 399 Cockatiels/ovarian adenocarcinoma

Diphenhydramine 2 mg/kg IO once 333 Cockatoo/before chemotherapy

Doxorubicin 2 mg/kg IV 283,284 Cockatoos/PD; may produce mild transient

393

inappetence; frequency was not

determined; PK of metabolite

doxorubicinol showed no toxicity 284

30 mg/m 2 IO q2d 333 Cockatoo/lymphosarcoma; a premedicate with

diphenhydramine

60 mg/m 2 IV q30d 197 Blue-fronted Amazon parrot/osteosarcoma; a

premedicate with diphenhydramine 30

min before; dilute with saline and give

over 30 min (anesthesia recommended);

remission for 20 mo

Hexyl ether

pyropheophorbidea

(Photochlor,

Roswell Park

Cancer Institute)

0.3 mg/kg IV 780,783 African rose-ringed parakeet,

hornbill/photosensitizing agent; use 24 hr

prior to photodynamic therapy

L-carnitine

Leuprolide acetate

1000 mg/kg of

food 179

1500-3000 µg/kg IM

q2-3wk 399

Budgerigars/PD; lipoma size decrease

Cockatiels/ovarian adenocarcinoma

Methylprednisolone 2 mg IM once 21 African grey parrot/bronchial carcinoma

Porfimer sodium

(Photofrin, QLT

PhotoTherapeutics)

3 mg/kg IV 680 Cockatiel/photodynamic therapy

Prednisone 1 mg/kg PO q24h 310 Green-winged macaw/chronic lymphocytic

leukemia; in combination with

prednisone; drug was discontinued after 6

wk because of thrombocytopenia

1.6 mg/kg PO

q24h 692

Great horned owl/sarcoma

Radiation therapy

1 Gy at 2.5 Gy/min

× 3-4 doses 166 Military macaws/PD; radiation of normal

choana; delivered dose was slightly lower

(0.94-0.97 Gy) than calculated

2.5 Gy fractions,

total dose of 50

Gy 301

4 Gy fractions, total

doses of 48, 60,

or 72 Gy 44

4 Gy fractions q48h

over 22 days,

total dose of 40

Thick-billed parrot/beak melanoma; 2.5 mo

survival

Ring necked parakeets/PD; radiation of

normal skin and crop; no adverse

radiation effects detected

Blue and gold macaw/wing fibrosarcoma; in

combination with cisplatin chemotherapy;

remission observed over 2 mo until 15 mo

394

Gy 434

4 Gy fractions

3d/wk × 4 wk,

total dose of 48

Gy; then booster

dose of 8 Gy 5

wk later 492

4 Gy fractions

4d/wk, total

dose of 40 Gy 266

4 Gy fractions

3d/wk, total

dose of 44 Gy 635

Buffon’s macaw/squamous cell carcinoma of

the beak; no evidence of tissue or tumor

damage

Budgerigar/metacarpal hemangiosarcoma;

complete tumor regression observed;

death 8 wk later from metastasis

Blue and gold macaw/facial fibrosarcoma; in

combination with intralesional cisplatin;

erythema over the tumor site; 29 mo

remission

4 Gy fractions African grey parrot/periocular lymphoma; 2

3d/wk, total mo survival

dose of 40 Gy 590

Silymarin (milk

thistle)

Strontium (Sr-90

ophthalmic

applicator)

4 Gy fractions

3d/wk × 6 wk,

total dose of 68

Gy 259

5 Gy fractions q3-4d

over 3 wk, total

dose of 30 Gy 12b

8 Gy fraction q7d ×

4 treatments,

total dose of 32

Gy 788b

10 Gy fractions at 0,

7, and 21 days, 2

additional doses

1 mo later, total

dose of 50 Gy 8

100-150 mg/kg PO

divided q8-12h 333

100 Gy/area × 1-3

areas 552

100 Gy/area × 4

areas, repeated 1

wk later 612

Umbrella cockatoo/intraocular osteosarcoma;

2 mo survival time

Blue and gold macaw/periorbital lymphoma;

mass regression; 3 mo survival time

African grey parrot/beak squamous cell

carcinoma; 4 mo survival time

American flamingo/cutaneous squamous cell

carcinoma; no tumor reduction

Hepatic antioxidant/protectant; use in

patients with liver disease and as ancillary

to chemotherapy; use a low-alcohol or

alcohol-free liquid formulation

Budgerigars, cockatiels/uropygial squamous

cell carcinoma; good response at 2-9 mo

follow up

African grey parrots/uropygial squamous cell

carcinoma; good response at 6 mo

395

Vincristine sulfate 0.1 mg/kg IV q7-

14d 673

Cockatoo/monitor CBC weekly; complete

remission

0.5 mg/m 2 IV, then Pekin duck/lymphoma; lymphocytic

0.75 mg/m 2 q7d × leukemia a

3 treatments 555

0.75 mg/m 2 IO q7d ×

3 treatments 333 Cockatoo/lymphosarcoma a

a

Body weight (kg) = surface area (m 2 ); 0.5 kg = 0.06 m 2 ; 1 kg = 0.1 m 2 ; 2 kg = 0.15 m 2 ; 3 kg = 0.2 m 2 ;

4 kg = 0.25 m 2 ; 5 kg = 0.29 m 2 .

Table 5-14

Antimicrobial-Impregnated Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) Agents Used in

Birds. a,333,484


Amikacin

1.25-2.5 g/20 g polymer

powder 222

PD/elution of amikacin from PMMA beads

was greater when the powdered form

was used compared with liquid amikacin

Bone cement

(Surgical

Simplex P

Radiopaque

Bone Cement,

Howmedica)

Cefazolin

Cefotaxime

Ceftazidime

Ceftiofur (Naxcel,

Pfizer)

— Polymer powder and liquid monomer for

use in making antibiotic impregnated

beads

1-2 g/20 g polymer

powder 333

2 g/20 g polymer

powder 333

2 g/20 g polymer

powder 333

2 g/20 g polymer Studies show elution for approximately 7

powder 222 days only 145

Ciprofloxacin — Release for 360 days 803

Clindamycin — PMMA beads with clindamycin had

adequate drug levels for more than 90

days 485,660

Enrofloxacin — Raptors/pododermatitis 660

Gentamicin

1 g powder or

solution/20 g polymer

powder 222

PD/elution concentration remained greater

than MIC for common pathogens for 30

days; powder and liquid forms of

396

gentamicin had similar elution rates from

PMMA

1 mL of 50 mg/mL


powder 660

Ratio PMMA:gentamicin

of 20 634

Raptors/pododermatitis

Good elution for at least 21 days

Gentamicin

(Septopal,

Merck)

Premade beads 333

Commercially available in Europe; not


Hydroxyapatite

cement

(BoneSource,

Osteogenics)

— Polymer powder used as an alternative to

bone cement; absorbs into muscle and

tissue; osteoconductive in bone;

fabricates with water which aids in

formulation with liquid antibiotics 222

Itraconazole

Meropenem

Metronidazole

Oxytetracycline

(R) Rifampin/(P)

pefloxacin

(Pelwin, 5%

soluble

powder,

Wockhardt)

(R) Rifampin/(P)

piperacillin

16% intraconazoleimpregnated

PMMA

fed as grit stones 769

Ratio PMMA:meropenem

of 5:1 35

Ratio

PMMA:metronidazole

of 20-40:1 634

4.5 mL of 200 mg/mL


powder 660

1 part (R) + 1 part (P) is

finely ground in

equal volumes in a

mortar and pestle;

thoroughly mix with

5 parts PMMA

powder 660

1 part (R) + 1 part (P) is

combined and finely

ground in a mortar

and pestle;

thoroughly mix with

5 parts PMMA

Indian peafowl/PD; antifungal agent; when

used as grit, therapeutic levels achieved

in 2 days and decreased over 7 days;

beads from capsules mix into PMMA

uniformly before hardening; PMMA cut

into 1-g size pieces (grit stone size) after

hardening

Elution for 15 days

Good elution for at least 21 days

Raptors/pododermatitis

Rifampin powder taken from oral capsules;

pefloxacin powder obtained from the

preparation intended for oral use in

poultry

Rifampin powder taken from oral capsules;

piperacillin powder taken from parenteral

preparation prior to reconstitution

397

powder 660

Tobramycin — Release for 220 days 485

a

Antimicrobial-impregnated polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) is used to elute antimicrobial agents for

long-term treatment of infected lesions. Following are guidelines for its use and preparation:

• Choose antibiotic based on culture and sensitivity.

• Mix 1-2 g of sterile antibiotic powder with 40-60 g of PMMA powder. Add

approximately 2 Tbs to antibiotic at a time. The use of liquid antibiotic reduces the

mechanical strength of the bead.

• Shake mixture well (for at least 2 min) to make it homogeneous.

• Add liquid monomer as usual.

• The dough is placed in a catheter tip syringe and extruded, rolled into beads, and

placed onto steel surgical wire. Dough may also be injected into a red rubber catheter

that may be cut into variable sizes. The smaller the bead, the greater the elution of

antibiotic.

• Gas sterilization or UV radiation is recommended; beads are aerated for at least 24 hr

at room temperature.

• The wound is aggressively debrided and beads are placed within it; the wound is then

closed and the beads are left within the site until the wound is no longer infected. 333

• In human medicine, beads are removed after 2-6 wk. Despite their antibiotic release,

beads act as a surface to which bacteria preferentially adhere, grow, and potentially

develop antibiotic resistance. 156 Beads are difficult to remove if left in place for more

than 14 days. 581 398

Table 5-15

Agents Used in the Treatment of Oiled Birds.


Bismuth subsalicylate

Charcoal, activated

(Toxiban, Vet-A-

Mix)

2-5 mg/kg

PO

once 519

52 mg/kg

PO

once 519

Adsorbent; gavage; alternatively, can use activated

charcoal

Adsorbent; gavage; alternatively, can use bismuth

subsalicylate

Charcoal,

activated/electrolyte

slurry (Toxiban,

Vet-A-Mix)

50 mL/kg by 3 bottles of charcoal slurry (3.75 g/kg) added to 250

gavage 802 mL of electrolyte solution

Detergent (Dawn,

Procter & Gamble)

1%-5%

bath 519

Submerse bird up to mid-neck region; rinse with

water; use water at 103-105°F (39-41°C) and 40-60

psi (pounds per square inch); water should be

soft(ened); 519,527 sea water may also be used 506

Fluid therapy — See Table 5-36 for guidelines

Iron dextran

10 mg/kg

IM q5-

7d 519 If PCV <25%

Lactulose

Oral electrolyte

solutions

(Pedialyte; Ross

Labs)

Papaya enzyme

Thiamine (vitamin B 1 )

0.3 mL/kg

PO

q12h 504

30 mL/kg by

gavage 802

1 tablet PO

q12h 504

25-30 mg/kg

fish 519

Prophylactic laxative

Most species/at field stabilization site

Prophylactic laxative

Piscivorous species

Table 5-16

Agents Used in Bird Emergencies. a


Aminophylline 4 mg/kg PO q6- Can give orally after initial response

399

12h 333

4 mg/kg IM q12h 742 Pionus parrots/smoke inhalation injury

10 mg/kg IV q3h 333 Use for pulmonary edema

Atropine sulfate

0.02 mg/kg IM, IV,

IO 452

0.2 mg/kg IM, IV,

IO 333

0.5 mg/kg IM, IV,

IO,

intratracheal 333

CPR, bradycardia

Bradycardia

CPR

Blood homologous

transfusion

— Administer over 1-4 hr; use filter; 109 half-life of 8-

10 days; heterologous blood transfusion may

not be effective 181,184

Calcium gluconate

Dexamethasone Na

phosphate

Dextrose (50%)

1-5 mg elemental

calcium/kg/h 54

50-150 mg/kg IM,

IV (slow

bolus) 54,333,452

2-6 mg/kg IM, IV

q12-24h 333

50-100 mg/kg IV

(slow bolus to

effect) 333

500-1000 mg/kg IV

(slow

bolus) 333,628

0.25 mL/kg after

1:1 dilution

with saline 452

0.5 mL/kg over 15

min 54

CRI for ionized hypocalcemia

Hypocalcemia; dilute 50 mg/mL; hyperkalemia;

facilitates potassium movement across cell

membranes

Head trauma (until signs abate); shock (one

dose); hyperthermia (until stable)



Hypoglycemia

Hypoglycemia

Dextran 70 10-20 mL/kg IV 333 Most species/colloid for the adjunctive treatment

of hypovolemic shock

Dobutamine 5-15 µg/kg/min 718 Hispaniolan Amazon parrots/PD; less effective

than dopamine

Dopamine 5-10 µg/kg/min 718 Hispaniolan Amazon parrots/PD; more effective

than dobutamine

Doxapram 2 mg/kg IV, IO 452 CPR, respiratory arrest

5-10 mg/kg IM, IV

once 333

Raptors/respiratory depression or arrest

400

20 mg/kg IM, IV,

IO 333

CPR; respiratory depression

Epinephrine

(1:1000)

0.01 mg/kg 452 CPR

0.5-1 mL/kg IM, IV,

IO,

intratracheal 333

CPR; bradycardia

Fluids

10-25 mL/kg IV,

IO 333

Bolus over 5-7 min, see Table 5-37 (fluid therapy)

Hemoglobin

glutamer-200

(Oxyglobin,

OPK Biotech)

— Hemoglobin polymer; hemoglobin replacement

product; anemia treatment; currently

unavailable, but under FDA testing by new

manufacturer (Dechra)

3-10 mL/kg IV

(slow) 333

Most species

5 mL/kg IV 454 Mallard ducks/PD; no difference in mortality rate

from crystalloid fluids in a hemorrhagic shock

model (but a trend of decreased mortality)

10 mL/kg IV 333 Raptors

Hetastarch 5 mL/kg IV 454 Mallard ducks/PD; no difference in mortality rate

from crystalloid fluids in a hemorrhagic shock

model

Insulin/dextrose

50%

Mannitol

10-15 mL/kg IV

(slow) q8h 333 ×

1-4 treatments

20 mL/kg/day; 5

mL/kg bolus

may be repeated

twice 54

0.5 U/kg + 2 g

dextrose/insulin

unit 54

0.25-2 g/kg IV

(slow bolus)

q24h 333

Most species, including raptors/hypoproteinemia;

hypovolemia

Hypovolemia; half-life: 25 hr

Hyperkalemia

Raptors/cerebral edema; anuric renal failure

Oxyglobin — See Hemoglobin glutamer-200

Pentastarch 20 mL/kg/day; 5

mL/kg IV

bolus 54

Hypovolemia, half-life: 2.5 hr

Potassium chloride

(KCl)

Maintenance: 15-20

mEq/L

Moderate

Supplement IV/IO fluids; hypokalemia; do not

exceed 0.5 mEq/kg/h

401

hypoK: 40

mEq/L

Severe hypoK:

60 mEq/L 54

Prednisolone Na

succinate (Solu-

Delta-Cortef,

Upjohn)

10-20 mg/kg IM, IV

q15min prn 333

15-30 mg/kg IV 333 Raptors

Head trauma; CPR

Sodium

bicarbonate

1 mEq/kg IV q15-

30min to

maximum of 4

mEq/kg total

dose 333

5 mEq/kg IV, IO

once 333

Metabolic acidosis

CPR

0.3 × BW(kg) × Most species/metabolic acidosis; give over 30-60

Base excess, IV min

bolus 54

Terbutaline

0.01 mg/kg PO, IM

q6h 333

0.1 mg/kg PO q12-

24h 333

Psittacines/α 2 -selective smooth muscle

bronchodilator

Macaws, Amazon parrots/bronchodilator;

obstructive pulmonary disease, pneumonitis

Vasopressin 0.8 U/kg 452 CPR

a

Because of the presence of peripheral vasoconstriction, subcutaneous administration is not adequate

for patients in shock.

402

Table 5-17

Euthanasia Agents Used in Birds. a


Carbon dioxide

(CO 2 )

70% 333 Most species/danger to person administering gas;

compressed gas is the only recommended source 442

Carbon

monoxide

(CO)

Isoflurane

Methoxyflurane

Minimum 6%

concentration

in a closed

container 333

Saturated cotton

ball in closed

container or

face mask 333

Saturated cotton

ball in closed

container or

face mask 333

Most species/unconsciousness occurs rapidly;

inexpensive; 333 danger to person administering gas;

compressed gas recommended

Most species/very rapid induction; wing flapping and

vocalizing may occur

Most species/induction may be slower than with

isoflurane

Pentobarbital

sodium

0.2-1 mL/kg IV,

ICe 333

Most species/birds may react unpredictably with IV

administration; ICe administration is smooth,

quiet; proper carcass disposal is advised as

secondary poisoning of wild scavenging birds may

occur; 336,690,832 induces significant histopathologic

changes that may impair interpretation (especially

for lungs) 294,632

Potassium

chloride

1-2 mEq/kg IV 442 Most species/must be provided in conjunction with

prior general anesthesia

3-10 mEq/kg 632 Parrots/PD; no histologic artifacts; death in 0.5-1.1

min; performed under isoflurane anesthesia

a

The American Veterinary Medical Association accepts inhalant anesthetic overdose, carbon monoxide,

carbon dioxide, KCl (after anesthesia), and barbiturate overdose as humane euthanasia methods. 442

Cervical dislocation and decapitation are conditionally acceptable for research and poultry. Thoracic

compression is commonly used for wild passerine birds. 591

Table 5-18

Miscellaneous Agents Used in Birds.


2-deoxy-2-fluoro-dglucose

(fluodeooxyglucose

128.5 ± 20.2 MBq (3.5

± 0.5 mCi) 380 Bald eagles/PD; PET scan

403

F18 injection,

Siemens)

37 MBq (1 mCi) 754 Amazon parrots/PD; PET scan

Acetic acid (apple cider

vinegar)

15 mL/qt drinking

water

Most species/intestinal dysbiosis

Acetylsalicylic acid

(aspirin)

5 mg/kg PO q48h 62 Most species, African grey parrots/antithrombotic

agent

Allopurinol — Xanthine oxidase inhibitor/use in treatment

of gout is controversial: 50 mg/kg given

to red-tailed hawks was toxic leading to

marked elevations in plasma oxypurinol,

xanthine, and hypoxanthine with

secondary renal dysfunction 476

10-30 mg/kg PO q12-

24h 333

25 mg/kg PO

q24h 476,617

830 mg/L drinking

water 333

Most species/gout

Red-tailed hawks/PD; no significant effect

on plasma uric acid levels

Most species

1 mL stock

Budgerigars/decrease initial dose to 25%

solution/30 mL recommended dose in severe cases and

drinking water gradually increase over several days; use

mixed fresh

with colchicine in severe cases; stock

several times daily solution: 100 mg tablet/10 mL sterile

(300 mg/L) 333 water

Aloe vera Topical 333 Most species/antiinflammatory;

antithromboxane activity; beneficial in

treating burns, electrical injury, or dying

skin flaps; a see heparin for combination

Aluminum hydroxide

Aminoloid

(Aminoloid,

Schering)

Aminopentamide

hydrogen sulfate

(Centrine, Fort

Dodge)

30-90 mg/kg PO

q12h 333

0.25-0.75 mg/kg IM,

repeat in 10-14

days 333

0.05 mg/kg SC, IM

q12h up to 5

doses 333

0.11 mg/kg SC, IM

q8-12h × 1 day,

then q12h × 1 day,

then q24h × 1

day 333

Most species/antacid; phosphate binder

Raptors/induction of molt

Most species/regurgitation

Most species/regurgitation

404

Aminophylline 4 mg/kg PO, IM q6-

12h 333

5 mg/kg PO, IV

q12h 450

8-10 mg/kg PO, IM,

IV q6-8h 333,806

Most species/bronchodilator; need to

prepare as a suspension daily

Psittacines

Most species, including ratites/may be

diluted prior to injection; initial doses

may be given IV; subsequent doses given

PO once response is observed

Ammonium solution Topical prn 333 Most species/analgesic; antipruritic;

antiinflammatory; can use on fresh

wounds; avoid overuse a

Arginine vasopressin 24 µg/kg IM q12h 766 African grey parrots/central diabetes

insipidus; oral administration was not

effective

Arginine vasotocin

Armor All Protectant

(Armor All

Protectant Corp)

0.5-4 µg/kg intranasal

q12h 439

Topical to affected

plumage 333

African grey parrots/central diabetes

insipidus

Most species/soften sticky-trap glue covered

plumage; use detergent (Dawn) to

remove Armor All

Atenolol 5-10 mg/kg PO q12-

24h 58

Most species

Atorvastatin (Lipitor,

Pfizer)

10-20 mg/kg PO

q12h 55

Parrots/hypercholesterolemia; needs to be

compounded from tablets

Barium sulfate — Dilute 72% suspension 1:1 with water;

dilute 92% suspension 1:2 with water;

60% suspension effective in Amazon

parrots; 63,218 more dilute concentrations

(20%-25%) can also be used; 833 administer

volume diluted barium and volume

air for double contrast study of crop 333

15 mL/kg PO of 1:1

barium 60% and

hand feeding

formula 63

20 mL/kg PO of

barium 25% 833

20-25 mL/kg PO via

gavage 333

Amazon parrots/PD; contrast fluoroscopy

Amazon parrots/PD; contrast fluoroscopy,

radiography

Most species

25-50 mL/kg PO 333 Most species/smaller species require

relatively more contrast media; African

grey parrots, 25 mL/kg; Quaker

parakeets and budgerigars, 50 mL/kg

405

Amazon parrots/PD; contrast fluoroscopy,

radiography

Benazepril

0.5 mg/kg PO

q24h 18b,206

Parrots

Bismuth subsalicylate 1-2 mL/kg PO q12h 333 Most species/weak adsorbent, demulcent

Bromhexine HCl 1.5 mg/kg IM q12-

24h 333

Most species/expectorant

3-6 mg/kg IM 333 Most species, including psittacines,

passerines, raptors

6.5 mg/L drinking

water 333

1200 mg/L drinking

water 333

Psittacines

Most species

Cimetidine — Prototype histamine-2 blocker used to

reduce gastrointestinal acid production

3-5 mg/kg PO, IV

q8h 806

5 mg/kg PO, IM q8-

12h 333

Ratites

Psittacines/proventriculitis; gastric

ulceration

5-10 mg/kg IM q12h 806 Ratites

Cisapride — Gastrointestinal prokinetic agent, stimulates

motility in mammals; 615 not commercially

available in the United States; can be

compounded

Citrate phosphate

dextrose adenine

solution (CPDA)

Citric acid

0.5-1.5 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 333

1 part CPDA:5-6

parts whole

blood 288,333,530

5000 mg/L drinking

water 333

Most species

Most species/anticoagulant for blood

collection for transfusion; not for

extended storage of whole blood; 530 a

cryopreservation study has also been

published 288

Most species/reduces the effect of calcium

and magnesium on the absorption of

tetracyclines

Colchicine — Unique antiinflammatory used in the

treatment of gout or hepatic

fibrosis/cirrhosis; 615 may potentiate gout

formation in some cases 333

0.01 mg/kg PO

q12h 333

Juvenile macaws/gout

406

0.04 mg/kg PO q12-

24h 347

Most species/gradually increase to q12h

0.2 mg/kg PO q12h 333 Psittacines

Copper sulfate (Cu-7,

Searle)

Topical 333

Most species/ulcerative dermatitis a

Cyclosporine 10 mg/kg PO q12h 353 Cockatiels/PD; ineffective at preventing

avian bornaviral lesions

10 mg/kg IV 813 Pekin ducks/PK; low plasma levels and high

clearance

10-20 mg/kg PO

q24h 55

Most species/no detectable plasma level in a

single African grey parrot case

Digoxin — Toxic reactions include depression, ataxia,

vomiting, diarrhea; contraindicated with

renal or liver disease; monitoring of

serum digoxin, potassium, magnesium,

calcium, and ECG is recommended;

induced arrythmias in pigeons at

0.2 mg/kg/day 333

0.01-0.02 mg/kg PO

q12h 333

Psittacines, passerines, raptors/congestive

heart disease

0.02 mg/kg PO q24h × Budgerigars, sparrows (PD)/produces a

5 days 309 plasma concentration of 1.6 µg/mL

(within mammalian therapeutic range);

this dose led to signs of toxicity in a

mynah 679

Dimethylsulfoxide

(90%)

Dioctyl sodium

sulfosuccinate

0.05 mg/kg PO

q24h 858

0.066 mg/kg IV

q12h 594

0.13 mg/L drinking

water 333

1 mL/kg topical to

affected area q4-

7d 333

33 mL/L drinking

water 333

Quaker parakeets/PK; congestive heart

failure; cardiomyopathy

Pekin ducks/PK; short half-life

Psittacines, passerines, raptors/congestive

heart disease

Most species/antiinflammatory, analgesic;

systemic absorption; use gloves during

application a

Psittacine chicks/constipation; use only if

chick is drinking

Diphenhydramine 1-4 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 333

Most species/hypersensitivity; pruritus;

anxiety; may cause hypotension

2 mg/kg IV, IO once 333 Cockatoos/use prior to chemotherapy

20-40 mg/L drinking Most species

407

water 333

Diphenoxylate with

atropine (Lomotil,

Searle)

2-2.5 mg/kg PO q8h 806 Ratites/opiate; gastrointestinal motility

modifier

EDTA-tromethamine

or EDTA-Tris

IT, intranasal, or

wound lavage 333

Most species/potentiates the effect of

antibiotics on resistant bacteria; 225 1.2 g

EDTA + 6.05 g Tris added to 1 L sterile

water, pH adjusted to 8 with a dilute

solution of sodium hydroxide,

autoclaved × 15 min; Tris-EDTA may also

be added to chlorhexidine solution 28

Enalapril 0.2-0.5 mg/kg q24h 333 Most species

1.25 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 596

2.5-5 mg/kg PO

q12h 597

Pigeons, Amazon parrots/PD

Amazon parrot/right-sided heart failure;

long-term therapy

5 mg/kg PO q24h 333 Lovebirds

Ferric subsulfate Topical 333 Most species/hemostasis of bleeding nail or

beak tip; will cause necrosis if used on

open skin lesions

Furosemide — Diuretic; overdose can cause dehydration

and electrolyte abnormalities

0.1-2 mg/kg PO, SC,

IM, IV q6-

24h 58,333,595,806

Most species, including psittacines, raptors,

pigeons, mynahs, ratites; lories are

extremely sensitive 333

0.15 mg/kg IM 333 Psittacine neonates/pulmonary congestion

1-5 mg/kg IM q2-

12h 234

1-10 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 234

Parrots/acute treatment of congestive heart

failure

Parrots/maintenance treatment of congestive

heart failure

2-6 mg/kg PO, IM 333 Raptors

40 mg/L drinking

water 333

Most species/congestive heart failure; can be

used with digoxin and ACE inhibitors

Gadopentate

dimeglumine

(Magnevist, Berlex)

0.25 mmol/kg IV 677 Pigeons/PD; contrast agent for magnetic

resonance imaging

Gallium-67 citrate

(Ga-67)

0.5 mCi

(microcuries)/bird

IV 392

Green-winged macaws/radiopharmaceutical

used for detection of infection and

inflammatory lesions; requires a gamma

camera for imaging

408

Gemfibrozil 30 mg/kg PO q8h 333 Psittacines/lipid regulating agent; yolk

emboli; sometimes effective in controlling

signs; gradual improvement may be seen

over weeks to months; give with niacin

Gentian violet (crystal

violet)

Topical 333

Raptors/wound management a

Glipizide — Sulfonylurea antidiabetic; contraindicated in

ketotic patients; patients should be

maintained at trace glucosuria to prevent

hypoglycemia 333

0.5 mg/kg PO q12h 333 Cockatiels/diabetes mellitus; did not reduce

blood glucose in a Bali mynah 48

1.25 mg/kg PO

q24h 333

Most species/diabetes mellitus; did not

reduce blood glucose in a macaw 274

2 mg/kg PO q8-12h 55 Cockatiels/diabetes mellitus; reduced blood

glucose and fructosamine in one case

Glycosaminoglycan — See polysulfated glycosaminoglycan

Guaifenesin 0.8 mg/kg PO q12h 611 Severe macaws/expectorant,

bronchodilation

Heparin

2 U/mL whole

blood 181

Cockatiels, conures/anticoagulant for blood

transfusions

Heparin/aloe vera

Topical to affected Most species/antiinflammatory; dilute 1000

area 333 U heparin/150 mg aloe vera a

Hyaluronidase 5 U/kg IV q12h × 1-3

days then 2×/wk

prn 333

Psittacines/egg-yolk related disease; egg yolk

visually apparent in blood or serum;

dilute with an equal or greater quantity

of isotonic NaCl

75-150 U/L fluids 333 Most species/increases absorption rate of

fluids

Few drops to the

lumen of feather

shaft at the base 340

Raptors/flight feather pulling

Hydroxyzine 2-2.2 mg/kg PO q8h 333 Amazon parrots/allergic pruritus; feather

picking; self-mutilation

34-40 mg/L drinking

water 333

Most species/respiratory allergy; feather

picking

Iohexol (Omnipaque,

Sanofi Winthrop)

2-3 mL/kg IV over 3-

5 sec 66,67 Most parrots/PD; angiography; CT

contrast; distribution of contrast is

extremely fast in vascular system

25-30 mL/kg PO 218 Cockatoos, Amazon parrots/gavage;

radiographic gastrointestinal iodinated

409

contrast media; 1:1 dilution with water

can also be used

50 mL/kg PO 333 Quaker parakeets, budgerigars

Isoxsuprine

5-10 mg/kg PO q24h Raptors/peripheral vasodilator; wingtip

× 20-40 days 333 edema

10 mg/kg PO q24h 741 Amazon parrots/atherosclerosis

Kaolin/pectin 2 mL/kg PO q6-12h 333 Psittacine neonates/intestinal protectant,

antidiarrheal

≤15 mL/kg PO, repeat

prn 333

Raptors

Lactulose — Does not treat liver disease; reduces blood

ammonia levels; exerts osmotic effect in

birds with caeca through fermentation

to acetic and lactic acid 615

Magnesium hydroxide

(M)/activated

charcoal (C)

150-650 mg/kg (0.2-1

mL/kg) PO q8-

12h 333

200 mg/kg (0.3

mL/kg) PO q8-

12h 333

(M) 10-12 mL + (C) 1

tsp powder PO 333

Most species, including psittacines/hepatic

encephalopathy

Psittacine neonates

Most species/cathartic; adsorbent

Magnesium sulfate

(Epsom salts)

— Purgative, cathartic; may cause lethargy; 333

see peanut butter for combination

0.25-1 g/kg PO q24h ×

1-2 days 333 Most species, including raptors

¼ tsp/bird PO 806

Ratite juveniles/obstipation

2 Tbs/bird PO 806 Ratite adults/obstipation

Mannitol — Osmotic diuretic used to treat cerebral

edema, especially after head trauma; may

be used with furosemide; also used to

treat glaucoma

0.25-2 g/kg q24h IV

(slow bolus) 333


1500 mg/kg IV q6h 806 Ratites

Maropitant 1 mg/kg SC, IM 55 Parrots

Methocarbamol

32.5 mg/kg PO

q12h 333

Cranes (desmoiselle), swans/capture

myopathy

410

50 mg/kg IV (slow

bolus) 333

Most species, including demoiselle cranes,

swans/muscle relaxation; capture

myopathy; may be given q12h for muscle

relaxation

Metoclopramide — Gastrointestinal motility disorders;

regurgitation; slow crop motility;

extrapyramidal signs may be seen as an

adverse effect 55

0.1 mg/kg IV 806 Ostriches

0.5-1 mg/kg PO, IM,

IV q8-12h 333


psittacines/gastrointestinal ileus;

regurgitation

1 mg/kg IM 97 Amazon parrots/PD; no alterations in

motility observed

2 mg/kg IM, IV q8-

12h 333

Raptors, waterfowl/crop stasis; ileus

12.5 mg/kg PO 806 Ratites/gastrointestinal disorders

Mexiletine 4-8 mg/kg PO q12-

24h 55

Parrots

Mineral oil — Cathartic; used to aid passage of grit and

other foreign bodies; administer directly

into the crop because oral administration

may result in aspiration pneumonia; see

peanut butter for combination

≤5 mL/kg via gavage

or per cloaca 333

5-10 mL/kg PO via

gavage 333

15 mL/kg PO via

gavage 806

Most species, including psittacines, raptors

Most species, including psittacines/cathartic

Ratite adults/impaction

Nicarbazin

(Ovocontrol,

Innolytics)

— Inhibits sperm receptor sites on the vitelline

membrane to prevent fertilization of

eggs; check federal and state permit

requirements prior to use

Peanut butter

Formulated pellets

provided at

baiting stations 333

Peanut butter and

mineral oil (2:1) 333

Dilute peanut butter

and magnesium

Pigeons, waterfowl/egg hatch control

Most species/add to diet; cathartic

Most species/add to diet; cathartic; dilute

with water

411

sulfate 333

1 mL combined with

mineral oil (2:1) 477

Pentoxifylline 15-25 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 495,841


days 55,60

Budgerigars/PD; cathartic; a experimental

lead particles administration; faster

elimination time than controls but not

statistically significant

Most species/frostbite

Most species/improve peripheral perfusion;

peripheral arterial disease; raptor

wingtip edema

Perflutren lipid

microspheres

(Definity, Lantheus

Medical)

0.1 mL/bird IV 67 Most birds/ultrasound contrast agent;

necessitates a mechanical activating

device

0.1 mL/bird IV diluted

with 0.9 mL

NaCl 65

Red-tailed hawks/PD; lasted several min in

cardiac chambers

Pimobendan

0.25 mg/kg PO

q12h 101

0.25 mg/kg PO

q12h 57,726,819

6-10 mg/kg PO

q12h 234

Harris hawks/congestive heart failure;

therapeutic drug monitoring performed

Parrots

Parrots

10 mg/kg PO q12h 302 Hispaniolan Amazon parrots/PK

Policosanol 0.3-2 mg PO q25h 253 Psittacines/hyperlipidemia; use was reported

in 2 birds

Polysulfated

glycosaminoglycan

(PSGAG)

(Adequan,

Luitpold)

— Used for osteoarthritis in a variety of birds;

coagulopathies including 3 deaths

reported in 4 birds following IM

injection 4

5 mg/kg IM q7d 333 Pekin ducks/degenerative joint disease

10 mg/kg IM, Most species, including pheasants, vultures,

intrarticular q7d × cranes/noninfectious or traumatic joint

3 mo 333,781 dysfunction; 250 mg/mL for

intraarticular use; 500 mg/mL for IM use

500 mg/bird IM q4d ×

7 treatments 806 Ratites

Povidone-iodine

Topical, wash off

within 5 min 333

Raptors/wound cleansing

Probenecid ___ Not currently recommended for the

treatment of gout; may exacerbate the

412

condition 333

125 mg/kg PO q6h 333 Macaw chicks/antigout

Probucol (Lorelco,

Marion Merrell

Dow)

1 drop stock/300 g PO

q12h × 2-4 mo 333

Most species/low density lipoproteincholesterolemia;

contains iron: use

cautiously in species susceptible to

hemochromatosis; may increase bile

acids; use with low-fat diet; prepare

stock: crush 250-mg tablet/7.5 mL

lactulose

Propentofylline

(Vivitonin,

Hoechst)

5 mgP/kg PO q12h × Raptors/wingtip edema; dry gangrene

20-40 days 333 syndrome

Propranolol

Psyllium (Metamucil,

Procter & Gamble)

0.04 mg/kg IV

(slow) 333

0.2 mg/kg IM 333

0.5 tsp/60 mL hand

feeding formula 333

1 mL of a solution

made of ½ tsp

diluted in 60 mL

of water 477

1 Tbs/60 mL

water/bird PO, up

to 120 mL/day 806

Most species/supraventricular arrhythmia,

atrial flutter, fibrillation

Most species/bulk diet; can use mineral oil as

alternative or in addition to psyllium

Budgerigars/PD; cathartic; a experimental

lead particles administration, similar

elimination time than controls

Ratite chicks/impaction

Rosuvastatin 10-25 mg/kg PO 64 Hispaniolan Amazon parrots/PD; low

plasma levels

Sodium benzoate 1 tsp/L (5 mL/L) 354 Budgerigars/treatment of macrorhabdosis;

may be toxic to chicks and breeding

birds due to increase water consumption

Sildenafil 2.5 mg/kg PO q8h 99 Amazon parrots/pulmonary hypertension

treatment

Silymarin (milk

thistle)

10-100 mg/kg PO

q24h × 21 days 297

50-75 mg/kg PO

q12h 333

100-150 mg/kg PO

divided q8-12h 333

Pigeons/PD; no demonstrable

hepatoprotective effect in experimental

hepatitis

Most species

Most species/hepatic antioxidant; use in

patients with liver disease and as

ancillary to chemotherapy; use a lowalcohol

or alcohol-free liquid

formulation

413

Skin-So-Soft (Avon)

Topical to affected

plumage 333

Most species/softens and removes sticky-trap

glue from plumage; use Dawn dish

detergent to remove Skin-So-Soft

product a

Sodium tetradecyl

sulfate

2 mg/kg diluted at 5%

topical 59

Most species/fibrotic agent; topical

administration in cervicocephalic

diverticulum in case of hyperinflation

Spironolactone 1 mg/kg PO q12h 58,726 Parrots/diuretic

Sucralfate 25 mg/kg PO q8h 333 Most species, including raptors/oral,

esophageal, gastric, duodenal ulcers; give

1 hr before food or other drugs 333

99m

Technetiumdisofenin

1 mCi (microcuries) 183

in a commercial

liquid or solid diet

PO

African grey parrots/radionucleotide used

for gastrointestinal scintigraphy

99m

Technetiummebrofenin

1.5-2 mCi 297,307 Pigeons/PD; liver scintigraphy

99m

Technetiumdiethylenetriaminepentaacetic

acid (DTPA)

Terbutaline

42 ± 0.16 MBq (1.158

± 0.164 mCi

[microcuries])/bird

IV 493

0.01 mg/kg PO, IM

q6h 450

0.1 mg/kg PO q12-

24h 333

Pigeons/PD; radiopharmaceutical agent of

choice for the assessment of renal

function

Psittacines/α 2 -selective smooth muscle

bronchodilator

Macaws, Amazon parrots/bronchodilator;

obstructive pulmonary disease;

pneumonitis

Theophylline 2 mg/kg PO q12h 611 Severe macaws/bronchodilation

5-10 mg/kg PO q12h 55 Blue and gold macaws/chronic obstructive

pulmonary disease

10 mg/kg PO q12h 55 Amazon parrots/syringeal masses

Tincture of iodine Topical 333 Raptors/wounds; inexpensive; readily

available in developing countries a

Trilostane 1 mg/kg PO q24h 817 Senegal parrots/Cushing’s disease

Trypsin-balsam of

Peru-castor oil

(Granulex, Pfizer)

Tyrode’s solution

Topical 333

Offer in place of

drinking water 333

Most species/digests necrotic tissue (may

have debriding action); may have

analgesic effects; may cause local

inflammation and pyogenic reaction; do

not use for long-term management a

Cockatiels/restores renal-medullary

gradient; add 8 g NaCl, 0.13 g CaCl 2 , 0.2

g KCl, 0.1 g MgCl 2 , 0.05 g Na 2 HPO 4 , 1 g

414

NaHCO 3 , 1 g glucose to 1 L water

Urate oxidase

(Uricozyme, Sanofi

Winthrop)

100-200 U/kg IM

q24h 616,617

Red-tailed hawks, pigeons/PD; significantly

lowered plasma uric acid, including

postprandial plasma uric acid

Ursodeoxycholic acid 15 mg/kg PO q24h 55 Most species

Vegetable oil 15 mL/kg PO 806 Ratites/impaction

Yeast cell derivatives

(Preparation H,

WhiteHall)

Topical q24h 333

Most species/pododermatitis; stimulation of

epithelialization; one of the four

commercial products contains 1%

hydrocortisone a

a

Many topical agents contain oils that adhere to plumage. These agents should be used sparingly and

generally in nonfeathered regions to prevent losing the insulative properties of the plumage.

Table 5-19

Hematologic and Biochemical Values of Selected Psittaciformes.

Measurement

African Grey Parrot

(Psittacus spp.) 155,269

Amazon Parrots

(Amazona

spp.) 155,269

Orange-winged Amazon

Parrot (Amazona

amazonica) 827b

Hematology

PCV (%) 45-53 41-53 51 (42-60)

RBC (10 6 /µL) 2.84-3.62 2.45-3.18 2.47 (2.40-3.67)

Hgb (g/dL) 12.7-15.9 12.2-15.9 —

MCV (fL) 144-155 160-175 166 (138-193)

MCH (pg) 36.4-43.9 47.2-56.8 —

MCHC (g/dL) 25.4-28.1 29.1-31.9 —

WBC (10 3 /µL) 6-13 6-17 8 (0.7-16)

Heterophils 10 3 /

µL (%)

4.64-7.52

45-73

3.81-8.73

31-71

3.07 (0.71-7.24)

—

Lymphocytes

10 3 /µL (%)

1.96-5.15

19-50

2.40-6.48

20-54

4.55 (0-10.8)

—

Monocytes 10 3 /

µL (%)

0-0.21

0-2

0.12-0.36

1-3

0.38 (0.09-0.86)

—

Eosinophils 10 3 /

µL (%)

0-0.10

0-1

0.12-0.24

1-2

0.05

—

Basophils 10 3 /µL

(%)

0-0.1

0-1

0-0.12

0-1

—

—

415

H:L ratio — — —

Chemistries

ALP (U/L) 20-160 15-150 46 (18-120)

ALT (U/L) 5-12 5-11 —

Amylase (U/L) 210-530 205-510 —

AST (U/L) 109-305 141-437 168 (125-375)

Bile acid (µmol/L)

RIA 13.7-73.6 10.3-79.3 —

Colorimetric 12-96 33-154 20 (8-88)

BUN (mg/dL) 3-5.4 — 1 (0-2)

Calcium (mg/dL) 7.7-11.3 8.2-10.9 9.1 (7.7-10.4)

Chloride (mEq/L) — — 110 (105-114)

Cholesterol

(mg/dL)

160-425 180-305 237 (110-363)

CK (U/L) 228-322 125-345 341 (182-1459)

Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.1-0.4 0.1-0.4 —

GGT (U/L) 1-10 — —

Glucose (mg/dL) 206-275 221-302 266 (213-371)

LDH (U/L) 145-465 155-425 —

Lipase (U/L) 35-350 35-225 —

Phosphorus

(mg/dL)

3.2-5.4 3.1-5.5 3.1 (1.2-5.0)

Potassium (mEq/L) 2.9-4.6 3-4.5 3.2 (1.3-5.0)

Protein, total

(g/dL)

3.2-5.2 3-5.2 4.2 (3.4-4.9)

Albumin (g/dL) 1.22-2.52 1.79-2.81 —

Globulin (g/dL) — — —

A:G ratio 1.02-2.59 1.21-2.29 —

Prealbumin

(g/dL)

0.30-0.92 0.6-1.23 —

α-globulin

(g/dL)

0.06-0.20 (α 1 )

0.10-0.28 (α 2 )

0.09-0.23 (α 1 )

0.20-0.42 (α 2 )

—

—

β-globulin

(g/dL)

0.49-0.88 0.33-0.89 —

416

γ-globulin

(g/dL)

0.21-0.81 0.21-0.72 —

Sodium (mEq/L) 157-165 125-155 150 (146-154)

Triglycerides

(mg/dL)

45-145 49-190 14 (69-234)

Uric acid (mg/dL) 2.7-8.8 2.1-8.7 1.6 (1.9-12.7)

Measurement

Budgerigar Parakeet

(Melopsittacus

undulatus) 155,269,346

Caique (Pionites

spp.) 155,269

Cockatiel (Nymphicus

hollandicus) 155,269

Hematology

PCV (%) 44-58 47-55 43-57

RBC (10 6 /µL) 3.77-4.6 — 3.1-4.4

Hgb (g/dL) 12.4-16.9 — 10.2-14.7

MCV (fL) 116-127 — 126-142

MCH (pg) 23.1-30.9 — 26.4-35.8

MCHC (g/dL) 19.8-23.9 — 20.4-25.2

WBC (10 3 /µL) 3-10 8-15 5-11

Heterophils 10 3 /

µL (%)

2.68-4.55

40-75

4.68-8.64

39-72

3.68-5.76

46-72

Lymphocytes

10 3 /µL (%)

1.47-4.02

20-45

2.4-7.32

20-61

2.08-4.8

26-60

Monocytes 10 3 /

µL (%)

0-0.13

0-2

0-0.24

0-2

0-0.08

0-1

Eosinophils 10 3 /

µL (%)

0

0

0-0.12

0-1

0-0.16

0-2

Basophils 10 3 /µL

(%)

0-0.13

0-1

0-0.12

0-1

0-0.08

0-1


Chemistries

ALP (U/L) 10-80 — 20-250

ALT (U/L) — — 5-11

Amylase (U/L) 302-560 244-290 205-490

AST (U/L) 55-154 193-399 160-383

Bile acid (µmol/L)

RIA 20-65 11.8-56.7 11.7-80.7

417

Colorimetric 32-117 12-112 44-108

BUN (mg/dL) 3-5.2 — 2.9-5

Calcium (mg/dL) 6.4-11.2 7.1-11.5 7.3-10.7

Chloride (mEq/L) — — —

Cholesterol

(mg/dL)

145-275 — 140-360

CK (U/L) 54-252 134-427 58-245

Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.1-0.4 — 0.1-0.4

GGT (U/L) 1-10 — 1-30

Glucose (mg/dL) 254-399 167-366 249-363

LDH (U/L) 154-271 — 120-455

Lipase (U/L) — — 30-280

Phosphorus

(mg/dL)

3-5.2 — 3.2-4.8

Potassium (mEq/L) 2.2-3.7 — 2.4-4.6

Protein, total

(g/dL)

2-3 2.4-4.6 2.4-4.8

Albumin (g/dL) — 0.96-2.04 0.78-1.75


A:G ratio — 1.09-2.76 1.01-2.19

Prealbumin

(g/dL)

— 0.33-0.89 0.59-1.24

α-globulin

(g/dL)

—

—

0.05-0.17 (α 1 )

0.13-0.38 (α 2 )

0.05-0.32 (α 1 )

0.07-0.39 (α 2 )

β-globulin

(g/dL)

γ-globulin

(g/dL)

— 0.34-0.99 0.34-0.81

— 0.13-0.50 0.15-0.60

Sodium (mEq/L) 139-159 — 130-153

Triglycerides

(mg/dL)

— — 45-200

Uric acid (mg/dL) 3-8.6 3.4-12.2 3.5-11

Measurement

Cockatoos

(Cacatuidae) 269,365

Conures (Aratinga

and Pyrrhura

spp.) 155,269

Eclectus Parrot (Eclectus

roratus) 155,269

418

Hematology

PCV (%) 40-54 42-54 45-55

RBC (10 6 /µL) 2.44-3.34 2.9-4.5 2.5-3.7

Hgb (g/dL) 11.1-16.0 12-16 11.1-13.9

MCV (fL) 158-175 90-190 157-170

MCH (pg) 40.4-53.7 28-55 37.5-44.6

MCHC (g/dL) 25.8-31.5 — 22.69-27.53

WBC (10 3 /µL) 5-13 5-13 9-15

Heterophils 10 3 /

µL (%)

4.68-7.49

45-72

4.22-6.91

44-72

5.75-8.75

46-70

Lymphocytes

10 3 /µL (%)

2.08-5.20

20-50

2.11-4.89

22-51

2.87-7.12

23-57

Monocytes 10 3 /

µL (%)

0-0.2

0-2

0-0.09

0-1

0-0.12

0-1

Eosinophils 10 3 /

µL (%)

0-0.2

0-2

0-0.09

0-1

0-0.12

0-1

Basophils 10 3 /µL

(%)

0-0.1

0-1

0-0.09

0-1

0-0.12

0-1

H:L ratio — — 1-2

Chemistries

ALP (U/L) 15-255 80-250 —

ALT (U/L) 6-12 5-13 5-11

Amylase (U/L) 200-510 100-450 200-645

AST (U/L) 117-314 178-307 148-378

Bile acid (µmol/L)

RIA 10.3-79.1 8.3-85.2 9.7-87.5

Colorimetric 34-112 32-105 30-110

BUN (mg/dL) 3-5.1 2.5-5.4 3.5-5

Calcium (mg/dL) 8.3-10.8 7.9-10.8 7.9-11.4


Cholesterol

(mg/dL)

135-355 120-400 130-350

CK (U/L) 106-305 154-355 118-345

Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.1-0.4 0.1-0.4 0.1-0.4

GGT (U/L) 1-45 1-15 1-20

419

Glucose (mg/dL) 214-302 217-323 220-294

LDH (U/L) 220-550 120-390 200-425

Phosphorus

(mg/dL)

2.5-5.5 2-10 2.9-6.5

Potassium (mEq/L) 2.5-4.5 3.4-5 3.5-4.3

Protein, total

(g/dL)

3-5 2.8-4.6 3-5

Albumin (g/dL) 1.11-2.28 1.01-1.94 1.23-2.26


A:G ratio 1.06-2.54 1.08-2.73 1.09-2.50

Prealbumin

(g/dL)

0.29-0.83 0.39-1.12 0.31-1.18

α-globulin

(g/dL)

0.07-0.16 (α 1 )

0.09-0.26 (α 2 )

0.07-0.17 (α 1 )

0.18-0.43 (α 2 )

0.08-0.19 (α 1 )

0.10-0.30 (α 2 )

β-globulin

(g/dL)

γ-globulin

(g/dL)

0.39-0.89 0.30-0.81 0.46-0.89

0.18-0.61 0.12-0.55 0.17-0.63

Sodium (mEq/L) 130-155 135-149 130-145

Triglycerides

(mg/dL)

45-200 50-300 —

Uric acid (mg/dL) 2.9-11.0 3.0-11.4 2.5-8.7

Measurement

Hematology

Grey-Cheeked

Parakeet (Brotogeris

pyrrhoptera) 269

Jardine’s Parrot

(Poicephalus

gulielmi) 155 Lories and Lorikeets 155,269

PCV (%) 45-56 41-53 47-55

RBC (10 6 /µL) — 3.03-4.47 3.3-4

Hgb (g/dL) — — 10.8-14.8

MCV (fL) — — 128-140

MCH (pg) — — 27.5-31.4

MCHC (g/dL) — — 20.3-23.1

WBC (10 3 /µL) 4-12 4.1-12.6 8-13

Heterophils 10 3 /

µL (%)

3.74-5.64

45-68

—

55-75

4.21-6.48

39-60

420

Lymphocytes

10 3 /µL (%)

1.83-3.98

22-48

—

25-45

2.38-7.45

22-69

Monocytes 10 3 /

µL (%)

0-0.08

0-1

—

0-2

0-0.22

0-2

Eosinophils 10 3 /

µL (%)

0-0.08

0-1

—

0-1

0-0.11

0-1

Basophils 10 3 /µL

(%)

0-0.08

0-1

—

0-1

—

0-1


Chemistries

ALP (U/L) — 80-156 —

ALT (U/L) — 5-12 —

Amylase (U/L) — 100-425 20-65

AST (U/L) 189-388 150-278 141-369

Bile acid (µmol/L)

RIA — 10.2-61.7 20-65

Colorimetric 15-81 — 20-97

BUN (mg/dL) — 2.8-5.6 —

Calcium (mg/dL) 8.0-11.6 7.0-12.8 8-12


Cholesterol

(mg/dL)

96-249 100-300 100-257

CK (U/L) 164-378 110-310 178-396

Creatinine (mg/dL) — — —

GGT (U/L) — 1-15 —

Glucose (mg/dL) 210-385 199-348 200-400

LDH (U/L) 154-356 119-335 124-302

Phosphorus

(mg/dL)

— 2-6.8 —

Potassium (mEq/L) — 3-4.5 —

Protein, total

(g/dL)

2.5-4.5 2.8-4 1.9-4.1

Albumin (g/dL) — 1.17-1.92 1.3-2.1

Globulin (g/dL) — — 0.9-2.4

A:G ratio — 1.32-2.56 1-2.3

421

Prealbumin

(g/dL)

— 0.12-0.42 —

α-globulin

(g/dL)

—

—

0.07-0.16 (α 1 )

0.08-0.22 (α 2 )

—

—

β-globulin

(g/dL)

γ-globulin

(g/dL)

— 0.38-0.84 —

— 0.12-0.47 —

Sodium (mEq/L) — 133-153 —

Tryglycerides

(mg/dL)

— 60-130 —

Uric acid (mg/dL) 0.3-12 2.5-12 2-11.9

Measurement

Hematology

Lovebirds (Agapornis

spp.) 155,269

Macaws (Ara and

Anodorhynchus

spp.) 155,269 Parrotlets (Forpus spp.) 269

PCV (%) 44-55 42-56 48-55

RBC (10 6 /µL) 3.25-3.95 2.7-4.5 —

Hgb (g/dL) 10.8-14.8 15-17 —

MCV (fL) 128-140 125-170 —

MCH (pg) 27.5-31.4 36-55 —

MCHC (g/dL) 20.3-23.1 29-35 —

WBC (10 3 /µL) 7-16 10-20 5-13

Heterophils 10 3 /

µL (%)

3.33-9.21

40-75

7.6-11.4

50-75

4.84-6.51

55-74

Lymphocytes

10 3 /µL (%)

3.34-6.20

20-53

3.50-8.06

23-53

2.11-4.4

19-70

Monocytes 10 3 /

µL (%)

0-0.12

0-1

0-0.15

0-1

0-0.09

0-1

Eosinophils 10 3 /

µL (%)

0-0.23

0-2

0

0

0-0.09

0-1

Basophils 10 3 /µL

(%)

0-0.23

0-6

0-0.15

0-1

0-0.09

0-1


Chemistries

ALP (U/L) 10-90 20-230 —

422

ALT (U/L) 5-13 5-12 —

Amylase (U/L) 90-400 150-550 —

AST (U/L) 125-377 105-324 110-224

Bile acid (µmol/L)

RIA 8.5-77.1 7.6-60 —

Colorimetric 12-90 7-100 —

BUN (mg/dL) 2.8-5.5 3-5.6 —

Calcium (mg/dL) 7.2-10.6 8.2-10.9 —


Cholesterol

(mg/dL)

95-335 100-390 —

CK (U/L) 58-337 101-300 —

Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.1-0.4 0.5-0.6 —

GGT (U/L) 2.5-18 1-30 —

Glucose (mg/dL) 246-381 228-325 252-384

LDH (U/L) 105-355 70-350 —

Lipase (U/L) 30-320 30-250 —

Phosphorus

(mg/dL)

2.8-4.9 — —

Potassium (mEq/L) 2.1-4.8 2-5 —

Protein, total

(g/dL)

2.4-3.6 2.6-5.0 —

Albumin (g/dL) 0.98-1.68 1.12-2.43 —


A:G ratio 1.06-2.09 1.08-2.55

Prealbumin

(g/dL)

0.37-0.68 0.24-0.80 —

α-globulin

(g/dL)

0.08-0.17 (α 1 )

0.12-0.37 (α 2 )

0.07-0.18 (α 1 )

0.15-0.45 (α 2 )

—

—

β-globulin

(g/dL)

γ-globulin

(g/dL)

0.33-0.78 0.34-0.85 —

0.12-0.38 0.15-0.58 —

Sodium (mEq/L) 125-155 140-165 —

Triglycerides (g/L) 45-200 — —

423

Uric acid (mg/dL) 2.5-12 2.9-10.6 4.1-12

Measurement

Pionus Parrots (Pionus

spp.) 155,269

Quaker Parakeet

(Myopsitta

monachus) 155,269

Senegal Parrot

(Poicephalus

senegalus) 155,269

Hematology

PCV (%) 44-54 30-58 45-60

RBC (10 6 /µL) 2.4-4 — 2.4-4

Hgb (g/dL) 11-16 — 12.3-14.0

MCV (fL) 85-210 — 139-151

MCH (pg) 26-54 — 33.1-39.4

MCHC (g/dL) 24-31 — 23.4-27.4

WBC (10 3 /µL) 5-13 8-17 6-14

Heterophils 10 3 /

µL (%)

0.48-7.10

55-74

—

0-24

4.70-7.81

44-73

Lymphocytes

10 3 /µL (%)

1.82-6.72

19-70

—

74-90

2.35-7.49

22-70

Monocytes 10 3 /

µL (%)

0-0.10

0-1

—

1-4

0-0.11

0-1

Eosinophils 10 3 /

µL (%)

0-0.10

0-1

—

0-2

0-0.21

0-2

Basophils 10 3 /µL

(%)

0-0.10

0-1

—

0-6

0-0.11

0-1


Chemistries

ALP (U/L) 80-290 70-300 70-300

ALT (U/L) 5-12 5-11 5-11

Amylase (U/L) 200-500 100-400 190-550

AST (U/L) 140-359 225-375 183-352

Bile acid (µmol/L)

RIA 6.1-62.7 9.6-83.2 13.8-87.4

Colorimetric 15-92 21-90 20-94

BUN (mg/dL) 3-5.4 2.9-5.4 2.9-5.4

Calcium (mg/dL) 7.8-10.8 7-10.0 7.6-10.7


424

Cholesterol

(mg/dL)

130-295 110-295 130-340

CK (U/L) 169-354 110-311 100-330

Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.1-0.4 0.1-0.4 0.1-0.4

GGT (U/L) 1-18 1-15 1-15

Glucose (mg/dL) 228-312 229-318 220-284

LDH (U/L) 125-380 120-300 150-350

Lipase (U/L) 30-250 25-225 32-250

Phosphorus

(mg/dL)

2.9-6.6 2.9-6.5 —

Potassium (mEq/L) 3.5-4.6 2.8-4.6 3-5

Protein, total

(g/dL)

3.6-5.2 3.0-4.8 2.8-4.2

Albumin (g/dL) — 0.92-2.48 1.19-1.81


A:G ratio 0.6-1.9 1.07-2.38 1.41-2.66

Prealbumin

(g/dL)

1.52-2.37 0.91-2.46 0.55-0.99

α-globulin

(g/dL)

0.08-0.23 (α 1 )

0.11-0.36 (α 2 )

0.08-0.21 (α 1 )

0.22-0.45 (α 2 )

0.08-0.15 (α 1 )

0.11-0.25 (α 2 )

β-globulin

(g/dL)

γ-globulin

(g/dL)

0.40-0.95 0.37-0.79 0.32-0.87

0.23-0.69 0.19-0.77 0.15-0.45

Sodium (mEq/L) 145-155 140-155 130-155

Triglycerides

(mg/dL)

60-225 50-200 45-145

Uric acid (mg/dL) 2.0-7.9 3.5-11.5 2.5-7.8

Table 5-20

Hematologic and Biochemical Values for Juveniles of Selected Psittaciformes.

Mean ± SD (Range)

Measurement

Cockatoos

(Cacatua

spp.) 142 (9

Umbrella

Cockatoo

(Cacatua

Macaws

(Ara

spp.) 143 (7

Blue and

Gold

Macaw

(Ara

Eclectus

Parrot

(Eclectus

425

species) (n alba) 142 (n species) ararauna) 143 roratus) 141

= 152) a = 111) a (n = 113) a (n = 43) a (n = 111) a

Hematology

PCV (%) 39.7 ± 9 (25-

59)

RBC (10 6 /µL) 2.53 ± 0.63

(1.5-4)

Hgb (g/dL) 11.4 ± 2.9

(6.5-17)

WBC (10 3 /µL) 12.9 ± 6.3

(5.5-25)

Heterophils (%) 50.8 ± 11.7

(27-74)

39.3 41.7 ± 8.4

(25-55)

2.54 2.9 ± 0.8

(1.5-4.5)

11.6 12.3 ± 3.3

(7-17)

16.6 19.2 ± 6.9

(7-30)

54.1 55.3 ± 10

(37-75)

40 ± 7.7 43.8 ± 8.4

(26-58)

2.7 ± 0.7 2.69 ± 0.67

(1.5-4)

11 ± 2.9 12.5 ± 3 (6.5-

18)

18.9 ± 5.6 13.7 ± 6.3

(5.5-25)

52 ± 10 53.9 ± 11.4

(35-75)

Bands (%) 1.3 ± 2.3 (0-7) 1.31 0.6 ± 1.7 (0-

5)

0.1 ± 0.7 0.5 ± 1.5 (0-

5)

Lymphocytes

(%)

41.2 ± 11.9

(17-65)

38.1 39 ± 10 (20-

60)

42 ± 10 39.5 ± 11.5

(20-65)

Monocytes (%) 5.8 ± 3.4 (0-

12)

5.35 4.4 ± 2.9 (1-

10)

4.3 ± 2.7 5 ± 2.7 (1-11)

Eosinophils (%) 0 0.02 0 ± 0.2 (0-1) 0 0.1 ± 0.3 (0-

1)

Basophils (%) 0.9 ± 1.1 (0-4) 1.03 0.5 ± 1 (0-3) 0.9 ± 1.3 1.1 ± 1 (0-3)

Chemistries

ALP (U/L) 579 ± 239

(200-1000)

440 970 ± 397

(290-

1600)

1200 ± 390 489 ± 159

(200-900)

ALT (U/L) 2 ± 3 (0-13) 2.1 3 ± 2 (0-9) 4 ± 3 4 ± 3 (0-10)

AST (U/L) 143 ± 79 (50-

400)

136 104 ± 31

(60-180)

101 ± 24 140 ± 58 (65-

260)

BUN (mg/dL) 2 ± 2.2 (0-6) 1.6 2.4 ± 2.3 (0-

6)

1.9 ± 2.2 1.7 ± 2.4 (0-

6)

Calcium (mg/dL) 9.6 ± 0.7 (8-

11)

Chloride (mEq/L) 110 ± 6 (97-

120)

9.8 9.9 ± 0.5

(8.5-

10.8)

111 106 ± 6 (96-

118)

10 ± 0.5 9.3 ± 0.4

(8.5-10.2)

104 ± 5 111 ± 5 (100-

120)

Cholesterol

(mg/dL)

251 ± 105

(100-500)

291 165 ± 62

(75-300)

164 ± 67 268 ± 80

(125-450)

426

CK (U/L) 510 ± 235

(140-1000)

Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.4 ± 0.1 (0.2-

0.7)

517 550 ± 312

(180-

1100)

0.4 0.4 ± 0.1

(0.3-0.6)

540 ± 267 616 ± 472

(200-

1600)

0.4 ± 0.1 0.4 ± 0.1

(0.2-0.5)

GGT (U/L) 2.6 ± 1.7 (0-6) 2.7 1.8 ± 1.2 (0-

4)

1.7 ± 1.2 4 ± 2 (0-7)

Glucose (mg/dL) 253 ± 24 (200-

300)

LDH (U/L) 371 ± 285

(150-1000)

244 281 ± 30

(225-

330)

325 138 ± 84

(35-275)

288 ± 31 258 ± 18

(220-300)

144 ± 98 228 ± 101

(100-400)

Phosphorus

(mg/dL)

6.1 ± 1.1 (3.5-

8)

5.6 6.5 ± 1 (4.6-

6.9)

6.6 ± 0.9 6.8 ± 1.2

(4.5-9)

Potassium (mEq/L) 3.6 ± 0.7 (2.5-

5.5)

3.5 2.9 ± 0.8 (2-

4.2)

2.7 ± 0.6 2.8 ± 0.7 (2-

4.6)

Protein, total

(g/dL)

2.8 ± 0.7 (1.5-

4)

3 2.6 ± 0.6

(1.5-3.5)

2.5 ± 0.7 2.9 ± 0.5

(1.8-3.8)

Albumin (g/dL) 1.1 ± 0.3 (0.3-

1.6)

Globulin (g/dL) 1.7 ± 0.5 (0.8-

2.5)

A:G ratio 0.6 ± 0.2 (0.4-

1)

Sodium (mEq/L) 145 ± 6 (135-

155)

Uric acid (mg/dL) 2.9 ± 2.3 (0.2-

8.5)

1.7 1.2 ± 0.3

(0.6-1.7)

0.9 1.3 ± 0.6

(0.8-1.9)

0.6 0.8 ± 0.3

(0.5-1)

145 145 ± 6

(135-

156)

2.7 2.3 ± 2.1

(0.2-6)

1.2 ± 0.3 1.3 ± 0.3

(0.8-1.8)

1.3 ± 0.6 1.5 ± 0.3

(0.8-2.2)

0.8 ± 0.2 0.9 ± 0.2

(0.6-1.1)

142 ± 6 148 ± 6 (138-

158)

1.9 ± 2.5 2 ± 1.6 (0.2-

6.5)

a

n = Number of blood samples (multiple blood samples were obtained from some individuals over time).

Table 5-21

Hematologic and Biochemical Values of Selected Passeriformes.

Measurement Canary (Serinus canaria) 267 Mynah a (Gracula religiosa) 26

PCV (%) 45-56 47.6 ± 4.9

RBC (10 6 /µL) 2.5-3.8 3.8 ± 0.4

Hgb (g/dL) 12-16 14.3 ± 1.2

427

MCH (pg) 26-55 38.4 ± 3.6

MCHC (g/dL) 22-32 30.1 ± 1.5

WBC (10 3 /µL) 3-10 20.8 ± 5.8

Heterophils 10 3 /µL (%) —

50-80

—

43.8 ± 8

Lymphocytes 10 3 /µL (%) —

20-45

—

48.7 ± 7.5

Monocytes 10 3 /µL (%) —

Eosinophils 10 3 /µL (%) —

Basophils 10 3 /µL (%) —

0-1

0-2

0-1

4.6 ± 4.1

—

4.1 ± 2.5

—

0.8 ± 0.7

—

H:L ratio — —

ALP (U/L) 20-135 —

ALT (U/L) — —

AST (U/L) 14-345 130-350

Bile acid (µmol/L)

RIA 23-90 —

Colorimetric — —

Calcium (mg/dL) 5.5-13.5 9-13

Chloride (mEq/L) — —

Cholesterol (mg/dL) 150-400 —

CK (U/L) 55-350 —

Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.1-0.4 0.1-0.6

GGT (U/L) 1-14 —

Glucose (mg/dL) 205-435 190-350

LDH (U/L) 120-450 600-1000

Phosphorus (mg/dL) 2.9-4.9 —

Potassium (mEq/L) 2.2-4.5 0.3-5.1

Protein, total (g/dL) 2.8-4.5 2.3-4.5

Albumin (g/dL) — —

Globulin (g/dL) — —

A:G ratio — —

428

Sodium (mEq/L) 135-165 136-152

Uric acid (mg/dL) 4-12 4-10

a

Values reported in captive adult males.

Table 5-22

Hematologic and Biochemical Values of Selected Ratites.

Measurement

Emu (Dromaius

novaehollandiae) 375,668

Ostrich (Struthio

camelus) 448,449

Rhea (Rhea

spp.) a,192

Hematology

PCV (%) 40-60 32 ± 3 29-59

RBC (10 6 /µL) 2.5-4.5 1.7 ± 0.4 —

Hgb (g/dL) — 12.2 ± 2.0 64-170 (126)

MCV (fL) — 174 ± 42 —

MCH (pg) — — —

MCHC (g/dL) — 33 ± 5 44.4-45.7 (45.1)

WBC (10 3 /µL) 8-25 5.5 ± 1.9 4.1-25.7 (11.8)

Heterophils 10 3 /

µL (%)

—

45-75

—

63 ± 8

—

—

Lymphocytes 10 3 /

µL (%)

—

20-40

—

34 ± 7

—

—

Monocytes 10 3 /µL

(%)

—

0-2

—

3 ± 1

—

—

Eosinophils 10 3 /

µL (%)

—

0-1

—

0.3 ± 0.5

—

—

Basophils 10 3 /µL

(%)

—

0-1

—

0.2 ± 0.5

—

—


Chemistries

ALP (U/L) — 575 ± 248 —

AST (U/L) 80-380 131 ± 31 20-192

Bile acid (µmol/L)

RIA 6-45 — —

Colorimetric — — —

Calcium (mg/dL) 8.8-12.5 9.2 2.6-8.2

429

Chloride (mEq/L) — 100 ± 16 —

Cholesterol (mg/dL) 68-170 108 —

CK (U/L) 100-750 688 ± 208 0-2640

Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.22 0.32 —

GGT (U/L) — 1.5 ± 2.9 —

Glucose (mg/dL) 100-290 250 37.8-158.6

LDH (U/L) 310-1200 1565 ± 660 269-1640

Phosphorus

(mg/dL)

3.8-7.2 3.7 —

Potassium (mEq/L) 3.5-6.5 3 ± \0.8 —

Protein, total (g/dL) 3.4-5.6 3.7 ± 0.7 3.4-6.2

Albumin (g/dL) 1-2.5 — —

Sodium (mEq/L) — 147 ± 34 —

Uric acid (mg/dL) 4.5-14 8.2 —

a

Numbers in parentheses represent the mean.

Table 5-23

Hematologic and Biochemical Values of Selected Piciformes and Columbiformes.

Measurement

Hematology

Toco Toucan (Ramphastos

toco) a,160,269

Pigeon (Columba

livia) 474,724

PCV (%) 45-60 (46) 49 ± 3.8

RBC (10 6 /µL) 2.5-4.5 (2.5) —

Hgb (g/dL) 14.6-18.2 (16.4) —

MCV (fL) 176-214 (196) —

MCH (pg) 53-76 (65) —

MCHC (g/dL) 31-39 (35) —

WBC (10 3 /µL) 4-10 (5.5) 8348 ± 4813


35-65

1369 ± 1031

—

Lymphocytes 10 3 /µL

(%)

—

25-50

5877 ± 4099

—


—

225 ± 232

—

430


0-4

9 ± 25

—


0-5

120 ± 130

H:L ratio — —

—

Chemistries

ALP (U/L) — 160-780

ALT (U/L) — 19-48

AST (U/L) 130-330 45-123

Bile acid (µmol/L)

RIA — —

Colorimetric 20-40 22-60

BUN (mg/dL) — 2.4-4.2

Calcium (mg/dL) 10-15 7.6-10.4

Chloride (mEq/L) — 101-113


CK (U/L) — 110-480

Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.1-0.4 0.3-0.4

GGT (U/L) — 0-2.9

Glucose (mg/dL) 220-350 232-369

LDH (U/L) 200-400 30-205

Phosphorus (mg/dL) — 1.8-4.1

Potassium (mEq/L) — 3.9-4.7

Protein, total (g/dL) 3-5 2.1-3.3

Albumin (g/dL) — 1.3-2.2

Globulin (g/dL) — 0.6-1.2

A:G ratio — 1.5-3.6

Sodium (mEq/L) — 141-149

Uric acid (mg/dL) 4-14 2.5-12.9

a


Table 5-24

Hematologic and Biochemical Values of Selected Raptors.

431

Measurement

Hematology

Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus

leucocephalus) 379

Golden Eagle (Aquila

chrysaetos) a,332a,550

PCV (%) 35-57 35-47 (41)

RBC (10 6 /µL) 2.60-4.05 1.9-2.7 (2.4)

Hgb (g/dL) — 12.1-15.2 (13.8)

MCV (fL) — 160-184 (174)

MCH (pg) — 56.3-62.7 (58.9)

MCHC (g/dL) — 32.3-35.9 (34)

WBC (10 3 /µL) 4.1-27.3

—

5.9-24 (12.3)

Heterophils 10 3 /µL

(%)

50-93

—

—

49-86

Lymphocytes 10 3 /µL

(%)

4-38

—

—

14-38

Monocytes 10 3 /µL

(%)

0-4 —

0-9

Eosinophils 10 3 /µL

(%)

—

0-9

—

1-5

Basophils 10 3 /µL

(%)

—

0-1

—

0-1

H:L ratio — —

Fibrinogen (g/L) — 2-4.1 (2.9)

Chemistries

ALP (U/L) — 15-36

ALT (U/L) — —

AST (U/L) 131-956 95-210

Bile acid (µmol/L)

RIA — —

Calcium (mg/dL) 8.2-10.4 7.4-9.5



CK (U/L) 190-1797 —

GGT (U/L) — —

Glucose (mg/dL) 246-431 250-408

LDH (U/L) — 320-690

432

LDH (U/L) — 320-690

Phosphorus (mg/dL) — 1.9-3.6

Potassium (mEq/L) — —


Albumin (g/dL) 1.09-2.05 1-1.4

Globulin (g/dL) 0.19-0.59 —

A:G ratio 0.57-1.59 —

Sodium (mEq/L) — —

Uric acid (mg/dL) 1.8-15.3 4.4-12

a


Measurement

Red-tailed Hawk

(Buteo

jamaicensis) 698

Harris Hawk (Parabuteo

unicinctus) b,114,373,698

PCV (%) 31-43 32-44

RBC (10 6 /µL) 2.4-3.6 2.13-2.76

Hgb (g/dL) 10.7-16.6 10.1-16.7

MCV (fL) 150-178 147-163

MCH (pg) 46-57.4 45.4-51.1

MCHC (g/dL) 297-345 30.1-33.0

WBC (10 3 /µL) 19.1-33.4 4.8-10


35 ± 11

—

2.3-6.7

Lymphocytes 10 3 /µL (%) —

44 ± 9

—

0.6-2.4


6 ± 3

—

0.2-1.5


13 ± 4

—

0-0.8


Rare

—

0-1.6

H:L ratio — —

Fibrinogen (g/L) — —

Chemistries

ALP (U/L) 22-138 15-36

ALT (U/L) 3-50 —

433

ALT (U/L) 3-50 —

AST (U/L) 76-492 95-210

Bile acid (µmol/L)

RIA 8.4-10.2 —

Calcium (mg/dL) 10-12.8 8.4-10.6

Chloride (mEq/L) 118-129 113-119

Cholesterol

(mg/dL)

— —

CK (U/L) — 224-650

GGT (U/L) 0-20 2-6.9

Glucose (mg/dL) 292-390 220-283

LDH (U/L) 0-2640 160-563

Phosphorus

(mg/dL)

1.9-4 3-4.4

Potassium (mEq/L) 2.6-4.3 0.8-2.3

Protein, total

(g/dL)

3.9-6.7 3.1-4.6

Albumin (g/dL) — 1.4-1.7

Globulin (g/dL) — 2.1-2.9

A:G ratio — 0.45-0.55

Sodium (mEq/L) 143-162 155-171

Uric acid (mg/dL) 8.1-16.8 9-13.2

Measurement

Sharp-shinned Hawk

(Accipiter striatus) 322 Turkey Vulture (Cathartes aura) a,698

Hematology

PCV (%) 44-52 51-58 (54)

RBC (10 6 /µL) — 2.4-2.9 (2.7)

Hgb (g/dL) — 15.7-17.3 (16.3)

MCV (fL) — 194-224 (204)

MCH (pg) — 58.6-65 (61.7)

MCHC (g/dL) — 28.6-32 (30.2)

WBC (10 3 /µL) 7.7-16.8 10.5-31.9 (20.1)

434

µL (%) 16-24 59-64

Lymphocytes

10 3 /µL (%)

—

54-75

—

8-18

Monocytes 10 3 /

µL (%)

—

0-3

—

0-1

Eosinophils 10 3 /

µL (%)

—

5-11

—

3-4

Basophils 10 3 /µL

(%)

—

0-1

—

0

H:L ratio — —

Chemistries

ALP (U/L) — —

ALT (U/L) — —

AST (U/L) — —

Bile acid (µmol/L)

RIA — —

Calcium (mg/dL) — —


Cholesterol

(mg/dL)

— —

CK (U/L) — —

GGT (U/L) — —

Glucose (mg/dL) — —

LDH (U/L) — —

Phosphorus

(mg/dL)

— —

Potassium (mEq/L) — —

Protein, total

(g/dL)

2.4-3.2 —

Albumin (g/dL) — —

Globulin (g/dL) — —

A:G ratio — —

Sodium (mEq/L) — —

Uric acid (mg/dL) — —

American Kestrel Gyrfalcon (Falco Peregrine Falcon (Falco

435

Hematology

PCV (%) 43 ± 3.2 49 ± 2 37-53

RBC (10 6 /µL) — — 3-4

Hgb (g/dL) — — 118-188

MCV (fL) 14.5-57 — 118-176

MCH (pg) 11-33 — 40-48.4

MCHC (g/dL) 24-58 — 319-352

WBC (10 3 /µL) 9.8 ± 4.9 4.6 ± 1.7 3.3-21 (13 ± 3)

Heterophils 10 3 /

µL (%)

—

47 ± 3

—

51 ± 5

—

65 ± 12

Lymphocytes

10 3 /µL (%)

—

46 ± 3

—

45 ± 5

—

35 ± 13

Monocytes 10 3 /

µL (%)

—

2 ± 0.2

—

1 ± 1

—

0

Eosinophils 10 3 /

µL (%)

—

1 ± 0.2

—

1 ± 1

—

0

Basophils 10 3 /µL

(%)

—

2 ± 0.2

—

Rare

—

0

Chemistries

ALP (U/L) 232 ± 72 257 97-350

ALT (U/L) 41 ± 33 — 19-54

AST (U/L) 77 ± 29 97 20-52

Bile acid (µmol/L)

RIA — — 20-118

Calcium (mg/dL) 7.1 ± 0.8 9.6 8.4-10.2

Chloride (mEq/L) 108 ± 33 125 121-134

Cholesterol

(mg/dL)

— — 175-401

CK (U/L) 1739 ± 734 402 357-850

GGT (U/L) — — 0-7

Glucose (mg/dL) 305 ± 40 318 11-16

LDH (U/L) — — 625-1210

Phosphorus

(mg/dL)

3 ± 0.9 — 3.4

Potassium (mEq/L) 2.2 ± 0.7 — 1.6-3.2

436

Albumin (g/dL) 1 ± 0.2 — 0.8-1.3

Globulin (g/dL) 1.2 ± 0.4 — 1.6-2.8

A:G ratio 0.9 ± 0.4 — 0.4-0.6

Sodium (mEq/L) 158 ± 3 160 152-168

Uric acid (mg/dL) 9 ± 6 13.9 4.4-22

Measurement

Barn Owl (Tyto

alba) c,17,18a

Barred Owl (Strix

varia) c,17,18a

Great-horned Owl (Bubo

virginianus) c,17,18a

Hematology

PCV (%) 48 ± 4 (41-57) 44 ± 4 (38-52) 43 ± 4

RBC (10 6 /µL) 2.4 ± 0.4 (1.6-3.3) 3.0 ± 0.9 (1.0-4.7) 2.6 ± 0.5

Hgb (g/dL) — — —

MCV (fL) 202 ± 29 (135-270) 156 ± 38 (77-236) 164 ± 28

MCH (pg) — — —

MCHC (g/dL) — — —

WBC (10 3 /µL) PBT 13.1 ± 5.9 (5.0-28.8) 18.9 ± 7.4 (2.6-33.7) 18.3 ± 9.2 (4.2-42.4)

NHT 8.3 ± 5.0 (2.5-22.1) 6.6 ± 2.9 (2.3-13.9) 17.1 ± 9.6 (4.8-42.6)

EST 12.4 ± 6.1 (3.8-28.6) 16.5 ± 3.6 (8.8-23.0) 20.0 ± 6.2 (7.2-33.0)

Heterophils 10 3 /

µL (%)

6.9 ± 2.8 (3.2-15.0)

56 ± 15 (26-85)

4.7 ± 1.8 (0.5-8.6)

28 ± 12.5 (10-52)

9.9 ± 5.8 (2.0-25.5)

54 ± 12 (28-79)

Lymphocytes

10 3 /µL (%)

3.1 ± 2.1 (0.3-8.6)

23 ± 10 (2-41)

9.6 ± 5.5 (0.9-22.7)

48 ± 15 (18-80)

3.4 ± 2.3 (0.4-9.7)

18 ± 8 (4-37)

Monocytes 10 3 /

µL (%)

1.0 (0.1-1.3)

7 ± 5 (0-17)

2.5 ± 1.8 (0.2-7.6)

12 ± 6 (3-29)

2.1 ± 1.4 (0.2-6.7)

11 ± 4 (2-20)

Eosinophils 10 3 /

µL (%)

1.6 ± 1.5 (0.2-7.4)

12 ± 7 (2-34)

2.1 ± 2.2 (0.4-4.3)

11 ± 4 (1-20)

2.6 ± 2.4 (0.4-8.2)

15 ± 8 (2-33)

Basophils 10 3 /µL

(%)

0.3 ± 0.3 (0.0-1.1)

2 ± 2 (2-34)

0.2 ± 0.2 (0.0-4.4)

1 ± 1 (1-3)

0.3 ± 0.4 (0.2-2.9)

2 ± 2 (2-33)

H:L ratio 38 ± 4.5 (0.8-22.2) 0.7 ± 0.7 (0.1-2.7) 4.2 ± 4.2 (1.0-19.7)

Fibrinogen (g/L) — — —

Chemistries

ALP (U/L) — — —

ALT (U/L) — — —

AST (U/L) 151 (93-263)* 88-358 † 55-277 †

Bile acid (µmol/L)

437


Chemistries

ALP (U/L) — — —

ALT (U/L) — — —

AST (U/L) 151 (93-263)* 88-358 † 55-277 †

Bile acid (µmol/L)

Colorometric 17.0 (1.0-55.0)* 6.4-54 ‡ 4.2-48.9 ‡

Calcium (mg/dL) 9.16 (4.80-18.8)* 7.44-12.24 † 6.4-12 ‡

Chloride (mEq/L) 115 (112-120)* 108-122 ‡ 111-127 †

Cholesterol

(mg/dL)

262 (190-352)* 159-267 † 117-281 †

CK (U/L) 1243 (158-3415)* 22-3657 ‡ 27-1544 ‡

GGT (U/L) 0 (0-388)* 0-2 ‡ 0-6 ‡

Glucose (mg/dL) 245 (187-425)* 283-405 † 292-448 †

LDH (U/L) 173 (76-640)* 63-2103 ‡ 106-747 ‡

Phosphorus

(mg/dL)

3.12 (1.85-4.39)* 2.78-8.02 ‡ 1.76-8.23 ‡

Potassium (mEq/L) 4.1 (2.2-6.7)* 1.7-4.9 † 2.3-5.7 †

Protein, total

(g/dL)

3.4 (2.4-4.6)* 2.9-5.0 ‡ 3.0-5.1 ‡

Albumin (g/dL) 1.9 (1.3-2.3)* 1.2-1.8 ‡ 1.2-1.8 ‡

Globulin (g/dL) 1.5 (1.0-2.4)* 1.7-3.4 ‡ 1.5-3.3 ‡

A:G ratio 1.4 (0.7-1.6)* 0.5-0.8 ‡ 0.4-1.0 ‡

Sodium (mEq/L) 158 (153-166)* 154-169 † 151-172 †

Uric acid (mg/dL) 11.74 (5.49-18.06)* 1.29-18.05 † 3.09-17.80 ‡

Measurement

Eastern Screech Owl

(Megascops

asio) c,17,18a

Eurasian Eagle Owl

(Bubo bubo) c,17,18a

Northern Saw-whet Owl

(Aegolius acadicus) c,17,18a

Hematology

PCV (%) 47 ± 3 (40-54) 50 ± 9 (NA) 48 ± 5 (NA)

RBC (10 6 /µL) 3.4 ± 7 (1.7-4.8) 2.0 ± 0.3 (NA) 2.8 ± 0.5 (NA)

Hgb (g/dL) — — —

MCV (fL) 145 ± 26 (89-200) — 176 ± 29 (NA)

438

WBC (10 3 /µL) PBT 15.4 ± 6.3 (1.2-28.1) 20.9 ± 14.4 (6.6-64.7) 6.3 ± 3.1 (NA)

NHT 8.4 ± 3.9 (3.1-19.8) 17.2 ± 11.6 (3.0-56.6) 5.7 ± 2.5 (NA)

EST 15.2 ± 6.3 (1.8-28.5) 20.4 ± 12.6 (6.2-65.8) 11.6 ± 3.6 (NA)

Heterophils 10 3 /

µL (%)

4.0 ± 1.6 (0.4-7.3)

27 ± 10 (6-47)

10.9 ± 8.3 (2.3-48.9)

51 ± 12 (24-76)

1.8 ± 0.8 (NA)

29 ± 10 (NA)

Lymphocytes

10 3 /µL (%)

6.0 ± 3.6 (0.9-15.9)

38 ± 13 (12-65)

4.0 ± 2.1 (1.5-12.0)

23 ± 11 (5-50)

2.4 ± 1.9 (NA)

35 ± 15 (NA)

Monocytes 10 3 /

µL (%)

2.3 ± 1.1 (0.5-5.0)

15 ± 6 (3-27)

1.7 ± 1.3 (0.3-5.6)

9 ± 4 (0-17)

0.8 ± 0.4 (NA)

13 ± 3 (NA)

Eosinophils 10 3 /

µL (%)

2.8 ± 1.8 (0.4-7.9)

18 ± 8 (5-39)

4.0 ± 5.9 (NA)

16 ± 10 (4-46)

±0.7 (NA)

22 ± 10 (NA)

Basophils 10 3 /µL

(%)

0.3 ± 0.4 (0.0-1.3)

2 ± 2 (0-6)

0.2 ± 0.3 (0.0-0.9)

1 ± 1 (NA)

±0.1

1 ± 2

H:L ratio 0.9 ± 0.8 (0.8-15.8) 2.9 ± 1.9 (0.6-9.9) 1.2 ± 1.2


Chemistries

ALP (U/L) — — —

ALT (U/L) — — —

AST (U/L) 108-647 ‡ — 248 (127-411)*

Bile acid (µmol/L)

Colorometric 4-59 ‡ — 50 (21-61)*

Calcium (mg/dL) 4.9-12.4 † — 9.4 (5.6-10.4)*

Chloride (mEq/L) 106-119 † — 113 (92-114)*

Cholesterol

(mg/dL)

168-336.3 † — 307.67 (193.5-491.5)*

CK (U/L) 5-1174 ‡ — 377(19-4299) *

GGT (U/L) 0-10 ‡ — 0 (0-4)*

Glucose (mg/dL) 282.6-455.4 † — 318.6 (271.8-347.4)*

LDH (U/L) 62-2984 ‡ — 140 (6-308)*

Phosphorus

(mg/dL)

1.2-8.5 ‡ — 3.96 (2.79-5.26)*

Potassium (mEq/L) 1.2-6.2 † — 3.0 (2.6-3.6)*

Protein, total

(g/dL)

2.5-4.3 ‡ — 3.0 (2.7-3.7)*

439

Measurement

Great Gray Owl

(Strix nebulosa) c,17,18a

(Asio

flammeus) c,17,18a

Snowy Owl (Bubo

scandiaca) c,17,18a

Hematology

PCV (%) 50 ± 5 (39-61) 48 ± 6 (NA) 49 ± 6 (NA)

RBC (10 6 /µL) 2.8 ± 0.3 (2.1-3.4) 2.6 ± 0.6 (NA) 3.3 ± 0.7 (NA)

Hgb (g/dL) — — —

MCV (fL) 181 ± 26 (127-236) 181 ± 29 (NA) 142 ± 23 (NA)

MCH (pg) — — —

MCHC (g/dL) — — —

WBC (10 3 /µL) PBT 11.1 ± 6.0 (1.8-26) 11.0 ± 7.3 (NA) 9.6 ± 5.4 (NA)

NHT 4.8 ± 2.5 (1.7-11.4) 6.0 ± 3.6 (NA) 6.7 ± 6.5 (NA)

EST 13.0 ± 4.6 (2.7-21.7) 12.4 ± 5.5 (NA) 10.2 ± 5.7 (NA)

Heterophils 10 3 /

µL (%)

3.6 ± 2.6 (1.0-12.2)

34 ± 12 (9-58)

3.5 ± 2.9 (NA)

30 ± 14 (NA)

4.5 ± 3.4 (NA)

46 ± 19 (NA)

Lymphocytes

10 3 /µL (%)

4.3 ± 3.0 (0.4-12.3)

37 ± 15 (5-69)

5.0 ± 3.4 (NA)

47 ± 15 (NA)

3.3 ± 2.8 (NA)

34 ± 17 (NA)

Monocytes 10 3 /

µL (%)

1.6 ± 1.0 (0.2-4.7)

14 ± 4 (5-23)

1.1 ± 1.1 (NA)

9 ± 5 (NA)

0.9 ± 0.4 (NA)

11 ± 5 (NA)

Eosinophils 10 3 /

µL (%)

1.4 ± 1.6 (0.7-11.9)

12 ± 8 (0-42)

1.2 ± 0.8 (NA)

13 ± 8 (NA)

0.8 ± 1.0 (NA)

8 ± 5 (NA)

Basophils 10 3 /µL

(%)

0.2 ± 0.2 (0.0-0.9)

2 ± 2 (0-7)

0.2 ± 0.3 (NA)

2 ± 2 (NA)

0.0 ± 0.1 (NA)

1 ± 2 (NA)

H:L ratio 1.3 ± 1.1 (0.2-5.8) 0.9 ± 1.0 (NA) 2.6 ± 3.6 (NA)


Chemistries

ALP (U/L) — — —

ALT (U/L) — — —

AST (U/L) 125-467 ‡ 213 (121-431)* 215 (171-301)*

Bile acid (µmol/L)

Colorometric 6-81 ‡ 19 (4-94)* 27 (8-78)*

Calcium (mg/dL) 2.88-11.88 † 6.72 (3.6-9.6)* 8.84 (7.32-11.12)*

Chloride (mEq/L) 107-121 † 114 (104-122)* 113 (109-121)*

Cholesterol

(mg/dL)

139.32-284.06 † 206.3 (174.2-278.6)* 261.6 (152.48-839.8)*

CK (U/L) 1-574 ‡ 29 (0-265)* 203 (20-3338)*

440

CK (U/L) 1-574 ‡ 29 (0-265)* 203 (20-3338)*

GGT (U/L) 0-10 ‡ 0 (0-3)* 0 (0-5)*

Glucose (mg/dL) 245-378 † 319 (261-360)* 338 (218-468)*

LDH (U/L) 65-353 ‡ 180 (92-530)* 209 (132-861)*

Phosphorus

(mg/dL)

0.50-8.18 † 2.60 (0.93-7.12)* 5.51 (1.64-7.77)*

Potassium (mEq/L) 2.1-4.8 † 3.7 (2.9-5.3)* 3.8 (1.5-5.5)*

Protein, total

(g/dL)

2.7-4.1 ‡ 2.7 (2.1-3.3)* 3.6 (2.6-4.7)*

Albumin (g/dL) 1.5-2.4 † 1.4 (1.0-1.7)* 1.4 (0.8-1.9)*

Globulin (g/dL) 1.0-2.6 ‡ 1.3 (1.0-1.6)* 1.8 (1.3-3.4)*

A:G ratio 0.6-1.9 ‡ 1.1 (0.8-1.4)* 0.8 (0.4-1.3)*

Sodium (mEq/L) 152-168 ‡ 157 (151-161)* 158 (156-170)*

Uric acid (mg/dL) 3.33-21.37 ‡ 7.09 (2.56-25.28)* 11.42 (5.51-22.33)*

a


b

WBC count and differentials for Harris hawk are absolute values.

c

Hematology: Mean and SD (reference interval); PBT, phloxine B technique; NHT, Natt and Herrick

technique; EST, estimation from the smear technique. Differential counts were computed from the

phloxine B technique. Reference intervals were calculated by the robust method or robust method after

Box–Cox transformation; NA, insufficient sample size for reference interval calculation (n <20).

Biochemistry: *Median (range) (10 < n < 20). Reference intervals were not reported when n <10. † Robust

technique (n >20, Gaussian distribution). ‡ Robust technique with Box–Cox transformation (n >20, non-

Gaussian distribution).

Table 5-25

Biologic and Physiologic Values of Selected Avian

Species. a,12a,30,142,143,191,192,214,260,327,328,377,414,542,675,737,778,836

Species

Incubation

Period

(days) b

Fledgling

Age

(days)

Weaning Age

(days)

Parentraised

Handreared

Sexual

Maturity

Lifespan in

Captivity

(Maximum)

(years)

Psittaciformes

African grey

parrot

26-28 d 50-65 100-120 75-90 4-6 yr 50-60

Amazon 24-29 e 45-60 90-120 75-90 4-6 yr >50 (80)

441

Biologic and Physiologic Values of Selected Avian

Species. a,12a,30,142,143,191,192,214,260,327,328,377,414,542,675,737,778,836

Species

Incubation

Period

(days) b

Fledgling

Age

(days)

Weaning Age

(days)

Parentraised

Handreared

Sexual

Maturity

Lifespan in

Captivity

(Maximum)

(years)

Psittaciformes

African grey

parrot

Amazon

parrot

Australian

parakeet

Budgerigar

parakeet

26-28 d 50-65 100-120 75-90 4-6 yr 50-60

24-29 e 45-60 90-120 75-90 4-6 yr >50 (80)

18-19 30-45 50-65 — 1-3 yr 10-12

16-18 22-26 30-40 30 6-9 mo 5-10 (18)

Cockatiel 18-20 32-38 47-52 42-49 6-12 mo 10-12 (30)

Cockatoo,

galah

22-24 45-55 90-120 80-90 1 yr 40-60

Cockatoo,

large

Cockatoo,

medium

Conure

h

h

i

60-80 120-150 95-120 5-6 yr 50-60

45-60 90-120 75-100 3-4 yr 40-60

35-40 45-70 60 2-3 yr 25-40

Eclectus

parrot

26-28 72-80 120-150 100-110 4 yr 20-40 (80)

Lory/lorikeet 21-27 42-50 62-70 50-60 2 yr 20-30

Lovebirds 18-24 30-35 45-55 40-45 6-12 mo 15-30

Macaw, large 26-28 70-80 120-150 95-120 5-7 yr 75-100

Macaw, small 23-26 45-60 90-120 75-90 4-6 yr 50-80

Ring-neck

parakeet,

Indian

22-23 40-45 55-65 — 3 yr 18-25

Passeriformes

Canary 12-14 14 21 — <1 yr 6-12

Mynah 14-15 30 60 — 2-3 yr 12

Zebra or 12-16 18-20 25-28 — 9-10 mo 4-7

442

ground

Dove,

mourning

Pigeon (rock

dove)

13-14 12-14 — — — —

16-19 28-35 35 — 1 yr 4-8 (>20)

Ratites

Emu 50-57 — Precocial — 3-5 yr 30

Ostrich 41-43 — Precocial — 4 yr 80

Rhea 36-41 — Precocial — 1.5-2 yr —

a

Guidelines only; data vary between references. For raptors, see Table 5-26.

b

Brotogeris parakeets, 22; Pionus parrot, 25-26; Psittacula parakeets, 23-26; Quaker parakeet, 23;

Senegal parrot, 24-25.

c

Bourke’s parakeet, 40 (35-50); kakariki parakeet, 95-100; Princess of Wales parakeet, 108 (100-129);

red-rumped parakeet, 65 (60-69).

d

Congo, 28; Timneh, 26.

e

Green-cheeked, blue-fronted, 26; spectacled (white-fronted), 24; yellow-naped, yellow-fronted, yellowcrowned,

double yellow-headed, 28-29.

f

Blue-crowned, 740 (618-998); blue-fronted, 432 (361-485); double yellow-headed, 568 (463-694);

Mexican red-headed, 360 (343-377); yellow-naped, 596 (476-795).

g

Bare-eyed, 331; greater sulphur-crested, 806; Leadbeater’s (Major Mitchell’s), 423 (381-474); lesser

sulphur-crested, 303; Moluccan, 808; rose-breasted, 299; triton, 559; umbrella, 552.

h

Bare-eyed, 23-24; citron-crested, 25-26; greater sulphur-crested, 27-28; Leadbeater’s (Major

Mitchell’s), 26; lesser sulphur-crested, 24-25; Moluccan, 28-29; palm, 28-30; triton, 27-28; umbrella, 28.

i

Blue-crowned, 23-24; orange-fronted, 30; Nanday, 21-23; Patagonian, 24-25; sun, 27-28.

j

Queen of Bavaria, 262 (252-276).

k

Blue and gold, 1021; green-winged, 1179; hyacinth, 1355 (1197-1466); military, 788; red-fronted, 458;

scarlet, 1103.

Table 5-26

Biologic and Physiologic Values of Selected Raptors. 75,134,214,257,317,698,737

Species

Clutch

Size

Incubation

Period

(days)

Interval

Between

Eggs

(days)

Start of

Incubation

Fledging

(days)

Sexual

Maturity

(yr)

American

kestrel

3-7 29-31 — — 30-31 —

Bald eagle 1-3 34-36 — — 70-98 —

Barn owl 2-9 30-31 2-3 First egg 70-75 7

443

Eurasian

eagle owl

2-4 34-36 2-3 First to second

egg

6 2-3

Golden eagle 1-3 43-45 — — 6 >5

Gyrfalcon 3-5 34-36 — — 49-56 —

Harris hawk 2-5 3 2-3 Penultimate or

last egg

43-49 >3

Merlin 2-7 28-32 — — 30-35 7

Northern

goshawk

Northern

sparrow

hawk

3-5 35-38 2-3 First to second

egg

4-6 3 2-3 Third to

fourth egg

35-42 >3

— 1-2

Osprey 2-4 32-43 — — 48-59 —

Peregrine

falcon

3-4 29-32 2-3 Penultimate or

last egg

35-42 >3

Prairie

falcon

Screech owl,

eastern

Screech owl,

western

Sharpshinned

hawk

2-7 29-33 — — 35-42 —

3-4 — — — — —

2-6 21-30 — — 6 —

3-8 32-35 — — 24-27 —

Snowy owl 3-9 30-33 2-3 First egg 6 7

Turkey

vulture

1-3 38-41 — — 66-88 —

a

1.7-2.3 kg; weights of males and females were not listed separately.

b

1-2.1 kg; weights of males and females were not listed separately, but females are generally 25%

heavier than males.

c

0.8-2.3 kg; weights of males and females were not listed separately, but females are slightly heavier

than males.

Table 5-27

Quick Reference to Abnormalities of the Standard Avian Hematology Profile. 268

444

Table 5-27

Quick Reference to Abnormalities of the Standard Avian Hematology Profile. 268

Parameter Increases Decreases

PCV/RBC

Heterophils

Dehydration

Regenerative anemia

• Increased total protein • Polychromasia (10%), reticulocytes,

Erythrocytosis (polycythemia) immature RBC

• Normal or low total

• Hemorrhagic: Trauma, parasites,

protein

coagulopathies, ulcerated neoplasms,

• Primary rare

gastrointestinal ulcers

• Secondary to respiratory • Hemolytic: Septicemia, hemoparasites,

or cardiovascular disease toxicities, immune-mediated

• Presence of Heinz bodies,

agglutination of RBC

Nonregenerative anemia

• Hypoplastic: Inflammatory infectious,

myelosuppresive drugs, iron

deficiency, food restriction, folic acid

deficiency

Inflammatory processes

• Bacterial (including

Mycobacterium) and fungal

infections

• Excess corticosteroids

○ Endogenous

production

○ Exogenous

administration

Birds with a high heterophil:

lymphocyte ratio may

mount a greater leukocytic

response

Infection

• Bacterial and viral (i.e., PBFD)

Poor sample preparation, collection, and

storage

Lymphocytes

Monocytes

Eosinophils

Chronic antigenic stimulation

Neoplasia: lymphocytic

leukemia

Stress response (acute)

Granulomatous and/or chronic

inflammation (e.g.,

bacterial, fungal, parasitic)

Neoplasia

Gastrointestinal parasitism

Type IV hypersensitivity

reactions

Stress response (chronic)

Immunosuppresive drugs

Viral infection

Endotoxemia/septicemia

—

Corticosteroids


Basophils Early inflammatory responses —

445

Lymphocytes

Monocytes

Eosinophils

Basophils

lymphocyte ratio may

mount a greater leukocytic

response

Chronic antigenic stimulation

Neoplasia: lymphocytic

leukemia

Stress response (acute)

Granulomatous and/or chronic

inflammation (e.g.,

bacterial, fungal, parasitic)

Neoplasia

Gastrointestinal parasitism

Type IV hypersensitivity

reactions

Early inflammatory responses

Type I hypersensitivity

reaction

Anaphylactic reaction

Induced molting


Immunosuppresive drugs

Viral infection

Endotoxemia/septicemia

—

Corticosteroids


—

Thrombocytes — Vitamin K deficiency

Rodenticide toxicity

Aflatoxicosis

Septicemia-associated DIC (as with

polyomavirus and reovirus)

Hepatic disease or failure

Table 5-28

Quick Reference to Abnormalities of the Standard Avian Biochemical Profile. a,269

Increases

Decreases

Parameter Nonmedical Medical Nonmedical Medical

ALP (U/L)

Juveniles have

higher levels

Hyperparathyroidism

induced osteoclastic

activity (fractures);

egg laying; hepatic

disease; enteritis;

aflatoxicosis

— Dietary zinc deficien

ALT (U/L)

Seasonal variation

in raptors;

sample

hemolysis

— Seasonal variation

in raptors

—

Amylase (U/L) — Pancreatitis; — —

446

Bile acids

(µmol/L)

Lipemia; sample

hemolysis, such

samples should

not be analyzed

Loss of liver function,

even with normal

enzymes

Lipemic samples

that are

chemically

treated

Response to therapy

cirrhosis;

microhepatica

Calcium (mg/dL)

Lipemia (or cloudy

from other

causes); protein

elevations;

bacterial

contamination

Hormonal disorders; egg

production; metabolic

disease; excess dietary

vitamin D;

dehydration;

osteolytic neoplasia

EDTA; bacterial

contamination;

young birds

have lower

levels

<8; metabolic and

nutritional disor

lead poisoning;

glucocorticoid

administration;

albumin; African

parrot hypocalce

Cholesterol

(mg/dL)

Postprandial; 530

high fat diet;

carnivorous diet

Metabolic disease;

hepatic lipidosis; bile

duct obstruction;

hypothyroidism;

starvation

— Liver, metabolic dis

CK (U/L)

>300; healthy birds

up to 1000

600-25,000; muscle or

heart damage; CNS

disease (seizures);

vitamin E/selenium

deficiency;

chlamydiosis; lead

toxicity; IM injections

<10; bacterial

contamination

Rare

Creatinine

(mg/dL)

— Not useful in birds — Not useful in birds

Glucose (mg/dL)

Improper dilution;

postprandial;

posthandling

Stress, 400-600; diabetes,

800-1500;

corticosteroids

<100; unseparated

blood; bacterial

contamination

<100; hepatic dysfun

septicemia; neop

aspergillosis

LDH (U/L) Sample hemolysis 300-15,000; liver, heart,

or muscle damage;

hepatitis; muscle

damage

<50 End-stage liver dise

Lipase (U/L) — Acute pancreatitis — —

Phosphorus

(mg/dL)

Postprandial;

sample

hemolysis

Severe renal disease;

nutritional secondary


hypoparathyroidism

EDTA

Hypovitaminosis D

malabsorption; c

glucocorticoid th

Potassium

(mEq/L)

Hemolysis; dietary

supplementation

Adrenal disease;

metabolic disease;

severe tissue damage;

renal disease;

acidosis; dehydration;

hemolytic anemia

— Adrenal disease; me

disease; diuretic

therapy; alkalos

overhydration; d

deficiency

447

dirty nail clip;

carnivorous

birds have

higher levels

dehydration;

postprandial;

ovulation; tissue

damage; starvation;

hypervitaminosis D

patient;

juvenile levels

are lower

a

The ranges given are not absolute and are to be used as a guide for interpretation of a wide range of

avian species.

448

Table 5-29

Blood Gases of Selected Avian Species. a

Parameter

Amazona aestiva b (n = Falco rusticolus c (n = Psittacus spp. d (n =

35) 585 30) 631 46) 523

pH 37°C 7.45 ± 0.05 7.49 ± 0.08 7.32 ± 0.08

PCO 2 (mmHg) 22.1 ± 4 35.5 ± 6.1 29.3 ± 6.1

PO 2 (mmHg) 98.1 ± 7.6 111.8 ± 20.5 37.9 ± 3.8

HCO 3 (mmol/L) 14.8 ± 2.8 22.5 ± 4.0 15 ± 2.4

TCO 2 (mmol/L) — 23.3 ± 4.0 16.0 ± 2.7

BEecf (mmol/L) 7.9 ± 3.1 0.9 ± 4.9 17-0

Na (mmol/L) 147.4 ± 2.2 148 ± 1.8 141-159

K (mmol/L) 3.5 ± 0.5 3.3 ± 0.3 3.6 ± 0.5

iCa (mmol/L) 0.8 ± 0.3 1.0 ± 0.1 1.1 ± 0.1

SO 2 (%) 96.2 ± 1.1 98.6 ± 1.0 68.4 ± 10.1

Hct (%) 38.7 ± 6.2 42.1 ± 4.0 —

Hgb (g/dL) 13.2 ± 2.1 14.3 ± 1.4 —

Glu (mg/dL) — 317 ± 17 247 ± 25

Temperature (°C) 41.8 ± 0.6 41.2 ± 0.5 41.6 ± 0.4

pH Temp°C — 7.4 ± 0.1 7.3 ± 0.1

PCO 2 (mmHg)

Temp°C

PO 2 (mmHg) Temp

°C

— 35.5 ± 6.1 35.7 ± 7.5

— 140.3 ± 21.1 52.5 ± 5.6

a

PCO 2 , partial pressure carbon dioxide; PO 2 , partial pressure of oxygen; HCO 3 , bicarbonate

concentration; TCO 2 , total carbon dioxide concentration; SO 2 , hemoglobin saturated with oxygen.

b

i-STAT EC7 + cartridges. Mean and SD. Arterial sample under manual restraint.

c

i-STAT CG8 + cartridges. Mean and SD. Venous sample under isoflurane anesthesia with O 2 .

d

i-STAT EC8 + and CG8 + cartridges. Mean and SD, or range. Venous sample under manual restraint.

449

Table 5-30

Lipoprotein Panel of Selected Avian Species.

Amazona spp.

Parameter b (n = African grey parrot (n = Pionus parrot (n =

a

29) 642 20) 763 29) 763

Cholesterol (mg/dL) 238 (87-364) 222-297 100-116

Triglycerides

(mg/dL)

156 (10-300) 104-190 270-301

HDL (mg/dL) 109 (75-148) 161-176 172-177

LDL (mg/dL) 92 (2-182) 24-100 75-103

VLDL (mg/dL) 31 (2-60) — —

LDL:HDL (mg/dL) 0.75 (0.18-1.28) — —

Non-HDL-LDL

(mg/dL)

1.08 (0.24-1.82) — —

a

HDL, high-density lipoprotein; LDL, low-density lipoprotein; VLDL, very low-density lipoprotein.

b

Mean and 90% confidence intervals.

Table 5-31

T 4

Values of Selected Avian Species. a,155,465,472,871

Species Baseline T 4 (nmol/L) b Post-TSH (nmol/L) c,d

African grey parrot 3.83-27.03 155,377 —

1.83 ± 0.57 465 11.97 ± 3.73 465

≤1.93 871 23.04 ± 13.26 871

Amazon parrot 1.29-14.16 155 —

10.54 ± 8.88 465 35.26 ± 20.5 465

5.53 ± 0.36 (red-lored) 871 78.64 ± 44.79 871

≤1.93 (blue-fronted) 871 98.33 ± 26.38 871

Budgerigar 6.44-27.03 155 —

Canary 9.01-41.18 155 —

Cockatiel 9.01-30.89 155 —

15.24 ± 8.7 465 50.19 ± 7.28 465

Cockatoo 17.54 ± 8.4 465 45.17 ± 16.94 465

Conure 6.44-25.74 155 —

450

2.27 ± 0.99 465 17.37 ± 9.92 465

Eclectus parrot 3.86-25.74 155 —

Jardine’s parrot 2.57-19.31 155 —

Lory 3.86-15.44 155 —

Lovebird 2.57-55.34 155,377 —

Macaw, blue and gold 4.39 ± 2.29 465 15.91 ± 8.16 465

Macaw, scarlet 1.72 ± 0.66 465 8.31 ± 3.99 465

Pigeon 6.05-35.01 155,377,472 —

Pionus parrot 6.44-24.45 155 —

Quaker parrot 5.15-27.03 155 —

Senegal parrot 6.44-29.6 155 —

a

0.5 μg/dL = 6.5 nmol/L = 5 ng/mL. 291 To convert thyroxine from μg/dL to nmol/L, multiply by 12.87. 472

b

T 4 levels will vary with the time of day and year, with higher levels measured in the winter. Physiologic

states such as molting or reproductive activity may also alter the ratio of T 4 to T 3 released. The half-life of

thyroid hormones is much shorter in birds than in mammals; therefore it is difficult to accurately

measure single hormone levels. 513

c

The canine radioimmunoassay (RIA) kit does not accurately measure total T 4 below 6.5 nmol/L. 291

Results of high-sensitivity total T 4 testing in parrots ranged from 2 to 6 nmol/L. This high sensitivity test

is available through the University of Tennessee Clinical Endocrinology Laboratory (865-974-5638). 292

d

Low-dose TSH (0.2 U/kg).

451

Table 5-32

Approximate Resting Respiratory Rates of Selected Avian Species and by

Weight. 149a,257,688

Species

Respiratory Rate (breaths/min) a

Amazon parrot 15-45

Budgerigar 60-75

Canary 60-80

Cockatiel 40-50

Cockatoo 15-40

Conure, large 30-45

Conure, small 40-50

Finch 90-110

Lovebird 50-60

Macaw 20-25

Raptor 10-20

Toucan 15-45

Weight (g) Respiratory Rate (breaths/min) a

100 40-52

200 35-50

300 30-45

400 25-30

500 20-30

1000 15-20

a

Restraint can increase respiratory rate 1.5-2× the resting rate.

452

Table 5-33

Urinalysis Values Reported in Birds. 102,606

Parameter Reference Range Pigeon a,308 Falcon 801 Ostrich 539

Specific

gravity

(g/mL)

1.005-1.020 — — —

pH 6.4-8

Laying hens and carnivorous birds may

have more acidic urine; cloacal contents

may alter urine pH

5.5-6.9 5-7 7.6 ± 1.5

Protein

(g/dL)

Negative to trace 0.11-1.99 0.3 ± 0.2 2.6 ± 1.5

Glucose

(mg/dL)

Negative to trace — 24.3 ±

39.6

Negative

Ketones

Negative; ketonuria is sometimes present in

migratory birds

— Negative Negative

Bilirubin Negative — — Negative

Urobilinogen Negative — — Negative

a

95% confident interval.

Table 5-34

Values Reported for Selected Ophthalmic Diagnostic Tests in Avian

Species. a,b,70,376,430,432a,522,661,771,773,855

Tear Production

Intraocular Pressure

(mmHg)

Species

Phenol Red Thread

Test (mm/15 sec)

Schirmer Tear

Test (mm/min)

Applanation

Tonometry

Rebound

Tonometry

Psittacine birds

Amazon parrots,

blue-fronted

Amazon parrots,

Hispaniolan

Amazon parrots,

orange-winged

21.9 ± 2.3 c — 8.3 ± 1.1 c —

12.5 ± 5.0 7.9 ± 2.6 — —

12.6 ± 2.6 c — 9.7 ± 1.7 c —

Raptors

453

Bald eagle — 14 ± 2 21.5 ± 1.7 —

Barn owl 19.5 ± 7.2 3.6 ± 2.2 18.0 ± 6.6 11.5 ± 4.7

Common buzzard 16.0 ± 7.7 13.7 ± 4.4 19.4 ± 3.9 29.9 ± 6.1

Cooper’s hawk — — 16.0 ± 1.8 10.7 ± 1.4

Eastern screech

owl

— — 9.3 ± 2.6 6.3 ± 1.3

Eurasian eagle owl — — 9.3 ± 1.8 10.5 ± 1.6

Eurasian scops

owl

11.8 ± 5 1.0 ± 0.5 14.5 ± 3.9 —

Golden eagle — — 21.5 ± 3 —

Great horned owl — — 9.9 ± 2.4 9.9 ± 2.4

Kestrel, American — — 8.5 ± 4.4 6.8 ± 1.7

Kestrel, common 29.6 ± 4.7 5.8 ± 4 11.9 ± 3.3 11.6 ± 2.7

Northern

goshawk

— — — 21.2 ± 2.4

Peregrine falcon — — — 15.3 ± 6.1

Red-tailed hawk — — 20.3 ± 2.8 19.8 ± 4.9

Snowy owl — 9.8 ± 2.4 — 9.1 ± 1.9

Swainson’s hawk — — 20.8 ± 2.3 —

Tawny owl — 4.3 9.4 ± 1.8 11.1 ± 3.1

Turkey vulture — — 15.0 ± 2.1 11.7 ± 1.0

a

Mean ± SD values reported.

b

For ultrasonographic ocular measurements, see references.

c

Median ± S-IQR.

454

Table 5-35

Checklist of Supportive Care Procedures Used in Companion Bird Medicine. 96

Supportive care is an essential component of companion bird medicine.

1. Minimize handling and other stressors

2. House the bird in a warm, quiet, well-ventilated environment

• Ensure minimal to no disturbance

• Debilitated birds are often fluffed and ruffled and require supplemental heat 86°F

(30°C)

3. Fluid therapy (see Table 5-36 and Table 5-37)

4. Provide analgesia when indicated (see Table 5-5 and Table 5-6)

5. Supplement vitamins as needed

• Vitamin A, vitamin E/selenium

• Vitamin B complex in selected cases of injury, anorexia, cachexia, CNS disorders, or

blood loss

6. Antibiotics (see Table 5-1)

• To control primary infections and for injured or debilitated birds where secondary

infections may result

7. Iron dextran

• Iron deficiency or following hemorrhage

8. Normal photoperiod (or subdued lighting, if needed)

9. Oxygen

• Dyspnea, hypoxia, or severe pneumonia and air sacculitis

10. Maintain body weight

• Weigh once or twice daily if possible

• Offer favorite foods and avoid changing diet while ill

11. Gavage or tube feeding a

• Malnourishment, anorexia, cachexia, and dehydration

• High carbohydrate formula is initially recommended

• High-protein/high-calorie formulas may be used to increase body weight during

recovery

a

Crop volume may be estimated as 5% BW or 50 mL/kg.

455

Table 5-36

Fluid Therapy Recommendations for Birds.

When evaluating a patient for fluid therapy, the following factors should ideally be

considered: hydration status, electrolyte balance, acid-base status, hematologic and

biochemical values, and caloric balance.

• Warm fluids to 100-102°F (38-39°C) to help prevent or correct hypothermia

• Use caution when giving dextrose parenterally; 5% dextrose is a good choice for simple

dehydration; however, it can exacerbate problems significantly if used concurrent to

significant electrolyte loss 496,767

• When given orally, dextrose is rapidly absorbed from the intestinal tract without

creating an influx of fluid into the intestinal lumen and secondary dehydration 496,767

• Potassium chloride can be diluted in fluids to correct for potassium depletion based on

electrolyte analysis (0.1-0.3 mEq/kg) 808

• Hetastarch at 10-15 mL/kg IV q8h for up to four treatments or dextrans may be effective

for hypoproteinemia; synthetic colloids should be used with caution in patients

suffering from congestive heart failure or renal failure 529,772

Total parenteral nutrition may also be considered. 180,182

Maintenance and Deficit Replacement 289,358,529,628

• Determine fluid deficit:

Fluid deficit (mL) = body weight (g) × % dehydration

• Determine daily maintenance:

Daily maintenance is estimated at 50 mL (range: 40-60 mL/kg/day in many avian

species); the smallest passerines drink 250-300 mL/kg daily 483

• If possible, replace 50% of the deficit in the first 12-24 hr, and the remainder over the

next 24-48 hr; some clinicians recommend replacing 20%-25% of the deficit in the first 4-

6 hr, and the remaining volume during the next 24-72 hr

456

Table 5-37

Routes of Administration and Maximum Suggested Volumes of Fluids Which Can Be

Administered to Psittacines. 326,646,767

Route

Gavage

Subcutaneous

Intravenous or

intraosseous

bolus

Maximum Suggested Volume of Fluid a

• Administer up to 5 mL/100 g bird b

• Initial volume should be much less in critically ill and anorectic

patients (begin with ½ - ⅓ of estimated crop volume)

• Crop volume may be up to 10% BW in neonatal birds

50 mL/kg c,d

Administer up to 10 mL/kg (ideally over a 5-10 min period); in

emergencies, could go as high as 25 mL/kg (see Table 5-16)

a

Combinations of routes (PO, SC, and IV/IO) are recommended if large fluid volumes are administered.

b

Crop volume may be estimated at 5% of body weight (BW).

c

Volumes of 10-15 mL/kg may be comfortably given per subcutaneous injection site, although up to 25

mL/kg per site may be given. Overdistension of the area may compromise blood supply to the area and

reduce absorption. 767

d

Hyaluronidase (Wydase, Wyeth-Ayerst) (1 mL [150 U]/L fluids) may be used in most species to

increase the absorption rate of fluids. 385

Table 5-38

Suggested Volumes and Frequency of Gavage Feeding in Anorectic Birds. 628,689

Species Volume (mL) a,b Frequency a

Finch 0.1-0.5 q4h

Budgerigar 0.5-3 q6h

Lovebird 1-3 q6h

Cockatiel 1-8 q6h

Conure, small 3-12 q6h

Conure, large 7-24 q6-8h

Amazon parrot 5-35 q8h

Cockatoo 10-40 q8-12h

Macaw 20-60 q8-12h

a

Adjust volume and frequency as crop accommodates larger volumes.

b

Generally 3%-5% of body weight. 325

Table 5-39

457

Calculation of Enteral Feeding Requirements for Birds. 624

When dealing with a debilitated patient that must be tube fed more than once or twice, it is always

prudent to make sure you are meeting its caloric requirements.

Basal metabolic rate (BMR) (kcal/day) = kW 0.75

Maintenance energy requirements (MER) (kcal/day) = (1.5 × BMR)

k = kcal/kg/day constant (nonpasserines = 78, passerines = 129)

• Calculate MER

• Adjust the MER value for debilitated patients, taking their specific clinical condition into account

For instance, an adjustment for sepsis is made by multiplying by 1.5.

Most manufacturers of critical care diets provide information on caloric content (see below); if they do

not, call them and ask (see Table 5-41).

Product

(Manufacturer)

Protein (%) Fat (%) Fiber (%) CHO

(NFE) a

Label

Claim

(min)

Dry

Matter

Basis

Label

Claim

(min)

Dry

Matter

Basis

Label

Claim

(max)

Dry

Matter

Basis

(%)

Dry

Matter

Basis

Caloric

Content

(kcal)

a/d Canine/Feline

Critical Care

(Hill’s)

Carnivore Care

(Oxbow)

CliniCare

Canine/Feline

Liquid Diet

(Abbott)

Emeraid

Carnivore

(Lafeber)

8.5 44.2 6.6 30.4 0.5 1.3 15.4 1.3/mL

45 — 32 — 3 — — 0.8/mL

8.2 35.1 5.1 22.2 0.1 0.4 29.5 1/mL

37.8 — 34 — 4.5 — — 5.14 kcal/g

Emeraid

19 — 9.5 — 32 — — 3.04 kcal/g

(Lafeber) c

Herbivore

458

Emeraid

Omnivore

(Lafeber)

20 — 9.5 — 0.5 — — 4.06 kcal/g

Emeraid Nutri-

Support

(Lafeber)

Exact Baby Bird

Hand Feeding

Formula

(Kaytee)

Exact Macaw

Hand Feeding

Formula

(Kaytee)

Formula AA

Acute Care

(Roudybush)

Maximum-

Calorie

Veterinary

Formula

(Iams)

Recovery

Formula

(Harrison’s)

18.5 — 5 — 1 — — 2.5

22 — 9 — 5 — — 3.9/g

19 — 13 — 5 — — 4.1/g

20 — 10 — 5 — — 3.5/g DW

14 — 12 — 1 — — 2.1/mL

35 — 19 — 1 — — 3.9/g

a

Carbohydrate nitrogen-free extract.

b

24 kcal/Tbs of powder.

c

Fed in combination with Emeraid Omnivore to geese and swans.

459

Table 5-40

Doxycycline Recipes Used in Psittacines. 241,621

Medicated water for cockatiels:

1. Mix doxycycline with tap water to a final concentration of 280 mg/L (0.28 mg/mL)

using a magnetic stir bar and plate

2. Prepare daily for 45 days

3. No calcium supplementation should be provided

Medicated seed for cockatiels:

1. Combine 60% hulled millet and 40% hulled sunflower seed with 6.25 mL sunflower

oil/kg seed; mix well

2. Mix doxycycline with seeds at 500 mg/kg wet weight using an electric mixer



Medicated seed for budgerigars:

1. Create a 1:4 mixture of hulled oat groat and hulled millet

2. Mix well

3. Add approximately 6 mL sunflower oil/kg seed (enough to coat seeds, but not

dripping)

4. Mix well

5. Add the contents of doxycycline hyclate capsules aseptically (300 mg drug/kg seed)



Table 5-41

Selected Sources of Formulated and Medicated Diets for Companion

and Aviary Birds

Avi-Sci, Inc a

4477 South Williams Road

St. Johns, MI 48879, USA

www.avi-sci.com

Pretty Bird International, Inc a

31008 Fox Hill Ave

Stacy, MN 55079, USA

www.prettybird.com/

Harrison’s Bird Foods

7108 Crossroads Blvd, Suite 325

Brentwood, TN 37027, USA

www.harrisonsbirdfoods.com/

Rolf C. Hagen, Inc a 460

50 Hampden Rd

Mansfield, MA 02048, USA

www.hagen.com/usa/index

Kaytee Products, Inc

521 Clay St, PO Box 230

Chilton, WI 53014, USA

www.kaytee.com/

Roudybush Foods a

340 Hanson Way

Woodland, CA 95776, USA

www.roudybush.com/

Lafeber Co

24981 N 1400 East Rd

Cornell, IL 61319, USA

www.lafebervet.com/

Scenic Bird Food

Marion Zoological

2003 E. Center Circle

Plymouth, MN 55441, USA

www.marionzoological.com/bird/

L’Avian Plus

D & D Commodities Ltd.

PO Box 359

Stephen, MN 56757, USA

www.lavianplus.com

Zeigler Bros, Inc a

PO Box 95

Gardners, PA 17324, USA

www.zeiglerfeed.com

Mazuri Diets

PMI Nutrition International LLC

PO Box 66812

St. Louis, MO 63166-6812, USA

www.mazuri.com/

ZuPreem Diets

Premium Nutritional Products, Inc

PO Box 2094

Mission, KS 66201, USA

www.zupreem.com/

a

Source of medicated feeds.

461

Table 5-42

Selected Nutritional Recommendations for Wild Bird Rehabilitation. 104,214,215,258,737,a

Aquatic Birds, Including Wading Birds and Seabirds

• Live-prey eating birds like pelicans and herons may not recognize familiar food in an

unfamiliar presentation; offer live fish in large tubs, such as a small child’s pool, but be

prepared to force-feed as needed

Hummingbirds

• It is extremely challenging to meet the nutritional needs of hummingbirds;

hummingbirds must constantly replenish energy sources to survive; nectar from plants

as well as protein from insects (an estimated 100 mg) are both critical daily dietary

requirements

• Nektar-Plus (Nekton) will provide adequate nutritional support, including protein

• Insects, such as Drosophila fruit flies, may be released into the enclosure 576

Raptors

• Rehydrate first (see Table 5-36 and Table 5-37); this is particularly important in birds of

prey because the raptor’s digestive process requires copious secretions

• For debilitated birds, tube feed a diet rich in protein and fat; offer an enteral tube feeding

product (see Table 5-39), ground whole prey (less feet, fur or feathers, gastrointestinal

tract), or small amounts of quail breast meat soaked in oral electrolytes

• Feed whole prey after establishing normal gastrointestinal time; offer food the bird will

recognize as prey such as eviscerated fish, rats, mice, and/or quail; to increase the

chances of self-feeding, offer a variety of foods

• Feed juvenile raptors a whole animal diet of mice or rats supplemented with vitamins;

for young nestlings, remove the fur, toenails, and the gastrointestinal tract, then dice

the remainder of the body to create a fine “mush”

Songbirds

• Determine if the bird is an omnivore, herbivore, nectarivore, or insectivore and offer a

variety of foods; use a good identification book like The Sibley Guide to Birds 737 paired with

a resource like The Birder’s Handbook 214 to determine preferred foods

• Offer a variety of foods, such as high-quality birdseed, mealworms, and tiny pieces of

fresh fruit and vegetables, in a shallow container or lid

• Presentation of food promotes self-feeding; place earthworms in a pan of soil for

thrushes, offer berries still attached to a branch to a mockingbird

• Swifts and swallows may take a live insect on a forcep

• Woodpeckers may eat mealworms trapped in peanut butter spread on bark

a

See Tables 14-1 for more details.

Table 5-43

Management of Dystocia or Egg Binding in Birds.

Definition

462

• Dystocia or egg binding—obstructive or nonobstructive abnormal oviposition

Etiology—Often Multifactorial

• Environmental stressors

• Nutritional: dehydration, hypocalcemia, low-protein diet, and/or general malnutrition

• Egg-related: abnormal egg size and shape or position

• Hen-related: systemic disease, salpingitis, oviduct perforation, torsion or scarring,

and/or neoplasia

Diagnosis

• History/clinical signs/physical findings: nonspecific signs of illness, respiratory distress,

persistent tail bobbing, ± blood from vent or in droppings, coelomic distension ±

palpable egg

• Complete blood/chemistry panel

• Radiography/ultrasonography

Treatment

• Stabilize the patient

○ Warm, dark, humidified environment

○ Administer warmed fluids, SC, IV, or IO if dehydrated

○ Dextrose: 50% bolus IV or IO; 2.5% in fluids SC if hypoglycemic

○ Calcium gluconate: 50-100 mg/kg IM or SC if hypocalcemic

○ Nutritional support required in most cases

• Medical management

○ Oxytocin: 5 U/kg IM, may repeat q30min

○ Prostaglandin E 2 : 0.1 mL/100 g (1 mL/kg) intracloacal on uterovaginal sphincter

• Surgical management

○ Attempt after 12-24 hr unless patient is obstructed and requires faster intervention

○ Sedation with oxygen supplementation or general anesthesia must be used

○ Use caution when manipulating egg; do not press cranially when stabilizing the egg,

as this will compromise respiration; instead, gentle laterolateral digital pressure to

direct egg caudally

○ Cloacal ovocentesis

▪ 18g-20g needle regardless of patient size

▪ Visualize egg/oviductal opening using lubricated speculum or cotton applicators

and focal light source

▪ Insert needle into egg and aspirate contents while stabilizing egg

▪ Gently implode egg with laterolateral digital pressure

▪ Extract fragments with curved hemostats

○ Percutaneous ovocentesis

▪ 18g-20g needle

▪ Stabilize egg against left side of body, then aseptically prepare area

▪ Insert needle and aspirate contents

▪ Gently implode egg with laterolateral digital pressure if it does not collapse

▪ Salpingotomy or salpingohysterectomy

Table 5-44

463

Protocols Used in Treating Mycobacteriosis in Birds. a,b

Drug Combinations and Dosages

Agent 1 c,821 2 51 3 821 4 821 5 821 6 d,76 7 444

Azithromycin — — — — — — —

Ciprofloxacin — — — — 80 mg/kg

PO

q24h

— —

Clarithromycin — — — — — — 55 mg/kg

PO

q24h

Clofazimine — — — — — 1.5 mg/kg

PO q24h

—

Cycloserine — — — — — 5 mg/kg PO

q12h

—

Enrofloxacin — — 30 mg/kg

PO

q24h

30 mg/kg

PO

q24h

— 10-15 mg/kg

PO, IM

q12h

6 mg/kg

PO

q24h

Ethambutol

30 mg/kg

PO

q24h

10 mg/kg

PO

q12h

30 mg/kg

PO

q24h

30 mg/kg

PO

q24h

30 mg/kg

PO

q24h

20 mg/kg PO

q24h

30 mg/kg

PO

q24h

Isoniazid

30 mg/kg

PO

q24h

— — — — — —

Rifabutin — — 15 mg/kg

PO

q24h

— — — 45 mg/kg

PO

q24h

Rifampin

45 mg/kg

PO

q24h

15 mg/kg

PO

q12h

— 45 mg/kg

PO

q24h

45 mg/kg

PO

q24h

— —

Streptomycin — 30 mg/kg

IM

q12h

— — — — —

a

Because of its zoonotic potential, controversy exists concerning whether to treat pet and aviary birds

for Mycobacterium avium. Because M. avium isolates from birds differ from human isolates in antibiotic

464

susceptibility, serovars, and genetic sequencing, pet birds are an unlikely source of M. avium in people

(except immunosuppressed individuals). Nevertheless, veterinarians who treat birds with this disease do

so at their own risk. The veterinarian should be aware that treatment is often lifelong for the bird and that

treatment does not necessarily prevent shedding. 51,76,202,444,688,821

b

Empirical evaluation of multidrug therapy found that azithromycin (43 mg/kg), rifampin (45 mg/kg), and

ethambutol (30 mg/kg) were ineffective in ring-necked doves (Streptopelia risoria) naturally infected with

avian mycobacteriosis. Culture and sensitivity results indicated resistance to all drugs except for

azithromycin. 696

c

Mix into dextrose powder, administered with a small amount of food. 821

d

Recommended for use in raptors. 76

e

Enrofloxacin (15 mg/kg PO q12h), clofazimine (6 mg/kg PO q12h), or amikacin IM, IV can be used in

lieu of ciprofloxacin with ethambutol, rifabutin, and azithromycin. 688

Table 5-45

Suggested Chemotherapeutic Protocols Used in Birds.

C.O.P. PROTOCOL FOR LYMPHOSARCOMA 264

▪ Prednisone 25 mg/m 2 PO q24h

▪ Cyclophosphamide 200 mg/m 2 IO q7d

▪ Vincristine 0.75 mg/m 2 IO q7d × 3 treatments

▪ Doxorubicin 30 mg/m 2 IO q21d

▪ L-asparaginase 400 U/kg IM q7d

▪ Interferon α 15,000 U/m 2 SC q2d × 3 treatments

▪ Diphenhydramine 2 mg/kg IO before doxorubicin and L-asparaginase treatments

▪ Dexamethasone 1 mg/kg IM before doxorubicin and L-asparaginase treatments

PROTOCOL FOR LYMPHOCYTIC LEUKEMIA OR LYMPHOSARCOMA a,555

▪ Vincristine sulfate 0.5 mg/m 2 IV initial dose, then 0.75 mg/m 2 q7d × 3 treatments

▪ Prednisone 1 mg/454 g PO q12h

▪ Chlorambucil 1 mg/bird PO 2×/wk

PROTOCOL FOR CUTANEOUS LYMPHOSARCOMA b,673

▪ Vincristine 0.1 mg/kg IV q7-14d

▪ Chlorambucil 2 mg/kg PO 2×/wk

PROTOCOL FOR OSTEOSARCOMA c,197

▪ Diphenhydramine 30 min before doxorubicin treatment (route and dose not given)

▪ Doxorubicin 60 mg/m 2 is diluted into 6 mL sterile saline and administered IV over 30

min in an anesthetized patient via an angiocatheter in the jugular vein q30d

▪ Do not extravasate doxorubicin; doxorubicin may cause myelosuppression and cardiac

toxicity; monitor the CBC

▪ Electrocardiography during treatment is recommended

a

Dosages are for a Pekin duck (Anas platyrhynchos domesticus).

b

Dosages are for an umbrella cockatoo (Cacatua alba).

c

Dosages are for a blue-fronted Amazon parrot (Amazona aestiva).

Table 5-46

Drug Dosages and Volumes Suggested for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) and

465

in Critical Birds. a

Emergency Drug

Dose

15 g

(Canary;

Finch)

30 g

(Budgerigar)

40-50 g

(Lovebird)

100 g

(Conure;

Cockatiel)

Atropine (0.2-

0.5 mg/mL)

0.5 mg/kg 0.006-

0.015

mL

0.012-0.03 mL 0.015-0.05

mL

0.04-0.1 mL

Calcium gluconate

(10%)

(100 mg/mL)

50-100 mg/kg 0.007-

0.015

mL

0.015-0.03 mL 0.02-0.05

mL

0.05-0.1 mL

Dexamethasone

sodium

phosphate

(4 mg/mL)

2-4 mg/kg 0.007-

0.015

mL

0.015-0.03 mL 0.02-0.05

mL

0.05-0.1 mL

Dextrose (50%)

(diluted with

saline)

0.25 mL/kg

(slow)

0.004 mL 0.008 mL 0.01-0.125

mL

0.025 mL

Epinephrine

(1:1000;

1 mg/mL)

Isotonic crystalloid

fluids (bolus)

0.1 mg/kg 0.001mL 0.003 mL 0.005 mL 0.01 mL

10 mL/kg 0.15 mL 0.3 mL 0.4-0.5 mL 1 mL

7.5% NaCl 3 mL/kg 0.04 mL 0.09 mL 0.12-0.15

mL

0.3 mL

6% Hetastarch 5 mL/kg bolus

(20

mL/kg/day)

0.07mL 0.15 mL 0.2-0.25 mL 0.5 mL

Mannitol (20%)

(200 mg/mL)

Prednisolone

sodium

succinate (10

mg/mL)

0.5-2 mL/kg 0.0075-

0.03

mL

10-20 mg/kg 0.015-0.03

mL

0.015-0.06 mL 0.02-0.1 mL 0.05-0.2 mL

0.03-0.06 mL 0.04-0.1 mL 0.1-0.2 mL

Sodium

bicarbonate (1

mEq/mL)

5 mEq/kg 0.075 mL 0.15 mL 0.2-0.25 mL 0.5 mL

Vasopressin (20 0.8 U/kg IV, IO — — — 0.004 mL

466

U/mL)

a

Dose in mL/kg body weight, IV, IO, or IM. If weight is not available, base CPR on approximate weight of

species closest in size.

Table 5-47

Vaccines Used in Birds (Non-Poultry). 113,126,320,381,396,478,498,528,567,608,664,670,676,808,862

Species Agent Dosage Initial Booster Comments

See

comments

West Nile virus

(West Nile-

Innovator,

Zoetis; Equine

killed vaccine;

(Recombitekequine

rWNV

vaccine, Merial;

equine

recombinant

DNA vaccine)

0.5-1 mL IM Repeat q3-4wk

for 2-3

treatments

3 wk Environmental c

Raptors

Paramyxovirus-1

(V.P. Vaccin

Nobilis Lasota,

Intervet)

Intranasally or

added to

drinking

water

— Booster in 3-4

wk; protects

approximately

6 mo

Hitchner B1 and

Pigeons,

racing

Paramyxovirus-1

(V.P. Vaccin

Apply 1-2 drops

in nostrils or

2-4 wk before

shows/races

6-8 wk MLV; poor immu

467

Nobilis Lasota,

Intervet)

eyes

— Add to drinking

water

— 8 wk 1 bottle is admin

Paramyxovirus-

1/Pox, pigeon

(Columbovac,

Solvay Duphar)

0.2 mL SC a,76 4 wk of age — Killed vaccine; po

Psittacines

Polyomavirus

(Psittimune

APV, Creative

Science)

0.25 mL/bird

(that will

weigh <200 g

at maturity)

SC 624

35-50 days of

age; chicks

may be

safely

vaccinated

as young as

10-20 days

of age,

degree of

protection

uncertain 670

2-3 wk, then

annually

May cause discol

— 0.5 mL/bird (that

will weigh

>200 g at

maturity)

should be

given at least 2

wk before

leaving

aviary 669

SC 624 — Last booster

May be indicated

Emus 797

Eastern and

western equine

encephalitis and

tetanus

(Equiloid, Fort

Dodge)

Same dosage as

recommended

for the target

species

(horses) IM

6 wk to 3 mo

of age

Repeat 3-4 wk —

later, then

booster

annually or

biannually

before and

after breeding

season

(March/Sept) 797

a

Vaccinating birds during an outbreak may allow humans to theoretically serve as mechanical vectors. 664

b

Choose subcutaneous injection site carefully in pigeons to avoid bleeding; cranial to thigh or lower ⅓ of

neck on dorsal midline.

Table 5-48

Blood Pressure Values Reported in Birds.

468

Species

Direct or Indirect

Mean Arterial

Pressure (mmHg)

Systolic

Arterial

Pressure

(mmHg)

Diastolic

Arterial

Pressure

(mmHg)

Psittacines

Indirect in — 120-180 —

birds 451

conscious

Indirect in birds

under

isoflurane

anesthesia 451 — 90-180 —

Hispaniolan

Amazon

parrots a (n =

16)

Direct in birds

under

isoflurane

anesthesia

using the

wing 9 155 ± 18 (112-185) 163 ± 18 (119-

200)

Direct in birds

under

isoflurane

anesthesia

using the leg 9 152 ± 28 (97-190) 159 ± 28 (113-

206)

148 ± 18 (106-

171)

144 ± 30 (83-

181)

Indirect in birds

under

isoflurane

anesthesia

using the

wing 9 140 ± 25 (104-197) — —

Indirect in birds

under

isoflurane

anesthesia

using the leg 9 145 ± 28 (96-196) — —

Falcons (n = 45)

Red-tailed

hawks (n =

6)

Indirect in birds

under

isoflurane

anesthesia 459 202 ± 27.57 — —

Indirect in birds

under

sevoflurane

anesthesia b,869 155 ± 27 181 ± 25 —

Indirect in 190 ± 38 236 ± 42 —

469

conscious

birds 869

Direct in birds

under

sevoflurane

anesthesia 869 159 ± 25 (102-216) 178 ± 27 (124-

251)

Direct in

201 ± 29 (154-262) 238 ± 39 (161-

birds 869

conscious

301)

143 ± 24 (78-

198)

180 ± 31 (142-

254)

Bald eagles (n =

17)

Direct in

spontaneously

breathing birds

under general

anesthesia 388

MAP was

significantly

elevated with

isoflurane when

compared to

sevoflurane

176 ± 14.4-

209.3 ± 14.4

on

isoflurane

over 40

min

139.2 ± 14.5-

171.6 ± 14.4

on

isoflurane

over 40

min

128.8 ± 15-163

± 13.5 on

sevoflurane

over 40

min

129.2 ± 15.2-

147.1 ± 13.8

on

sevoflurane

over 40

min

Indirect in 123.5 ± 61.9 — —

birds 11

conscious

Pigeons (n = 7)

Indirect in — 155 ± 21 —

birds 93

conscious

Indirect under

isoflurane

anesthesia

— 87 ± 11 —

Chicken (n =

40)

Pekin ducks (n

= 72)

Direct in birds 136 (114-158) 141 (118-163) 131 (109-153)

anesthesia 413

under general

Direct in birds 143 (111–174) 165 (138–192) 121 (85–157)

anesthesia 436

under general

a

There was substantial disagreement between direct systolic arterial blood pressure and indirect blood

pressure measurements obtained with the Doppler probe from the wing and from the leg of the

Hispaniolan parrot (Amazona ventralis); attempts to obtain indirect blood pressure measurements with

an oscillometric unit were unsuccessful. 9

b

Indirect blood pressure measured using an oscillometric unit was unreliable; indirect blood pressure

measurements using a Doppler probe and cuff 3 were closer to direct mean arterial pressure measured

from the superficial ulnar artery.

470

Table 5-49

Selected Arrhythmias and Some Documented Causes in Birds. 56

Arrhythmias ECG Changes Causes

Excitability Disturbances

Respiratory

sinus

arrhythmia

Sinus

bradycardia

Sinus

tachycardia

Atrial

tachycardia

Atrial

fibrillation

Ventricular

premature

contraction

(VPC)

Ventricular

tachycardia

Ventricular

fibrillation

Slowing of HR during

expiration

Low HR, normal sinus

rhythm

High HR, normal sinus

rhythm

Series of fast atrial

extrasystoles

No normal P waves,

irregular SS

intervals

Wide, bizarre QRS

unrelated to P

Series of VPC

Chaotic ventricular

depolarization

Physiologic

Vagal stimulation, atropine, anesthesia,

hypokalemia, hyperkalemia, vitamin E

deficiency, vitamin B 1 deficiency,

acetylcholinesterase inhibitors

Sympathetic, catecholamine stimulation

Atrial distension, ectopic foci

Atrial enlargements, cardiac disease

Ectopic foci, hypokalemia, vitamin B 1 deficiency,

vitamin E deficiency, PMV-1, AI, myocardial

infarction

Similar causes as for VPCs

Myocardial hypoxia, shock, severe disorders

Conduction Disturbances

1st-degree AV

block

2nd-degree AV

block

3rd-degree AV

block

Bundle branch

block

Long PR intervals

Long PR intervals,

some P without

QRS

Escape ventricular

rhythm (slow and

bizarre QRS), no

consistent PR

Short PR, bizarre and

widened QRS

Anesthetics, increased vagal tone

Anesthetics, increased vagal tone, occasionally

normal in pigeons, parrots, raptors

Severe cardiomegaly

Lead, myopathy, myocarditis, uncommon in birds

471

Table 5-50

ECG Measurements Reference Values on Lead II in Selected Avian Species

(Amplitude in mV, Interval/Duration in Sec). a,58

Species

African

Grey

parrot

Amazon

Parrot

Bald

Eagle

Chicken Cockatoo Macaw

Pekin

Duck

Racing

n 45 37 20 72 31 41 50

Heart rate 340-600 340-600 50-160 180-340 259-575 255-555 200-360

P amplitude 0.25-0.55 0.25-0.60 0.050-

0.325

— 0.13-0.53 0.03-0.47 —

P duration 0.012-

0.018

0.008-

0.017

0.030-

0.060

0.035-

0.043

0.009-

0.025

0.009-

0.021

0.015-

0.035

PR interval 0.040-

0.055

0.042-

0.055

0.070-

0.110

0.073-

0.089

0.039-

0.071

0.040-

0.068

0.04-0.08

S amplitude 0.9-2.2 0.7-2.3 0.150-

1.450

0.10-1.0 0.27-1.59 0.27-1.43 0.35-1.03

QRS

duration

0.010-

0.016

0.010-

0.015

0.020-

0.040

0.02-

0.028

0.014-

0.026

0.002-

0.030

0.028-

0.044

T amplitude 0.18-0.6 0.3-0.8 0.050-

0.200

0.03-0.28 0.17-0.97 0.12-0.80 0.04-0.40

QT interval 0.048-

0.080

0.050-

0.095

0.110-

0.165

— 0.065-

0.125

0.053-

0.109

0.08-0.12

MEA

−79 to

−103

−90 to

−107

−30 to

−150

−91 to

−120

−73 to

−89

−76 to

−87

−160 to

95

a

To obtain a 95% reference interval, all published results in the form of mean ± SD were reported as

mean ± 2SD and in the form of mean ± sem were reported as mean ±2 sem √n, when only the range or

a 95% reference interval was published, it was reported as is.

472

Table 5-51

Echocardiographic Reference Intervals (mm) in Selected Avian Species Obtained in

the Horizontal Four-Chamber View. a,58

Parameter

African Grey

Parrots

Amazon

Parrots

Cockatoos Diurnal

Raptors b

Pigeons

(Parasternal)

n 60 10 10 100 50

Left ventricle

Systole

length

Systole

width

18.4-26

4.8-8.8

16.5-25.7

4.3-9.1

16.4-21.6

3.0-

9.8

9.1-20.3

4.1-8.5

15.9-19.9

4.4-6.0

Diastole

length

Diastole

width

20.2-27.8

6.6-10.6

17.7-26.5

6.4-10.4

16.7-23.1

5.3-

11.3

11.0-21.8

5.3-10.1

17.3-22.9

6.2-8.6

FS (%) 13.8-31.4 14.4-31.2 11.6-39.6 — —

Right ventricle

Systole

length

Systole width

6.4-12.0

1.0-4.6

5.8-13.0

1.7-4.5

7.9-12.7

7.9-

12.7

7.3-18.1

0.9-3.3

—

Diastole

length

Diastole

width

7.7-15.3

2.6-7.0

7.7-12.9

2.6-7.8

6.7-15.9

2.5-

4.5

8.9-18.9

0.9-4.1

8.3-11.5

3.0-5.0

Aorta

FS (%) 17.0-64.6 26.7-41.5 12.7-53.9 — —

Systole

diameter

Diastole

diameter

2.8-4.4

2.8-5.2

2.0-4.0

2.2-4.6

—

—

—

2-3.6

—

2.8-3.2

a


mean ± 2SD and in the form of mean ± sem were reported as mean ± 2sem√n, when only the range or a

95% reference interval was published, it was reported as is. FS, fractional shortening. Echocardiographic

measurements may not be reliable and clinically useful.

b

European diurnal raptors included common buzzard, European sparrowhawk, northern goshawk, and

black kite.

473

Table 5-52

Spectral Doppler Echocardiographic Reference Intervals (m/s) in Selected Avian

Species Obtained in the Horizontal Four-Chamber View. a,28,595,775,776

Species

n

Left Diastolic

Inflow

Right Diastolic

Inflow

Aortic Systolic

Outflow

African grey

parrots

— 0.27-0.51 — 0.63-1.15

Amazon parrots — 0.12-.24 0.12-0.32 0.67-0.99

Barn owls 10 0.14-0.26 0.10-0.34 0.84-1.32

Cockatoos — 0.02-0.62 — 0.40-1.16

Common buzzard 10 0.16-0.28 0.13-0.25 1.04-1.68

Falcons 15 0.18-0.38 0.17-0.37 1.07-1.43

Harris’ hawks 10 0.13-0.25 0.15-0.27 0.75-1.43

Macaws — 0.40-0.68 — 0.55-1.07

a


mean ± 2SD and in the form of mean ± sem were reported as mean ± 2sem√n, when only the range or a

95% reference interval was published, it was reported as is. Parrots were anesthetized; raptors were

awake.

Table 5-53

Guidelines for Selection of Psychotherapeutic Agents for Birds. 92,497,729,743

1. Perform a complete medical and behavioral workup:

▪ Obtain a detailed medical and behavioral history.

▪ Perform careful physical examination, looking for evidence of feather dysplasia or skin abnormalities.

▪ Collect a minimum database that includes complete blood count, plasma biochemistry panel, radiograp

psittacine beak and feather disease testing, as well as paired (affected/nonaffected) skin/feather follicle bio

when indicated.

2. Once a medical problem has been ruled out or treated, assuming the problem does not abate, form a

behavioral diagnosis:

▪ It is not enough to determine the bird is feather picking; identify “why” the bird is feather picking; use

“antecedent, behavior, and consequence” data can be particularly helpful.

▪ Many behavioral problems are multifactorial in origin.

3. Formulate a treatment plan that incorporates:

▪ Environmental modification:

○ Improve the nutritional plane and basic husbandry.

○ Provide environmental enrichment where appropriate.

▪ Behavioral modification techniques:

○ Focus on what you want the bird to do and reward the bird for that and/or engage in stimulating

behavior that will accomplish that goal. Do not punish or deprive the bird.

○ Offer behavioral alternatives with emphasis in developing foraging behaviors for treats or food of

474

increasing complexity, and training of basic skills.

▪ Behavioral pharmacotherapy can be a useful component of treatment.

▪ Whenever possible, consult with a behaviorist, preferably a member of the American College of Veterin

Behaviorists.

4. Behavioral pharmacotherapy, general principles:

▪ These drugs may help the bird be more open to change, thereby reducing stress and increasing the cha

of success.

○ Most behavioral drugs act by exerting effects on neurotransmitters (NT) in the central nervous sy

(CNS).

○ Serotonin (5-HT) affects mood, sleep patterns, and appetite; also plays a role in the suppression of

impulses; low levels or an imbalance between serotonin and other hormones may be associated wi

maladaptive behaviors.

○ Norepinephrine (NE) plays an important role in attentiveness, sleeping, dreaming, and learning.

○ Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is a major inhibitory NT.

▪ Behavioral drugs are classified based on their first clinical use in humans or on their structure and effec

(tricyclics, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors); major groups include anxiolytics, antipsychotics, an

antidepressants, but their use may be more generalized outside of these broad areas.

▪ A number of factors must be considered when selecting a psychotropic agent: the proposed mechanism

action, indications and contraindications, common side effects and the potential for other adverse effect

drug cost, and ease of administration; also consider the bird species, its age and underlying health, as w

as reproductive status; see information that follows or consult a veterinary behavior text or a general

formulary for more detailed information.

▪ Drugs commonly selected for:

○ Conditions of fear, phobia, or anxiety include benzodiazepines and buspirone; antidepressants may a

be used for generalized anxiety and separation anxiety.

○ Obsessive-compulsive disorders such as stereotypical behaviors a include TCAs and SSRIs.

○ Stereotypy that involves self-injurious behavior include opioid antagonists (i.e., naltrexone), SSRI

TCAs, and, in select cases, haloperidol.

○ Antipruritic effects include the TCAs; doxepin, followed by amitriptyline, have the most potent

antihistaminic activity. b

○ Aggression, both hierarchical and anxiety-induced, are the SSRIs.

▪ Ancillary treatments may include opioid analgesics (Table 5-5), NSAIDs (Table 5-6), hormonal agents (

5-7), and/or essential fatty acid supplements when indicated.

5. How much to give, how often, and for how long?

▪ Many of the doses in Table 5-10 are based on anecdotal experience or case reports; the few empirical stu

referenced use small sample sizes.

▪ Warn your client that, in many instances, dosing may be by trial and error; for instance, after giving a

antidepressant for 4-8 weeks, it may be necessary to adjust the dose, or in some instances to change dru

▪ Combination therapy can sometimes enhance drug effectiveness:

○ Benzodiazepines (BZDs) may be combined with antidepressants, but reduce the BZD dose to minim

the risk of CNS depression; this combination may be particularly helpful when psychotherapy is fi

started because it takes weeks for antidepressants to exert an effect.

○ Unless both dosages are decreased, avoid combining drugs that both increase serotonin levels sinc

there is the risk of causing serotonin syndrome. c

▪ Administer antidepressants for a minimum of 6-8 weeks.

▪ Monitor blood work regularly.

▪ When and if a beneficial result is achieved, it may be prudent to continue treatment for at least 2-6 mon

▪ The process of weaning a bird off of medication may also require trial and error; one technique is to red

475

the effective dose by 25% every 3 weeks; if signs relapse, return to the lowest effective dose; taper drug

dosages over a minimum of 3 weeks.

6. Client education

▪ Determine beforehand how you will document treatment response; identify target signs that can be

monitored by the owner with respect to intensity, duration, and frequency.

▪ Prepare clients for the possibility of trial and error dosing, possible side effects, the duration of treatmen

that may be necessary, and the length of time before onset of desired effects.

▪ Extra-label drug use.

Anxiolytics

Antidepressants

Characteristics

Benzodiazepenes Buspirone

Antipsychotics

Tricyclic

Compounds

(TCAs)

Range of effects

Mild sedation, d

to anxiolysis,

to hypnosis

as dose

increases

Calming

Reduce motor

activity

A variety

including

potent

antihistaminic

activity and

some sedation

Specific examples

Diazepam

Lorazepam

Midazolam

High

potency:

Alprazolam

Clorazepate

— Haloperidol Amitriptyline

Clomipramine

Imipramine

Disadvantages

Can interfere

with

learning and

affect

behavioral

modification

Delayed onset

of action

(2-4 wk)

See below

Delayed onset of

action (2-4 wk)

Potential adverse

effects

Sedation,

ataxia, d

paradoxical

excitation;

rare fatal

idiopathic

hepatic

necrosis in

cats given

diazepam PO

Few to mild;

confusion,

nausea,

anorexia

Extrapyramidal

signs: tremors,

dystonia,

dyskinesia or

akathisia;

transient

anorexia and

regurgitation

Anticholinergic

signs e

476

Contraindications

and precautions

Liver or renal

disease;

aggression;

consider

potential for

human abuse

Severe renal

or hepatic

disease

— Discontinue

slowly to

prevent

withdrawal

responses; may

lower seizure

threshold in

humans

Taste

Benign,

although a

bitter

aftertaste has

been

described for

diazepam

— — Lingering bitter

taste

a

Stereotypies are repetitive behaviors such as circling or pacing, or in some instances, featherdestructive

behavior.

b

The antihistaminic activity of doxepin is 800 times that of diphenhydramine.

c

Serotonin syndrome may cause muscle tremors, rigidity, agitation, hyperthermia, vocalization,

hypertension or hypotension, tachycardia, seizures, coma, and death.

d

Mild sedative effects create a risk of bird falling from perch; tolerance to sedation may develop over

time.

e

A variety of anticholinergic signs have been reported in mammals, including dry mouth, fatigue, variable

degrees of sedation, constipation, tremor, hypotension, arrhythmias, weight gain, mydriasis, and

vomiting; sedation and regurgitation are reported most commonly in birds. 497

f

Other possible adverse effects with SSRIs include diarrhea, increased agitation, irritability, insomnia,

and in rare instances, vomiting.

477

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535

C H A P T E R 6

Backyard Poultry and

Waterfowl

Cheryl B. Greenacre; G. Lynne Luna; Teresa Y. Morishita

Note: Many poultry species are considered food-producing animal species, and as such,

these species are regulated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 166 Even if

536

the individual animal of any of these species is never used for food, it is still regulated by

the FDA. The FDA prohibits the use of certain drugs, with no allowable extra-label drug

use, in any food-producing animal species. These prohibited drugs are clearly identified

in the tables, and the doses are provided in case they are needed for a similar but nonfood-producing

animal species (e.g., Attwater’s prairie chicken), and listings should in no

way be misconstrued as an endorsement of using FDA-prohibited drugs in any foodproducing

animal species. Please refer to the appropriate tables at the end of this chapter

regarding the definitions of prohibited drugs, extra-label drugs, labeled drugs, and drugs

needing a Veterinary Feed Directive prior to choosing a drug and dose. Please refer to the

Food Animal Residue Avoidance Databank at www.farad.org and other sources listed in

Table 6.25 for meat and egg withdrawal times. Please be aware that most drug dosages

are listed in standard international units (SI), such as mg/kg, but some dosages may be in

conventional units, such as mg/lb, mg/gallon, or grams/ton to match the dose on the

label.

Table 6-1

Antimicrobial Agents Used in Backyard Poultry and Waterfowl. a–c


Amikacin

10 mg/kg SC, IM

q8h×14 days 85

Ring-necked pheasants/PD;

renal toxicosis appeared

at 11 days; uric acid

levels abnormal up to 7

days after cessation

20 mg/kg IM q8h 45 Chickens/PD

5.3 mg/kg IV RLP

once 137b

Chickens/pododermatitis;

regional limb perfusion

(RLP) into medial

metatarsal vein with a

tourniquet placed

proximal to hock joint

for 15 min 137b

Amoxicillin/clavulanate (Clavamox,

Zoetis)

125 mg/kg PO q8h 173 Poultry

500 mg/L drinking

water 179

Chickens/PD

Amoxicillin trihydrate

15 mg/kg/day

PO×3 days 48

Chickens, turkeys

20 mg/kg PO 92 Chickens, turkeys/no

frequency listed

15 mg/kg body

weight in

Chickens not laying eggs for

human consumption 123

537

drinking water×3-

5 days 123

15-20 mg/kg body Turkeys not laying eggs for

weight in


drinking water×3-

5 days 123

20 mg/kg body

weight in

drinking water×3

consecutive

days 123

330 mg/L drinking

water, provide on

alternate days×3

treatments 27

1 g/3 L of drinking

water, provide on

alternate days×3

treatments 16

Ampicillin trihydrate 55-110 mg/kg IM q8-

12h 69

170 mg/L drinking

water 16,69

250 mg/8 oz of

drinking water 16

1000 mg/L drinking

water 16,69

Ducks not laying eggs for


Waterfowl

Waterfowl

Poultry

Game birds

Galliformes

Galliformes/flock use

Apramycin (Apralan, Elanco) — Therapeutic levels not

achieved in Japanese

quail at 50 mg/kg IV; 87

not available in the

United States

250-500 mg/L

drinking water 16,69

Game birds,

poultry/primarily used

against Salmonella spp.

Bacitracin methylene disalicylate (Solu-

Tracin 200, Solu-Tracin 50, BMD

Soluble 50%, Zoetis)

100-400 mg/gal

drinking water 30a

Chickens, turkeys

220 mg/L 27 Quail/Clostridium perfringens;

prepare daily

400 mg/gal drinking

water 30a

Poultry

55-220 mg/kg feed 69 Quail

538

4-200 g/ton feed 30a Chickens, turkeys

Bacitracin methylene disalicylate (BMD

60, BMD 50 Granular A, BMD 30

Granular A, BMD 30 BMD 50,

Zoetis)

4-50 g/ton feed 165 Pheasant, turkeys

(growing)/no use class

stated or implied;

increased rate of weight

gain and improved feed

efficiency

5-20 g/ton feed 165 Quail (not over 5

wk)/increased rate of

weight gain and

improved feed efficiency

10-25 g/ton feed 165 Chicken/layers, first 7 mo of

production; aid in

increased egg production

and improved feed

efficiency; feed

continuously as the sole

ration for the first 7 mo

of egg production

40-50 g/ton feed 165 Chickens (broilers,

replacements)/increased

rate of gain and

improved feed efficiency;

no limitations 165

50 g/ton feed 165 Prevention of necrotic

enteritis; feed as sole

ration

100-200 g/ton feed×5- Aid in control of necrotic

7 days 165 enteritis; feed as sole

ration; start at first signs

of disease; vary dose

based on severity

200 g/ton feed 165 Quail (growing)/prevention

of ulcerative enteritis;

feed continuously as the

sole ration

200 g/ton feed 165 Turkeys (growing)/aid in

the control of

transmissible enteritis

Bacitracin methylene disalicylate

(Pennitracin MD 50G, Zoetis)

4-50 g/ton of feed 165 Chickens (broiler,

replacement), turkeys

(growing), pheasants

(growing)/administer

539

continuously

throughout feeding

period for increased rate

of weight gain and


5-20 g/ton of feed 165 Quail (growing)/administer

continuously through 5

wk of age for increased

rate of weight gain and


Bacitracin zinc (Baciferm 10, 25, 50, 40,

Zoetis)

4-50 g/ton feed 30a,165 Chickens, turkeys,

pheasants (growing)/for



efficiency

5-20 g/ton of feed 165 Quail (growing)/for



efficiency; feed to starting

quail through 5 wk of

age 165

10-25 g/ton of feed 165 Chickens (laying)/for


and increased egg

production

Cefazolin 22-110 mg/kg IM q8-

12h 69

Poultry/restricted drug b

Cefovecin (Convenia, Zoetis)

10 mg/kg SC, IM, IV

q1h 162a

Chickens/PK; not

recommended for use in

birds due to short halflife


Cefquinome 5 mg/kg IM q24h 178 Ducks/no effect PO


Ceftiofur (Naxcel, Zoetis)

0.08-0.2 mg SC

once 30a,166

0.17-0.5 mg SC

once 30a,166

Chickens (1- to 3-day-old

chicks)/as a single SC

injection in the neck for

the control of early

mortality associated with

Escherichia coli organisms;

restricted drug b

Turkeys (1- to 3-day-old

poults)/as a single SC

injection in the neck for

540

the control of early


E. coli organisms; 165,166

restricted drug b

0.16 mg/chick SC

q24h 156

0.17-0.5 mg/poult SC

q24h 156

Chickens (chicks)/PK;

treatment of early


E. coli


Turkeys, poultry/restricted

drug b

2-4 mg/kg SC q24h 31 Ducks, poultry/restricted

drug b

2.8-5.8 mg/kg SC

q24h 156

Turkeys (poults)/PK;

treatment of early


E. coli


10 mg/kg IM q72h 69 Guinea fowl/PD


Ceftriaxone 100 mg/kg IM q4h 80 Chickens/PK; not approved

for food animal products



Cephalexin 35-50 mg/kg IM q2-

3h 69

55-110 mg/kg PO

q12h 69

Cephalothin 100 mg/kg IM q2-

3h 16,69

Quail, ducks/PD


Poultry/Mycoplasma,

Haemophilus; restricted

drug b

Quail, ducks/PD; not

approved for food animal

products in the United

States


Chloramphenicol palmitate (oral

suspension)

50 mg/kg PO q6-12h 69 Galliformes (turkeys),

chickens 9

Poultry/restricted drug c


22 mg/kg IM, IV

q3h 41a

Ducks/PD


50 mg/kg IM q24h 32 Peafowl


50 mg/kg IM, IV q6- Chickens, turkeys, geese

541

12h 32

(PK), ducks


79 mg/kg IM q12h 32 Turkeys/PK


Chlortetracycline bisulfate

(Aureomycin Soluble Powder,

Zoetis)

25 mg/lb body weight

in drinking

water 166


water 69

100-400 mg/gal

drinking water 30a

100-1000 mg/gal

drinking water 30a

200-400 mg/gal

drinking water 166

400 mg/gal drinking

water 166

Turkeys/control of

complicating bacterial

organisms associated

with bluecomb

(transmissible enteritis,

coronaviral enteritis);

prepare fresh solution

daily as a sole source of

chlortetracycline; do not

slaughter animals for

food within 24 hours of

treatment; do not use for

more than 14 days 166

Galliformes (game birds)

Turkeys

Chickens

Chickens/control of

infectious synovitis

caused by Mycoplasma

synoviae; prepare fresh

solution daily as sole

source of



food within 24 hr of


more than 14 days; do

not use in laying

chickens 166

Turkeys (growing)/control

of infectious synovitis


synoviae; prepare fresh

solution daily as sole

source of




542


more than 14 days 166

Chlortetracycline (Aureomycin

granular, Zoetis)

400-800 mg/gal

drinking water 166

1000 mg/gal drinking

water 166

1000 ppm (18.2 g/kg)

in feed for 45

days 16

2500 mg/kg feed 180

and 2500 mg/L

drinking

water 30a,180

25 mg/lb body weight

q24h×7-14 days 165

Chickens/control of chronic

respiratory disease (CRD)

and air sac infections


gallisepticum and E. coli;


daily as sole source of






not use in laying

chickens 166

Chickens/control of

mortality due to fowl

cholera caused by

Pasteurella multocida;


daily as sole source of






not use in laying

chickens 166

Waterfowl

Chickens, turkeys/PD;

simultaneous medication

of feed and water

required to reach

therapeutic level

Turkeys/control of

complicating bacterial

organisms associated

with bluecomb

10-50 g/ton of feed 165 Chickens, turkeys

(growing)/increase rate

of weight gain, feed

efficiency

543

100-200 g/ton of

feed×7-14 days 165

Chickens/control of

infectious synovitis


synoviae

200 g/ton of feed×7- Turkeys/control of infectious

14 days 165 synovitis caused by

Mycoplasma synoviae

200-400 g/ton of

feed×7-14 days 165

200-400 g/ton of feed

not more than 21

days 165

Chickens/control of CRD

and air sac infection


gallisepticum and E. coli

Ducks/control and

treatment of fowl cholera

caused by Pasteurella

multocida; feed in

complete ration to

provide from 16-

62 mg/kg of body weight

per day depending on

age and severity of

disease 165

400 g/ton of feed×7-

14 days 165 Turkeys/control of Hexamita

meleagridis

Turkeys (poults not over

4 wk of age)/reduction of

mortality due to

paratyphoid caused by

Salmonella typhimurium

500 g/ton of feed×5

days 165

Chickens/reduce mortality

due to E. coli infections

Chlortetracycline (ChlorMax,

Aureomycin granular, Zoetis)

200-600 mg/kg feed 69 Galliformes

300-400 mg/kg feed 27 Waterfowl/colibacillosis,

Chlamydia, Salmonella

1000 mg/kg feed 69 Waterfowl

10-400 g/ton feed 30a Turkeys

10-500 g/ton feed 30a Chickens

Ciprofloxacin 2 mg/kg IV 121 Chicks/no toxic effects

observed; prohibited

drug c

5 mg/kg/day

PO×5 days 55

Chickens/PD; prohibited

drug c

544

Clindamycin

Danofloxacin mesylate (A180, Zoetis)

10-20 mg/kg PO

q12h 46

100 mg/kg PO

q24h×3-5 days 69

5 mg/kg PO, IM,

IV 46,152

50 mg/L in drinking

water×3 days 113,152

Chickens/prohibited drug c

Quail/Clostridium

Chickens/PD; higher

therapeutic efficacy of

water medication for

enrofloxacin compared to

danofloxacin can be

expected when given at

5 mg/kg; 84 prohibited

drug c

Chicks/Mycoplasma;

prohibited drug c

Doxycycline (Vibramycin, Zoetis) 8-25 mg/kg PO q12h 27 Waterfowl

20 mg/kg/day PO×

3 days 177 Chickens

25-50 mg/kg/day

PO 173

Poultry

35 mg/kg/day PO×

7 days max 173 Poultry

50 mg/kg PO q12h× Waterfowl/45 days for

3-5 days 16,69 chlamydiosis

100 mg/L drinking

water 51

265-525 mg/L

drinking water 69

Chickens/PD

Poultry/Mycoplasma,

Haemophilus; can use in

combination with

tylosin

250-300 mg/kg seed 69 Waterfowl

Enrofloxacin — IM formulation has an

extremely alkaline pH

and should not be given

repeatedly; best to avoid

IV use in birds;

fluoroquinolones may be

used in PMMA beads

with success; 43 prohibited

drug c

5 mg/kg/day

PO×5 days 55

Chickens/PD; accumulates

in eggs; prohibited drug c

545

10 mg/kg PO q12h× Chickens/PK; high efficacy

4 days 10,12 for intestinal

salmonellosis; prohibited

drug c

10-15 mg/kg PO, IM

q12h×5-7 days 16

Waterfowl/prohibited drug c

50 mg/kg via Muscovy, Pekin

nebulization×4 hr ducklings/Riemerella

(day 1, AM), then (Pasteurella); prohibited

25 mg/kg×

drug c

4 hr/day×4 days 164

26 mg/L drinking

water 27

50 mg/L drinking

water 71,81


water 69

200-800 mg/L

drinking water 69

Galliformes/prohibited drug c

Chickens, turkeys/PK;

prohibited drug c

Game birds/prohibited drug c

Chickens/no detected effect

on cartilage in day-old

chicks; 69 prohibited drug c

Erythromycin

25.5 mg/kg PO q24h×

5 days 111 Chickens/Mycoplasma spp.;

do not use in hens

laying eggs for human

consumption

55-110 mg/kg PO

q12h 69

102 mg/L drinking

water 42

Poultry/Mycoplasma,

Haemophilus

Chicks/PD

92.5-185 g/ton feed 30a Chickens, turkeys/do not

use high dose level

(185 g/ton) in layers

Erythromycin phosphate (Gallimycin,

Cross VetPharm Group)

500 mg/gal drinking

water×5-7 days 165

Chickens (broilers,

replacements)/aid control

of chronic respiratory

disease (5 days) and aid

control of infectious

coryza due to

Haemophilus gallinarum;

do not use in

replacement pullets over

16 wk of age; do not use

in chickens producing

eggs for human

546

consumption; solutions

older than 3 days should

not be used 165

Erythromycin thiocyanate (Gallimycin,

Cross VetPharm Group)


5 days 111 Chickens/Mycoplasma spp.;

do not use in hens

laying eggs for human

consumption

4.6-18.5 g/ton feed 165 Chickens/growth promotion

and feed efficiency

9.25-18.5 g/ton of

feed 165

Turkeys (not over 12 wk of

age)/growth promotion

and feed efficiency

18.5 g/ton of feed 165 Chickens (laying)/aids in

increasing egg

production; no

limitations are included

in the CFR for this

species when using this

product in this amount

92.5 g/ton feed 165 Chickens, turkeys/aid in the

prevention of chronic

respiratory disease

during periods of stress

(2 days before and 3-6

days after stress); aid in

the prevention of

infectious coryza (7-14

days); withdraw 24 hr

before slaughter

92.5-185 g/ton feed 30a Chickens, turkeys/do not

use high dose level

(185 g/ton) in layers

185 g/ton feed × Chickens, turkeys/aid in the

5-8 days 165 prevention and

reduction of lesions and

in lowering severity of

chronic respiratory

disease; do not use in

birds producing eggs for

food purposes; withdraw

48 hr before slaughter

Furazolidone (NF180, Hess and Clark) 220-440 mg/kg feed 27 Waterfowl/Salmonella

Poultry/prohibited

drug c,54,166

547

Gentamicin sulfate (Garasol, Intervet) 0.2 mg SC 30a Chickens/35-day meat

withdrawal time;

Turkeys/65-day meat

withdrawal time

5 mg/kg IM q8h 35,69 Pheasants/PK

10 mg/kg IM q6h 35,69 Quail/PK

Lincomycin HCl (Lincocin, Upjohn)

Lincomycin hydrochloride

monohydrate (Lincomix, Zoetis)

64 mg/gal drinking

water 30a

2 g/L drinking

water×5-7 days 16

2 g/L drinking

water×5-7 days 69

Chickens

Waterfowl

Waterfowl/Pasteurella,

Mycoplasma

tenosynovitis

2 g/ton feed 30a Chickens

2-4 g/ton of feed 165 Chickens (broilers)

Lincomycin/spectinomycin (LS-50

Water Soluble, Upjohn; Linco-

Spectin 100 Soluble Powder,

Upjohn)

Lincomycin hydrochloride

monohydrate/spectinomycin sulfate

tetrahydrate (LS 50 Water Soluble

Powder, Zoetis)

2.5-5 mg/chick IM

once 63

528 mg/L drinking

water for first 5

days of life 64

750 mg/L drinking

water×3-7 days 16,27

2 g/gal drinking

water first 5-7

days of age 165

750 mg/L drinking

water×3-7 days 27

Chickens (chicks)/PD; may

prevent E. coli and

Staphylococcus aureus

infections; injectable

form not available in the

United States

Turkey poults/PD;

Mycoplasma airsacculitis

Waterfowl/Mycoplasma

synovitis, sinusitis

Chicken (up to 7 days

old)/aid in control of

airsacculitis

Waterfowl

Marbofloxacin (Zeniquin, Zoetis) 2 mg/kg PO q24h 11 Chickens (broilers)/PD;

prohibited drug c,54,166

3-12 mg/kg PO q24h 66 Turkeys/PK; prohibited

drug c,54,166

Metronidazole — Poultry/prohibited drug c,54,166

Miporamicin

100 mg/kg feed× Poultry/macrolide; under

5 days 69,151 development; make

preparation fresh daily

Neomycin 80-264 mg/L drinking Waterfowl

548

water 27

126 mg/L drinking

water 69

Galliformes

70-220 mg/kg feed×14-

21 days 27,69 Waterfowl,

galliformes/Clostridium,

necrotizing enteritis

Neomycin sulfate (Neomycin 325

Soluble Powder, Zoetis)

Nitrofuran

10 mg/lb (22 mg/kg)

body weight per

day in drinking

water×2-5 days 166

26 mg/L drinking

water×5-7 days 27

Turkeys (growing)/for the

control of mortality

associated with E. coli 166

Galliformes/prohibited

drug c,167

50-200 mg/kg feed×5-

7 days 27 Galliformes/Clostridium,

Salmonella; prohibited

drug c,167

Nitrofurazone — Poultry/prohibited drug c,167

Norfloxacin (Noroxin, Merck; Vetriflox

20% Oral Solution, Lavet)

8 mg/kg PO q24h 12 Chickens/PD; prohibited

drug c,167

10 mg/kg PO q24h 16,86 Chickens, geese/PD;

prohibited drug c,167

10 mg/kg PO q6-

8h 16,86

15 mg/kg in water

over 2-4 hr 139

Turkeys/PD; prohibited

drug c,167

Turkeys/PD; once-per-day

pulse dosing was more

efficacious than

continuous dosing in the

water; prohibited

drug c,167

20-40 mg/kg PO

q24h×5 days 96 Chickens/prohibited drug c,167

100 mg/L drinking

water×5 days 139

Chickens/PD; prohibited

drug c,167

175 mg/L drinking

water×5 days 138 Chickens/prohibited drug c,167

Novobiocin sodium

15-30 mg/kg PO

q24h 151

Poultry/effective against

some gram-positive cocci

220-385 mg/kg feed 69 Poultry, waterfowl

Novobiocin (Albamix Feed Medication,

Zoetis)

4-5 mg/lb body

weight/day in

feed 166

Turkeys/aid in the treatment

of breast blisters

associated with

susceptible

549

staphylococcal

infections 166

5-8 mg/lb body

weight/day in

feed 166

6-7 mg/lb body

weight/day in

feed×5-7 days 166

10-14 mg/lb body

weight/day in

feed×5-7 days 166

Turkeys/aid in the control of

recurring outbreaks of

fowl cholera caused by

susceptible strains of

Pasteurella multocida

following initial

treatment with 7-8 mg/lb

body weight/day 166

Chickens/aid in the

treatment of breast

blisters associated with

susceptible

staphylococcal infections;

administer as sole ration

feed that contains not

less than 200 g/ton of

feed; not for laying

chickens 166

Chickens/treatment of

susceptible

staphylococcal infections;

administer as sole ration

in feed that contains not

less than 350 g/ton of

feed; not for laying

chickens 166

Oleandomycin — Macrolide; not available in

the United States

Orbifloxacin (Orbax, Intervet)

Ormetoprim-sulfadimethoxine (Primor,

Zoetis)

15-20 mg/kg PO

q24h 70 Japanese quail/PK 70

Poultry/prohibited

drug c,168

200-800 mg/kg feed 27 Waterfowl/colibacillosis

Oxytetracycline 5 mg/kg SC, IM q12-

24h 20

Chickens (chicks)/PD

23 mg/kg IV q6-8h 155 Pheasants/PK

43 mg/kg IM q24h 155 Pheasants/PD

200 mg/kg IM q24h 69 Waterfowl/Pasteurella

2500 mg/L drinking

water and

Chickens (PD), turkeys

(PD),

550

2500 mg/kg

feed 69,180

waterfowl/simultaneous

medication of feed and

water required to reach

therapeutic level

Oxytetracycline (Liquamycin

injectable, Terramycin Soluble

Powder, Zoetis)

Chickens (broilers,

breeders),

turkeys/Mycoplasma

gallisepticum, Mycoplasma

synoviae, E. coli, and

Pasteurella multocida;

treatment must be

discontinued at least 5

days prior to slaughter;

do not administer to

laying hens unless the

eggs are used for

hatching only; in light

turkey breeds, no more

than 55 mg/kg of body

weight is administered;

treatment not to exceed a

total of 4 consecutive

days 165

6.25 mg/chick or

poult/day SC

diluted 1 part

drug to 3 parts

sterile water 165

12.5 mg/pullet or

poult/day SC

diluted 1 part

drug to 3 parts

sterile water 165

25 mg/chicken/day

SC 165

50 mg/chicken or

poult/day SC 165

Chickens, turkeys (1 day to

2 wk of age)

Chickens, turkeys (2-4 wk of

age)

Chickens (4-8 wk of age)

Chickens (8 wk of age),

turkeys (4-6 wk of age)

100 mg/chicken or Chickens (adult), turkeys (6-

poult/day SC 165 12 wk of age)

200 mg/poult/day SC

undiluted 165

50-100 mg injected

into swollen

sinus; may be

repeated in 5-

Turkeys (12 wk of age and

older)

Turkeys/infectious sinusitis;

treat concurrently with

SC doses described above

551

7 days 165

Oxytetracycline (Terramycin Soluble

Powder, Zoetis)

25 mg/lb body

weight×7-

14 days 166 Turkeys (growing)

200-400 mg/gal Turkeys (not laying eggs for

drinking water×7- human consumption)

14 days 166

200-800 mg/gal Chickens

drinking water×7-

14 days 166

37 g/15 L drinking

water×5-7 days 16

Waterfowl/pasteurellosis and

other sensitive bacterial

infections

Penicillin 50,000 U/kg IM 27 Waterfowl/Erysipelas, new

duck disease

Penicillin G

(Penicillin G Potassium, Zoetis)

1,500,000 U/gal

drinking

water×5 days 166

Turkeys/not laying eggs for

human consumption

Penicillin procaine 100 mg/kg IM q24-

48h 73

Turkeys/PD

Sarafloxacin (Saraflox, Abbott) 10 mg/kg PO q8h 16 Chickens/prohibited drug c,168

Spectinomycin

20-40 mg/L drinking

water×5 days 16

30-50 mg/L drinking

water×5 days 16

0.5 g/gal drinking

water 166

1 g/gal drinking

water 166

2 g/gal drinking

water 166

Chickens/colibacillosis;


Turkeys/colibacillosis;


Chickens (floor-raised

broilers)/use first 3 days

of life×3 days; 1 day

following each

vaccination 166

Chickens (broilers)/use first

3-5 days of life 166

Chickens (growing)/use first

3 days of life×3 days; use

1 day following each

vaccination 166

Streptomycin 22-33 mg/kg PO 165 Chickens/not laying eggs for

human consumption

25-50 mg/kg IM

q24h 16

Chickens/PD

552

0.6-0.9 g/gal drinking

water for up to 5

days 165

Chickens/not laying eggs for

human consumption

Sulfachloropyridazine/trimethoprim

(Cosumix Plus, Ciba)

Sulfadimethoxine

400 mg/kg feed 16 Geese

0.938 g/gal

Turkeys (meat)/fowl cholera;

(0.025%)×6 days 166 do not administer to

turkeys over 24 wk of

age; withdraw 5 days

prior to slaughter 165

1.875 g/gal

Chickens (broilers and

(0.05%)×6 days 166 replacements)/fowl

cholera and infectious

coryza; do not

administer to chickens

over 16 wk of age;

withdraw 5 days prior to

slaughter 166

Sulfamethazine (SMZ, Cross VetPharm

Group)

Sulfaquinoxaline (Sulquin 6-50, Zoetis;

Sul-Q-Nox, S. Q., Huvepharma)

128-187 mg/kg body

weight/day in

drinking water 165

110 to 273 mg/kg

body weight/day

in drinking

water 166

0.04% in drinking

water×2-3 days 166

Chickens/not laying eggs for


Turkeys/not laying eggs for


Chickens, turkeys/acute

fowl cholera due to P.

multocida; fowl typhoid

due to Salmonella

gallinarum

250-500 mg/kg feed 27 Waterfowl/avian cholera,

new duck disease

Tetracycline


water 27

Game birds

100-600 mg/kg feed 27,69 Game birds

Tiamulin (Denagard; Elanco)


3 days 75 Poultry/intestinal

spirochetosis; adverse

effects, including death, if

administered with

ionophores

30 mg/kg PO q24h×

7 days 69 Poultry (adults)

553

60 mg/kg PO q24h×

7 days 69 Poultry (chicks)

225-250 mg/L Poultry

drinking water×3-

7 days 69

1000 mg/L water 69 Poultry eggs/dip

300-400 mg/kg feed×

7 days 69 Game birds

Tiamulin/chlortetracycline

(Tetramutin, Elanco)

Tilmicosin (Micotil 300 Injection,

Provitil-powder and Pulmotil ACliquid,

Elanco)

1-1.5 mg/kg feed×

7 days 149 Chickens/Mycoplasma;

Brachyspira-related

diseases; may be used

with salinomycin at low

doses of 60 mg/kg

without signs of

incompatibility 69

30 mg/kg PO q24h 2 Poultry/PK; not labeled for

use in poultry 69

100-500 mg/L

drinking

water×5 days 79,82

Poultry chicks/Mycoplasma

Tobramycin

Trimethoprim/sulfadiazine


2.5-5 mg/kg IM, IV

q12h 69

107 mg/L drinking

water 69

20-50 mg/kg PO

q12h 173

Pheasants

Galliformes

Ducks

50 mg/kg PO q12h 173 Chickens


Tylosin (Tylan, Elanco) 6.6-11 mg/kg SC 69 Galliformes

10-40 mg/kg IM q6-

8h 69

20-30 mg/kg IM

q8h×3-7 days 16,69

Poultry


25 mg/kg IM q6h 94 Quail/PK

851-1419 mg/gal (225-

375 ppm) in

drinking

water×5 days 166

2000 mg/gal

(528 ppm) in

Chickens/control mortality

caused by necrotic

enteritis 166

Chickens (broiler and

replacement

554

drinking water×1- chicks)/chronic

5 days 166 respiratory disease 166

2000 mg/gal

Turkeys/infectious sinusitis

(528 ppm) in

associated with

drinking water×2- Mycoplasma

5 days 166 gallisepticum 166

500 mg/L drinking Galliformes,

water×3-

waterfowl/Mycoplasma

28 days 69,79,152

2.5 g/5 L drinking

water×

3 days 16 Waterfowl

2000 mg/L drinking

water 69

Poultry/Mycoplasma,

Haemophilus

200 mg/kg feed 69 Galliformes

100 mg/10 mL saline

nasal

flush×10 days 16


Virginiamycin (Stafac, Phibro) 22 mg/kg feed 151 Poultry

5-20 g/ton feed 165 Chickens (broilers)

10-20 g/ton feed 165 Turkeys (growing)

a

Many poultry species are considered food-producing animal species, and as such, these species are

regulated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 166 Even if the individual animals of any of

these species are never used for food, they are still regulated by the FDA. The FDA prohibits the use of

certain drugs, with no allowable extra-label drug use, in any food-producing animal species. These

prohibited drugs are clearly identified in the tables, and the doses are provided in case they are needed

for a similar but non-food-producing animal species (e.g., Attwater’s prairie chicken), and listings should

in no way be misconstrued as an endorsement of using FDA-prohibited drugs in any food-producing

animal species. Please refer to the appropriate tables at the end of this chapter regarding the definitions

of prohibited drugs, extra-label drugs, labeled drugs, and drugs needing a Veterinary Feed Directive prior

to choosing a drug and dose. Please refer to the Food Animal Residue Avoidance Databank at

www.farad.org and other sources listed in Table 6.25 for meat and egg withdrawal times. 54

b

The FDA restricts the extra-label use of the cephalosporin class of antibiotics, except for cephapirin, in

food-producing animal species, such as chickens and turkeys. 54,166,169

c

The FDA prohibits the use of chloramphenicol, clenbuterol, diethylstilbestrol (DES), fluoroquinoloneclass

antibiotics, glycopeptides (all agents, including vancomycin), medicated feeds, nitroimidazoles (all

agents, including dimetridazole, ipronidazole, metronidazole, and others), and nitrofurans (all agents,

including furazolidone, nitrofurazone, and others), with no allowable extra-label drug use, in any foodproducing

animal species. 54,166

Table 6-2

Antifungal Agents Used in Backyard Poultry and Waterfowl. a

555


Copper sulfate

(“bluestone”)

Epsom salts

Dissolve 0.5 lb copper sulfate and 0.5 cup

vinegar in 1 gal of water for a "stock"

solution; dispense stock solution at

the rate of 1 oz per gal for the final

drinking solution; 114

alternate method of preparing the

solution: dissolve 1 oz copper sulfate

and 1 Tbs of vinegar in 15 gal water 114

1 tsp Epsom salt in 1 oz water to flush

crop 114

Poultry/mycosis (thrush) in

the crop; "follow-up"

treatment after flushing

crop with Epsom salt

solution 114

Chicken/mycotic ingluvitis;

individual dose

1 lb Epsom salt per 5 gal water×1 day 114 Poultry/to flush digestive

system of toxins

1 lb Epsom salt per 15 lb feed 114 Poultry/laxative or flush prior

to copper sulfate treatment;

give the Epsom salt feed

mixture as the sole feed

source for a 1-day period

Fluconazole 100 mg/kg PO q24h 69 Chickens/avian gastric yeast

Flucytosine

(Ancobon,

Roche)

60 mg/kg PO q12h 69 Galliformes, swans/birds

>500 g; syringeal

aspergilloma

150 mg/kg PO q12h 69 Galliformes, swans/birds

<500 g; syringeal

aspergilloma

Itraconazole — Study using SC controlledrelease

gel formulation in

ducks showed unacceptable

tissue and plasma levels of

the drug 160

5 mg/kg PO q24h 69 Galliformes,

swans/aspergillosis

5-10 mg/kg PO q12h 69 Waterfowl

10 mg/kg PO q24h×7-10 days 16 Waterfowl/prophylactic dose

10 mg/kg PO q12h 4-6 wk 16 Waterfowl/therapeutic dose

16% itraconazole-impregnated PMMA

fed as grit stones in 1-g pieces 148

Indian peafowl/PD; therapeutic

levels achieved in 2 days

and decreased over 7 days

Ketoconazole 12.5 mg/kg PO q24h×30 days 69 Swans/candidiasis

Nystatin 300,000 U/kg PO q12h×7-14 days 16,69 Waterfowl

Parconazole 30-60 mg/kg feed 69 Guinea fowl/candidiasis;

556

(Parcomyc,

Janssen-

Cilag)

prophylaxis; not available


Voriconazole 10 mg/kg PO, IV q12h 22 Chickens/PK

40 mg/kg PO q24h 159 Quail/PD

a











www.farad.org and other sources listed in Table 6.25 for meat and egg withdrawal times.

557

Table 6-3

Antiviral and Immunomodulating Agents Used in Backyard Poultry and Waterfowl. a

Note: The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) restricts the extra-label use of

adamantane and neuraminidase inhibitors in all poultry, including ducks, because of the

potential resistance production against avian influenza. 54,166


Acyclovir

Famciclovir

Levamisole

Penciclovir

(Denavir,

Novartis)

10 mg/kg IM q24h×5-

14 days starting 3

days postexposure

69

25 mg/kg PO

q12h 16,69,163

1.25-2.5 mg/kg PO,

SC 69

10 mg/kg IP q24h×12-

24 wk91

Chickens/Marek’s disease

Ducklings/PD; duck hepatitis; toxic effects were not

reported

Poultry

Ducks/PD; herpesviruses; duck hepatitis B virus; viral

levels were significantly reduced; no toxic effects

observed; dissolve in 2 mL of 1% DMSO

a Many poultry species are considered food-producing animal species, and as such, these species are











Table 6-4

Antiparasitic Agents Used in Backyard Poultry and Waterfowl. a,b


Albendazole (11.36%) (Valbazen,

Zoetis)

10 mg/kg PO once 34 Poultry/PK

47 mg/kg PO once,

then repeat in 4

wk 69

Chickens/lower ascarid

Heterakis fecal counts than

nontreated

Amprolium 13-26 mg/kg PO 62 Chickens/PK, PD;

bioavailability almost 4

times greater in fasted

birds

558

575 mg/L drinking

water 27

Poultry/using a 9.6% solution

¼ tsp/L drinking

water×3-5 days 69

Poultry/20% soluble powder

115-235 mg/kg feed 69 Poultry, pheasants/coccidia;

Sarcocystis; lower dose is

prophylactic; higher dose

is therapeutic

125 mg/kg feed 137a Turkeys/31 of 33 Eimeria

isolates were resistant

Carbaryl 5% (Sevin Dust, Bayer) — No longer approved for use in

poultry

Chloroquine phosphate

Clazuril (Appertex, Janssen)

5 mg/kg PO q24h or

in feed 69

2000 mg/L drinking

water

q24h×14 days 69

3 mg/kg PO once,

or×5 days 57

5-10 mg/kg PO

q72h×3

treatments 16,69

5-10 mg/kg PO

q24h×3 days, off 2

days, on 3 days 69

Game birds/generally used

with primaquine for


and Leucocytozoon; overdose

can result in death 16

Game birds/juice covers bitter

taste of drug

Chickens/PK; drug detected in

eggs after multiple dosing

Waterfowl/coccidiosis

Poultry

Clopidol

0.0125%-0.025% in Turkeys/leucocytozoonosis

feed (113.5 or prevention

227 g/ton feed) 30a

0.0125%-0.025% in

feed 30a

Chickens (broilers and layer

replacements)/coccidiosis

prevention; do not feed to

chickens over 16 wk of age


isolates showed partial to

complete resistance

125-250 mg/kg feed 69 Game birds/coccidiosis,

Leucocytozoon, Plasmodium

Clorsulon (Curatrem, Merial) 20 mg/kg PO q14d×3 Waterfowl/trematodes,

559

Cypermethrin (5%) (Max Con, Y-Tex)

treatments 69

20 mg/kg PO

3×/wk×14 days 69

60-120 mg/chicken

topically over

dorsal neck 4a

cestodes

Waterfowl/trematodes,

cestodes

Chickens/effective against

Triatoma infestans

Decoquinate (Deccox, Alpharma) 20-40 mg/kg feed 61,151 Chickens/Eimeria; very

effective in isolates studied

Diatomaceous earth (kitchen/food

grade)

2% in feed, feed

continuously 106

Chickens/lowers numbers of

Heterakis and Capillaria

Diclazuril (Clinicox 0.5%,

Huvepharma AD; DiClosol 1%,

Pharmaswede)

— Benzene-acetonitrile

anticoccidial; some Eimeria

resistance in poultry

documented recently; 1a,137a

rotation suggested for

long-term prevention

5 mg/L drinking

water×6 days 69

5-10 mg/L drinking

water×2 days 44

Chickens/reduced oocyst

viability and virulence

Chickens/effective in

preventing disease and

reducing total oocysts,

lesions, and mortality in

infected birds with mixed

Eimeria infections

0.5-1 mg/kg feed 29,44 Chickens, turkeys/coccidia


isolates were partially or

completely resistant

Dimetrida-zole b (Emtryl 40% powder,

Rhone Merieux)

200-400 mg/L

drinking

water×5 days 69

800 mg/L drinking

water 69

Game birds/Trichomonas,

Giardia, Hexamita,

Spironucleus, Histomonas;

low therapeutic index;

highly toxic to geese, and

ducks; 69 not available in

many countries (United

States, European Union)

because of human health

risks; Canada has banned

use in food-producing

animals; 124 prohibited

drug b

Poultry, game

birds/prohibited drug b

560

185-187.5 mg/kg

feed 69

Poultry, game

birds/prohibited drug b

200-400 mg/kg feed 69 Chickens/highly effective

against Histomonas;

prohibited drug b

Dinitolmide (Zoamix, Alpharma) 40-187 mg/kg feed 69 Chickens, turkeys/coccidia

Fenbendazole (Safeguard, Ralston

Purina; Panacur, Intervet)

— Anthelmintic effective against

cestodes, nematodes,

trematodes, Giardia,

acanthocephalans; can

cause feather abnormalities

if administered during

molting 16

1.5-3.9 mg/kg PO

q24h×3 days 16,153

5-15 mg/kg

q24h×5 days 16

10-50 mg/kg PO

once; repeat in 10

days 106

10-50 mg/kg PO

q24h×5 days 106

Chickens/PK, PD; Capillaria

Waterfowl

Chickens/Ascaris spp.

Chickens/Capillaria and other

nematodes

12 mg/kg PO 69 Partridges,

pheasants/Syngamus,

Heterakis, Ascaridia

20 mg/kg PO once 16,69 Waterfowl, 16

pheasants/cestodes,

nematodes,

acanthocephalans; reduced

Heterakis and Eimeria in

pheasants

20-100 mg/kg PO

once 106

125 mg/L of drinking

water×5 days 106

Chickens/nematodes other

than Capillaria

Chickens/nematodes other

than Capillaria

53 mg/kg in feed×5- Game birds/nematodes,

7 days 69 trematodes

79 mg/kg feed

(75 ppm)×3

days d,114

Chickens, quail

561

80 mg/kg feed 153 Chickens/PK, PD; Capillaria

375 mg/kg feed×1

day c,114

Chickens/Capillaria, Heterakis,

Ascaridia, Syngamus

Bobwhites (280-g size)/will

treat about 1000 birds 114

14.5 g/ton feed

(16 ppm)×6 days 106 Turkeys (growing)/Ascaridia

dissimilis and Heterakis

gallinarium

Flubendazole (Flutelmium 7.5%,

Janssen-Cilag)

30 mg/kg

feed×7 days 16

Poultry

60 mg/kg feed×7-

14 days 16,69 Partridges, pheasants

Halofuginone — Not available in the United

States

1.3-2.72 mg/kg feed 27 Turkeys/coccidia; not

approved for birds

intended for food

2.7 mg/kg feed 27 Chickens/coccidia, Plasmodium

Hygromycin B (Hygromix 8, Elanco) — Aminoglycoside antibiotic

used as anthelmintic feed

additive

8-12 g/ton feed 106 Chickens/Ascaridia, Heterakis,

Capillaria

9-13 mg/kg feed 69 Game birds/ascarids, cecal

worms; some efficacy

against Capillaria

18-26 mg/kg feed×2

mo 69

Game birds/cecal worms

Ivermectin — Most nematodes,

acanthocephalans, leeches,

most ectoparasites

(including Knemidokoptes,

Dermanyssus); can dilute

with water or saline for

immediate use; dilute with

propylene glycol for

extended use

0.2 mg/kg PO, SC, Guinea fowl, waterfowl

IM once, can

repeat in 10-

14 days 16,69

562

Lasalocid (Avatec, Alpharma)

67-125 mg/kg feed

continuously 69,151

Game birds, chickens/coccidia

Levamisole — Nematodes;

immunostimulant; low

therapeutic index (toxic

reactions, deaths

reported); do not use in

debilitated birds; 16 IM

administration may cause

severe toxicity 69

13 g/25 gal drinking

water×1 day; can

repeat in 5-7

days f,114

52 g/100 gal drinking

water×1 day; can

repeat in 5-7

days e,114

Poultry/Capillaria, Heterakis,

and Ascaridia; solution

contains 0.5 g of

levamisole per 3.8 L of

water 114

Poultry/Capillaria, Heterakis,

and Ascaridia; solution

contains 0.5 g of


water 114

52 g/3 L water stock Poultry/Capillaria, Heterakis,

solution that is and Ascaridia; solution

then added at contains 0.5 g of

30 mL stock


solution/3.8 L water 114

drinking

water×1 day; can

repeat in 5-

7 days 114

20-25 mg/kg SC 69 Game birds

20-50 mg/kg PO, SC

once 16

Waterfowl

25-30 mg/kg 106 Chicken/Ascaridia dissimilis, H.

gallinarium, Capillaria

obsingnata

40 mg/kg PO once 47,69 Chickens/PK; Capillaria;

significantly higher

bioavailability, volume of

distribution, and total

body clearance in laying

hens 47

265-525 mg/L

drinking

water×1 day,

Game birds, poultry

563

repeat in 7-

14 days 69

Maduramicin ammonium (Cygro,

Alpharma)

Mebendazole (Telmin Suspension,

Telmintic Powder, Schering-

Plough)

5-6 mg/kg feed 69 Chickens, turkeys/coccidia;

not available in the United

States

Broad-spectrum ovicidal

antihelmintic; primarily

used for Capillaria 16

5-15 mg/kg PO

q24h×2 days 16,69

1.2 mg/kg

feed×14 days 69

Waterfowl/nematodes

Waterfowl/nematodes

Metronidazole b — Antiprotozoal, including

alimentary tract protozoa

(especially flagellates such

as Giardia, Histomonas,

Spironucleus, Trichomonas);

prohibited drug 54,166

25 mg/kg PO

q12h×10 days 27

Turkeys/Trichomonas;

prohibited drug 166

30 mg/kg PO q12h 36 Poultry/PK, PD; prohibited

drug 166

50 mg/kg PO 27 Waterfowl/flagellates;

prohibited drug 166

110 mg/kg PO q12h 69 Poultry/Histomonas;

prohibited drug 166

400 mg/L drinking

water×5-15 days 69

Game birds,

passerines/protozoal

sinusitis; prohibited

drug 166

200-400 mg/kg feed 69 Chickens/highly effective

against Histomonas but

reduced weight gains at

higher dosage; prohibited

drug 166

Milbemycin oxime (Interceptor,

Novartis)

2 mg/kg PO, repeat

in 28 days 69

Galliformes/nematodes

Monensin (Coban 45, Elanco) — Ionophore antibiotic

anticoccidial feed additive;

keep away from horses

(toxic)

53-94 mg/kg feed×10 Turkeys

564

wk 29,69

73 mg/kg feed×10

wk 27

Quail

94 mg/kg feed 69 Quail, cranes/coccidia

(including disseminated

visceral coccidiosis)

94-108 mg/kg feed×8

wk 69

Chickens

99.2 mg/kg feed 137a Turkeys/23 of 33 Eimeria

isolates were resistant

Narasin (Monteban 45, Elanco) 20-80 mg/kg feed 151 Chickens/prophylactic

coccidiostat; toxic to

turkeys

Nicarbazin (Nicarb 25%, Merck

AgVet)

Oregano essential oil (Orego-Stim 5%

Meriden AnimalHealth Ltd)

Phenylarsonic acid (Merck European

Laboratories)

Piperazine (Wazine, Fleming

Laboratories)

20-125 mg/kg feed 151 Chickens/prophylactic

coccidiostat

500 ppm in feed 116 Chickens (growing)/PD;

coccidiostat; lower oocysts

per gram of feces and

displayed lower coccidiosis

lesion scores in upper and

middle regions of intestine

than controls 116

22-45 mg/kg 27 Chickens, turkeys/Histomonas

prevention; not

recommended or approved

for game birds; not


States

— Ascarids, oxyurids; less

efficacious than

fenbendazole; resistance is

widespread 106

45-200 mg/kg PO

once 69

Waterfowl/Tetrameres,

Capillaria

50 mg/bird PO 106 Chickens (<6 wk old)

50-100 mg/kg PO

once 69

Chickens

100 mg/bird PO 106 Chickens (≥6 wk old), turkeys

(<12 wk old)

100-400 mg/bird PO 69 Turkeys

565

100-500 mg/kg PO Game birds

once, repeat in 10-

14 days 69

200 mg/bird PO 106 Turkeys (≥12 wk old)

1000 mg/L drinking Gallinaceous birds/should be

water; repeat in completely consumed

10-14 days 16 within a few hours

because only relatively

high concentrations of the

drug eliminate worms 106

1000-2000 mg/L Game birds

drinking water×1-

2 days 69

1600-2600 mg/L

drinking water 27

Waterfowl/Tetrameres,

Capillaria

Praziquantel

5-10 mg/kg PO, SC

q24h×

14 days 27,69 Waterfowl/trematodes

8.5 mg/kg IM 69 Chickens/cestodes,

trematodes 16,69

10 mg/kg PO 69 Chickens

10 mg/kg PO, SC

q24h×14 days 16

10-20 mg/kg PO,

repeat in 10

days 16,69

10-20 mg/kg SC,


Waterfowl/trematodes

Waterfowl/cestodes,

trematodes 69

Waterfowl/cestodes

11 mg/kg SC once 69 Chickens

Primaquine — Game birds/hematozoa (i.e.,


Leucocytozoon); use in

conjunction with

chloroquine; dosage based

on amount of active base

rather than total tablet

weight

Pyrimethamine (Fansidar, Roche)

0.03 mg/kg PO

q24h×3 days 69

0.25-0.5 mg/kg PO

q12h×30 days 69

Game birds

Waterfowl/Sarcocystis,

Toxoplasma

566

0.5 mg/kg PO

q12h×30 days 69

Waterfowl/Sarcocystis

0.25-0.5 mg/kg PO

q12h×30 days 16

Waterfowl

1 mg/kg feed 69 Game birds

Pyrimethamine/sulfaquinoxaline

(Microquinox, C-Vet Livestock

Products)

60 mg/L drinking

water, 3 days on,

2 days off, 3 days

on 16


Robenidine HCl (Bio-Cox, Alpharma) 33 mg/kg feed 69 Chickens

Sulfadiazine/trimethoprim (DiTrim,

Zoetis)

Sulfadimethoxine (12.5%)

60 mg/kg PO

q12h×3 days 16

250 mg/L drinking

water×5 days 69

500 mg/L drinking

water×6 days 69


Turkeys (meat)/coccidiosis

Chickens (broilers and


0.938 g/gal

(0.025%)×6 days 166 Turkeys (meat)/coccidiosis

1.875 g/gal

(0.05%)×6 days 166 Chickens (broilers and



(Rofenaid, Hoffmann-La Roche)

10 mg/kg feed 69 Game birds/coccidiosis,

Leucocytozoon, Sarcocystis

320-525 mg/L

drinking water 69

Poultry

Sulfamethazine (Sulmet, Boehringer-

Ingelheim)

125-185 mg/kg PO Chickens

q24h×2 days, then

64-

94 mg/kg×4 days 69

Sulfaquinoxaline (Sulquin 6-50,

Solvay)

0.04% in drinking

water×2-3 days,

off 3 days, then

use

0.025%×2 days

(repeat

0.025%×2 days if

needed) 166

Chickens/coccidiosis caused

by Eimeria tenella, E.

necatrix, E. acervulina, E.

maxima, and E. brunetti; do

not change litter unless

absolutely necessary; do

not give flushing mashes;

medicated chickens must

actually consume enough

medicated water to provide

a recommended dosage of

approximately 22-

99 mg/kg/day depending

567

on the age, class of animal,

ambient temperature, and

other factors; do not give

to chickens within 10 days

of slaughter for food; do

not medicate chickens

producing eggs for human

consumption; make fresh

drinking water daily 166

0.025% in drinking

water×2 days, off

3 days, give 2

days, off 3 days

and on 2 days

more; repeat if

necessary 166

250 mg/L drinking

water×6 days, off

2 days, on 6

days 69

400 mg/L (1.4 mL/L)

drinking

water×6 days, off

2 days, on 6

days 69

225 mg/kg feed

continuously 69

450 mg/kg feed

continuously 69

Turkeys/coccidiosis caused by

Eimeria meleagrimitis and E.

adenoides; 166 must consume

enough medicated water to

provide approximately 77-

121 mg/kg/day depending

on age, class of animal,

ambient temperature; do

not give to turkeys within

10 days of slaughter for

food; do not use in

turkeys producing eggs

for human consumption

Turkeys

Chickens

Turkeys

Chickens

Thiabendazole — Nematodes,

acanthocephalans;

generally less efficacious

than fenbendazole; may be

toxic to diving ducks 16

425 mg/kg

feed×14 days 69

Pheasants

Tinidazole (Fasigyn, Pfizer)

Giardia, Trichomonas, Entamoeba

200-400 mg/kg feed 69 Chickens/Histomonas;

568

depressed weight gain on

higher dosage

Toltrazuril (Baycox, Bayer) — Coccidiocidal; 69 efficacious for

refractory coccidiosis; 2.5%

solution is very alkaline

and should not be gavaged

directly into the crop 69

12.5 mg/L drinking

water×2 days 69

25 mg/L drinking

water×2 days 44

25 mg/L drinking

water×2 days,

repeat in 5 days 69

Waterfowl

Chickens/effective in

preventing disease and

reducing total oocysts,

lesions, and mortality in

infected birds with mixed

Eimeria infections

Geese

Trimethoprim/sulfachlorpyridazine

(1:5 ratio; Cosumix Plus, Novartis)




60 mg/kg PO, SC

q12h×3 days, off 2

days, on 3 days 16

320-525 mg/L

drinking water 16,69


Poultry/coccidiosis

a












b

The FDA prohibits the use of chloramphenicol, clenbuterol, diethylstilbestrol (DES), fluoroquinolone

class antibiotics, glycopeptides (all agents, including vancomycin), medicated feeds, nitroimidazoles (all

agents, including dimetridazole, ipronidazole, metronidazole, and others), and nitrofurans (all agents,

including furazolidone, nitrofurazone, and others), with no allowable extra-label drug use, in any foodproducing

animal species. 54,166

c

375 mg/kg feed×1 day is equivalent to 1 oz of 10% Safeguard or 10% Panacur per 15-20 lb feed. 114

d

79 mg/kg feed×3 days is equivalent to 1.2 oz of 10% Safeguard or 10% Panacur in 100 lb feed or a 4-

oz packet of Worm-A-Rest Litter Pack (Ralston Purina) in 50 lb feed or a 5-lb bag of Worm-A-Rest Mix

Pack in 495 lb feed. 114

e

Dissolve a 52-g (1.84-oz) packet of Tramisol Cattle and Sheep Wormer per 100 gal of drinking water. 114

569

f

Dissolve a 13-g (0.46-oz) packet of Tramisol Sheep Drench Powder per 25 gal of drinking water. 114

Table 6-5

Chemical Restraint/Anesthetic/Analgesic Agents Used in Backyard Poultry and

Waterfowl. a-c


Alphachloralose (Fisher

Scientific)

30 mg/kg PO once 18 Canada geese/immobilization of

nuisance geese; prepare

suspension in corn oil, inject into

individual bread baits, and handtoss

to target individuals; onset

approximately 60 min, duration

up to 24 hr; low therapeutic

index in chickens suggests only

marginally safe in domestic

species or for field applications

where dosage difficult to control 95

250-430 mg/cup of

bait 27,69

Waterfowl (including Canada

geese)/immobilization

Alphaxalone/alphadolone

(Saffan, Schering-

Plough)


Zoetis)

36 mg/kg IP 69 Waterfowl/immobilization; relatively

low therapeutic index

— α 2 adrenergic antagonist; 1:1 volume

reversal of dexmedetomidine and

medetomidine is general rule;

although the same effects would

be expected as with

medetomidine (no longer

available but can be

compounded), there are no data

available on the efficacy of this

volume of atipamezole reversal of

dexmedetomidine in birds

2.5-5× medetomidine

dose IM, IV 69,100 Geese/righting reflex regained 2-

10 min after administration; for

reversal of dexmedetomidine and

medetomidine (no longer

commercially available but can be

compounded)

0.18-0.28 mg/kg IV 99 Mallard ducks

0.25-0.38 mg/kg IM 100 Mallard ducks

1.3-1.6 mg/kg IV 69 Chickens

570

Atropine sulfate 0.1 mg/kg IM, IV q3-

4h 16

Waterfowl

Bupivacaine HCl 1.94 mg/kg IV 112 Chickens/TD 50 ; dose with 50%

probability of a clinically

significant change in blood

pressure in isofluraneanesthetized

chickens

2 mg/kg infused SC 103 Mallard ducks/PD; high plasma

levels at 6 and 12 hr postadministration,

so delayed

toxicity is possible

Buprenorphine HCl

2-8 mg/kg

perineurally 21

2-10 mg/kg infused

into incision site 69

3 mg/0.3 mL saline

injected

intraarticular 69

5 mg/kg (with

10 µg/kg

epinephrine)

perineurally 69

50:50 mixture with

dimethyl sulfoxide

topically 69

0.05-1 mg/kg

intraarticular 56a

Mallard ducks/variable effectiveness

for brachial plexus nerve block

Eider ducks/high bupivacaine dose

toxicity or cumulative toxicity of

bupivacaine and ketoprofen may

have occurred

Chickens/arthritis

Chickens/unsuccessful brachial

plexus nerve block

Chickens/topical anesthesia; applied

to amputated beaks

Chickens/PD; no significant

antinociceptive effects

Butorphanol tartrate 0.5-2 mg/kg IM 118 Harlequin ducks/no isofluranesparing

effects detected when

administered 15 min prior to

induction; 118 4 mg/kg IM caused

severe adverse cardiopulmonary

effects in Guinea fowl 50

2 mg/kg IM q8-12h 173 Chicken/as part of bimodal pain

therapy with PO carprofen

Butorphanol (B)/midazolam

(Mi)


Zoetis)

(B) 1 mg/kg+(Mi) Chickens/adequate sedation for

1 mg/kg 69 lateral recumbency

0.3 mg/kg IM 69,171 Chickens, rock partridges/marked

sedation; significant decrease in

HR and RR, decrease in cloacal

571

temperature, and prolonged

recoveries (260±17.6 min) in

partridges

Diazepam 0.5-1 mg/kg IM, IV q8-

12h 16

Waterfowl/sedation; anticonvulsant;

IM administration may cause

severe muscle irritation, and

absorption may be delayed

6 mg/kg IM 171 Rock partridges/decrease in cloacal

temperature; prolonged

recoveries (149±8.3 min)

Fentanyl citrate

0.5-1 mg/kg

intraarticular 56a

5 mg/kg transdermal

(intrascapular

skin) 174

Chickens/PD; no effect on pain

behavior

Guinea fowl/PK; plasma

concentrations greater than

those reported to be analgesic for

dogs for at least 7 days; no

longer available in the United

States

25 µg/h patch for Chickens/PK; wide variability; placed

72 hr 41b over plucked skin on dorsum;

reached human therapeutic levels

by 2-4 hr post-application 41b

Flumazenil 0.018-0.028 mg/kg IV 99 Mallard ducks

0.05 mg/kg

intranasally 69,100

Mallard ducks

0.1 mg/kg IM 39 Quail/PD; reversed midazolam in

1.4-1.8 min

Isoflurane 1.3% 97,98 Ducks/minimum anesthetic

concentration

1.15% 108 Chickens/minimum anesthetic

concentration

1.1%±0.1% 49 Chickens/minimum anesthetic

concentration

Ketamine HCl 15-25 mg/kg IM, IV 69 Waterfowl/seldom used as sole agent

because of poor muscle relaxation

and prolonged (up to 3 hr),

violent recovery; 69 may produce

excitation or convulsions in

golden pheasants; 69 may fail to

produce general anesthesia in

some species, including

waterfowl 69

572

20-50 mg/kg SC, IM,

IV 69

Ketamine (K)/diazepam (D) (K) 10-40 mg/kg IV +

(D) 1-1.5 mg/kg IM,

IV 69

Waterfowl/restraint 30-60 min;

smaller species require a higher

dose; large birds tend to recover

more slowly

Waterfowl/induction or surgical

anesthesia; rapid bolus may

produce apnea, arrhythmia, and

increased risk of death

(K) 75 mg/kg IM + (D) Chickens/diazepam given 10 min

2.5 mg/kg IV 69 after ketamine; pain reflexes

elicited at all times; recovery in

90-100 min

(K) 75 mg/kg IM + (D) White leghorn cockerels/diazepam

2.5 mg/kg IV 107 administered 5 min before

ketamine for typhlectomy;

smooth induction/recovery, some

limb contracture, hypothermia,

hypoxia, hypercapnia


(Me)

(K) 1.5-2 mg/kg+(Me) Waterfowl/sedation; medetomidine

60-85 µg/kg IM, IV 69 no longer available but can be

compounded; see

dexmedetomidine 69


(Me)/midazolam (Mi)

(K) 5-10 mg/kg+(Me)

100-200 µg/kg IM,

IV 69

(K) 10 mg/kg+(Me)

50 µg/kg+

(Mi) 2 mg/kg IV 99,100

Geese

Mallard ducks/PD; medetomidine

not currently available but can be

compounded; anesthesia of 30-

min duration; reverse with

atipamezole, flumazenil

intranasally; regimen considered

unsafe due to acidosis,

bradypnea, apnea, and in 1/12

birds, death 100


(Mi)

Ketamine (K)/xylazine (X)

(K) 50 mg/kg IV + (Mi) Chickens (white leghorn

2 mg/kg IM 107 cockerels)/midazolam

administered 5 min before

ketamine for typhlectomy;

hypoxia, hypercapnia, torticollis,

dyspnea, salivation noted;

prolonged recovery (92-105 min)

(K) 10 mg/kg+(X)

2 mg/kg IV 107 Chickens (white leghorn

cockerels)/for typhlectomy;

smooth induction/recovery;

optimal to excellent surgical

573

anesthesia

(K) 20 mg/kg+(X) Pekin ducks/bradypnea, acidemia,

1 mg/kg IV 69,98 hypoxemia, moderate

hyperthermia

(K) 25 mg/kg+(X) Guinea fowl/lateral recumbency 1-

1 mg/kg IM 154 6 min; adequate anesthesia;

arousal in 1.4±0.7 min after

yohimbine administration


(X)/diazepam (D)


(X)/midazolam (Mi)

(K) 25 mg/kg+(X)

3 mg/kg+

(D) 4 mg/kg IM 117

(K) 15 mg/kg+(X)

2.5 mg/kg+

(Mi) 0.3 mg/kg IM 3

Roosters/use with caution;

significant decreases in HR, RR,

cloacal temperatures; prolonged

recoveries (up to 4 hr)

Guinea fowl/midazolam improved

anesthetic quality

Lidocaine

2.5 mg/kg IV (give over Chickens/PK; under isoflurane

20 sec) 37 anesthesia

15 mg/kg (with

3.8 µg/kg

epinephrine)

perineurally 21

20 mg/kg (with

10 µg/kg

epinephrine)

perineurally 69

Mallard ducks/variable effectiveness

for brachial plexus nerve block

Chickens/unsuccessful brachial

plexus nerve block

Medetomidine 250-350 µg/kg PO 69 Chickens/sedation; 60 µg given to

male birds, 40 µg given to female

birds; average time of sedation

was 6 min; not commercially

available but can be compounded

Methohexital sodium

(Brevital, JHP

Pharmaceuticals)

4-8 mg/kg IV 69 Poultry

5-10 mg/kg IV 69 Ducks

Metomidate HCl (Hypnodil,

Janssen)

4 g/cup of bait (usually

corn) 69

Turkeys (wild)

Midazolam HCl 2 mg/kg IM 69 Canada geese/sedation for 15-20 min

2-6 mg/kg IM 39 Quail/PD; mild to heavy sedation

4-6 mg/kg IM 69 Waterfowl

5 mg/kg IV 33 Turkeys, chickens, ring-necked

pheasants, bobwhites/PK; rapid

absorption, t 1/2 =0.42, 1.45, 1.90,

and 9.71 hr for turkeys, chickens,

574

Morphine sulfate

1-3 mg/kg

intraarticular 56a

2.5-3 mg/kg SC, IM

q4h 69

bobwhites, and pheasants,

respectively

Chickens/PD; no analgesic effect for

arthritis noted; early work in

chickens demonstrated confusing

clinical dosage results 69

Galliformes/analgesia

2 mg/kg IV 145 Chickens/PK; plasma concentrations

greater than MEC for humans

for 2 hr

10-20 mg/kg IM 52 Japanese quail/PD; exhibited

antinociceptive effects on foot

withdrawal and pressure tests;

no effect on locomotion, eating,

or drinking at these doses

Propofol

Ropivacaine (Ropi 0.75%,

Cristália Chemical &

Pharmaceutical)

5 mg/kg IV

(induction);

0.5 mg/kg/min IV

(maintenance) 143

6-14 mg/kg

(induction);

boluses prn 69

8 mg/kg IV

(induction);

0.85 mg/kg/min IV

(maintenance) 119

8-10 mg/kg IV

(induction); 1-

4 mg/kg IV boluses

prn

(maintenance) 99,100,102

15 mg/kg IV

(induction);

0.8 mg/kg/min IV

(maintenance) 101

7.5 mg/kg

perineurally 26

Wild turkeys/PD; anesthesia;

intubation, ventilation, and

supplemental oxygen strongly

recommended 69,143

Eider ducks/anesthesia with

inhalant, bupivacaine,

ketoprofen; significant mortality

but high-dose bupivacaine

toxicity or cumulative

bupivacaine/ketoprofen toxicity

may have occurred

Swans (mute)/PD

Mallard ducks, canvasback

ducks/PD; anesthesia

Canvasback ducks/PD; some

excitement during induction; 2

deaths; significant reduction in

ventilation

Chickens/15 min to effect for brachial

plexus nerve block;

approximately 110 min

anesthesia; no toxic effects noted

575

at this dose

Sevoflurane 2.21±0.32% 122 Chickens/PD; minimum anesthetic

concentration; dose-dependent

hypotension noted


(Telazol, Zoetis)

4-25 mg/kg IM 69 Waterfowl/sedation; dose generally

decreases as body weight

increases in waterfowl

6.6 mg/kg IM 69 Swans

9-30 mg/kg IM 69 Wood partridges/restraint

Tramadol HCl 7.5 mg/kg PO 19 Peafowl/PK; only 2/6 birds reached

human tramadol analgesic

concentrations; 5/6 maintained

O-desmethyl-tramadol (M1)

concentrations above human

analgesic concentrations for 10-

12 hr and 3/6 for 24 hr; analgesia

not evaluated

Xylazine 1 mg/kg IV 98 Pekin ducks

1-20 mg/kg IM, IV 27 Waterfowl/sedation

10 mg/kg IM 171 Rock partridges/good sedation;

significant decrease in respiratory

rate; decrease in cloacal

temperature; prolonged

recoveries (205±22.2 min)

Yohimbine HCl (Yobine,

Lloyd)

— α 2 adrenergic antagonist; excitement

and mortality observed at doses

>1 mg/kg 69

0.1-0.2 mg/kg IV 27,69 Waterfowl

1 mg/kg IV 154 Guinea fowl/excitement and

mortality observed in birds at

doses >1 mg/kg 69

a

The anesthetic agents of choice in most avian species are the inhalant agents isoflurane and

sevoflurane.

b

All opiod agonists and agonist antagonists may cause respiratory depression; profound bradypnea

may occur with potent opioid agonists.

c









576




Table 6-6

Nonsteroidal Antiinflammatory Agents Used in Backyard Poultry and Waterfowl. a,b


Acetaminophen

10 mg/kg IM

q24h×7 days 76

Chicken/no adverse clinical signs, normal serum

creatinine and uric acid, no gross or

histopathologic changes in kidneys observed

Aspirin

(acetylsalicylic

acid)

25 mg/kg IV 14,15 Chickens, ducks, turkeys

50 mg/kg PO 134a Chickens, turkeys/PK; mean residue time 7 hr

and 4.5 hr, respectively; 134a chickens/400 mg/kg

PO×14 days led to decreased weight gain and

ventricular ulceration 133,134a

50 mg/kg IV 134a Chickens, turkeys/PK; mean residue time 6 hr

and 3.3 hr, respectively

100-200 mg/kg IM 74 Chickens/partially reduced arthritic behaviors

after 1 hr

Dissolve five (5-grain)

aspirin tablets in

1 gal of water

(=324 mg/gal of

drinking water) 114

Poultry/offer solution free choice to obtain a

dosage rate of about 55 mg/kg body

weight/day 114

Carprofen 1 mg/kg SC 110 Chickens/improved locomotion for at least 90 min

post-injection

5-8 mg/kg PO q12h 173 Chickens

15-25 mg/kg SC 25 Chickens/PD; therapeutically effective treatment

of induced articular pain at 6 hr

30 mg/kg IM 74 Chickens/PD; arthritis painful behaviors reduced

1 hr post-treatment only with this high dose

40 mg/kg body

weight provided

in feed 38

Chickens/analgesia; dosage required to reach

similar mammalian therapeutic plasma

concentrations (8.3 µg/mL), but much lower

plasma concentrations (0.28 µg/mL) provided

some analgesia

Diclofenac — Chickens/toxic at dose of 2.5 mg/kg IM

q24h×7 days; severe clinical signs of renal

toxicity and high mortality with increased

serum creatinine and uric acid

577

concentrations 76

Flunixin

meglumine

— Potential nephrotoxicity; histologic glomerular

changes were demonstrated in bobwhite quail

given doses as low as 0.1 mg/kg (severity of

lesions was directly correlated to

dose); 83 IM administration caused muscle

necrosis in mallard ducks 105

1.1 mg/kg IV 14 Chickens, ducks, turkeys, and chickens had long

half-life, but ostrich t 1/2 =10 min

3 mg/kg IM 74 Chickens/PD; arthritis behaviors reduced 1 hr

after treatment

5 mg/kg IM 105 Mallard ducks/PD; reduced thromboxane activity

for 12 hr; muscle necrosis at injection site

5 mg/kg IV 176 Chickens/PK; t 1/2 =3 hr

1.3 mg/kg IV RLP

once 137b

Chickens/pododermatitis; regional limb perfusion

(RLP) into medial metatarsal vein with a

tourniquet placed proximal to hock joint for

15 min 137b

Ketoprofen

1 mg/kg IM q24h×

1-10 days 14-16,69 Waterfowl/arthritis

2 mg/kg PO, SC, IM,

IV 59,60


q12-24h 69

3 mg/kg IM

q24h×5 days 115

Japanese quail/PK, PD; poor bioavailability and

rapid clearance after PO or IM administration

Eider ducks/high mortality in male ducks may be

due to high bupivacaine dose or cumulative

toxicity of bupivacaine and ketoprofen

Chickens/no adverse clinical signs; normal

creatinine, uric acid, ALT, AST

5 mg/kg IM q12h 104,105 Mallard ducks/PD; inhibited thromboxane for

approximately 12 hr

5-10 mg/kg IM, IV 27,69 Waterfowl

12 mg/kg IM 74 Chickens/reduced arthritic pain behaviors for

12 hr

Meloxicam 0.5 mg/kg IV 14,15 Chickens, ducks, turkeys/PK; variable

distribution

1 mg/kg PO, IM

q12h 173

Chicken

1 mg/kg PO once 146 Chickens/PK; t 1/2 =2.8 hr; drug detected in egg

white up to 4 days and egg yolk up to 8 days

after dosing

1-1.5 mg/kg PO q12- Chicken

578

24h 173

2 mg/kg IM

q12h×14 days 144

Japanese quail/PD; unremarkable histologic and

minimal biochemical changes

3-5 mg/kg SC 25 Chickens/PD; therapeutically effective treatment

of induced articular pain at 6 hr

Tepoxalin 30 mg/kg PO, IV 40 Chickens/PK; rapidly metabolized, t 1/2 =2.8 hr and

1 hr, respectively 40

a

Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory agents may potentially cause gastrointestinal upset and hemorrhage as

well as adverse renal effects ranging from fluid retention to renal failure.

b












579

Table 6-7

Hormones and Steroids Used in Backyard Poultry and Waterfowl. a


Estradiol benzoate

Levonorgestrel depot

form

(Levonorgestrel,

Sigma Chemical)

1 mg/kg IM q24h×

12 days 72 Mallard ducks/induces molt

40 mg/kg SC 53,157 Japanese quail, turkeys/halts egg laying

but may cause ovostasis if already in

oviduct; repeat in 60 days in turkeys

Levothyroxine (lthyroxine)

Oxytocin

Prostaglandin E 2

(dinoprostone)

(Prepidil Gel,

Upjohn)

Prostaglandin F 2α

(Dinoprost

tromethamine)

(Lutalyse, Upjohn)

200-400 µg/bird PO

q24h×14 days 150

3-5 U/kg IM, may

repeat q30min 69

0.02-0.1 mg/kg applied

topically to the

uterovaginal

sphincter 69

0.02-0.1 mg/kg IM,

intracloacal once 16

Chickens/induces molt

Waterfowl

Waterfowl/dystocia; relaxes uterovaginal

sphincter; lower dosage may be

effective; freeze into aliquots

Waterfowl/dystocia

Tamoxifen citrate 40 mg/kg IM 72,147 Galliformes, ducks/induces molt

a












580

Table 6-8

Nebulization Agents Used in Backyard Poultry and Waterfowl. a,b


Ceftriaxone 40 mg/mL sterile water 69,80 Poultry/PD; prohibited drug 54,166

40 mg/mL sterile water and

DMSO 80

Poultry/PD; 1 g ceftriaxone in 10 mL

sterile water, plus 15 mL DMSO;


200 mg/mL sterile water and

DMSO 80

Lincomycin 250 mg aerosolized drug/m 3

chamber×15-30 min 28

Poultry/PD; 4 g ceftriaxone in 10 mL

sterile water, plus 10 mL DMSO;


Chickens/PD; antibiotic; therapeutic

concentrations in blood, lungs, and

trachea for up to 24 hr

Oxytetracycline

Tylosin

1 g/m 3 of air using a

DeVilbiss ultrasonic

nebulizer, or 0.075 g/m 3 of air

using a Fogmaster fogger 172

20 mg/mL DMSO or distilled

water×1 hr 93,94

Turkey poults

Quail/PD

a












b

Nebulization is an adjunctive therapy indicated for rhinitis, sinusitis, tracheitis, pneumonia,

airsacculitis, and syringeal aspergilloma, where there is air movement occurring in the patient’s disease

state; optimal particle size for deposition in the trachea is 2-10 μm; optimal particle size for peripheral

airways is 0.5-5 μm; treatments of 30-45 min repeated q4-12h are recommended; caution: do not

overhydrate airways. 69

Table 6-9

Agents Used in the Treatment of Toxicologic Conditions of Backyard Poultry and

Waterfowl. a


Atropine sulfate 0.1 mg/kg IM, Waterfowl/acetylcholinesterase toxicosis

581

IV

q3-4h 16,69

Botulinum type C

antitoxin (100

U/mL) (National

Wildlife Health

Center)

Calcium EDTA (edetate

calcium disodium)

1 mL IP 69,109 Waterfowl/not commercially available; produced

for experimental use in migratory birds 69

10-40 mg/kg IM, Waterfowl

IV q12h×5-

10 days 16

25-50 mg/kg IV

q12h 69

Geese

Deferiprone (Ferriprox,

Apotex)

Magnesium sulfate

(Epsom salts)

50 mg/kg PO Chickens/PK; iron chelation; may produce rustcolored

urates; supplemental zinc may be

q12h×

30 days 69,175 indicated; 69 an orphan drug in the United

States

500-1000 mg/kg Waterfowl/cathartic used in lead toxicosis to

PO q24h×1- encourage passage of heavy-metal particles 16

3 days 16,69

Melatonin

10 mg/kg in

feed 128

Chickens/aflatoxin exposure; liver and kidney

damage greatly reduced in chicks

administered aflatoxin and melatonin

concurrently for 21 days 128

Penicillamine

(Cuprimine, Merck)

30-55 mg/kg PO Waterfowl

q12h×7-

14 days 69

55 mg/kg PO

q12h×

7-14 days 16 Waterfowl

Pralidoxime mesylate

(2-PAM) (Protopam,

Wyeth-Ayerst)

10-100 mg/kg Waterfowl

IM q24-48h

or repeat

once after

6 hr 69

100 mg/kg IM,

repeat once

after 6 hr 16

Waterfowl

a








582





Table 6-10

Nutritional/Mineral Support Used in Backyard Poultry and Waterfowl.

Nutritional and mineral support are

uncommon in poultry fed

commercially prepared diets that are

formulated for their particular

physiologic state. To determine if

you have a potential nutrient

deficiency, at least 5% of your flock

should display deficiency signs. 132


Biotin 150 mg/ton 89 Poultry/biotin

deficiency

Calcium — Recommended dietary

levels

4-8 mg/kg feed

Growing Muscovy

(0.4%-0.8%) 125 ducks

8 mg/kg feed (0.8%) 125 Growing Japanese

quail

8-10 mg/kg feed

(0.8%-1%) 125 Growing chickens

18.8-32.5 mg/kg feed Laying chickens/3.25%

(1.88%-3.25%) 125 recommended for

hens that lay eggs

daily

22.5 mg/kg feed

(2.25%) 125 Laying turkeys

Folic acid 50-100 µg IM 13 Poultry

chicks/treatment of

deficiency; anemia

improved in 4 days

1 mg/kg of feed 89 Poultry/folic acid

deficiency

Iron dextran 10 mg/kg IM, repeat in 7-

10 days prn 16,69 Waterfowl/iron

deficiency anemia

Niacin 30 mg/kg of feed 89 Chickens/niacin

583

deficiency

55-70 mg/kg of feed 89 Poultry/niacin

deficiency

Pantothenic acid 12 mg/kg of feed 89 Poultry/pantothenic

acid deficiency

2 mg (calcium

Poultry/pantothenic

pantothenate)+0.5 mg acid deficiency

riboflavin in 50 gal

(190 L) water×2-

3 day 89

Riboflavin 10 mg/kg of feed 89 Poultry/riboflavin

deficiency

Thiamine 4 mg/kg of feed 89

Vitamin B 12

Up to 20 mcg/g of feed×1-

2 wk

Poultry/vitamin B 12

deficiency

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) 150 mg/kg PO q24h 65 Willow ptarmigan

chicks/PD;

supplemental daily

requirements over

265-mg/kg diet

Vitamin D3

Vitamin E/γ-linolenic acid (2%), linoleic

acid (71%) (Derm Caps, DVM

Pharmaceuticals)

11-30 min of direct

sunlight/day 69

4000 mg linolenic acid/kg

feed 120

Chickens/sufficient for

endogenous

synthesis of vitamin

D

Japanese quail/PD;

reduces essential

fatty acid deficient

hepatic lipidosis

Vitamin K 1 (phytonadione) 0.1 mg/kg feed 77 Turkeys/PD; as effective

as 1-2 mg/kg in

reducing plasma

prothrombin time

Vitamin K 1 (menadione) 1-4 mg/ton of feed 89 Poultry/for vitamin K

deficiency, double

the dose

584

Table 6-11

Ophthalmologic Agents Used in Backyard Poultry and Waterfowl. a


Amphotericin B

Amphotericin B

ointment (4%)

(formulated)

Ivermectin

125 µg/5 mL sterile

water

subconjunctival 69

Topical q24h 69

0.005-0.05 mg

topical

q24h×10 days 161

Ducks (ornamental)/candidiasis of third eyelid

Ducks (ornamental)/candidiasis of third eyelid;

administered in conjunction with systemic

antifungal therapy

Chicken/PD; conjunctival oxyspirurid

(nematode) infection; no adverse effects were

seen with topical use

a

Variable amounts of skeletal muscle are present in the avian iris, giving birds voluntary control over

pupil dilation. In many avian patients, the pupils are best dilated by restraining the animal in a dark

room.

585

Table 6-12

Oncologic Agents Used in Backyard Poultry and Waterfowl. a


Chlorambucil

(Leukeran,

GlaxoSmithKline)

Prednisone

Vincristine sulfate

1 mg/bird PO

2×/wk 126

1 mg/kg PO

q12h 126

0.5 mg/m2 IV,

then

0.75 mg/m 2

q7d×

3

treatments 126

Pekin ducks/lymphocytic leukemia or

lymphosarcoma; responded to treatment

initially, but was euthanatized 1 mo after

presentation because of respiratory distress and

hemorrhages

Ducks/lymphoma; lymphocytic leukemia

Ducks/lymphoma; lymphocytic leukemia

a


regulated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 166 Even the individual animals of any of these

species are never used for food, they are still regulated by the FDA. The FDA prohibits the use of certain

drugs, with no allowable extra-label drug use, in any food-producing animal species. These prohibited

drugs are clearly identified in the tables, and the doses are provided in case they are needed for a

similar but non-food-producing animal species (e.g., Attwater’s prairie chicken), and listings should in no

way be misconstrued as an endorsement of using FDA-prohibited drugs in any food-producing animal

species. Please refer to the appropriate tables at the end of this chapter regarding the definitions of

prohibited drugs, extra-label drugs, labeled drugs, and drugs needing a Veterinary Feed Directive prior to

choosing a drug and dose. Please refer to the Food Animal Residue Avoidance Databank at


Table 6-13

Euthanasia Agents Used in Backyard Poultry and Waterfowl. a


Argon

Carbon dioxide

(CO 2 )

90% Argon with

2% residual

oxygen 8,136a

__

Chickens/little to no aversion; 8,136a conditionally

acceptable method of euthanasia by the American

Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) if used 8

Chickens/renders the bird unconscious prior to

death; unconscious motor activity such as

flapping of wings may damage tissues for

necropsy and may be disconcerting to the

observer; 8 conditionally acceptable method of

euthanasia by AVMA if used properly 8

>40% 8 -70% 140 Chickens

586

Carbon

monoxide

(CO)

Minimum 6% Causes rapid unconsciousness; inexpensive; 69

concentration conditionally acceptable method of euthanasia by

in a closed AVMA if used properly 8

container 8,140

Inhalant

anesthetics

(ex.,

isoflurane,

sevoflurane)

Nitrogen

Saturated cotton

ball in closed

container or

face mask; 130a,140

high

concentrations

(5% or more)

using

vaporizer are

preferred 8

100% gas

exposure 8

Rapid induction; wing flapping and vocalizing may

occur, less tissue damage compared with other

methods; 88,135 conditionally acceptable by AVMA as

a sole method of euthanasia if high concentrations

used and safety considerations to personnel

followed; 8 can also be used to render birds

unconscious prior to other methods of

euthanasia 8,127

Conditionally acceptable method of euthanasia by

AVMA if used properly

Pentobarbital

sodium

Potassium

chloride

0.2-1 mL/kg IV 8 Acceptable method by AVMA to give IV either

conscious or unconscious (under anesthesia);

conditionally acceptable method to give

intraosseous or intracoelomically only if

unconscious or under anesthesia; unacceptable to

administer IM due to the low pH, which causes

pain; 8,129 birds may react unpredictably with IV

administration 8

1-2 mmol/kg IV 8,17 Conditionally acceptable method by AVMA to give IV

only if unconscious or under anesthesia 8

a

The 2013 AVMA Guidelines for Euthanasia state that methods regarded as “Acceptable with

Conditions” are equivalent to “Acceptable” methods of euthanasisa. 8 The AVMA acceptable method is

administering a pentobarbital euthanasia solution IV in either an awake or unconscious bird. The AVMA

conditionally acceptable methods include inhalant anesthetic overdose, argon, nitrogen, CO, CO 2 ,

cervical dislocation, decapitation, KCl, gunshot, and exsanguination as long as the conditions are met. 8

587

Table 6-14

Miscellaneous Agents Used in Backyard Poultry and Waterfowl.


9,10 Anthraquinone

(Flight Control,

Environmental

Biocontrol)

Digoxin

12.6 mL/L water,

sprayed q7d on

dry, grassy

areas where

geese frequent 69

0.0035 mg/kg IV

q24h 69

0.0049 mg/kg IV

q12h 69

0.01 mg/kg PO

q24h×6 wk 69

0.019 mg/kg IV

q12h 69

Nuisance Canada geese/deterrent if ingested;

birds become nauseated and subsequently

avoid the area that contains an ultraviolet

dye readily detected by the avian eye

Turkeys

Poultry

Chickens/ascites syndrome; reduced ascites; no

apparent toxicity

Pekin ducks

Doxapram 10 mg/kg IV once 16 Waterfowl

Hemoglobin

glutamer-200

(Oxyglobin, OPK

Biotech)

— Currently not available in the United States

5 mL/kg IV 90 Mallard ducks/PD

15 mL/kg IV 69 Chickens/PD; hemoglobin levels fell to near

zero by 50 min post-administration

Methocarbamol

32.5 mg/kg PO

q12h 69

50 mg/kg IV (slow

bolus) 69

Swans/capture myopathy

Swans/muscle relaxation; capture myopathy;

may be given q12h for muscle relaxation

Metoclopramide 2 mg/kg IM, IV q8-

12h 69

Waterfowl/crop stasis; ileus

Nicarbazin

(OvoControl,

Innolytics)

Formulated pellets

provided at

baiting stations

Waterfowl/egg-hatch control; inhibits sperm

receptor sites on the vitelline membrane to

prevent fertilization of eggs; check federal

and state permit requirements prior to use

Polysulfated

glycosaminoglycan

(PSGAG)

(Adequan,

Luitpold)

5 mg/kg IM q7d 69 Pekin ducks/degenerative joint disease

10 mg/kg IM,

intraarticular

q7d×3 mo 69

Pheasants/noninfectious or traumatic joint

dysfunction; 250 mg/mL for intraarticular

use; 500 mg/mL for IM use

Table 6-15

588

Hematologic and Serum Biochemical Values of Selected Galliformes.

Measurement

Chicken

(Gallus

gallus) 78

Quail

(Coturnix

spp.) a,78,142

Ring-Necked Pheasant

(Phasianus

colchicus) 141,181

Turkey

(Meleagris

gallopavo) 78

Hematology

PCV (%) 23-55 30-45 — 30-46

RBC (10 6 /µL) 1.3-4.5 4-5.2 1.2-3.5 1.7-3.7

Hgb (g/dL) 7-18.6 10.7-14.3 8-11.2 8.8-13.4

MCV (fL) 100-139 60-100 — 112-168

MCH (pg) 25-48 23-35 — 32-49.3

MCHC (g/dL) 20-34 28-39 — 23-35

WBC (10 3 /µL) 9-32 12.5-24.6 18-39 16-25.5

Heterophils (%)

Lymphocytes

(%)

Monocytes

(%)

Eosinophils

(%)

Basophils

(%)

H:L ratio

15-50

29-84

0.1-7

0-16

0-8

0.2-1.7

25-50

50-70

0.5-3.8

0-15

0-1.5

0.4-1

12-30

63-83

2-9

0

0-3

0.14-0.48

29-52

35-48

3-10

0-5

1-9

0.6-1.5

Chemistries

ALT (U/L) — 6.5-9.6 — —

AST (U/L) — 402-422 — —

Calcium

(mg/dL)

Cholesterol

(mg/dL)

Creatinine

(mg/dL)

13.2-23.7 — — 11.7-38.7

86-211 — — 81-129

0.9-1.8 0.01-0.08 — 0.8-0.9

GGT (U/L) — 1.7-1.9 — —

Glucose (mg/dL) 227-300 259-312 — 275-425

Phosphorus

(mg/dL)

Potassium

(mEq/L)

6.2-7.9 — — 5.4-7.1

3-7.3 1.4 — 6-6.4

589

Protein, total

(g/dL)

3.3-5.5 3.4-3.6 4.5-5.1 4.9-7.6

Albumin (g/dL)

Globulin

(g/dL)

1.3-2.8

1.5-4.1

1.3-1.5

—

2.6-2.7

1.9-2.1

3-5.9

1.7-1.9

Sodium (mEq/L) 131-171 180 — 149-155

Uric acid

(mg/dL)

2.5-8.1 5.4-5.5 5.6-6 3.4-5.2

a

Except for phosphorus, protein (total), and sodium, biochemistry values are reported in 16-wk-old

Japanese quail.

Table 6-16

Hematologic and Serum Biochemical Values of Selected Anseriformes (Waterfowl).

Measurement

Canada Goose (Branta

canadensis) 24,78

Mallard Duck (Anas

platyrhynchos) 181

Wood Duck (Aix

sponsa) 24

Hematology

PCV (%) 38-58 39-49 46±3

RBC (10 6 /µL) 1.6-2.7 2-3.8 2.8±0.2

Hgb (g/dL) 12.7-19.1 7.4-15.6 15±1

MCV (fL) 145-210 148-200 164±14

MCH (pg) 53.7-70 — —

MCHC (g/dL) 28-32 29-32 33±4

WBC (10 3 /µL) 13-21.8 23.4-24.8 25.6±5.7

Heterophils (%)

Lymphocytes

(%)

Monocytes

(%)

Eosinophils

(%)

Basophils

(%)

H:L ratio

39

46

6

2

7

0.5-0.9

26-38

54-63

1-4

0.2-0.4

0-4

0.4-2

—

—

—

—

—

0.4-0.7

Chemistries

ALP (U/L) 72±43 — 160-780

ALT (U/L) 43±11 — 19-48

AST (U/L) 75±17 — 45-123

590

Bile acid

(µmol/L)

RIA — — 22-60

Colorimetric — — —

Calcium

(mg/dL)

Chloride

(mEq/L)

Cholesterol

(mg/dL)

10.2±0.7 — 7.6-10.4

105±4 — 101-113

172±28 — —

CK (U/L) — — 110-480

Creatinine

(mg/dL)

0.8±0.3 — 0.3-0.4

GGT (U/L) 2±3 — 0-2.9

Glucose (mg/dL) 210±31 — 232-269

LDH (U/L) 301±80 — 30-205

Phosphorus

(mg/dL)

Potassium

(mEq/L)

Protein, total

(g/dL)

2.8±0.9 — 1.8-4.1

3.4±0.6 — 3.9-4.7

4.8±0.7 — 2.1-3.3

Albumin (g/dL) 2.1±0.2 — 1.5-2.1

Globulin (g/dL)

A:G ratio

2.8±0.6

0.76±0.13

—

—

0.6-1.2

1.5-3.6

Sodium (mEq/L) 142±4 — 141-149

Uric acid

(mg/dL)

8.3±2.3 — 2.5-12.9

591

Table 6-17

Biologic and Physiologic Values of Selected Galliformes. 67,68,78

Weaning Age

(days)

Species

Incubation

Period

(days)

Fledgling

Age

(days)

Parent-

Raised

Hand-

Reared

Sexual

Maturity

Lifespan in

Captivity

(Maximum)

(years)

Body

Galliformes

Bobwhite

quail

— — Precocial — — 6

Peafowl — 12 Precocial — — 20

Pheasant,

ringnecked

22-24 — Precocial — 1 yr 10-18

592

Table 6-18

Biologic and Physiologic Values of Selected Anseriformes (Waterfowl) Species. 69

Weight (kg)

Species

Clutch

Size

Incubation

Period

(days)

Fledgling

(days)

Sexual

Maturity

(yr)

Longevity

(yr)

Male

Female

Bar-headed

goose

Canada

goose

Common

eider

4-6 27 — 2 15-20 2-3 2-3

4-10 25-30 40-73 — — — —

3-6 25-30 65-75 1 10-15 2.25 2.12

European

goldeneye

9-11 27-32 — 1 10-15 0.99-

1.16

0.7-0.8

European

wigeon

Hawaiian

goose

7-11 23-25 — 1 10-15 0.7 0.64

3-5 29 — 2 15-20 2.2 1.9

Mallard a 8-12 23-29 42-60 1 10-15 1.26 1.1

Mandarin

duck

9-12 28-30 — 1 10-15 0.44-

0.55

0.44-

Muscovy

duck

8-15 35 — 1 10-15 2-4 1.1-1.5

Mute swan 4-8 35-40 — 5 25-30 12.2 8.9

Pink-footed

goose

Red-breasted

goose

3-5 26-27 — 2 15-20 2.6 2.35

3-7 23-25 — 2 15-20 1.3-1.6 1.15

Tufted duck 6-14 23-25 — 1 10-15 1.1 1.05

a

Except for the Muscovy, all breeds of domestic duck are descended from the mallard (Anas

platyrhynchos).

593

Table 6-19

Selected Nutritional Recommendations for Wild Bird Rehabilitation. 69

Waterfowl

• Offer domestic waterfowl, mallard ducks, and Canada geese cracked corn, scratch

grains, leafy greens, and nonmedicated waterfowl or poultry diet.

• Swans, particularly trumpeter swans, may refuse to eat for 3 or more days; place the

swan in an isolated area, with a slurry of food and fresh greens; do not disturb unless

absolutely necessary.

• Offer water in a dish or bucket deep enough to allow the bird to submerge its entire

neck before its bill touches the bottom of the container.

• Do not use galvanized metal containers because the zinc may leach into food and water.

• For ducklings, goslings, and cygnets, offer nonmedicated waterfowl or chick starter in

shallow dishes and scattered on the floor of the enclosure.

• Tiny pieces of bright fruit, like strawberries, or small, live mealworms may stimulate

self-feeding in a hospital setting.

Table 6-20

Veterinary Feed Directive (VFD) Order Information. 6,7

• Note: A VFD is used for drugs given in the food or water of food animals that are given

exactly per label instructions in regard to dose, concentration, frequency, duration, and

so forth and is not for extra-label drug use. A VFD is valid up to 6 mo.

• For your convenience, a Veterinary Feed Directive Order fillable form and detailed

information can be found on the American Veterinary Medical Association’s Web site at

www.avma.org/KB/Resources/Pages/VFDInstructions.aspx. 7

• According to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), a valid VFD Order is

needed for any feed additive given to a food animal and must be associated with a Valid

Client Patient Relationship (VCPR), and it must contain the following: 6

○ Veterinarian information (name, address, phone) with signature

○ Client information (name, address, phone)

○ Name of the drug, drug concentration, indications for use, and duration of use

○ Dose, withdrawal time

○ Where animals are located (premises) and type (species) and number of animals

○ Date issued, expiration date, indication for use

○ Specified verbiage: “Use of feed containing this VFD drug in a manner other than as

directed on the labeling (extra-label use) is not permitted”

594

Table 6-21

Partial List of Antimicrobials Transitioning From Over-the-Counter (OTC) to

Veterinary Feed Directive (VFD) Status (as of January 2016). 169

• Chlortetracycline (CTC)

• Chlortetracycline/sulfamethazine

• Chlortetracycline/sulfamethazine/penicillin

• Hygromycin B

• Lincomycin

• Oxytetracycline

• Oxytetracycline/neomycin

• Penicillin/sulfadimethoxine/ormetoprim

• Tylosin

• Tylosin/sulfamethazine

• Virginiamycin

Note: Apramycin, erythromycin, neomycin (alone), oleandomycin, sulfamerazine, and

sulfaquinoxaline are also approved for use in feed and are expected to transition to VFD

status but are not marketed at this time. If they return to the market after January 1,

2017, they will require a VFD.

Table 6-22

Serologic Tests for Poultry. 23,170

Test Test Type a Sample Needed

Avian adenovirus FA Tissues

Avian encephalomyelitis ELISA Serum

Avian encephalomyelitis PCR Tissues

Avian hemorrhagic enteritis ELISA Serum

Avian influenza AGID Serum

Avian influenza AGID (egg yolk) Egg

Avian influenza ELISA Serum

Avian influenza FA Serum

Avian influenza PCR Tissues

Avian influenza

H5 and H7

Typing

Nasal swab

Avian influenza screen PCR Tissues, nasal swab, cloacal

swab

Avian pneumovirus PCR Tissues, tracheal swab, cloacal

swab

595

Avian pneumovirus—type C PCR Liver, spleen, heart, kidney,

nasal swab

Avian reovirus ELISA Serum

Bordetella avium ELISA Serum

Chicken profile testing — Serum

Chlamydia psittaci Culture Affected tissues (heart, liver,

spleen, feces)

Chlamydia psittaci FA Affected tissues (heart, liver,

spleen)

Chlamydia spp. PCR Affected tissues

Day-old monitoring Pathology 1-day-old poultry

Eastern equine encephalitis (EEE)

Virus

RT-PCR

Brain tissues, blood

Erysipelothrix spp. Culture Affected tissues (kidney, heart,

liver, spleen, lung, joint

swab, skin)

Exotic Newcastle disease PCR Tissues, nasal swab, cloacal

swab

Fungal culture Culture Affected tissues, poultry litter

Infectious bronchitis virus ELISA Serum

Infectious bronchitis virus PCR Lung, trachea, kidney swab

Infectious bursal disease virus ELISA Serum

Infectious bursal disease virus PCR Spleen, bursa

Infectious laryngotracheitis virus PCR Trachea, lung

Influenza virus—type A AGID Serum

Influenza virus—type A FA Affected tissues

Influenza virus—type A screen PCR Swabs, tissues

Lead — Whole blood

Mycoplasma gallisepticum ELISA Serum

Mycoplasma gallisepticum HI Serum

Mycoplasma gallisepticum PCR Tissues (swab)

Mycoplasma gallisepticum SPT Serum

Mycoplasma iowae PCR Tissues

Mycoplasma meleagridis ELISA Serum

Mycoplasma meleagridis HI Serum

596

Mycoplasma meleagridis PCR Tissues

Mycoplasma meleagridis SPT Serum

Mycoplasma spp. Culture Affected tissues (lung, tracheal

wash, nasal swab, joint

swab, air sac)

Mycoplasma spp. PCR Choanal swab

Mycoplasma synoviae ELISA Serum

Mycoplasma synoviae HI Serum

Mycoplasma synoviae PCR Tissue

Mycotoxin screen (aflatoxin B 1 ,

zearalenone, ochratoxin D,

vomitoxin)

— Stomach contents, feed

Newcastle disease virus

(paramyxovirus—type 1)

HI

Serum

Newcastle disease virus screen PCR Tissues, swabs

Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale Culture Affected tissues (lung, tracheal

wash, nasal swab, air sac

swab)

Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale SPT Serum

Paramyxovirus—type 2 HI Serum



Pasteurella multocida ELISA Serum

Salmonella enteritidis—phage typing b — —

Salmonella enteritidis—rapid test Culture Pool 50 eggs

Salmonella enteritidis—serotyping — —

confirmation b

Salmonella enteritidis—egg culture BAM — Egg

method b

Salmonella pullorum MAT Serum

Salmonella pullorum SPT Serum

Salmonella pullorum STT Serum

Salmonella pullorum or Salmonella

enteritidis

Culture

Tissues

Salmonella spp. Culture Affected tissues, feces, feed,

597

Salmonella spp.

Environmental

culture

water, swabs

Environmental

Salmonella typhimurium MAT Serum

Salmonella typhimurium STT Serum

Turkey profile — Serum

West Nile virus PCR Brain, blood

a

AGID, Agar gel immunodiffusion; ELISA, enzyme linked immunosorbent assay; FA, fluorescent

antibody; FDA, Food and Drug Administration; HI, hemagglutinin inhibition; MAT, modified agglutination

test; PCR, polymerase chain reaction; RT-PCR, reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction; SPT,

skin puncture test; STT, standard tube test.

b

Following a positive test for Salmonella enteritidis, state and federal authorities are contacted, and

additional testing will be performed by those agencies to further an epidemiologic investigation.

Table 6-23

Definitions of the Various Designations of Drugs in Food-Producing Animals

According to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as They Pertain to

Poultry. 5,166

Designation Definition Example

Prohibited,

group 1

Prohibited,

group 2

Drugs with no

allowable

extra-label

uses in any

foodproducing

animal

species 166,168

Drugs with

restricted

extra-label

uses in foodproducing

animal

species 166

Chloramphenicol, clenbuterol, diethylstilbestrol (DES),

fluoroquinolone-class antibiotics, glycopeptides (all

agents, including vancomycin), medicated feeds,

nitroimidazoles (all agents, including dimetridazole,

ipronidazole, metronidazole, and others), nitrofurans

(all agents, including furazolidone, nitrofurazone,

and others)

Adamantane and neuraminidase inhibitors (in all

poultry, including ducks), cephalosporin-class of

antibiotics except cephapirin (in all classes of

chickens and turkeys), gentian violet (prohibited

from use in food or feed of food-producing animals),

and indexed drugs (some exceptions for minor use

species); extra-label drug use (ELDU) restrictions

apply to all production classes of major food animal

species (no ELDU for purpose of disease prevention;

no ELDU that involves unapproved dose, treatment

duration, frequency, or administration route; and

agent must be approved for that species and

production class); ELDU restrictions do not apply to

minor-use food animal species

598

Extra-label

drug use

(ELDU)

Use in another species: trimethoprim sulfamethoxazole

directly orally to a duck

Use for a different indication: erythromycin administered

as per label instructions but for pododermatitis

rather than chronic respiratory disease

Labeled drug

Used exactly as

written on the

label,

including the

species,

duration,

dose,

concentration,

frequency,

route, and

indication

Use at a different dose or frequency: administering

spectinomycin for more than the first 3 days of life

Use via a different route of administration: erythromycin

directly orally, not in food or drinking water

Contact www.farad.org for information regarding

potential meat and egg withdrawal

Erythromycin (erythromycin thiocyanate, Gallimycin,

Cross VetPharm Group Ltd.): 185 g/ton of feed, to aid

in the prevention and reduction of lesions and in

lowering severity of chronic respiratory disease; feed

for 5 to 8 days; do not use in birds producing eggs

for food purposes; withdraw 48 hr before slaughter

Table 6-24

Water and Feed Consumption Rates for Backyard Poultry.

Estimated water consumption rates per 100 birds based on age and use. Estimated feed

consumption rates for chickens based on weight of food eaten per day expressed as a

percentage of body weight. 158

Use (Age) Weight (kg) Water per 100 birds (L) Feed Expressed as %BW

Hens (non-laying)

Hens (laying)

Chickens (4 wk)

Chickens (8 wk)

Chickens (12 wk)

—

—

—

—

—

19

19-28

7.6

15.5

21

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

0.23

0.45

0.68

1.59

2.5

—

—

—

—

—

14

11.4

9.7

6.7

5.0

599

Table 6-25

Sources of Information on Meat and Egg Withdrawal for Backyard Poultry and

Waterfowl.

These sources of information are provided rather than quoting meat and egg withdrawal

times because of frequently changing regulations. The status of any medication should be

checked prior to administration. 54

Source

www.farad.org 54

www.animaldrugsatfda.fda.gov/adafda/views/#/home/previewsearch 165

“Pharmacokinetics of Veterinary Drugs in Laying Hens and Residues

in Eggs; a Review of the Literature” 58

Poultry Medications Formulary;

www.poultrymeds.cvpservice.com/catindex/main 131

Comments

Provides information

on labeled drug

meat and egg

withdrawal times

as well as an

interactive section

(VetGram) to ask

about estimated

meat and egg

withdrawal times

on extra-label

drugs

Food and Drug

Administration

website listing all

animal drug

products

approved for

safety and

effectiveness

(a.k.a., the

“Green Book”);

updated monthly

Extensive review

article on meat

and egg

withdrawal for

many labeled and

extra-labeled

drugs

A continually

updated resource

on meat and egg

withdrawal times

for labeled drugs

600

Table 6-26

Values Reported for Selected Ophthalmic Diagnostic Tests in Avian Species.

Species

Intraocular

Pressure

(mmHg) by

Rebound

Tonometry

Phenol Red Thread Test (mm/15 sec

±STD)

Helmeted guinea fowl, 15-40 mo 9.1±0.9 –16.5±1.3

old 136b

Chicken, 3 wk old 134b 17.5±0.1

Table 6-27

Selected Vaccines Used in Backyard Poultry.

Disease Vaccine Route a Age

Administered Comments

Avian

encephalomyelitis

Attenuated DW 8 wk Chickens/vaccinate

layer/breeder flocks to

prevent vertical

transmission; may be

given in DW up to 4

wk prior to start of

production 130b

Attenuated WW 9-15 wk Chickens/vaccinate

breeders to prevent

vertical

transmission 1b,4b,130b

Coccidiosis

Live

attenuated

PO 1 day+ Chickens,

turkeys/controversial

results; to use properly,

must allow chick access

to its own feces to

develop cell-mediated

immunity by reexposure

to the

attenuated strain; for

the same reason, do not

concurrently treat with

anticoccidial drugs;

mainly used in breeders

or heavily infected

flocks 4b,56b,130b

601

Fowl cholera

Live

attenuated

WW,

PO

6 wk Chickens/not typically

given to backyard

poultry 4b,30b

Fowl cholera

bacterin

SC

8 and

12 wk

Chickens/killed

preparation; may

require 2 injections; not

typically used in

backyard flocks 130b

Fowl pox

Live vaccine

of chick

embryo

origin

Tissue

culture

origin

WW >4 wk Chickens/used in backyard

flocks if there has been

a previous problem

with this disease; if

given <6 wk of age, will

not ensure lasting

immunity, so repeat at

12-16 wk of age; 162b not

typically given to

backyard flocks unless

there is a past history

of the disease; control

mosquitos and reduce

stress with good

management

practices 130b

2-3 mo Turkeys/WW vaccine can

cause vaccine reaction

on head, so use “thighstick”

route 4b

WW 1 day+ Chickens/can be used in

chicks as young as

1 day of age 130b

Pigeon pox WW — Chickens/mild vaccine that

can be used at any

age 130b

Hemorrhagic

enteritis

Infectious

laryngotracheitis

Live

attenuated

— 4-5 wk Turkeys/reduces clinical

signs of disease 4b,130b

— 6 wk Chickens/do not develop

permanent immunity

until at least 6 wk of

age; not typically given

to backyard flocks

unless there is a past

history of the disease 130a

Marek’s disease HVT b SC, OV 1 day Chickens/typically given at

602

serotype 3 or in ovo hatchery; most

common Marek’s

vaccine used in


Serotype 2 — 1 day Chickens/naturally

avirulent isolates 130b

Rispens — 1 day Chickens/nononcogenic

strains of serotype 130b

Newcastle’s disease Type B IN, DW,

or

spray

1 day,

14 days, and

6 wk

Chickens/usually given in

combination with IBV

vaccine; common to

monitor response to

vaccine by HI or ELISA

testing; not typically

given to backyard

flocks 130b

Type B

IN, DW,

or

spray

3 wk Turkeys/followed by

LaSota strain vaccine at

8 wk 130b

LaSota

IN, DW,

or

spray

16-18 wk,

q60d during

production

Laying chickens/usually

administered as a

combination vaccine

with IBV; can develop

upper respiratory

vaccine reaction; not

typically given to


Newcastle disease

and infectious

bronchitis

combination

DW, IO,

IN

10, 35, and 84

days

Chickens/not typically

given to backyard

flocks due to varying

strains of IBV and

morbidity from live IBV

vaccine; in layer/breeder

flocks, repeat at 3-mo

intervals 130b

a

DW, Drinking water; IN, intranasal; IO, intraocular; OV, in ovo; PO, per os; SC, subcutaneous; WW,

wing web (chickens).

b

HVT, Turkey herpesvirus vaccine.

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616

C H A P T E R 7

Sugar Gliders

David M. Brust; Christoph Mans

Table 7-1

Antimicrobial and Antifungal Agents Used in Sugar Gliders.


617

Amikacin sulfate

Amoxicillin

Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid

3 mg/kg IM, SC

q12h 19

10 mg/kg IM,

SC

q12h×5 days 21

30 mg/kg PO,

SC q12-

24h 18,19,21

12.5 mg/kg PO,

SC divided

q12h 18,19,21

Severe Gram-negative infections

Cefovecin sodium (Convenia,

Zoetis)

Cephalexin

Chloramphenicol

Ciprofloxacin

Clindamycin

— Not recommended due to high

interspecies variability in PD

30 mg/kg PO,

SC divided

q12h 19,21,24

50 mg/kg PO

q12h 18

10 mg/kg PO

q12h 19

5.5-10 mg/kg PO

q12h 18

Enrofloxacin

Gentamicin

2.5-5 mg/kg PO,

SC IM q12-

24h 21

5 mg/kg PO, SC,

IM q12h 25

1.5-2.5 mg/kg

SC, IM

q12h 18,21

2 mg/kg SC, IM

divided q12-

24h 19

Tissue necrosis may occur when

administered parenterally; dilute for

SC injection

Not recommend due to nephrotoxicity;

use amikacin instead

Griseofulvin

Itraconazole

20 mg/kg PO

q24h×30-

60 days 21 Dermatophytes; fungistatic

5-10 mg/kg PO

q12-24h 19

5-10 mg/kg PO

q24h 18

Lincomycin 30 mg/kg PO, Dose can be divided q12h

618

SC, IM

q24h 18,21

Marbofloxacin

Metronidazole

2-5 mg/kg PO,

SC, IM

q24h 18

25 mg/kg PO CNS toxicity possible at high doses or if

q12-24h×7- underlying hepatic disorder;

10 days 19,21 compound at 5 mg/mL in tutti-frutti

flavor 3

Nystatin

80 mg/kg PO

q24h 18

2000 U/kg PO

q12h 3

5000 U/kg PO

q8h 21

Candidiasis

Penicillin 22,000-25,000

U/kg SC, IM

q12-24h 18,19,21


10-20 mg/kg PO

q12-24h 21

15 mg/kg PO

q12h 19

50 mg/kg PO

q24h 25 619

Table 7-2

Antiparasitic Agents Used in Sugar Gliders.


Carbaryl

powder

(5%)

Fenbendazole

Topical 19,21

20-50 mg/kg PO

q24h×3 days, repeat

in 14 days 18,19,21

Ectoparasites; use sparingly; can be used in nest

boxes

Roundworms, hookworms, whipworms;

cestodes; lower end of dosage range may be

preferable

Ivermectin

0.2 mg/kg SC, repeat in

10-14 days 19,21 Roundworms, hookworms, whipworms; mites

0.2-0.4 mg/kg PO, SC,

repeat at 14 and 28

days 18

Mites, nematodes

Levamisole 10 mg/kg PO 21

Metronidazole 25 mg/kg PO q12h 19 Intestinal protozoa; compound at 5 mg/mL in

tutti-frutti flavor 3

25 mg/kg/day PO, repeat

in 14 days 7

80 mg/kg PO q24h 18 CNS toxicity possible at high doses or if

underlying hepatic disorder

Piperazine 50 mg/kg PO q24h 18 GI nematodes; safe in pregnant animals

100 mg/kg PO 7

Praziquantel

Pyrethrin

powder

Selamectin

(Revolution,

Zoetis)

5-10 mg/kg PO, SC,

repeat in 10-14 days 23

Topical 7

6-18 mg/kg topically,


Cestodes, trematodes

Ectoparasites; use products safe for kittens

Ectoparasites

Table 7-3

Chemical Restraint/Anesthetic Agents Used in Sugar Gliders.


Acepromazine — See butorphanol, ketamine for combinations

Atropine

0.01-0.02 mg/kg SC,

620

Bupivacaine

IM 18,19

0.02-0.04 mg/kg SC,

IM, IV 7

1-2 mg/kg (local

infiltrate) 18

Local anesthesia

Buprenorphine — Buprenorphine combination follows

Buprenorphine

(Bu)/midazolam

(Mi)/meloxicam

(Mel)

Butorphanol

(Torbugesic, Fort

Dodge)

Butorphanol

(B) + acepromazine

(A)

Dexmedetomidine

(Dexdomitor,

Pfizer)

(Bu)

Give preemptively for the reduction of

0.01 mg/kg + (Mi) postsurgical self-mutilation

0.1 mg/kg + (Mel)

0.2 mg/kg IM 22

— Butorphanol combination follows

(B) 1.7 mg/kg + (A) Postoperative sedation and analgesia to

1.7 mg/kg PO 5 prevent self-trauma to incision site

— α-2 agonist that is the active optical

enantiomer of racemic compound

medetomidine; ½ the dose of medetomidine

should be administered; limited data on

safety or efficacy available

Diazepam

Glycopyrrolate

Isoflurane

0.5-2 mg/kg PO, IM,

SC 7,19

0.01-0.02 mg/kg SC,

IM, IV 19

5% induction;

1%-3%

maintenance 19,21

Sedative, anticonvulsant; avoid parenteral

injection if possible (use midazolam

instead)

Controls salivation during sedation

Anesthetic of choice

Ketamine — Ketamine combinations follow

20 mg/kg IM 19

30-50 mg/kg IM 21

Ketamine

(K)/acepromazine

(A)

(K) 10 mg/kg + (A) Postoperative sedation and analgesia to

1 mg/kg SC 19 prevent self-trauma to incision site

(K) 30 mg/kg + (A)

2 mg/kg SC, IM 21 For immobilization

Ketamine

(K)/medetomidine

(Me)

(K) 2-3 mg/kg + (Me)

0.05-0.1 mg/kg

SC, IM 19,21

For immobilization (see medetomidine)

Ketamine (K) 10-

621

(K)/midazolam

(Mi)

Ketamine (K)/Xylazine

(X)

Lidocaine

20 mg/kg + (Mi)

0.35-0.5 mg/kg

SC, IM 19,21

(K) 10-

25 mg/kg + (X)

5 mg/kg SC, IM 21

<4 mg/kg local

infiltration or

topical 18

Local anesthesia; dilute to avoid toxicity from

accidental overdosing

Medetomidine — No longer commercially available, but can be

obtained through various compounding

services; see dexmedetomidine; see

ketamine for combination

Midazolam — See buprenorphine, ketamine for

combinations

0.1-0.5 mg/kg IM,

SC,

intranasal 5,18,19,21,26

Anxiolytic; anticonvulsant, preanesthetic;

sedation

Sevoflurane 1%-5% to effect 19 Anesthesia

Tiletamine/zolazepam — Do not use; has caused neurological

syndromes and death in squirrel gliders at

10 mg/kg 19

Xylazine — See ketamine for combination

Yohimbine 0.2 mg/kg SC, IM 19 Reversal of xylazine

Table 7-4

Analgesic Agents Used in Sugar Gliders.


Buprenorphine 0.01-0.03 mg/kg PO, SC, IM q8-12h 4,19

0.05 mg/kg IM 15

Butorphanol 0.1-0.5 mg/kg SC, IM q6-8h 19,21

Meloxicam 0.2 mg/kg PO, SC q24h 19 Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory

0.1-0.2 mg/kg PO, SC q12-24h 7

0.5 mg/kg PO q24h 15

Table 7-5

Miscellaneous Agents Used in Sugar Gliders.

622


Calcitonin 50-100 U/kg 21 SC Nutritional osteodystrophy; ensure serum

calcium levels are normal prior to use;

salmon origin

Calcium

glubionate

150 mg/kg PO q24h 4,21 Nutritional osteodystrophy; calcium deficiency

Calcium

gluconate

Cisapride

Dexamethasone

100 mg/kg SC q12h×3-5

days; dilute in saline

to 10 mg/mL 4

0.25 mg/kg q8-24h PO,

SC 4,21

0.1-0.6 mg/kg SC, IM,

IV 19

0.2 mg/kg SC, IM, IV

q12-24h 21

Nutritional osteodystrophy; calcium deficiency

Gastrointestinal prokinetic

Antiinflammatory; allergies

0.5-2 mg/kg SC, IM, IV 12 Shock

Doxapram 2 mg/kg SC, IM, IV 19 Respiratory stimulant; can also place under

tongue

Enalapril

0.22-0.44 mg/kg PO

q24h 16,19,21


Vasodilator for the treatment of heart failure and

hypertension; can compound at 1 mg/mL in

tutti-frutti flavor 16

Epinephrine 0.003 mg/kg IV 16,19 Stimulates heart; antagonizes effects of

histamine; raises blood sugar

Fluoxetine

(Prozac, Eli

Lilly)

1-5 mg/kg PO q8h 14 Self-mutilation; use liquid form

2-5 mg/kg PO q12h 13

Furosemide


q8h 18


q6-12h 4,7,19

Diuretic

L-carnitine 100 mg/kg PO q12h 21

Maropitant

citrate

(Cerenia,

Zoetis)

0.2 mg/kg SC q24h 5 Dilute 1:20 with sterile water; cannot store

diluted drug

Metoclopramide

0.05-0.1 mg/kg PO, SC,

IM q6-12h prn 21

Gastrointestinal prokinetic

Pimobendan 0.3-0.5 mg/kg PO q12h 18 Positive inotropic and vasodilatory effect;

623

Prednisolone

0.1-0.2 mg/kg PO, SC,

IM q24h 18,19,21


administration with food may reduce

bioavailability

Antiinflammatory

Vitamin A 500-5000 U/kg IM 19

Vitamin B

complex

0.01-0.2 mL/kg SC,

IM 19,21

Use small animal formulation; dilute; stings on

injection

10 U/kg PO, SCa 3 Neurological conditions

Vitamin E 10 U/kg SC 3

25-100 U/animal/day 21

Vitamin K 2 mg/kg SC q24-72h 19

Table 7-6

Hematologic and Serum Biochemical Values of Sugar Gliders. a

Measurement

Sugar Gliders: A Complete

Veterinary Care Guide 3,b

International Species

Information System 8

Merck

Veterinary

Manual 7

Hematology

PCV (%) 51-54 (62) 43±4 (24) 45-53

RBC (10 6 /µL) 8.31-8.83 (53) 7.8±0.9 (20) 5.1-7.2

Hgb (g/dL) 15.8-16.9 (53) 15.4±1.6 (21) 13-15

MCH (pg) 18.8-19.4 (53) 19.9±1.3 (20) 18.2-20.6

MCHC (g/dL) 30.6-31 (53) 35.1±2 (21) 30-33

MCV (fL) 60-68 (54) 56.8±5.4 (20) —

WBC (10 3 /µL) 5.49-9.31 (62) 7.7±5.5 (23) 5-12.2

Neutrophils

(10 3 /µL)

Lymphocytes

(10 3 /µL)

Monocytes (10 3 /

µL)

Eosinophils

(10 3 /µL)

1.46-2.2 (61) 1.2±1 (23) 1.5-3

3.69-7.16 (62) 6.2±5.1 (23) 2.8-9.2

0.11-0.17 (45) 0.19±0.17 (18) 0.06-0.2

0.09-0.28 (10) 0.18±0.24 (16) 0.02-0.14

Basophils (10 3 / 0.03-0.06 (8) 0.04 (1) 0

624

µL)

NRBC/100 WBC — 2±1 (7) —

Platelets (10 3 /µL) 292-400 (53) 728±176 (3) —

Chemistries

ALP (U/L) 89-115 (75) 231±93 (7) —

ALT (U/L) 97-137 (81) 67±38 (16) 50-106

AST (U/L) 54-100 (38) 70±65 (17) 46-179

Bilirubin, total

(mg/dL)

0.12-0.7 (72) 0.3±0.2 (15) —

Calcium (mg/dL) 8.5-8.9 (97) 7.4±2.9 (7) 6.9-8.4

Chloride (mEq/L) 106-109 (94) 105±3 (5) —

Cholesterol

(mg/dL)

112-124 (78) 159±49 (6) —

CPK (U/L) 1081-1637 (47) 639±477 (5) 210-589

Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.5-0.6 (100) 0.7±0.3 (8) 0.2-0.5

Glucose (mg/dL) 153-172 (85) 135±75 (17) 130-183

LDH (U/L) — 246±33 (3) —

Phosphorus

(mg/dL)

4.4-6.1 (62) 6.7±2.0 (6) 3.8-4.4

Potassium (mEq/L) 4.6-5.5 (93) 3.3±0.7 (5) 3.3-5.9

Protein, total

(g/dL)

6.7-7 (92) 6.0±0.6 (15) 5.6-6.9

Albumin (g/dL) 3.1-4.6 (99) 3.8±0.7 (8) 3-3.5

Globulin (g/dL) 2.9-3.1 (92) 2.3±0.8 (7) 2.2-3.6

Sodium (mEq/L) 139-143 (92) 142±4 (5) 135-145

Urea nitrogen

(mg/dL)

15-18 (100) 19±11 (16) —

a

Sample size is presented in parentheses.

b

Values shown are the 95% reference intervals after outliers were removed; blood was collected from the

cranial vena cava; glucose levels were measured immediately after collection.

625

Table 7-7

Biologic and Physiologic Values of Sugar Gliders. 2,3,8,24

Parameter

Normal Values

Average life span (wild)

Male

Female

4-5 years

5-7 years

Maximum reported life span

Captivity

Wild

Colony size (wild)

Colony size (captivity)

Adult weight

Body length

Tail length

Heart rate

Respiratory rate

Cloacal temperature

Torpor cloacal temperature

Thermoneutral zone

15 years

9 years

7 (avg) (1 dominant male, 2 subordinate males, 4 adult females)

Minimum 2 (more is better)

Male, 100-160 g

Female, 80-135 g

16-21 cm (avg 17 cm)

16.5-21 cm (avg 19 cm)

200-300 beats/min

16-40 breaths/min

36.2°C±0.4°C (97.2°F±0.7°F)

≤15°C (59°F)

27-31°C (81-88°F)

Basal metabolic rate 2.54 (weight in kg) 0.75

Estrus cycle

Type

Length

Gestation period

Seasonally polyestrus

29 days

15-17 days

Litter size 1-4 (usually 2)

Birth weight

Pouch emergence

Weaning age

Dispersal from nest

Sexual maturity

0.2 g

50-74 days (usually 60 days)

85-120 days (usually 100 days)

7-10 months

Male, 12-14 months; female 8-12 months

626

Table 7-8

Urinalysis Values of Sugar Gliders. 3

Measurement Avg Reference Interval a,b

Specific gravity 1.030 1.020-1.040 (103)

pH 6.2 6-6.3 (98)

Protein (mg/dL) 12 9.5-14.6 (82)

a

Values shown are the 95% reference intervals after outliers were removed; analysis performed using

IDEXX Vetlab UA.

b

Sample size is presented in parentheses.

627

Table 7-9

Growth and Development of Sugar Gliders. 2,4,6

Stage 1: In Pouch

Age

(days)

Weight

(g)

Head

(mm)

Leg

(mm)

Key Developmental Characteristics

1 0.2 — — Mouth and forelimbs most developed feature

20 0.8 11 6 Ears free from head; papillae of mystacial vibrissae

(whiskers) visible

30 1.6 14 9 —

35 2 — — Mystacial vibrissae erupt; ears pigmented

40 3.2 17 12 Start to pigment on shoulders; eye slits present

50 6.2 20 16 Typical detachment from teat and emergence from

pouch at 50-60 days

Stage 2: Out of Pouch (OOP) a,b

Age

(weeks)

Weight

(g)

Key Developmental Characteristics

1 8-18 Dorsal stripe developing; little to no fur; slick tail; closed eyes

2 12-22 Eyes open at approximately 17-21 days; fur lengthens

3 17-29 Very fine fur, except abdominal area; tail still slick; eyes still closed

4 18-35 Fur becoming more prominent; tail beginning to fluff; weaning

begins

5 19-39 Complete fur coverage; light fur on abdominal area; tail continues to

fill out

6 20-45 Tail fully fluffed out; abdominal area fully furred; mostly weaned

7 21-60 Very active at night; eating mainly solid foods

8 23-75 Fully self-sufficient and weaned

a

On a practical level, estimating an exact out of pouch (OOP) date is often problematic because of the

nocturnal nature of the animal and protectiveness of parents; joeys often exhibit wide weight differentials

at the same age; the most reliable method for estimating age is to visually assess key distinguishing

characteristics of their physical development, especially the abdominal area and tail. 3

b

Once joey is observed out of pouch, age is typically measured in weeks. 1

628

Table 7-10

Dietary Components for Sugar Gliders in Captivity. 3

Common

presentations

Daily

consumption

Pelleted kibble

Fresh fruits and

vegetables

Supplement

Treats a

Bottled or

filtered water

Blossoms and

branches

Obesity, malnutrition, and osteodystrophy often caused by nutritional

inconsistencies of homemade diets and excessive sweet and fatty items

15%-20% of body weight

Nutritionally-balanced, commercial sugar glider kibble (Glide-R-Chow

[www.sugarbears.com], NutriMax [www.vetspride.com]), VitaSmart

Sugar Glider Formula & Vita Prima Sunscription Exotics Sugar

Glider Formula (www.vitakraftsunseed.com)

Apples, apricots, bananas, berries, corn, grapes, green beans, kiwifruit,

mangos, melons, oranges, papaya, peas, sweet potatoes, squash, and

watermelon

Calcium-based multivitamin supplement formulated specifically for sugar

gliders (Glide-A-Mins [www.sugarbears.com], VitaMax

[www.vetspride.com])

Must be strictly controlled; applesauce, yogurt, and limited invertebrates

such as mealworms, grasshoppers, moths, fly pupae, and crickets

Refresh drip water bottle daily; introduction of weighted container such

as small ashtray may also be necessary for young joeys

Eucalyptus, Banksia, Leptospermum, Grevillea, Acacia, Melaleuca, Callistemum,

and Hakea

a

Sugar gliders will preferentially eat sweet/fatty items to excess and to the exclusion of more nutritious

foods, so they should not be presented with too wide a selection of foods.

Table 7-11

Suggested Sugar Glider Diets. 3,11

Diet 1 3

75%: Nutritionally balanced, commercial sugar glider kibble: 1-2 oz (28-56 g)/day/animal;

available free choice in cage at all times (Glide-R-Chow [www.sugarbears.com],

NutriMax [www.vetspride.com])

25%: Fresh fruits and vegetables: approximately of an apple, or the equivalent in mixed

fruits/vegetables per animal per day; introduce each evening and remove leftovers in

morning; apples, apricots, bananas, berries, corn, grapes, green beans, kiwifruit, mangos,

melons, oranges, paw paw (papaya), peas, sweet potatoes, squash, and watermelon

Calcium-based multivitamin supplement: Sprinkle lightly on fruits/vegetables every

other day; can also be mixed into applesauce or fruit baby food and hand-fed daily to

promote bonding (Glide-A-Mins [www.sugarbears.com], VitaMax

[www.vetspride.com])

Treats: Not to exceed 5% of daily diet; introduce gradually and individually, checking for

629

diarrhea; treat items must be strictly controlled and may include fruits, applesauce,

yogurt, and invertebrates such as mealworms, grasshoppers, moths, fly pupae, and

crickets

Diet 2 a-c,9

50%: Leadbeater’s mixture (150 mL warm water; 150 mL honey; 1 shelled, hard-boiled egg;

25 g high protein baby cereal; 1 tsp vitamin/mineral supplement)

• Mix warm water and honey

• In separate container, blend egg until homogenized

• Gradually add honey/water, then vitamin powder, then baby cereal, and blend after

each addition until smooth

• Keep refrigerated until served

50%: Insectivore/omnivore diet (e.g., Mazuri Brand, Purina Mills, St. Louis, MO; Reliable

Protein Products, Palm Desert, CA; ZuPreem, Mission, KS)

Diet 3 d,9

• Apple: 3 g; banana/corn: 3 g; grapes/kiwifruit: 3 g; orange with skin: 4 g; pear: 2 g;

rockmelon/melon/paw paw (payaya): 2 g

• Sweet potato: 3 g

• Dog kibble: 1.5 g

• Fly pupae: 1 tsp

• Leadbeater’s mix (see Diet 2): 2 tsp

• Day-old chick (1 day/week)

• Large insects or mealworms (when available)

a

Insects can be added to this diet to help prevent dental problems.

b

Feed fresh portions in evening; chop items together to reduce only favorite foods being selected; can

offer treats (meats, diced fruits with multiple vitamin/mineral powder, bee pollen, worms, and crickets or

other gut-loaded insects) at approximately 5% of daily intake.

c

Pelleted sugar glider food (e.g., Marion Zoological, Plymouth, MN) might be preferable to other dry

omnivore diets.

d

Recipe feeds two animals; without native foods (e.g., North America), add calcium carbonate to this

diet.

630

Table 7-12

Feed Estimates for Hand-Rearing Sugar Gliders. a-d,6

Age

(days)

Feed (mL/day)

Wombaroo Possum Milk Replacer

20 0.7 Formula “<0.8”

30 1.1 Formula “<0.8”

40 1.8 Formula “<0.8”

50 3 Formula “<0.8”

51-53 4 (3 mL [“<0.8”]+1 mL

[“>0.8”])

54-56 4 (2 mL [“<0.8”]+2 mL

[“>0.8”])

57-59 4 (1 mL [“<0.8”]+3 mL

[“>0.8”])

Transition from Formula “<0.8” to Formula

“>0.8”


“>0.8”


“>0.8”

60 3 Formula “>0.8”

70 4 Formula “>0.8”

80 6 Formula “>0.8”

90 7 Formula “>0.8”

100 8 Formula “>0.8”

a

Using Table 7.9, estimate the age of the sugar glider using developmental characteristics and weight

measurements. Feed the volume listed according to the estimated age of the sugar glider. In emaciated

joeys, the head and leg measurement is a more accurate method to determine age than the animal’s

weight.

b

Note that marsupial milk changes in composition and energy as the joey develops. Therefore, there are

two formulas of Wombaroo Possum Milk Replacer that are used for hand-rearing sugar gliders. Formula

“<0.8” is for younger joeys; Formula “>0.8” is for gliders out of the pouch. When a joey has fully emerged

from the pouch, it then uses Formula “>0.8” entirely.

c

Wombaroo Possum Milk Replacer “<0.8” and “>0.8” is available in the United States from the Exotic

Nutrition Co, Newport News, VA; (866) 988-0301; exoticdiet@cox.net or from Perfect Pets Inc., Belleville,

MI; (800) 366-8794; www.wombaroo.com.

d

For hand-rearing procedures, refer to Barnes 1 and Ness and Booth. 20

References

1 Barnes M. Sugar gliders. In: Gage L.J., ed. Hand-Rearing Wild and Domestic

Mammals. Ames: Iowa State Press; 2002:55–62.

2 Booth R.J. General husbandry and medical care of sugar gliders. In: Bonagura

J.D., ed. Kirk’s Current Veterinary Therapy XIII: Small Animal Practice.

631

Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 2000:1157–1163.

3 Brust D.M. Sugar Gliders: A Complete Veterinary Care Guide. Sugarland:

Veterinary Interactive Publications; 2009.

4 Brust D.M. What every veterinarian needs to know about sugar gliders. Exotic

DVM. 2009;11:32–41.

5 Brust D.M. Personal observation. 2016.

6 Donneley B. Hand-rearing orphan marsupials. Exotic DVM. 2002;4:79–82.

7 Hess L. Sugar gliders. In: Aiello S.E., ed. The Merck Veterinary Manual. 11th ed.

Kenilworth, NJ: Merck & Co; 2015:2035–2043.

8 Species 360 (formerly International Species Information System [ISIS]). 2002.

Bloomington, MN, Available at: www.species360.org/ Accessed March 6, 2017.

9 Johnson-Delaney C. Feeding sugar gliders. Exotic DVM. 1998;1:4.

10 Johnson-Delaney C. Marsupial nutrition and physiology. Exotic DVM. 2002;4:75–

77.

11 Johnson-Delaney C.A. Marsupials. In: Johnson-Delaney C.A., ed. Exotic

Companion Medicine Handbook. West Palm Beach: Zoological Education

Network; 2000.

12 Johnson-Delaney C.A. Therapeutics of companion exotic marsupials. Vet Clin


13 Johnson-Delaney C.A. Practical marsupial medicine. Annu Conf Assoc Exot Mam

Vet. 2006;51–60.

14 Johnson-Delaney C.A. Marsupials. In: Meredith A., Johnson-Delaney C.A., eds.

BSAVA Manual of Exotic Pets. 5th ed. Gloucester: British Small Animal


15 Keller K.A., Nevarez J.G., Rodriguez D., et al. Diagnosis and treatment of

anaplastic mammary carcinoma in a sugar glider (Petaurus breviceps). J Exot Pet

Med. 2014;23:277–282.

16 Lennox A.M. Emergency and critical care procedures in sugar gliders (Petaurus

breviceps), African hedgehogs (Atelerix albiventris), and prairie dogs (Cynomys

spp.). Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract. 2007;10:533–555.

17 Lindemann D.M., Carpenter J.W., DeBey B.M., et al. Concurrent adrenocortical

carcinoma and hepatocellular carcinoma with hemosiderosis in a sugar glider

(Petaurus breviceps). J Exot Pet Med. 2016;25:144–149.

18 Meredith A. BSAVA Small Animal Formulary. Part B: Exotic Pets. 9th ed.

Gloucester: British Small Animal Veterinary Association; 2015.

19 Morrisey J.K., Carpenter J.W. Formulary. In: Quesenberry K.E., Carpenter J.W.,

eds. Ferrets, Rabbits, and Rodents: Clinical Medicine and Surgery. 3rd ed. St.

Louis: Saunders/Elsevier; 2012:566–575.

20 Ness R.D., Booth R.J. Sugar gliders. In: Quesenberry K.E., Carpenter J.W., eds.

Ferrets, Rabbits, and Rodents: Clinical Medicine and Surgery. 2nd ed. St. Louis:

Saunders/Elsevier; 2004:330–338.

632

21 Ness R.D., Johnson-Delaney C. Sugar gliders. In: Quesenberry K.E., Carpenter

J.W., eds. Ferrets, Rabbits, and Rodents: Clinical Medicine and Surgery. 3rd ed. St.


22 Pye G.W. Personal communication. 2010.

23 Pye G.W. Personal communication. 2016.

24 Pye G.W., Carpenter J.W. A Guide to medicine and surgery in sugar gliders. Vet

Med. 1999;94:891–905.

25 Pye G.W., Carpenter J.W. Sugar Gliders. Exotic Animal Formulary. 3rd ed. St.

Louis: Saunders/Elsevier; 2005.347–360.

26 Rivas A.E., Pye G.W., Papendick R. Dermal hemangiosarcoma in a sugar glider

(Petaurus breviceps). J Exot Pet Med. 2014;23:384–388.

633

C H A P T E R 8

Hedgehogs

Peter J. Helmer; James W. Carpenter

Table 8-1

Antimicrobial Agents Used in Hedgehogs.


634

Amikacin

2.5-5 mg/kg IM Make sure animal is hydrated; do not use

q8-12 h 36 in animals with renal disease 44

1 mg per 4 g

powder 35

Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) beads

Amoxicillin


(Clavamox, Pfizer)

Ampicillin

15 mg/kg PO, SC,

IM q12h 19a,54 Palatable to most hedgehogs 13

12.5 mg/kg PO

q12h 40,56 Palatable to most hedgehogs 13

10 mg/kg IM

q12h 19a,23,54 Not recommended or use with caution 27

Ceftiofur sodium 20 mg/kg SC q12-

24h 36

1 g per 20 mL

powder 35

Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) beads

Cephalexin 25 mg/kg PO q8h 36 May make stools loose 27

Chloramphenicol

30 mg/kg IM

q12h 19a,23

30-50 mg/kg PO,

SC, IM, IV

q12h 54

50 mg/kg PO, SC,

IM q12h 18,19a,23

Acute salmonellosis; potentially toxic to

humans—have dosage giver avoid

contact with medication 44

Chlorhexidine Topical 54 q8-12h 27 Bacterial dermatitis; traumatic skin

lesions; wound treatments; soaking

(e.g., appendages); use properly

diluted

Chlorhexidine shampoo 2%-3% shampoo 36 Bacterial, mycotic dermatitis

Chlortetracycline

Ciprofloxacin

Clarithromycin

Clindamycin

Doxycycline

5-20 mg/kg PO

q12h 40

5-20 mg/kg PO

q12h 40

5.5 mg/kg PO

q12h 40

5.5-10 mg/kg PO

q12h 36,56

2.5-10 mg/kg PO,

SC, IM q12h 40

Anaerobes; dental disease

Concentration of active drug declines

rapidly after 7 days in compounded

formulation 43

635

Enrofloxacin

Erythromycin

Gentamicin

Gentamicin ophthalmic

drops

Metronidazole

Mupirocin (2%)

(Muricin, Dechra)

Neomycin, polymyxin B,

bacitracin ophthalmic

ointment

Neomycin, thiabendazole,

dexamethasone solution

(Tresaderm, Merial)

Nystatin, neomycin,

thiostrepton,

triamcinolone cream

(Panalog, Fort Dodge)

Orbifloxacin (Orbax

suspension, Intervet)

2.5-5 mg/kg PO,

IM q12h 51

5-10 mg/kg PO,

SC, IM q12h 18,54

10 mg/kg PO, IM

q12h 19a,23

2 mg/kg SC, IM

q8h 18

Topical to cornea

or

conjunctiva 36

q8h 27

20 mg/kg PO

q12h 36,40

Topical to

cutaneous

lesions q12-24h

prn 36

Topical to cornea

or

conjunctiva 36

q8-12h 27

Topical to

cutaneous

lesions or ear

canal q12h

prn 36

Topical to

cutaneous

lesions q12-24h

prn 36

10-20 mg/kg PO

q12-24h 16

Avoid IM administration

Dilute if administering SC; avoid IM

administration 51

Penicillin-resistant Gram-positive cocci;

Mycoplasma; Pasteurella; Bordetella

Rarely indicated; best to avoid;

nephrotoxic

Corneal abrasions or conjunctivitis; use

as in dog or cat

Anaerobes

Bacterial dermatitis or traumatic skin

lesions


as in dog or cat

Bacterial, mycotic dermatitis; otitis

externa; antiinflammatory

Bacterial, mycotic dermatitis;

antiinflammatory

Oxytetracycline

25-50 mg/kg PO

q24h×5-

7 days 11,13,36 Bordetella; may be administered in food

Oxytetracycline ophthalmic

ointment (Terramycin,

Pfizer)

Penicillin G

Topical to cornea

or

conjunctiva 36

q8-12h 27

40,000 U/kg SC,

IM q24h 19a,40


as in dog or cat

636

Piperacillin 10 mg/kg SC q8-

12h 36

Spiramycin

15 mg/kg

PO×8 days 19a

Gingivitis; frequency not listed; not


Sulfadimethoxine

2-20 mg/kg PO,

SC, IM

q24h 18,19a May have slight nephrotoxicity 27

Trimethoprim/sulfa

Tylosin

30 mg/kg PO, SC,

IM q12h 18,51

10 mg/kg PO, SC

q12h 23

Respiratory infections;

trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole is

available in injectable form

Mycoplasma; Clostridium; do not

administer IM (causes muscle

necrosis)

Table 8-2

Antifungal Agents Used in Hedgehogs.


Chlorhexidine 2%-3% shampoo 36 Dermatophytosis

Enilconazole (Imaverol,

Janssen)

Topical q24h 56

Dermatophytosis; dilute 1:50

100 mg/mL water

Dermatophytosis

topically q4d 42

Griseofulvin (microsize) — Skin and deep mycoses; long-term

therapy

25 mg/kg PO q12h 19a

50 mg/kg PO q24h 19a,54 ×14-

21 days 38

Itraconazole 5-10 mg/kg PO q12-24h 36 Systemic mycoses

10 mg/kg PO q12h 6 European

hedgehogs/dermatophytosis

10 mg/kg PO q24h 12 Cutaneous paecilomycosis

Ketoconazole

10 mg/kg PO q24h×6-8

wk 19a,54

Mycoses; use long term

Lime sulfur Topical 17 Dermatophytosis

Nystatin 30,000 U/kg PO q8-24h 36 Yeast infections

Terbinafine 100 mg/kg PO q12h 6 European

hedgehogs/dermatophytosis

637

Table 8-3

Antiparasitic Agents Used in Hedgehogs.


Amitraz (Mitaban,

Pfizer)

Fenbendazole

0.3% topical q7d×2-3

treatments 34,36

10-15 mg/kg PO q14d×2-3

treatments 54

10-30 mg/kg PO

q24h×5 days 23

Mites (Caparinia, Chorioptes, etc.); may

dilute; use with caution

Nematodes

Nematodes (i.e., Crenosoma, Capillaria)

25 mg/kg PO q10d 36 Nematodes

Fipronil spray

(Frontline,

Merial)

Flea products

(feline)

Topical, repeat in 10

days 27,33

Topical 17

Mites; apply 1 spray over dorsum

Use sparingly

Imidacloprid puppy/kitten dose

Fleas; apply to quilled areas behind head

topical q30d 13

Imidacloprid

10%+moxidectin

1%

0.1 mL/kg 28 Caparinia

Ivermectin

0.2 mg/kg PO, SC q14d×3

treatments 54

Mites (Caparinia, etc.); nematodes; a

pyrethrin-based shampoo q7d×several

treatments is often needed concurrently

for full response

0.2 mg/kg SC q21d 9b Caparinia mites

0.2-0.4 mg/kg PO, SC

q10-14d×3-5

treatments 20,40

0.5 mg/kg PO, SC q14d×3

treatments 7

Ectoparasites

Mites; resistance to the lower doses of

ivermectin has been noted

<1 mg/kg 27 PO, SC For resistant Chorioptes

Levamisole (1%)

10 mg/kg SC, 11 repeat

q48h; repeat prn

q14d 19a

Nematodes, including lungworms

Lufenuron puppy/kitten dose PO

Fleas

q30d 13

638

Mebendazole

15 mg/kg PO, repeat

q14d 27

Nematodes; do not use in animals with

hepatic disease

25 mg/animal <500 g Capillaria, Crenosoma, Brachylaernus,

q12h; 50 mg/animal Hymenolepsis, Physaloptera

>500 g q24h

PO×5 days, repeat q14-

21 27

Metronidazole

25 mg/kg PO

q12h×5 days 17,54

Intestinal protozoa

Moxidectin

(Cydectin,

Bayer)

0.3 mg/kg SC q10d 42 Notoedric mange

Permethrin (1%) Topical 55 Mites; apply once via fine mist; change

bedding

Praziquantel

7 mg/kg PO, SC, repeat

q14d 17,54


Selamectin

(Revolution,

Pfizer)

Sulfadimethoxine

6 mg/kg topically 3 Ectoparasites; higher dose may be required

6-18 mg/kg topically

q30d×2 treatments 22

External mites

2-20 mg/kg PO, 19a SC, Coccidia

IM 23 q24h×2-5 days, off

5 days, on 2-5 days 19a


7 days 36 Coccidia

Sulfadimidine

Toltrazuril

100-200 mg/kg SC

q24h×3 days 11

10 mg/kg PO q24h×2

treatments then

repeated q7d×3 wk 21

Coccidia

Coccidia (Eimeria)

Table 8-4

Chemical Restraint/Anesthetic Agents Used in Hedgehogs.


Acepromazine

0.1-1 mg/kg PO,

SC, IM 13

Sedative; hypotension may occur when used

alone; atropine pretreatment may alleviate

this effect


Zoetis)

0.3-0.5 mg/kg IM 56 Reversal of medetomidine and

dexmedetomidine

1 mg/kg SC, IM,

639

IV, IP 4,27

Atropine

0.01-0.05 mg/kg

SC, IM 21,40

Preanesthetic to decrease hypersalivation

Buprenorphine — See midazolam for combination

Butorphanol — See midazolam for combination

Dexmedetomidine


0.02 mg/kg IM 32 Avoid use in ill or debilitated animals;

reversible with atipamezole

Diazepam — Diazepam combination follows

0.5-2 mg/kg IM 51 Mild sedation; may be given with ketamine

for anesthesia; seizures; midazolam

preferred for IM use

Diazepam (D)/ketamine

(K)

Anesthesia; do not use in neck area where

(D) 0.5-2 mg/kg+

5-20 mg/kg IM 7 for IM use

(K)

there is brown fat; 23 midazolam preferred

Enflurane To effect 40 Anesthesia; not commonly used; isoflurane

or sevoflurane preferred

Fentanyl — See medetomidine for combination

Isoflurane 3%-5% induction 54 Anesthetic of choice; generally occurs in an

induction chamber or mask

0.5%-3%

maintenance 53,54

By mask or endotracheal tube

Ketamine — See diazepam and medetomidine for

combinations; combinations follow

5-20 mg/kg IM 51 Sedation; anesthesia; do not use in neck area

where there is brown fat; 23 may use in

combination with midazolam (or less

preferably diazepam) or an α 2 agonist;

recovery may be prolonged and/or rough

Ketamine

(K)/medetomidine

(M)


(Mi)

(K) 5 mg/kg+(M)

0.1 mg/kg

IM 40,56

(K) 3-10 mg/kg+

(Mi) 0.5-

1 mg/kg IM 32

Anesthesia; (M) reverse with atipamezole

(0.3-0.5 mg/kg IM); see medetomidine a

Medetomidine — Medetomidine a combination follows; not

commercially available, but can be

obtained through select compounding

pharmacies; recommend equal volume of

dexmedetomidine, but no reports of safety

or efficacy available

640

0.05-0.1 mg/kg Light sedation; reverse with atipamezole (0.3-

IM 36,56 0.5 mg/kg IM)

0.2 mg/kg SC, IM 5 Heavy sedation; reverse with atipamezole

(0.3-0.5 mg/kg IM)

Medetomidine

(M)/ketamine

(K)/fentanyl (F)

(M) 0.2 mg/kg+(K) Anesthesia; good muscle relaxation; (M)

2 mg/kg+(F) reversed with atipamezole (1 mg/kg IM)

0.1 mg/kg SC 4 and (F) reversed with naloxone

(0.16 mg/kg IM); see medetomidine a

Midazolam — Midazolam combinations follow; it is the

preferred benzodiazepine for IM use

0.25-0.5 mg/kg

IM 31

Preanesthetic

Midazolam

(Mi)/buprenorphine

(Bup)

0.5-1.0 mg/kg IM 32

(Mi) 0.25-

0.5 mg/kg+

(Bup)

0.03 mg/kg

IM 31

Painful or stressful procedures

Midazolam

(Mi)/butorphanol

(But)

(Mi) 0.25-

Stressful procedures; also see butorphanol

0.5 mg/kg+ comments in Table 8.5

(But)

0.4 mg/kg IM 31

Naloxone

(Mi) 0.5-1 mg/kg+

(But) 0.2-

0.5 mg/kg IM 32

0.1-0.16 mg/kg SC,

IM q6-8h 4,27

Reversal of fentanyl

Sevoflurane To effect 40 Anesthesia; may provide more rapid

induction and plane changes than

isoflurane


(Telazol, Zoetis)

1-5 mg/kg IM 54 Sedation; anesthesia; recovery may be

prolonged and/or rough; rarely indicated

because gas anesthesia is preferred

Xylazine 0.5-1 mg/kg IM 51 Anesthesia; may be given with ketamine;

rarely indicated because gas anesthesia is

preferred

Yohimbine 0.5-1 mg/kg IM 40 Reversal of xylazine

a

Dexmedetomidine (0.5 mg/mL) is an α-2 agonist that is the active optical enantiomer of racemic

compound medetomidine; the dose of medetomidine (1 mg/mL) but same volume; although the

same effects would be expected as with medetomidine (not commercially available, but can be obtained

through various compounding services), there is no data on the efficacy and safety of dexmedetomidine

641

in hedgehogs, and, to date, it appears to have been seldom used clinically in this species; the effects of

the v/v use of the two drugs may not be equivalent, so the dose of dexmedetomidine may need to be

adjusted based on clinical response.

Table 8-5

Analgesic Agents Used in Hedgehogs.


Buprenorphine

Butorphanol

Carprofen

Dexamethasone

Flunixin

meglumine

Hydromorphone

Meloxicam

Methylprednisolone

0.01 mg/kg

SC, IM q6-

8h 11,53,56

0.01-

0.5 mg/kg

SC, IM q8-

12h 24

0.05 mg/kg

q8h SC

prn 23

0.05-

0.1 mg/kg

SC, IM q8-

12h 24

0.2-0.4 mg/kg

SC, IM q6-

8h 53,54

1 mg/kg PO,

SC q12-

24h 27

0.1-1.5 mg/kg

IM 19a

0.3 mg/kg SC

q24h 24

0.1 mg/kg

SC 49

0.08 mg/kg

PO q24h 49

0.2 mg/kg

PO, SC

q24h 26,27,57

1-2 mg/kg

SC 36

Analgesia; higher dose will likely be required

Analgesia

Analgesia; when compared with other opiate

analgesics, this drug appears to be less useful in

small animals for treating moderate to severe pain

and has to be dosed more frequently

Analgesia

Analgesia

Nonsteroidal, antiinflammatory

Glucocorticoid; inflammation; allergies

Nonsteroidal, antiinflammatory; arthritis; chronic

inflammation; higher dose may be required

Preoperative analgesia

Nonsteroidal, antiinflammatory

Glucocorticoid; antiinflammatory

642

Naloxone 0.1-

0.16 mg/kg

SC, IM q6-

8h 4,27

Reversal of fentanyl

Prednisolone

Tramadol

Triamcinolone

2.5 mg/kg PO,

SC, IM

q12h

prn 19a,40

2-4 mg/kg PO

q12h

0.2 mg/kg SC,

IM 13

Glucocorticoid; allergies

Synthetic µ-receptor opiate-like agonist

Glucocorticoid; antiinflammatory; no frequency given

Table 8-6

Miscellaneous Agents Used in Hedgehogs.


Acyclovir

Aluminum

hydroxide

40-100 mg/kg PO

q24h 21

100 mg/kg PO with

each syringe

feeding 45

Herpes simplex infection

Renal failure; hyperphosphatemia

Atropine 0.05-0.2 mg/kg SC 13 Bradycardia

Bupivicaine

1.1 mg/kg diluted

with saline 1:12 49

Surgical site infiltration

Calcium

gluconate

(10%)

Calcium

gluconate

(23%)

Carnivore Care

(Oxbow)

50 mg/kg IM 36 Hypocalcemia

100-150 mg/kg IV 31

2-3 mL PO 26 Gavage feed; may require slight sedation

Mix 1:1 with Critical

Care Fine Grind 1

(Oxbow)

Cimetidine 10 mg/kg PO q8h 36 Treatment of gastric ulcers

Doxapram 2-10 mg/kg IV, IP 13,31 Respiratory stimulant; use with caution as use

may increase CNS oxygen demand 44

Emeraid 3 mL/100 g BW q6h Mix 1:1 with Emeraid Omnivore per label

643

Carnivore

(Lafeber)

Enalapril 0.5 mg/kg PO q24h 36 Vasodilator; heart failure

Epinephrine 0.003 mg/kg IV 31 Cardiac arrest

Erythropoietin

(Epogen,

Amgen)

100 U/kg SC q48-

72h 36

Chronic anemia

Famotidine 1 mg/kg SC q24h 45 Prevention or treatment of gastric ulcers

Furosemide

2.5-5 mg/kg PO, SC,

IM q8h 40,56

2-4 mg/kg PO, SC

q8h 15

Edema; diuretic

Congestive heart failure

Glycopyrrolate 0.01-0.02 mg/kg SC 13 Bradycardia

Hetastarch 5 mL/kg IV 31 Give over 5-10 min

Hyaluronidase 100-150 U/L 36 Add to SC fluids; may facilitate fluid absorption

Iron dextran 25 mg/kg IM 56 Anemia

Lactated Ringer’s

solution (LRS)

—

1-15 mL/kg IV 31 Fluid replacement; dehydration; shock

25 mL/kg SC q12h 57

50-100 mL/kg/day 26

Lactobacilli 2.5 mL/kg q24h 19a May aid in restoring gastrointestinal flora

Lactulose 0.3 mL/kg PO q8-

12h 36 Hepatic disease; constipation 27

Lysine

250-500 mg/kg PO

q24h 21

Herpes simplex

Metoclopramide

0.2-0.5 mg/kg PO,

SC 36 Regurgitation; antiemetic; GI motility enhancer 27

Milk thistle

(Silybum

marianum)

4-15 mg/kg PO

q12h 21

Hepatoprotectant

Pimobendan 0.3 mg/kg PO q12h 15 Congestive heart failure

Sucralfate 10 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 40

Gastrointestinal ulcers

Theophylline

10 mg/kg PO, IM

q12h 36

Bronchodilator

Trilostane 2 mg/kg PO q24h 21 Hyperadrenocorticism

Vitamin A

400 U/kg IM

q24h×10 days 19a

Skin disorders; excessive quill loss

644

Vitamin B

complex

1 mL/kg SC, IM

once 23,40

CNS signs; paralysis of unknown origin;

anorexia; use small animal formulation

Vitamin C

50-200 mg/kg PO, SC

q24h 19a

1 g ascorbic acid/L

drinking water 19a

Deficiency; infections; gingivitis

Change daily; not recommended; alternative

routes of supplementation preferred; use oral

pills or powder 27

Table 8-7

Hematologic and Serum Biochemical Values of Hedgehogs.

Measurement Reference Range 19 Reference Range 41

Hematology

PCV (%) 36±7 (22-64) 42.0±0.9 (33.5-47.0)

RBC (10 6 /µL) 6±2 (3-16) 5.0±0.1 (4.3-6.0)

Hgb (g/dL) 12±2.8 (7-21.1) 13.1±0.3 (10.7-14.9)

MCV (fL) 67±9 (41-94) 87.8±1.8 (76.3-99.8)

MCH (pg) 22±4 (11-31) 27.1±0.7 (22.5-31.4)

MCHC (g/dL) 34±5 (17-48) 30.9±0.5 (27.7-35.2)

Platelets (10 3 /µL) 226±108 (60-347) Not reported

WBC (10 3 /µL) 11±6 (3-43) 15.0±0.7 (11.5-21.7)

Neutrophils (10 3 /µL) 5.1±5.2 (0.6-37.4) 9.5±0.5 (6.1-14.6)

Lymphocytes (10 3 /µL) 4±2.2 (0.9-13.1) 5.2±0.4 (3.3-8.9)

Monocytes (10 3 /µL) 0.3±0.3 (0-1.6) 0.2±0.1 (0-0.8)

Eosinophils (10 3 /µL) 1.2±0.9 (0-5.1) 0.2±0 (0-0.3)

Basophils (10 3 /µL) 0.4±0.3 (0-1.5) 0.1±0 (0-0.2)

Chemistries

ALP (U/L) 51±21 (8-92) 22.4±1.0 (18.2-25.5)

ALT (U/L) 53±24 (16-134) 22.8±1.4 (15.2-28.8)

Amylase (U/L) 510±170 (244-858) Not reported

AST (U/L) 34±22 (8-137) 33.5±3.5 (19.0-65.6)

Bilirubin, total (mg/dL) 0.3±0.3 (0-1.3) Not reported

BUN (mg/dL) 27±9 (13-54) 47.1±2.3 (34.3-57.3)

Calcium (mg/dL) 8.8±1.4 (5.2-11.3) 9.7±0.3 (8.6-11.4)

645

Chloride (mEq/L) 109±10 (92-128) Not reported

Cholesterol (mg/dL) 131±25 (86-189) 132.5±5.3 (100-150)

Creatine kinase (U/L) 863±413 (333-1964) Not reported

Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.4±0.2 (0-0.8) 0.7±0.1 (0.5-1.0)

GGT (U/L) 4±1 (0-12) Not reported

Glucose (mg/dL) 89±30 86.1±4.7 (60-125)

LDH (U/L) 441±258 (57-820) Not reported

Phosphorus (mg/dL) 5.3±1.9 (2.4-12) Not reported

Potassium (mEq/L) 4.9±1 (3.2-7.2) Not reported

Protein, total (g/dL) 5.8±0.7 (4-7.7) 6.0±0.2 (4.6-6.9)

Albumin (g/dL) 2.9±0.4 (1.8-4.2) 3.4±0.2 (2.7-3.9)

Globulin (g/dL) 2.7±0.5 (1.6-3.9) 2.6±0.2 (1.9-3.6)

Sodium (mEq/L) 141±9 (120-165) Not reported

Triglycerides (mg/dL) 38±22 (10-96) 37.8±2.3 (30.8-46.2)

646

Table 8-8

Biological and Physiological Values of Hedgehogs. 1,13,16,20,29,39,47,52,54,60

Parameter

Weight

Biological and Physiological Values

Male, 400-600 g

Female, 300-400 g

Life span

Temperature, rectal

Preferred environmental

temperature

Adult dental formula

Gastrointestinal system

Heart rate

Respiratory rate

Age at sexual maturity

Avg 4-6 years, may live 8 years

95.7-98.6°F (35.4-37°C)

75-85°F (24-29°C)

Temperatures <60°F (16°C) induce torpor state

2 (I3/2:C1/1:P3/2:M3/3)=36; variations have been noted

Simple stomach; no cecum; transit time 12-16 hours

180-280 beats/min

25-50 breaths/min

Male, 6-8 months

Female, 2-6 months

Reproductive life span

Male, throughout life

Female, 2-3 years

Gestation

Milk composition

34-37 days

Protein, 16 g/100 g; carbohydrate, trace; fat,

25.5 g/100 g

Litter size Avg 3-4 (range 1-7)

Birth weight

Eyes open

Deciduous teeth eruption

Permanent teeth eruption

Age at weaning

Endotracheal tube size

Esophagostomy tube size

10-18 g

14-18 days

Begins on day 18; all deciduous teeth erupt by 9 weeks

Begins at 7-9 weeks

4-6 weeks (start eating solids at 3 weeks)

14 g over-the-needle IV catheter to 2.0 mm

8 Fr

647

Table 8-9

Suggested Diets for Hedgehogs. 9b,20,23,27,47,51

The exact nutritional requirements of hedgehogs are unknown. Diets for captive animals

have been developed taking into consideration their omnivorous nature, simple

gastrointestinal tract, ability to digest chitin, poor digestibility of cellulose, propensity

toward obesity, and lack of reports of specific nutritional problems (with the exception of

lactose intolerance).

Hedgehogs in captivity will thrive on a base diet composed of approximately 30%-50%

protein (dry matter basis) and 10%-20% fat. Because scientific studies regarding hedgehog

nutritional needs are lacking, commercial diets appear to be the most balanced diet that a

pet owner can offer. If a commercial hedgehog food is not used, a premium commercial

feline (adults may use “lite” adult cat foods), ferret, or insectivore diets may be used. Dry

foods may be advantageous to help with dental health as periodontal disease is fairly

common in hedgehogs. It is inappropriate to use these commercial diets as a sole

nutrition source. Supplement with small portions of cooked egg, pinky mice, vegetable

and meat jarred human baby foods, gut-loaded crickets and mealworms, a chopped

vegetables, and fruits. Dairy products, such as cottage cheese and milk, should be

avoided, however, because of reports of lactose intolerance.

In general, pets should not be fed ad libitum as obesity is very common. Approximately

1-2 Tbs of food daily is a reasonable starting point for adults, with growing animals and

reproductively active females being fed the usual diet ad libitum, and calcium-rich foods

should be supplemented. Young or pregnant/lactating hedgehogs can also use kitten or

ferret formulations. Hedgehogs are generally nocturnal eaters. Fresh water should be

provided ad libitum in a shallow dish; animals can also learn to drink from sipper bottles.

In addition to the main diet, 1-2 tsp of varied moist foods (e.g., canned cat or dog food,

cooked meat or egg, low-fat cottage cheese) and approximately tsp of fruit (e.g.,

banana, grape, apple, pear, berries) or vegetables (e.g., beans, cooked carrots, squash,

peas, tomatoes, leafy greens) should also be provided daily. b One key to balanced

nutrition is to provide variety. Acceptable treats include mealworms, earthworms,

waxworms, crickets, and cat treats; these may be hidden in the bedding to promote

foraging behavior as environmental enrichment.

a

Mealworms are high calorie, low calcium and should be limited to 6-10 smaller mealworms 2-3 times a

week; 1-2 crickets (more if hedgehog is pregnant or lactating) can be fed insectivore diet plus some of

the fruit/vegetable mixture for a minimum of 3 days after purchase before being fed to the hedgehog;

other types of commercially available insects can also be fed. Insects can be dusted with a calcium

supplement before feeding to hedgehogs.

b

An alternative fruit/vegetable mix: chop together

tsp diced leafy dark greens (spinach, kale, leaf

lettuce), tsp diced carrot, tsp diced apple, tsp diced banana, tsp diced grape or raisin,

tsp vitamin/mineral powder (Vionate or crushed feline vitamin tab).

648

Table 8-10

Hand-Rearing Orphaned Hedgehogs. 20,31,47,52

1. Leave neonates with the mother if possible for the first 24-72 hours for colostrum

ingestion.

2. In cases of lactation failure or abandonment by the female, fostering the pups to

another dam with similarly aged pups is generally successful.

3. Feed a canine milk replacer with added lactase (Lactaid, McNeil Nutritionals) using a 1-

cc syringe with a catheter tip or an eye dropper.

4. Neonates should be fed as much as they will consume every 2-4 hours for about 3

weeks, then the time between feedings can be gradually lengthened; the newborns

should gain 1-2 g/day during the first week, about 3-4 g/day during the second week,

4-5 g/day during the third and fourth weeks, and 7-9 g/day until they are 60 days old;

at 4-6 weeks, parent- or hand-raised young should be weaned by offering canned dog

or cat food, minced beef, or freshly molted mealworms; hand-rearing hedgehogs is

often associated with high mortality.

5. The ambient temperature should be maintained at 90-95°F (32-35°C) for the first few

weeks.

6. Manual stimulation is required for defecation and should be performed after each meal

by massaging the ventrum and perineal area with a cloth or swab moistened in warm

water.

649

Table 8-11

Common Injection and Venipuncture Sites in Hedgehogs. 16,25,26,37

Injection Sites

Subcutaneous

Intramuscular

Intravenous

Intraperitoneal

Intraosseous

Venipuncture

Sites

Saphenous

Jugular

Cephalic

Cranial vena

cava

Comments

5-10 mL/site; flank at junction of furred skin and spined mantle; SC under

mantle requires 1.5- to 3-inch needle

0.5 mL/site; anterior thigh, triceps; may require sedation; orbicularis up to

1 mL/site

Lateral saphenous, jugular

5-10 mL; requires sedation for access; caudal right abdominal quadrant;

useful for fluid administration

0.5-1 mL slow bolus; requires anesthesia for tibial placement; rarely used

Comments

0.5-1 mL; requires sedation; common site for catheterization with 24g-26g

catheter

0.5-1 mL; requires sedation; easier in thin animals; not visible or palpable;

blind stick

Requires sedation; common site for catheterization with 24g-26g catheter

Requires sedation; risk of cardiac puncture

Table 8-12

Preventive Medicine in Hedgehogs. 25

• Prevent obesity; have owners weigh hedgies at least monthly

• Dental prophylaxis—routine brushing, scaling

• Nails need periodic trimming

• Annual (or semi-annual) physical examination, including fecal flotation and direct

smear

• No routine vaccines recommended

• Prevent chilling; provide heated environment with dry bedding

• Microchip for personal identification

650

Table 8-13

Common Differential Diagnoses Based on Physical Examination

Findings. 2,10,13,14,16,21,22,27,30,46,59

• Ataxia: brain neoplasia, herpes simplex infection, intervertebral disk disease, wobbly

hedgehog syndrome

• Cutaneous/subcutaneous masses: cutaneous hemangiosarcoma, mammary neoplasia,

mast cell tumor, thyroid tumor

• Dermatitis/quill loss: bacterial pyoderma, fungal dermatophytosis, mange (Caparinia,

Chorioptes, Notoedres)

• Dyspnea: cardiomyopathy, mitral valve disease, bacterial pneumonia, pulmonary

metastases

• Gastroenteritis: bacterial (Salmonella), lymphosarcoma, parasitic

• Hematuria: bacterial cystitis, endometrial polyps, endometrial sarcoma, uterine spindle

cell tumor

• Oral cavity masses: odontogenic fibroma, spindle cell carcinoma, squamous cell

carcinoma

Table 8-14

Confirmed Zoonotic Diseases Carried by Hedgehogs. 48,50,58

• Bacterial: Salmonella spp., Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, Mycobacterium marinum

• Viral: Herpesvirus, including human herpes simplex

• Mycotic: Trychophyton metagrophytes var. erinacei, Microsporum spp.

Table 8-15

Common Vocalizations in Hedgehogs. 13

Snorting/huffing;

hissing/grunting

Screaming

Twittering/whistling

Clucking

Snuffling

Inaudible sounds

Aggressive or warning sounds produced by sharp vibrating

exhalations through the nostrils; generally made when the animal

is disturbed, when it encounters another animal, or when it is in

the process of rolling up

Severe distress call given when the animal is in distress or pain

High-pitched sounds of neonates; whistling stimulates contact by the

dam

High-pitched contact call of the dam to neonates; also made by

courting males

Made as hedgehogs search for food

Hedgehogs can make and hear sounds in the 40- to 90-kHz range,

above the range of human hearing

651

Table 8-16

Cardiac Measurements in Hedgehogs. a,8

Radiographic Measurements b

Mean±SD (Range)

AB/CD 1.38±0.11 (1.24-1.59)

AB/H 0.88±0.07 (0.74-1.01)

AB/R5-7 1.89±0.29 (1.55-2.73)

CD/H 0.63±0.04 (0.58-0.7)

VHS 8.16±0.48 (7.25-8.75)

L/W 1.4±0.11 (1.16-1.55)

L/C 1.64±0.25 (1.38-2.13)

W/T 0.6±0.03 (0.55-0.66)

W/C 1.17±0.17 (1-1.45)

Echocardiographic Measurements c

Mean±SD (Range)

IVSd (cm) 0.15±0.01 (0.13-0.17)

IVSs (cm) 0.22±0.02 (0.19-0.24)

LVIDd (cm) 0.74±0.05 (0.67-0.84)

LVIDs (cm) 0.58±0.03 (0.54-0.65)

LVFWd (cm) 0.16±0.01 (0.14-0.18)

LVFWs (cm) 0.23±0.02 (0.19-0.27)

FS (%) 21.45±2.5 (17.4-26.8)

EPSS (cm) 0.11±0.02 (0.09-0.14)

AO (cm) 0.36±0.02 (0.31-0.4)

LA (cm) 0.56±0.04 (0.51-0.62)

LA/AO (cm) 1.55±0.16 (1.37-1.92)

LVOT Vmax (m/sec) 0.489±0.108 (0.296-0.662)

RVOT Vmax (m/sec) 0.335±0.094 (0.236-0.512)

R-wave amplitude (mV) 0.22±0.11 (0.08-0.5)

QRS duration (sec) 0.03±0 (0.03-0.03)

Mean electrical axis −10±13 (−28 to 8)

Heart rate (beats/min) 200±48 (100-260)

a

n=13; 5 male, 8 female; age range 6 mo-5 yr, 7<1 yr, 6>1 yr.

b

AB, apicobasilar length of heart; CD, maximum width of heart perpendicular to AB; H, vertical depth of

652

thorax from ventral border of spine to dorsal border of sternum at level of tracheal birfurcation; R5-7,

distance from 5th rib cranial edge to 7th rib caudal edge; VHS, vertebral heart score; L, heart length; W,

maximum width perpendicular to L; C, length of clavicle; T, thoracic width at level of 6th rib articulation

with vertebral column.

c

IVSd, interventricular septal thickness in diastole; IVSs, interventricular septal thickness in systole;

LVIDd, left ventricular internal diameter in diastole; LVIDs, left ventricular internal diameter in systole;

LVFWd, left ventricular free wall thickness in diastole; LVFWs, left ventricular free wall thickness in

systole; FS, fractional shortening; EPSS, E-point-to-septal separation length; AO, aortic diameter in

diastole; LA, left atrium internal dimension; LVOT, maximum velocity of left ventricular outflow; RVOT,

maximum velocity of right ventricular outflow.

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656

C H A P T E R 9

Rodents

Jörg Mayer; Christoph Mans

Table 9-1

Antimicrobial and Antifungal Agents Used in Rodents. a


657

Amikacin

5-15 mg/kg SC,

IM, IV q8-

12h 84

15 mg/kg IM

q12h 79

16 mg/kg SC, IM,

IV divided q8-

24h 90

All species/also administer fluid therapy

Guinea pigs/high peak dosing regimen as

efficacious as divided regimen

All species/also administer fluid therapy

Amoxicillin — Do not use orally in hamsters, guinea

pigs, chinchillas; may cause

enterocolitis 2


Amphotericin B

25 mg/kg PO

q12h 82

10-15 mg/kg PO

q12h 113

100-150 mg/kg

IM, SC 84

0.25 mg/mL

drinking

water for 7

days 73

20 mg/kg PO

q12h 90

0.11 mg/kg SC

q24h 84,90

0.43 mg/kg PO

q24h 84,90

1.25-2.5 mg/kg SC

q24h 84

Rats

Rats

Rats, mice

Mice/only effective against highly

susceptible bacteria; plasma levels

reached <300 ng/mL 73

Mice, rats

Mice/use with caution; may cause renal

toxicity

Mice/candidiasis

Guinea pigs/cryptococcosis

Ampicillin — Do not use orally in hamsters, guinea

pigs, chinchillas; may cause

enterocolitis 2

6-30 mg/kg PO

q8h 84

20-100 mg/kg PO,

SC, IM q8h 84

20-250 mg/kg PO

q12h 113

25 mg/kg SC, IM

q12h 84

Gerbils

Gerbils

Rats

Rats, mice

658

50-200 mg/kg PO

q12h 84

Rats, mice

Azithromycin

15-30 mg/kg PO

q24h 31,90

30 mg/kg PO

q24h 8,20

50 mg/kg PO

q12h for 14

days 84

Most species, including guinea pigs,

chinchillas, hamsters

Chinchillas

Rats, mice

Captan powder 1 tsp/2 cups dust 49 Chinchillas/fungicide to prevent spread

of dermatophytes between cagemates;

add to dust box

Cephalexin

Chloramphenicol

Chlortetracycline

15 mg/kg SC, IM

q12h 33

15 mg/kg SC

q12h 33

20 mg/kg PO

q8h 113

25 mg/kg IM q12-

24h 84,113

25 mg/kg SC

q24h 90

60 mg/kg PO

q12h 90

30-50 mg/kg PO

q8-12h 31,90

200 mg/kg PO

q12h 84

0.5 mg/mL

drinking

water 84

0.83 mg/mL

drinking

water 84

1 mg/mL

drinking

water 84

10 mg/kg SC, IM

q12h 90

Rats, mice

Guinea pigs

Rats

Guinea pigs

Hamsters, gerbils

Mice

Most species

Mice

Mice

Gerbils

Guinea pigs

Rats

20 mg/kg PO, SC, Hamsters, gerbils

659

IM q12h 90

Ciprofloxacin

Clarithromycin

Clindamycin

Doxycycline

25 mg/kg PO, SC,

IM q12h 90

50 mg/kg PO

q12h 90

5-25 mg/kg PO

q12-24h 84,90

10 mg/kg PO

q12h 84

10-20 mg/kg PO

q12h 84

15 mg/kg PO

q12h 7

7.5 mg/kg SC

q12h 90

2.5-5 mg/kg PO

q12h 90

70-100 mg/kg SC,

IM q7d 90

0.05 mg/mL

drinking

water for 7

days 73

Mice

Chinchillas

Chinchillas, guinea pigs/may cause

arthropathies in young of any species

Rats, mice

Hamster

Chinchillas

Most species/can cause diarrhea; do not

give orally; avoid or use with caution

in chinchillas and guinea pigs;

excellent bone penetration

All species/pneumonia; may give in

combination with enrofloxacin; do

not use in young and pregnant

animals

Mice, rats/use long-acting formulation

Mice/failed to achieve effective plasma

concentrations.

Enilconazole Dip in a 0.2%

(1:50) solution

q7d 2,84

0.2% solution

topical q3-4d 31

Dermatophytosis

All species/dermatophytosis

Enrofloxacin — Very high doses may cause arthropathies

in young if given for a prolonged

time; limit SC, IM injections; SC

injections can be diluted in NaCl or

lactated Ringer’s solution

5-20 mg/kg PO,

SC, IM q12-

24h 2,84,90

Most species/may combine with

doxycycline for chronic respiratory

infections in rats

10 mg/kg SC Most species

660

q12h 33

Enrofloxacin (E)/doxycycline

(D)

0.25 mg/mL

drinking

water×7 days 73

10 mg/kg

(E)+5 mg/kg

(D) PO q12h 83


concentrations; remains stable for 7

days

Rats/chronic respiratory infection

Erythromycin — Do not use orally in chinchillas, guinea

pigs; use with caution in hamsters

and gerbils 90

10 mg/kg PO

q24h 113

20 mg/kg PO

q12h 84,90

0.13 mg/mL

drinking

water 84

Rats, chronic respiratory disease

Mice, rats, hamsters

Hamsters/outbreaks of proliferative

ileitis; use with caution: can cause

enterotoxemia; equivalent to

500 mg/gal drinking water

Gentamicin — Use cautiously; nephrotoxic; ensure

adequate hydration; can be used

topically in nostrils for upper

respiratory tract infections; consider

use of amikacin instead

2-5 mg/kg SC, IM

q24h 84

4-24 mg/kg SC,

IM q12h 2

20 mg/kg SC

q24h 2

All species

All species

Rats

Griseofulvin — Dermatophytosis; do not use in

pregnant animals; can cause diarrhea,

leukopenia, anorexia

15-50 mg/kg PO

q24h ×

14-28 days 90 Guinea pigs

Itraconazole

25 mg/kg PO

q24h 90

2.5-10 mg/kg PO

q24h 84,90

Most species

Most species, in guinea pigs less effective

than terbinafine for treatment of

dermatophytosis 85

5 mg/kg PO Guinea pigs/dermatophytosis; consider

661

q24h 31

pulse therapy, 7 days on/off until

culture negative 31

Ketoconazole

50-150 mg/kg PO

q24h 84,90

10-40 mg/kg PO

q24h×14 days 90

Mice/blastomycosis

All species/systemic mycoses; candidiasis

Lime sulfur dip

Dip q7d×4 All species/dermatophytosis; dilute 1:40

treatments 90 with water

Marbofloxacin

2-5 mg/kg PO,

SC, IM q24h 84

4 mg/kg PO, SC

q24h 90

All species/do not give during lactation,

pregnancy, or while growing;

injectable can be given orally

Metronidazole — Use with caution in chinchillas;

objectionable taste may result in

reduced food consumption

10-20 mg/kg PO

q12h 90

10-40 mg/kg PO

q24h 90

20-60 mg/kg PO

q8-12h 2

2.5 mg/mL

drinking

water×5 day 14

Most species

Mice, rats

Prairie dogs

Mice

Neomycin — No absorption following oral

administration, therefore not effective

against systemic infections; extremely

nephrotoxic following parenteral

administration

15 mg/kg PO

q12h 84

25 mg/kg PO

q12h 84

0.5 mg/mL

drinking

water 84

2 mg/mL

drinking

water 33

Chinchillas, guinea pigs

Mice, rats, hamsters

Hamsters

Mice, rats

662

2.6 mg/mL

drinking

water 84

Mice, rats, gerbils

Nystatin 60,000-90,000 Gastrointestinal mycoses; not absorbed

U/kg PO

from gastrointestinal tract

q12h×7-

10 days 84

Oxytetracycline

Penicillin G

Penicillin G (benzathine and

procaine)

5 mg/kg IM q12h,

or 10-

20 mg/kg PO

q8h 84

15 mg/kg IM

q12h, or

50 mg/kg PO

q12h 84

10 mg/kg PO

q8h 14

10-20 mg/kg PO

q8h 84

20-25 mg/kg IM

q8-12h 84

100 mg/kg SC

q24h 104

0.25-1 mg/mL

drinking

water 14

200 mg/L

drinking

water for 30

days 113

400 mg/L

drinking

water for 10

days 113

3 g/L drinking

water 104

22,000 U/kg SC,

IM q24h 90

22,000 U/kg SC,

IM q24h 84,90

Guinea pigs

Chinchillas

Gerbils

Mice, rats/Tyzzer’s disease (mice);

Mycoplasma pneumonia (rats)

Hamsters, gerbils

All species

Hamsters, mice, rats, gerbils

Rats/prophylactic treatment

Rats/curative treatment


Rats

Most species

50,000 U/kg SC Chinchillas, guinea pigs, degus

663

Sulfonamide/trimethoprim

combinations

q3-5d 69,72

15-30 mg/kg PO,

SC, IM 12-

24h 84,90

Most species

Terbinafine

25 mg/kg PO

q12h 113

50-100 mg/kg PO,

SC q24h 84

0.8 mg/mL

drinking

water 73

10-30 mg/kg PO

q24h×4-6 wk 90

20 mg/kg PO

q24h 85

Rats

Gerbils, rats, mice


concentrations; remains stable for 7

days


Guinea pigs/PD; dermatophytosis; more

effective than itraconazole

Tetracycline 10 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 90

10 mg/kg PO, SC

q24h 31

20 mg/kg PO

q12h 2

20 mg/kg PO, IM

q24h 2

Guinea pigs, chinchillas/use with

caution 90

Guinea pigs

Most species

Gerbils

30 mg/kg PO q6h 2 Hamsters

0.2-0.5 mg/mL Rats

drinking

water for 7-

10 mL days 113

0.4 mg/mL

drinking

water 2

0.6 mg/mL

drinking

water 2

Hamsters

Mice

0.7 mg/mL

drinking

water 2 Guinea pigs/toxicity reported 73

0.1%-0.5%

feed×14 days 2

Rats

Trimethoprim/sulfonamides — See Sulfonamide/trimethoprim

664

combinations

Tylosin

2-10 mg/kg PO,

SC q12h 90

10 mg/kg PO, SC

q12h 84,90,115

10 mg/kg PO

q24h×5 days 113

Hamsters, gerbils/use with caution

Chinchillas, guinea pigs, mice,

rats/toxicity reported in guinea pigs

Rats

0.5 mg/mL Gerbils, hamsters, mice, rats/PD in rats; 18

(500 mg/L) toxicity in hamsters reported 3

drinking

water 15

Vancomycin

20 mg/kg PO

q24h 46

Tyzzer’s disease

a

Oral antibiotic treatment can result in enteritis and antibiotic-associated clostridial enterotoxemia,

especially when antibiotics with a primary Gram-positive spectrum are given. Chinchillas, guinea pigs,

and hamsters are most susceptible. Also, direct toxicity due to streptomycin and dihydrostreptomycin

occurs in gerbils, guinea pigs, hamsters, and mice. Procaine, included in some penicillin preparations,

can be toxic to mice. Guinea pigs and chinchillas are highly susceptible to the ototoxic effects of

chloramphenicol and aminoglycosides at dosages above those recommended clinically. Antibiotics

implicated in antibiotic-associated clostridial enterotoxemia following oral administration include: 49,97

• Chinchillas: penicillins (including ampicillin, amoxicillin), bacitracin, cephalosporins,

clindamycin, erythromycin, lincomycin.

• Guinea pigs: penicillins (including ampicillin, amoxicillin), cefazolin, clindamycin,

erythromycin, lincomycin, dihydrostreptomycin, streptomycin, bacitracin,

chlortetracycline, oxytetracycline, tetracycline, tylosin.

• Hamsters: penicillins (including ampicillin, amoxicillin), bacitracin, cephalosporins,

clindamycin, erythromycin, lincomycin, vancomycin, dihydrostreptomycin,

streptomycin, tylosin.

Table 9-2

Antiparasitic Agents Used in Rodents.


Albendazole 5 mg/kg PO q12h 10 Guinea pigs

25 mg/kg PO

q12h×2 days 90

Amitraz 1.4 mL/L (0.007%)

topical q7-14d×3

treatments 2,84,90

Chinchillas/giardiasis

Gerbils, hamsters/demodecosis; apply

with cottonball, brush; use with

caution; not recommended in

young

0.3% solution Guinea pigs/mites

665

topically q7-14d×3-

6 treatments 84,90


Dimetridazole

1.4 mL/L topical,

repeat q14d 113

Topical q7d×3

treatments 90

20-50 mg/kg PO

q24h×7 days 10

Rats

Guinea pigs/ectoparasites

Guinea pigs/Trichomonas, Giardia

Mice/trichomoniasis, but not effective;

1.2-10 mg/mL

5 days 99 instead 99

drinking water for use metronidazole or tinidazole

500 mg/L drinking

water 10,103

1 g/L drinking water

for 40 days 10

4 g/L drinking water

for 7 days 10,113

Doramectin 0.2-0.5 mg/kg SC q7-

14d for 2-3

treatments 10

Degus, hamsters/Trichomonas, Giardia

Chinchillas, degus, chipmunks,

squirrels/Giardia

Rats, mice/Giardia, Hexamita

Most species

Emodepside/praziquantel

(Profender, Bayer)

0.07-0.7 mL/kg

topical 81

Mice/PD; nematodes; cestodes;

contains 21.4 mg/mL of emodepside

and 85.9 mg/mL of praziquantel

Fenbendazole

20 mg/kg PO q24h for

5 days 10,113 Rats, guinea pigs

20-50 mg/kg PO

q24h×5 days 2,84,90

All species/giardiasis; a lower dose is

generally preferred; higher end for

giardiasis only 84

25-150 ppm in feed for

5 days 113 Mice/Oxyurids

Fipronil

50 ppm in feed for 5

days 113


days 113

7.5 mg/kg topically

q30-60d 84

1-2 spray pumps

topical, repeat 1-

2×q7-10d 31

Mice/Hymenolepis dimunata

Mice/Rodentolepis nana

Most species/fleas, ticks, and lice

Guinea pigs

Imidacloprid 20 mg/kg topically Most species/flea control

666

q30d 84,90

Imidacloprid

10%/moxidectin 1%

(Advocate, Bayer)

0.1 mL/animal 52 Guinea pigs/ectoparasites (i.e., fleas,

biting lice, mites)

Ivermectin


q7-14d 90

0.2-0.5 mg/kg SC, PO

q7-14d 84

Most species/ectoparasites; preferred

dosage appears to be 0.4 mg/kg q7d

(higher doses have also been

reported); for Demodex, use q7d

Most species

0.3 mg/kg PO q24h 111 Hamsters/PD; demodicosis

0.4 mg/kg SC q7d 11 Hamsters/notoedric mites

0.4 mg/kg SC, repeat

q14d 27

Spray animals or

topical drops 9

8 mg/L drinking

water×4 days/wk×5

wk 60

25 mg/L drinking

water×4 days/wk×5

wk 60

48 mg/L drinking

water×3 days 34

Guinea pigs/PD; Trixacarus caviae

Mice/clinical trial for mite control; 9 use

1% ivermectin diluted 1:100 with

1:1 propylene glycol:water

(0.1 mg/mL); sprayed onto mice or

topical behind ear

Mice/pinworms

Rats/pinworms

Rats/pinworms, Giardia, Hymenolepis

Levimasol 25 mg/kg SC 10 Guinea pigs

Lime sulfur dip Dip q7d×6 wk 90 All species/ectoparasites; dilute 1:40

with water

Mebendazole 20 mg/kg PO 10 Guinea pigs

Metronidazole

40 mg/kg PO

q7d×21 days 2

50-60 mg/kg PO

q12h×5 days 10

10-20 mg/kg PO q12h,

or 40 mg/kg q24h 84

Mice, rats/pinworms

Chinchillas, degus, chipmunks

Guinea pigs, chinchillas/use with

caution in chinchillas;

objectionable taste may result in

reduced food intake

20-40 mg/kg PO Rats, mice, gerbils, hamsters

667

q24h 84

20-50 mg/kg PO q8h 90 Gerbils, hamsters

25 mg/kg PO q12h 10 Guinea pigs, chinchillas

50-60 mg/kg PO q12h

for 5 days 113

2.5 mg/mL drinking

water×5 days 2,10,99

Rats

Rats, mice/trichomoniasis

Moxidectin — See Imidacloprid

Niclosamid 100 mg/kg PO 2×

q7d 10

Guinea pigs/Hymenolepis spp.

Nitenpyram

(Capstar, Novartis)

1 mg/kg PO once 84 Most species/fleas, flystrike; safe in

pregnant animals 84

Permethrin 0.25% dust in cage 74 All species/ectoparasites

Piperazine adipate 500 mg/kg PO q24h 90 Chinchillas

Piperazine citrate

Ponazuril

Praziquantel

3-5 mg/mL drinking

water×7 days, off 7

days, on 7 days 90

4-7 mg/mL drinking

water×3-10 days 90

100 mg/kg PO

q24h×2 days 90

4-5 mg/mL drinking


days, on 7 days 84

4-7 g/L drinking

water 10

10 mg/mL drinking


days, on 7 days 84,90

30 mg/kg PO q48h×2

treatments 38

5-10 mg/kg PO, SC

q10d×2

treatments 31

6-10 mg/kg PO, SC,

repeat in 10

days 31,90

30 mg/kg PO q14d×3

treatments 84

Hamsters, gerbils

Guinea pigs, mice, rats

Chinchillas

Rats, mice

Guinea pigs

Guinea pigs, hamsters

Prairie dogs/Eimeria

Guinea pigs

All species/cestodes, trematodes

Gerbils, mice, rats

668


days 2

Mice

Pyrantel pamoate 50 mg/kg PO 84,90 Most species/gastrointestinal

nematodes

Pyrethrin powder Topical 3×/wk 90 Gerbils, hamsters, mice,

rats/ectoparasites

Pyrethrin shampoo (0.05%)

Ronidazole

Selamectin

Sulfadimethoxine

Sulfamerazine

Sulfamethazine

Topical q7d×3

treatments 90

Shampoo q7d×4

treatments 90

400 mg/L drinking

water 10,113

15 mg/kg topically

once 27

15-30 mg/kg topically

q21-28d×2

treatments (q14d

for Demodex) 29,31

15-100 mg/kg PO

q24h×3 days, 5

days break, then

treat for 3 more

days 10

25-50 mg/kg PO

q24h×10 days 90

50 mg/kg PO once,

then 25 mg/kg

q24h×10-20 days

1 mg/mL drinking

water 90

1.5 mg/L drinking

water for 10 days 10

1 mg/mL drinking

water×4 days, then

4 days off, repeat

for 3 more

treatments 10

1-5 mg/mL drinking

water 2

Chinchillas, guinea pigs/ectoparasites

Hamsters, gerbils, mice, rats/fleas

Rats, mice, gerbils

Guinea pigs/PD; Trixacarus caviae

Most species/use 30 mg/kg for Sarcoptes

Guinea pigs

Most species

All species/coccidiosis

Most species/coccidiosis


squirrels/coccidia


squirrels/coccidia

All species/coccidiosis

Sulfamethoxypyrazine


5 days 10 Guinea pigs

669

Sulfaquinoxaline

1 mg/mL drinking

water×14-

21 days 2,90 All species/coccidiosis

Thiabendazole

50-100 mg/kg PO

q24h×5 days 90

100-200 mg/kg PO

q24h×5 days 10

Most species/ascaridiasis

Guinea pigs

Tinidazole 50-100 mg/kg PO 69 Prairie dogs/Giardia

Toltrazuril (Baycox, Bayer)

2.5 g/L drinking

water 10,99

10 mg/kg PO

q24h×3 days, off 3-

5 days, on 3

days 30,103,113

10-20 mg/kg PO q24h

for 3 days, 5 days

break, then give

for 3 more days 113

25 mg/L drinking

water 10

Rats, mice, gerbils

Most species/drug of choice for

coccidiosis; 2.5% solution has very

low pH; needs to be diluted with

equal parts water and propylene

glycol (1:1:1); 106 5% solution does

not need to be diluted

Hamsters/coccidiosis

Most species

Table 9-3

Chemical Restraint/Anesthetic Agents Used in Rodents.


Acepromazine — See ketamine for combinations

0.5-1 mg/kg IM 90,114 Most species

0.5-2.5 mg/kg IM, SC, PO 84 Rats

0.5-5 mg/kg IM, SC, PO 84 Guinea pigs, hamsters, mice/higher

doses should only be given PO

Alfaxalone — Licensed for IV administration; can

be administered IM, SC, IP, but

high doses needed, resulting in

large volumes

2-5 mg/kg IV 65 Rats/anesthesia; mean duration

<15 min

670

5-10 mg/kg SC, IM

administration 94 Chinchillas, not effective 94

20 mg/kg IP 65 Rats/anesthesia, 20-60 min; no

induction in 30% of animals

40 mg/kg IM, IP 84 Guinea pigs

80 mg/kg IP 108 Mice/surgical anesthesia for

~60 min

100 mg/kg SC, IP 48 Mice/anesthesia

Alfaxalone

(A)/butorphanol (B)

Alfaxalone

(A)/medetomidine

(Me)/butorphanol

(B)

Alfaxalone (A)/xylazine

(X)


Pfizer) a

(A) 5 mg/kg+(B) 0.5 mg/kg

IM 94

(A) 40-80 mg/kg+(Me)

0.3 mg/kg+(B) 5 mg/kg

SC 48

(A) 80 mg/kg+(X) 10 mg/kg

IP 108

5× the administered

medetomidine dose, or

10× the administered

dexmedetomidine dose

SC, IM 84

Chinchillas/short-term inconsistent

anesthesia (<20 min); significant

postanesthetic reduction in food

intake and fecal output 94

Mice/anesthesia; surgical anesthesia

for 35-85 min dependent on

alfaxalone dose; not effective

after IP administration

Mice/surgical anesthesia for

80±18 min

Dexmedetomidine/medetomidine

reversal

1 mg/kg SC 90 All species

Atropine 0.04-0.4 mg/kg SC, IM 90 Gerbils, hamsters, mice, rats/rats

possess serum atropinesterase

0.05-0.2 mg/kg SC, IM, IV 90 Chinchillas, guinea pigs

0.1-0.2 mg/kg SC, IM 84 Chinchillas, guinea pigs

Bupivacaine 0.5 mg/kg 3 Guinea pigs/nerve blocks

1 mg/kg+0.1 mg/kg morphine

(preservative free)

epidural 84

Limit volume to 0.33 mL/kg

1-2 mg/kg local nerve block 84 Guinea pig, rats

1.6 mg/kg epidural 84 Anesthesia to level of L4

2.3 mg/kg epidural 84 Anesthesia to level of

T11-13

Dexmedetomidine

(Dexdomitor, Orion)

— α 2 -agonist similar to medetomidine;

see ketamine for combination

Diazepam — See fentanyl/fluanisone and

671

0.5-5 mg/kg IM 84 Guinea pigs

ketamine for combinations

2.5-5 mg/kg IM 84 Chinchillas, hamsters, gerbils, rats,

mice

Fentanyl/fluanisone

(Hypnorm, Janssen)

— Anesthesia

0.2-0.6 mL/kg IM, IP 74 Mice, rats

0.5-1 mL/kg IM 84 Guinea pigs

Flumazenil 0.1 mg/kg SC 46 Chinchillas/midazolam reversal

Glycopyrrolate 0.01-0.02 mg/kg SC 50 All species/excess oral or

respiratory mucus

Isoflurane

2%-5% induction, then All species/inhalant anesthetic of

0.25%-4% maintenance 74,84 choice

Ketamine — Avoid use alone, due to high doses

needed; ketamine combinations

follow

20-40 mg/kg IM 74 Chinchillas, hamsters/light

sedation; heavy sedation at

higher doses in hamsters

22 mg/kg IM 74 Mice, rats/light sedation; heavy

sedation at 44 mg/kg in mice

and 25-40 mg/kg in rats

22-44 mg/kg IM 74 Guinea pigs/light sedation; heavy

sedation at higher doses

40-60 mg/kg IM 74 Gerbils/light sedation; heavy

sedation at higher doses

(marked individual variation)

Ketamine

(K)/acepromazine (A)

(K) 40 mg/kg+(A) 0.5 mg/kg

IM 89

Chinchillas/anesthesia; prolonged

recovery

(K) 50-150 mg/kg+(A) 2.5- Mice, rats/lower end of doses

5 mg/kg IM 88 preferred

Ketamine

(K)/dexmedetomidine

(De)

(K) 2-4 mg/kg+(Me)

0.025 mg/kg IM 84 Most species/sedation

(K) 3-5 mg/kg+(De)

0.05 mg/kg SC, IM 84 Guinea pigs/short anesthesia

(K) 4 mg/kg+(De)

0.015 mg/kg 24,35 Chinchillas/surgical anesthesia;

provide supplemental oxygen;

reverse with atipamezole 35

(K) 75 mg/kg+(De) 0.5 mg/kg

IP 74

Mice, rats

672


(D)

(K) 20-30 mg/kg+(D) 1-

2 mg/kg IM 74 Guinea pigs/anesthesia

(K) 20-40 mg/kg+(D) 1-

2 mg/kg IM 49 Chinchillas/anesthesia

Ketamine

(K)/medetomidine

(Me)

(K) 2-4 mg/kg+(Me)

0.05 mg/kg IM 84 Most species/sedation

(K) 3-5 mg/kg+(Me)

0.1 mg/kg SC, IM 84 Guinea pigs/short anesthesia

(K) 4-5 mg/kg+(Me)

0.03 mg/kg 69 Chinchillas/anesthesia; provide

supplemental oxygen; reverse

with atipamezole

(K) 5 mg/kg+(Me) 0.06 mg/kg

IM 46

Chinchillas/anesthesia

(K) 5-10 mg/kg+(Me) 0.02- Degus/anesthesia; supplement with

0.04 mg/kg IM 51 isoflurane if needed

(K) 20 mg/kg+(Me)

Guinea pigs/premedication

0.1 mg/kg+buprenorphine

0.03 mg/kg IM 3

(K) 40 mg/kg+(Me) 0.5 mg/kg

IM, IP 31,74

Guinea pigs/20-30 min duration of

anesthesia

(K) 40-75 mg/kg+(Me)

1 mg/kg IP 22 Mice/anesthesia; minor procedures;

use the higher dose of ketamine

in females; (Me) reversal is

atipamezole

(K) 75-90 mg/kg+(Me) Rats, gerbils/surgical anesthesia 20-

0.5 mg/kg IM, IP 74,90 30 min duration

(K) 100 or 200 mg/kg+(Me)

0.25 mg/kg IP, SC 25,58 Hamsters (Syrian)/anesthesia


(M)

(K) 5-10 mg/kg+(M) 0.5- Chinchillas, guinea pigs, prairie

1 mg/kg IM 90 dogs

(K) 40 mg/kg+(M) 1-2 mg/kg

IM, SC, IP 31

Rats/anesthesia


(M)/butorphanol (B)

(K) 5-10 mg/kg+(M) 0.2- Degus/anesthesia; supplement with

0.4 mg/kg+(B) 0.3-

isoflurane if needed

0.5 mg/kg IM 51


(X)

(K) 20-40 mg/kg+(X) 2 mg/kg

IM 41

(K) 40 mg/kg+(X) 2 mg/kg

IM 46


Guinea pigs/light anesthesia

Chinchillas/anesthesia

Gerbils/anesthesia

673

IP 41


IP 56


IM, IP 41


IP 56


IM, IP 29

Mice/anesthesia; <40 min

Hamsters/anesthesia

Mice/anesthesia; <30 min

Rats/anesthesia

Medetomidine — See ketamine for combinations

0.1 mg/kg SC 74 Hamsters/light to moderate

sedation

0.1-0.2 mg/kg SC 74 Gerbils/light to moderate sedation

0.15 mg/kg IM 12,31 Rats, guinea pigs/sedation

0.15-0.25 mg/kg IM 42 Rats/sedation

0.2-0.3 mg/kg SC 31 Hamsters/sedation

Medetomidine

(Me)/butorphanol

(B)

(Me) 0.1 mg/kg+(B) 2 mg/kg

IM 12

Rats/sedation

Midazolam — See ketamine for combination

0.4-2 mg/kg IM 114 Guinea pigs, chinchillas

1-2 mg/kg IM 74 All species/preanesthetic

2-3 mg/kg IM 114 Rats, mice, gerbils

Midazolam

(M)/butorphanol (B)

(M) 0.2-0.8 mg/kg+(B) 0.3-

0.5 mg/kg IM 51 Degus/sedation

Midazolam

(M)/medetomidine

(Me)/butorphanol

(B)

(M) 1 mg/kg+(Me)


IP 12

(M) 2 mg/kg+(Me)

0.15 mg/kg+(B) 2.5 mg/kg

IP 59

(M) 4 mg/kg+(Me)


IP 48,56

Rats/sedation; completely reversible

Rats/anesthesia; completely

reversible

Mice/anesthesia; <60 min;

completely reversible

Midazolam

(M)/medetomidine

(Me)/fentanyl (F)

(M) 1 mg/kg+(Me)

Chinchillas/anesthesia, completely

0.05 mg/kg+(F)

reversible with flumazenil

0.02 mg/kg IM 46 (0.1 mg/kg)+atipamezole

(0.5 mg/kg)+naloxone

674

(0.05 mg/kg) SC 46

(M) 2 mg/kg+(Me)

Rats/anesthesia, completely

0.15 mg/kg+(F)



(0.75 mg/kg)+naloxone

(0.12 mg/kg)

(M) 2 mg/kg+(Me)

Guinea pigs/anesthesia; completely

0.2 mg/kg+(F) 0.025-



(1 mg/kg)+naloxone

(0.03 mg/kg) 31

(M) 3.3 mg/kg+(Me)

Hamsters/anesthesia; completely

0.33 mg/kg+(F)

reversible

0.033 mg/kg SC 31

Naloxone 0.01-0.1 mg/kg SC, IP 46,74,84 All species/opioid reversal

0.02 mg/kg/h IV 84 Constant rate infusion (CRI)

Pentobarbital — Anesthesia; not recommended;

marginal analgesia; autonomic

depression; euthanasia dose is

150 mg/kg 84

30-45 mg/kg IP 41 Guinea pigs, chinchillas, rats

50 mg/kg IP 56 Mice/anesthesia, <45 min; no

surgical anesthesia achieved

50-90 mg/kg IP 41 Gerbils, hamsters, mice

Propofol — Anesthesia; induction

3-5 mg/kg IV 90 Guinea pigs, chinchillas, prairie

dogs

7.5-10 mg/kg IV 74,84 Rats

Sevoflurane To effect 90 Most species



20-40 mg/kg IM 74 Chinchillas, rats/anesthesia

30 mg/kg IM IP 31 Hamsters

50-80 mg/kg IM 88 Mice, rats


(T)/xylazine (X)

(T) 20 mg/kg+(X) 10 mg/kg

IP 74

(T) 30 mg/kg+(X) 10 mg/kg

IM, IP 41

Gerbils/anesthesia

Hamsters/anesthesia

Xylazine — See ketamine, tiletamine/zolazepam

for combinations

5-10 mg/kg SC, IM, IP 88 Most species/may cause muscle

675

necrosis when given IM

Yohimbine 0.5-1 mg/kg IV, IP 41 All species/xylazine reversal

Table 9-4

Analgesic Agents Used in Rodents.


Acetaminophen 100 mg/kg PO 86 Rats/PD

200 mg/kg PO 33 Mice, rats

1-2 mg/mL drinking

water 50

Acetylsalicylic acid 50-150 mg/kg PO q4-

8h 84

All species

All species

87 mg/kg PO 33 Guinea pigs

100 mg/kg PO 33,37 Rats

120 mg/kg PO q4h 33 Mice

Buprenorphine

0.01-0.05 mg/kg IM,

SC

q6-12h 29,84

0.01-0.05 mg/kg SC,

IV

q8-12h 33

0.05 mg/kg SC q8-

12h 31,33

0.05 mg/kg q12h SC,

IM 107

Gerbils, hamsters

Rats

Guinea pigs, chinchillas

Rats/PD; PK

0.05-0.1 SC q12h 33 Mice

0.1 mg/kg SC q12h 57 Mice/PD; not sufficient analgesia

following laparotomy

0.1-0.25 mg/kg PO

q8-12h 33

Rats

0.1-0.4 mg/kg PO 87,100 Rats

0.2 mg/kg SC q4-6h 71 Chinchillas/PD

0.2 mg/kg q5h oral

transmucosal 102

Guinea pigs/PK

0.2 mg/kg IV q7h 102 Guinea pigs/PK

0.5 mg/kg SC q8h 31 Hamsters

676

Buprenorphine, extended release

(Animalgesics for Mice and

Rats, Animalgesic Labs)

0.65 mg/kg SC q48h 54 Rats/PD

Buprenorphine, sustained

release (Buprenorphine SR,

Zoopharm)

— Injections site lesions have been

reported

0.3-1.2 mg/kg SC

q48-72h 21

Rats/PD

0.6 mg/kg SC q72h 57 Mice/PD; sufficient postlaparotomy

analgesia

1.2 mg/kg SC q72-

96h 54,107

Rats/PD; PK

1.2 mg/kg SC q72h 16 Prairie dogs/PK

1.5 mg/kg SC q48h 44 Mice/PD

2.2 mg/kg SC q24-

48h 53

Mice/PD; PK

Butorphanol 0.2-2 mg/kg q2-4h 6,90 Most species

1-2 mg/kg SC q4h 33 Guinea pigs, rats, mice

1-5 mg/kg SC

q4h 29,84,90

Gerbils, rats, mice, hamsters

Carprofen — Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory;

high end of dosage reflects total

daily dose; can be divided

2-5 mg/kg PO, SC,

IM, IV total daily

dose give q12-

24h 84

4 mg/kg SC q12-

24h 87

All species


5 mg/kg SC 29,33 Rats, mice, gerbils

5-10 mg/kg PO 67,114 Rats, mice, gerbils

5-15 mg/kg SC 100,101 Rats/PD

Celecoxib 10-20 mg/kg PO 86 Rats/PD

Clonidine 0.25-0.5 mg/kg PO 37 Mice

Codeine 40 mg/kg SC 80 Rats/PD

Diclofenac 2.1 mg/kg PO 33 Guinea pigs

8 mg/kg PO 33 Mice

10 mg/kg PO 33 Rats

677

Dipyrone — See metamizole

Duloxetine 10 mg/kg IP 55 Mice/PD

30 mg/kg PO q24h 55 Mice/PD

Fentanyl 0.025-0.6 mg/kg SC 37 Mice

0.16 mg/kg SC 80 Rats/PD

Flunixin meglumine — Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory; do

not use in dehydrated animals

2.5 mg/kg SC 87 Most species

2.5-5 mg/kg SC q12-

24h 33

Most species

Gabapentin 10-30 mg/kg PO 55 Mice/PD

30 mg/kg PO q8h 84 Rats

50 mg/kg PO q24h 84 Hamsters

Hydrocodone 10-40 mg/kg SC 80 Rats/PD

Hydromorphone 0.4 mg/kg SC<q2h 110 Rats/PD

2 mg/kg SC<q4h 70 Chinchillas/PD

Ibuprofen 10 mg/kg PO q4h 33 Guinea pigs

15 mg/kg PO 33 Rats

30 mg/kg IP 91 Rats/PD

30 mg/kg PO 33 Mice

40 mg/kg PO 43 Mice/PD study

Indomethacin 8 mg/kg PO 33 Guinea pigs

Ketoprofen

1-3 mg/kg SC, IM

q12-24h 84,90

Chinchillas, guinea pigs, prairie

dogs/in prairie dogs, doses of 3-

5 mg/kg have been used

5 mg/kg SC 33 Rats, mice

5-15 mg/kg SC 101 Rats/PD

Meloxicam

0.1-0.3 mg/kg PO,

SC q24h 33,87

≥0.5 mg/kg PO, SC

q24h 90

Guinea pigs

Chinchillas, guinea pigs, hamsters,

gerbils

1 mg/kg PO, SC 33,87 Rats

1-2 mg/kg PO q12-

24h 6,84

1-5 mg/kg PO, SC

q24h 90

Rats

Mice

678

5 mg/kg PO, SC 33 Mice

Meloxicam, sustained release

(Meloxicam SR, Zoopharm

Fort Collins, CO)

4 mg/kg SC q72h 16 Prairie dogs/PK

4 mg/kg SC q96h 107 Rats/PD

Meperidine

Metamizole

10-20 mg/kg SC, IM

q2-3h 33

20-50 mg/kg PO, SC

q6-12h 29,30

Guinea pigs, mice, rats

Most species

Methadone 0.5-3 mg/kg SC 26 Rats/PD

1-2 mg/kg SC, IM 6 Mice

1-4 mg/kg SC, IM 6 Rats

5-10 mg/kg IP 1 Rats/PD

Morphine 1-3 mg/kg SC 55 Mice/PD

2-5 mg/kg SC, IM

q4h 6,33,90

2.5 mg/kg SC q2-

4h 33,84

Most species, guinea pigs

Rats, mice, hamsters

Nalbuphine 1-2 mg/kg IM q3h 33 Guinea pigs, rats

2-4 mg/kg IM q4h 33 Mice

Oxycodone 10-40 mg/kg SC 80 Rats/PD

Oxymorphone

0.2-0.5 mg/kg SC, IM

q4h 33,87

Guinea pigs, rats, mice

Pentazocine 5-10 mg/kg SC q2-

4h 84

5-10 mg/kg SC q3-

4h 33

Gerbils, guinea pigs, hamsters,

mice, rats

Rats, mice

Pethidine

10-20 mg/kg SC, IM

q2-3h 33,84

Most species

Piroxicam 3.4-20 mg/kg PO 84 Mice

Tolfenamic acid 2 mg/kg SC q24h 84 Guinea pigs

4 mg/kg PO, SC

q24h for 3 doses

max 29,30

Most species

Tramadol — Oral route unlikely to be effective

5 mg/kg SC, IP 6,33 Rats/mice

10-20 mg/kg PO, SC

q8-12h 84

Rats

679

10-40 mg/kg SC

q12h 84

Mice

10-40 mg/kg SC 70 Chinchillas/PD; no analgesic

effects; side effects at >40 mg/kg;

single-dose study

Table 9-5

Cardiovascular Agents Used in Rodents.


Atenolol 0.2-2 mg/kg PO q24h 52 Most species/beta-blocker; hypertension

and tachyarrhythmias

2-10 mg/kg IV, IP q24h 84 Mice

Atropine 0.05-0.5 mg/kg SC, IM 2,52 All species/preanesthetic, cardiac problems

0.1-0.2 mg/kg SC IM 84 Guinea pigs, chinchillas

Up to 10 mg/kg IM, SC, IV

q20min 41,84

All species/organophosphate toxicity

Benazepril 0.05–0.1 mg/kg PO q24h 52,84 Most species/ACE inhibitor; heart failure,

hypertension, and chronic renal failure

0.125-0.25 mg/kg PO

q24h 29,30

Carvedilol 1-11 mg/kg PO q24h 84 Hamsters/beta-blocker

2-30 mg/kg PO q24h 84 Rats/beta-blocker

Digoxin 0.005-0.01 mg/kg PO q12-

24h 29-31

0.05-0.1 mg/kg PO q12-

24h 74,84

Most species

Hamsters/dilated cardiomyopathy

Diltiazem 0.5-1 mg/kg PO q12-24h 31,52 Most species/Ca channel blocker;

hypertension and hypertrophic

cardiomyopathy

Dopamine 0.08 mg/kg IV prn 64 Guinea pigs/hypotension, especially

anesthetic related

Enalapril 0.5-1 mg/kg PO q24h 30,31 ACE inhibitor; heart failure

Epinephrine

(adrenaline)

0.003-0.1 mg/kg IV prn 31 Guinea pigs/cardiac arrest

0.01 mg/kg IV 84 Most species


680

Etilefrine 0.5-1 mg/kg PO q6-8h 30 Sympathomimetic

Furosemide

Glyceryl

trinitrate

ointment

(2%)

1-4 mg/kg SC, IM q4-6h, or

5-10 mg/kg SC, IM

q12h 84


q12-24h 29,30

3 mm strip applied to inner

pinna q6-12h 52,84

Most species

Most species/congestive heart failure


Glycopyrrolate 0.01-0.02 mg/kg SC, IM, IV 84 Most species/anticholinergic agent used for

bradycardia; premedication

Imidapril

hydrochloride

0.125-0.25 mg/kg PO q24h 30 ACE inhibitor

Lidocaine

1-2 mg/kg IV, or 2-4 mg/kg

IT 52

Most species/arrhythmias

Metildigoxin 0.005-0.01 mg/kg PO q24h 30 Dilative cardiomyopathy, tachycardic

arrhythmia

Pimobendan 0.2-0.4 mg/kg PO q12h 74 Most species/inodilator for treating heart

failure

0.25 mg/kg PO q12h 29,30 Most species

Propentofyllin 10-25 mg/kg PO q12-24h 29,30 Ischemia; phosphodiesterase inhibitor

Taurine 100 mg/kg PO q12h×8 wk 52 Most species/cardiomyopathy

Verapamil 0.25-0.5 mg/kg SC q12h 84 Hamsters/calcium channel blocker

Table 9-6

Emergency Drugs Used in Rodents.


Atropine 0.05-0.1 mg/kg SC 29,30 All species/bradycardia; some rats

possess serum atropinase

0.1-0.2 mg/kg SC, IM 84 Chinchillas, guinea pigs

Up to 10 mg/kg IM, SC, IV

q20min 41,84

All species/organophosphate toxicity

Calcium

gluconate

100 mg/kg IM, IP once 31,74 Guinea pigs/dystocia; follow with 1 U

oxytocin (see Table 8.7)

100 mg/kg IM, IP once 84 Chinchillas/hypocalcemic tetany;

eclampsia

681

Charcoal

(activated)

0.5-5 g/kg PO prn 84 Acute poisoning with

organophosphates and other

pesticides

Dexamethasone — All species/antiinflammatory

0.5-2 mg/kg SC, IM, IV 90

0.6 mg/kg IM, IV 2,84 Guinea pigs/pregnancy toxemia

4-5 mg/kg SC, IM, IP, IV 74 Shock

Diazepam 0.5-5 mg/kg IM, IV, IP 84 All/treatment of seizures, sedation

Diphenhydramine — Antihistamine; anaphylaxis

1-2 mg/kg PO, SC q12h 90 All species

1-5 mg/kg SC prn 84,90 Guinea pigs

Dopamine 0.08 mg/kg IV 64 Guinea pigs/hypotension

Doxapram — Respiratory stimulant

2-5 mg/kg IV, IP, SC 31,84 Guinea pigs

5-10 mg/kg IV, IP 30,84 Most species

Ephedrine 1 mg/kg IV 84 Guinea pigs/antihistamine; stimulant

Epinephrine

(adrenalin)

0.003-0.1 mg/kg IV prn 31 Guinea pigs/cardiac arrest



Furosemide — Diuretic for edema, pulmonary

congestion, ascites

1-4 mg/kg SC, IM q4-6h, or 5-

10 mg/kg SC, IM q12h 84 Most species

1-5 mg/kg PO, SC, IM q12-

24h 29,30


Glycopyrrolate 0.01-0.02 mg/kg SC, IM, IV 84 Most species/anticholinergic agent used

for bradycardia; premedication

Hetastarch 1-10 mL/kg IV 84 Rats/hypotension, shock

3 mL/kg IV, IO 66 Shock; administer with hypertonic

saline (3 mL/kg) over 10 min

Lactated Ringer’s

solution

10-25 mL/kg IV, IO 96 Most species/give slowly over 5-10 min

(if unsuccessful, administer IP)

Mannitol 0.3 g/kg/h IV 30 Reduction of intracranial pressure, acute

glaucoma, oliguric renal failure

Prednisolone 10-20 mg/kg IV, IM, IP once 30 Most species/shock

Saline, hypertonic 3 mL/kg IV, IO slow over Shock; administer with hetastarch

682

(7.2%-7.5%) 10 min 66 (3 mL/kg) over 10 min

Table 9-7

Miscellaneous Agents Used in Rodents.


Acetylcysteine

3 mg/kg PO, SC

q12h 29,30

Mucolytic

2% solution Injectable form can be used for

nebulization over nebulization; dilute in 0.9% NaCl

30-60 min prn 84

Aglepristone

Aluminum hydroxide

10 mg/kg IM, SC on

days 1, 2, and 8 84

10 mg/kg SC q24h

for 2 doses 29

10-20 mg/kg SC

q12h for 2 doses,

repeat after 8

days 31

20-40 mg/animal PO

prn 84

Guinea pigs/progesterone antagonist for

treatment of pyometra/metritis,

pregnancy termination

Rats, hamsters, gerbils/pyometra

Hamsters/pyometra

Guinea pigs/hyperphosphatemia caused by

renal failure

Aminophylline 10 mg/kg PO q12-

24h 93

Rats

50 mg/kg PO, SC 84,90 Guinea pigs

Aminotriptyline

5-20 mg/kg PO

q24h 84

Rats/antidepressant; chronic antianxiety

treatment

Asparaginase (Lasparaginase)

400 IU/kg SC q7d 31 Guinea pigs/lymphoma

10,000 IU/m 2 SC, IM

q21d 84

Guinea pigs/lymphoma

Atropine

(1%)/phenylephrine

(10%)

Topical to eyes 41

All species/mydriasis for non-albino eyes

Barium sulfate

(1000 mg/mL)

5-10 mL/kg PO 29,30 Most species/contrast studies; might need to

be diluted with water (1:1)

Bromhexine 0.5 mg/kg PO q12-

24h 29,30

0.5-1 mg/kg PO q12-

24h 31

Bronchial secretolytic

Guinea pigs

683

Cabergoline 10-50 µg/kg PO q12-

24h 84

Rats/pituitary adenoma


12.5-15 µg/kg PO

q24h×4-6 days 29,30

Calcium EDTA 25-30 mg/kg SC q6-

12h, 5 days on, 5

day off cycle 84

Most species/pseudopregnancy

Lead or zinc intoxication; treat until blood

levels within normal range at end of off

period

30 mg/kg SC q12h 49,90 All species/lead chelation

Carbimazole

1-2 mg/kg PO

q24h 30,78

Guinea pigs/hyperthyroidism

Charcoal (activated) 1 g/kg PO 29 Most species/use only in cases of toxicity

(not with general diarrhea)

Chlorpheniramine

maleate

Cholestyramine

Cimetidine

0.6 mg/kg PO

q24h 2,84

1 g/animal mixed

with water PO

q24h 84

5-10 mg/kg PO, SC,

IM, IV q6-12h 84

Guinea pigs/antihistamine

Guinea pigs/gastrointestinal clostridial

overgrowth; decreases toxin absorption

All species/H 2 -blocker; gastric, duodenal

ulceration; esophagitis,

gastroesophageal reflux

Cisapride 0.1-0.5 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 31

0.1-1 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 84

All species/may enhance gastrointestinal

motility; not commercially available in

the United States; must be compounded


Clomipramine

16-32 mg/kg PO

q12h 84

Rats

Cyclophosphamide 300 mg/kg IP q24h 64 Guinea pigs/antineoplastic

300 mg/m 2 IP q24h 84

Cyclosporine 10 mg/kg PO q24h 84 Rats

Cyproheptadine 0.5 mg/kg PO q12h 84 Guinea pigs, chinchillas/appetite

stimulation

Deslorelin acetate

4.7 mg

implant/animal

SC 62,105

Guinea pigs/suppression of estrus; ovarian

cysts (not effective against serous cysts)

4.7 mg

Rats/anti-gonadal effects, for at least 12

implant/animal mo 5,19

SC 5,19,40,109

684

Dexamethasone — Antiinflammatory

0.5-2 mg/kg PO, SC, All species

then decreasing

dose q12h×3-

14 days 41

0.6 mg/kg IV, IM, SC

q24h 84

Guinea pigs/pregnancy toxemia

Diazoxide 25 mg/kg PO q12h 47 Guinea pigs/insulinoma

Diphenhydramine — Antihistamine; anaphylaxis

1-2 mg/kg PO, SC

q12h 90

Chinchillas, hamsters, mice, rats

1-5 mg/kg SC prn 84 Guinea pigs

Diphenylhydantoin 25-50 mg/kg q12h 52 Most species/seizures

Dorzolamide 1 drop of 1%

solution q12h 84

Rats/glaucoma

Ephedrine

Famotidine

Fluoxetine

Furosemide

GnRH (e.g.,

gonadorelin)

1 mg/kg PO, IV

prn 64,84

0.4-0.5 mg/kg PO,

SC, q24h 84

1-1.5 mg/kg PO

q24h 84

5-10 mg/kg PO

q24h 52

1-4 mg/kg SC, IM

q4-6h, or 5-

10 mg/kg SC, IM

q12h 84

1-5 mg/kg PO, SC,

IM q12-24h 29,30

20 µg/animal IM

once 39

25 µg/animal q14d×2

treatments 75

Guinea pigs/antihistamine; anaphylaxis


Rats

Most species/for behavioral problems (i.e.,

fur chewing)

Most species


Guinea pigs/follicular ovarian cysts, shortacting

formulations

Guinea pigs/follicular ovarian cysts

Heparin 5 mg/kg IV prn 64 Guinea pigs/disseminated intravascular

coagulation

Human chorionic

gonadotropin (hCG)

100 U/kg SC q10-

14d×3 injections 30 Guinea pigs/follicular ovarian cysts

100 U/kg SC q7d for

3 injections 84 Guinea pigs/follicular ovarian cysts

685

Insulin 1 U/kg SC q12h 84 Chinchillas

1-3 U/kg q12-24h

SC 30

1-2 U/animal SC

q12h 84

1-3 U/animal SC

q12h 84

Guinea pigs, chinchillas, degus/starting

dose is 1 U/kg 30

Guinea pigs

Rats

2 U/animal SC 84 Hamsters, gerbils

Iodine, I-131

(radioactive)

1 mCi/animal SC

once 78


Kaolin pectin 0.2 mL PO q6-8h 2 Guinea pigs/antidiarrheal

1-2 mL/kg PO q2-

6h 84

Lactulose 0.5 mL/kg PO q12h 84 Most species/constipation, hepatic disorders

2 mL/kg PO prn 29,30 Most species/constipation

Leuprolide acetate depot

(Lupron Depot, TAP

Pharmaceuticals)

0.2-0.3 mg/kg IM

q28d 92

Guinea pigs/follicular ovarian cysts

Levetiracetam 20 mg/kg PO q8h 84 Prairie dogs/seizures

Levothyroxine 5 µg/kg PO q12h 84 Most species/hypothyroidism

10-20 µg/kg PO

q24h 30

Guinea pigs/hypothyroidism

Loperamide 0.1 mg/kg PO q8h 41,84 All species/diarrhea; limit use to avoid

gastrointestinal stasis

Magnesium hydroxide 4 mg/kg PO 52 prn Prevention of calcium oxalate uroliths

Methimazole

Metoclopramide

Metyrapone

0.5-2 mg/kg PO

q24h 78

1-3 mg/kg PO q8-

24h 63

0.2-1 mg/kg PO, SC,

IM q12h 90

0.5-1 mg/kg PO, SC

q6-12h 84

1-5 mg/kg q8-12h

SC, PO 29,30

8 mg/animal PO

q24h×4 wk 31,52



Most species

Guinea pigs/antiemetic and upper

gastrointestinal prokinetic

Hamsters/hyperadrenocorticism

686


marianum)

4-15 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 52

Most species/hepatic disorders

Mitotane

Oxytocin

5 mg/animal PO

q24h×4 wk 52

0.2-3 U/kg SC, IM,

IV 84

Hamsters/hyperadrenocorticism

All species/delayed parturition if

unobstructed

1 U/kg SC, IM 29,30 All species

1-2 U/animal IM 2 Guinea pigs/uterine contraction; milk

letdown

6.25 U/kg SC 2 Mice/milk letdown

Pentosan polysulphate

Phenobarbital

Phenoxybenzamine

Potassium citrate

Prednisolone

Prednisone

Pseudoephedrine

3 mg/kg SC q5-7d

for 4 doses 84

5-20 mg/kg PO, IV,

IP 90

5-25 mg/kg IV, IP

q12-24h 84

0.25 mg/kg PO

q12h 69

10-30 mg/kg PO

q12h 90

1-2 mg/kg PO, SC

q12-24h 30,31

0.5-2.2 mg/kg PO,

SC, IM 90

1.2 mg/animal PO

q12h 98

Guinea pigs/osteoarthritis, idiopathic

cystitis

Guinea pigs/antiseizure medication;

sedative

Guinea pigs, gerbils/seizures

Guinea pigs/urolithiasis

Guinea pigs

Guinea pigs

All species

Chinchillas/nasal and sinus decongestant

Ranitidine 5 mg/kg PO q12h 84 Guinea pigs, chinchillas

S-Adenosylmethionine

(SAMe)

20-100 mg/kg PO

q24h 84

Most species

Sildenafil citrate 5 mg/kg PO q24h 61 Rats

Silymarin

50-200 mg/kg/day

PO 17

Rats

Sucralfate 25-50 mg/kg PO q6-

8h 84

25-100 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 90


duodenal ulcers


duodenal ulcers

Terbutaline

5 mg/kg every PO

q12h 84,95

Most species

687

Theophylline 2-3 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 29,30

4-10 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 31

10-20 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 84

Most species

Guinea pigs

Rats, prairie dogs

Thiamazol 102 mg/kg PO q24h 30 Most species/hyperthyroidism

Thiamine 1 mg/kg feed 52 Most species/thiamine deficiency

Thyroid stimulating

hormone (TSH);

human recombinant

100 µg/animal IM 77 Guinea pigs/thyroid function testing

Toremifene 12 mg/kg PO q24h 52 Rats/pituitary hyperplasia/adenoma

Trilostane 2-4 mg/kg PO q24h 84 Hyperadrenocorticism

Vitamin A 50-500 U/kg IM 84 Guinea pigs, hamsters

2000 U/animal 52 Chinchillas/hypovitaminosis A

Vitamin B complex

(small animal)

Vitamin C (ascorbic

acid)

Vitamin D

2 µg vitamin A

palmitate/g feed 84

10 mg β-carotene/kg

of feed 84

0.02-0.2 mL/kg SC,

IM 84

10-30 mg/kg PO, SC,

IM 84

50-100 mg/kg SC,

PO 31

100-200 mg/kg PO

q24h 84

0.2-0.4 mg/mL

drinking water 84

200-400 U/kg SC,

IM 74

Hamsters

Guinea pigs

All species/B 1 (100 mg/mL), B 2 (2 mg/mL),

B 12 (0.1 mg/mL)

Guinea pigs/maintenance

Guinea pigs/treatment of deficiency

Guinea pigs/hypovitaminosis C

Guinea pigs/prevents deficiency; change

daily

All species

Vitamin E 50 mg/kg PO q24h 31 Guinea pigs

Vitamin K 1 1-5 mg/kg SC q12-

24h 29,30

1-10 mg/kg IM

q24h×4-6 days 41

Most species

All species/warfarin poisoning; menadiols

not used in acute cases

688

Table 9-8

Common and Scientific Names of Pet Rodents. 31

Common

Name

Other Common Names

Scientific Name

Chinchilla Long-tailed chinchilla Chinchilla lanigera

Chipmunk Siberian chipmunk; Korean chipmunk Eutamias sibericus

Degu Common degu Octodon degus

Gerbil Mongolian gerbil; Mongolian jird, clawed jird Meriones

unguiculatus

Guinea pig Cavy, cuy Cavia porcellus

Hamster,

Chinese

Hamster,

dwarf

Hamster,

golden

Striped hamster

Russian dwarf hamster, Siberian dwarf hamster,

Djungarian hamster

Campbell dwarf hamster

Roborowski dwarf hamster

Syrian hamster

Cricetulus griseus

Phodopus

sungorus

Phodopus

campbelli

Phodopus

roborovskii

Mesocricetus

auratus

Mouse Common mouse Mus musculus

Prairie dog Black-tailed prairie dog Cynomys

ludovicianus

Rat Brown rat, Norway rat Rattus norvegicus

Table 9-9

Hematologic and Serum Biochemical Values of Rodents. 74

Measurement Mouse Rat Gerbil Hamster Guinea

Pig

Chinchilla Prairie

Dog

PCV (%) 35-40 35-45 35-45 45-50 35-45 27-54 36-54

RBC (10 6 /µL) 7-11 7-10 7-8 7-8 4-7 5.6-8.4 5.9-9.4

Hgb (g/dL) 10-20 12-18 14-16 16.6-

18.6

11-17 11.8-14.6 12.7-19.6

WBC (10 3 /µL) 4-12 5-23 7.5- 7-10 7-14 5.4-15.6 1.9-10.1

689

10.9

Neutrophils (%) 5-40 10-50 22 18-40 20-60 39-54 43-87

Lymphocytes (%) 30-90 50-70 75 56-80 30-80 45-60 8-54

Monocytes (%) 0-10 0-10 0-4 2 2-20 0-5 0-12

Eosinophils (%) 0-5 0-5 0-3 0-1 0-5 0-5 0-10

Basophils (%) 0-1 0-1 0-1 0-1 0-1 0-1 0-2

ALT (U/L) 26-77 20-92 — 22-128 10-25 10-35 26-91

ALP (U/L) 45-222 16-96 — 99-186 — 6-72 25-64

AST (U/L) 54-269 — — 28-122 — 96 16-53

Bilirubin, total

(mg/dL)

0.1-0.9 0.2-0.6 0.2-0.6 0.1-0.9 0.3-0.9 0.6-1.3 0.1-0.3

BUN (mg/dL) 17-28 15-21 17-27 12-26 9-32 17-45 21-44

Calcium (mg/dL) 3.2-8 5.3-13 3.7-6.2 5.3-12 7.8-10.5 5.6-12.1 8.3-10.8

Chloride (mEq/L) 82-114 — — — 98-115 108-129 —

Cholesterol (mg/dL) 26-82 40-130 90-150 55-181 20-43 50-302 —

Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.3-1 0.2-0.8 0.6-1.4 0.4-1 0.6-2.2 0.4-1.3 0.8-2.3

Glucose (mg/dL) 62-175 50-135 50-135 37-198 60-125 109-193 120-209

Phosphorus

(mg/dL)

6-10.4 5.8-8.2 3.7-7 3-9.9 5.3 4-8 3.6-10

Potassium (mEq/L) 5.1-

10.4

5.9 3.3-6.3 3.9-5.5 6.8-8.9 3.3-5.7 4-5.7

Protein, total (g/dL) 3.5-7.2 5.6-7.6 4.3-

12.5

5.2-7 4.6-6.2 3.8-5.6 5.8-8.1

Albumin (g/dL) 2.5-4.8 3.8-4.8 1.8-5.5 3.5-4.9 2.1-3.9 2.3-4.1 2.4-3.9

Globulin (g/dL) 0.6 1.8-3 1.2-6 2.7-4.2 1.7-2.6 0.9-2.2 3.4-4.2

Sodium (mEq/L) 112-193 135-155 141-172 128-144 146-152 142-166 144-175

Triglycerides

(mg/dL)

— 26-145 — 72-227 0-145 — —

690

Table 9-10

Biologic and Physiologic Data of Rodents. 30,31,74

Species

Life

Span

Avg wt (g)

(male/female)

Temperature

°C (°F)

Heart Rate

(beats/min)

Respiratory

(breaths/min)

Chinchilla 10-20 450-600/550-800 34.9-37.9

(94.8-100.2)

Degu 5-7 170-350 37-39 (98.6-

102.2)

Gerbil 3-4 65-130/70-100 37-39 (98.6-

102.2)

200-240 40-80

240-390 80-150

260-450 70-130

Guinea pig 4-6 900-1500/700-

1000

37.5-39.5

(99.5-103.1)

230-380 40-120

Hamster,

Chinese

1.5-3 30-45/30-45 — — —

Hamster, golden 2-3 80-150/90-160 37-39 (98.6-

102.2)

250-500 50-135

Hamster,

Russian

dwarf and

Campbell

Hamster,

Roborowski

dwarf

2-3 19-45/19-36 37-39 (98.6-

102.2)

1.5-2 20-28/18-23 37-39 (98.6-

102.2)

200-560 90-120

200-560 90-120

Mouse 1.5-3 20-40/18-35 36-38 (96.8-

100.4)

300-800 70-220

Prairie dog 8-10 1000-2200/500-

1500

35.4-39.1

(95.7-102.3)

150-320 30-60

Rat 1.5-3 350-500/250-350 37.5-39.5

(98.6-103.1)

250-450 70-120

691

Table 9-11

Blood Volumes of Rodents with Safe-Bleeding Volume Recommendations. 92

Species

Blood Volume (Average) Safe Venipuncture Volume

Gerbil 67 mL/kg 0.3 mL/animal

Guinea pig 75 mL/kg 7.7 mL/kg

Hamster 78 mL/kg 5.5 mL/kg

Mouse 79 mL/kg 7.7 mL/kg

Rat 64 mL/kg 5.5 mL/kg

Table 9-12

Urinalysis Reference Values of Rodents. a,23,28,29,32,52,74

Measurement Chinchilla Gerbil Guinea Pig Hamster Mouse Prairie Dog

Specific

gravity

1.014->1.060 1.006-

1.080

1.005-1.050 1.014-

1.060

1.034-

1.058

1.005-1.059

pH ≥8.5 6.2-8.2 8.4±0.3 6.9-9 7.3-8.5 8-8.5

Protein b

(mg/dL)

Present b

(6–87)

Present b Present b Present b Present b Present b (6-

124)

Crystals

Common,

amorphous

crystals

predominant

Amorphous

crystals

predominant

Rare,

amorphous

Parasites — — Cysts of

Klossiella

cobaye might

be seen

— — —

a

Values should be considered as guides; values are likely to vary between groups of animals according

to such variables as strain, age, sex, fasting, and methodology.

b

Proteinuria is a normal feature in most rodent species, and dip stick protein levels do not correlate with

actual urinary protein levels in most species, in particular in the presence of alkaline urine.

692

Table 9-13

Reproductive Data for Rodents. 13,31,41,74

Estrus

Age

Separate

Species

Cycle

Length

(days)

Gestation

(days)

Litter

Size

Birth

Weight

(g)

Eyes

Open

(days)

Weaning

Age

(days)

Breeding

Life

Chinchilla 30-50 105-115 1-4 30-50 birth 36-48 — —

Degu 18-21 87-93 1-10 10-20 2-3 35-42 — —

Gerbil 4-6 24-26 1-12 2.5-3.5 16-20 21-28 15-20

months

No (mate

Guinea

pig

15-19 59-72 2-5 60-100 birth 21-28 3-4 years No

Hamster 4-5 15-22 4-12 2 14-16 20-28 11-18

months

Mouse 4-5 19-21 10-12 0.5-1.5 10-14 21-28 12-18

months

Yes

No

Prairie

dog

14-21 33-38 1-10 15 14 37-51 — —

Rat 4-5 19-23 6-12 5-6 12-17 17-21 14 months No

693

Table 9-14

Determining the Sex of Mature Rodents. 74

Male

• Anogenital distance is longer in

the male

• Manipulate prepuce to protrude

penis

• Palpate for testicles either in a

scrotal sac (if present) or

subcutaneous in inguinal region

• Males have only two external

openings in the inguinal area:

○ Anus

○ Urethral orifice at tip of penis

• In very fat males, there may be a

depression between the penis and

anus; this depression can be

obliterated by manipulating the

skin in that area

Female

• Anogenital distance is shorter in the female

• Look for three external openings in the

inguinal area:

○ Anus (most caudal opening)

○ Vaginal orifice (middle opening)—look

carefully

○ Urethral orifice at tip of urethral papilla

(most cranial opening)

• The urethral papilla is located outside the

vagina (unlike most other mammals)

• In very fat females or young females, the

vaginal orifice may be either hidden by folds of

skin (the former) or sealed (latter); gentle

manipulation of the skin in this area will

divulge the orifice

Table 9-15

Nutritional Data for Rodents. 31,74

Consumption (per 100 g

BW/day)

Nutritional Recommendations

Species Food (g) Water (mL)

Minimum Fiber

(%)

Carbo-hydrates

(%)

Fat

(%)

Protein

(%)

Chinchilla 3-6 — 16-18 — 2-4 14-16

Gerbil 5-8 4-7 — — 2-4 16-22

Guinea

pig

6 10 16-18 16 — 18-30

Hamster 8-12 8-10 — 8 3-5 15-25

Mouse 12-18 15 — 45-55 5-25 16-20

Prairie

dog

2.3-4.1 — — — — —

Rat 5-6 ≥10-12 — — 5-25 12-27

694

Table 9-16

Zoonotic Diseases in Rodents. 74

Species

Chinchilla

Potential Zoonotic Disease

Giardia duodenalis; Listeria monocytogenes

Lymphocytic choriomeningitis (LCM); rare

Dermatophytes (Trichophyton mentagrophytes, Microsporum canis, M. gypseum)

Gerbil

Salmonellosis; rare

Hymenolepis nana; rare

Guinea

pig

Allergies (cutaneous and respiratory) to dander and urinary proteins

Bordetella, salmonellosis, Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, Streptococcus; rare

Dermatophyte (Trichophyton mentagrophytes)

Sarcoptic mites (Trixacarus caviae, Sarcoptes scabei)

Hamster

Salmonellosis, Acinetobacter


Dermatophytes (Trichophyton mentagrophytes, Microsporum spp.)

Hymenolepis nana

Mouse


Salmonellosis; rare


Prairie

dog

Clostridium piliforme, Pasteurella multocida, salmonellosis, Yersinia pseudotuberculosis,

Y. pestis, Y. enterocolitica

Hantavirus (wild-caught), rabies virus (wild-caught)

Dermatophytes (Trichophyton mentagrophytes, Microsporum gypseum)

Various ectoparasites (mites, fleas, lice)

Rat


Leptospirosis, salmonellosis, cestodiasis, streptococcal infection

Seoul virus (hantavirus; hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome), sylvatic

plague (vector: rat fleas), St. Louis encephalitis (vector: Liponyssus sylviarum),

rat bite fever (Streptobacillus moniliformis)

Table 9-17

Disease Testing in Rodents. 21 695

Laboratory

Animal Health Diagnostic Center

College of Veterinary Medicine

Cornell University, 240 Farrier Rd,

Ithaca,

NY 14853, USA

607-253-3900

www.diagcenter.vet.cornell.edu

Email: diagcenter@cornell.edu

Avian Biotech International

1336 Timberlane Road Tallahassee,

FL 32312, USA

800-514-9672

Email: contact@avianbiotech.com

www.avianbiotech.com

Avian Biotech International UK

PO Box 107 Truro Cornwall, TR1

2YR, England

011-44-1872-262737

Email: contact@avianbiotech.co.uk

www.avianbiotech.co.uk

BioReliance Ltd.

Todd Campus Glasgow, G20 0XA,

Scotland 44 (0)141 946 9999

Charles River Laboratories

International, Inc.

251 Ballardvale Street Wilmington,

MA 01887, USA

877-274-8371 (US and Canada)

800 3195 3430 (International)

www.criver.com/productsservices/basic-research/healthmonitoring-diagnostic-services

IDEXX BioResearch

4011 Discovery Drive Columbia,

MO 65201, USA

573-499-5700

800-669-0825

www.idexxbioresearch.com.animalhealth-monitoring

Laboratory Animal Diagnostic Services

(LADS)

BioReliance Corporation

14920 Broschart Road Rockville, MD

Test

Serum neutralization and direct fluorescence for

canine distemper virus, Giardia and

Cryptosporidium antigen ELISA, fungal serology

PCR for Mycobacterium, Candida, Cryptosporidium,

Giardia, Salmonella

PCR for Mycobacterium, Candida, Cryptosporidium,

Giardia, Salmonella

Rodent and rabbit serology, rodent PCR

Serology and PCR for rodents

PCR testing for rodents and serology for rodents

and rabbits

Rodent and rabbit serology, rodent PCR

696

20850, USA

301-738-1000

800-533-5372

Taconic Anmed

One Hudson City Centre, Hudson,

NY 12534, USA

888-822-6642

www.taconic.com

Email: custserv@taconic.com

European Customer Services Email:

TaconicEurope@taconic.com

University of Georgia

110 Riverbend Rd, Riverbend

North Athens, GA 30602, USA

706-542-5812

www.vet.uga.edu/IDL/

University of Miami–Comparative

Pathology

1120 NW 14th Street CRB Building

Miami,

FL 33136, USA

800-596-7390

www.cpl.med.miami.edu

Email: compathlab@med.miami.edu

Zoologix Inc

9811 Owensmouth Avenue, Suite 4

Chatsworth, CA 91311, USA

818-717-8880

www.zoologix.com

Email: info@zoologix.com

Serology for rodents and rabbits

PCR for Salmonella and Pasteurella, serology for

Pasteurella, Aleutian disease virus ELISA

Serology for rodents, Giardia and Cryptosporidium

antigen ELISA

Extensive list of avian, primate, wildlife, and

rodent PCR tests

697

Table 9-18

Endocrine Values in Rodents. 36,52

Test

Guinea Pig

Syrian

Hamster

Mouse

Rat

Free plasma cortisol

(µg/dL)

Salivary cortisol a

(ng/mL)

0.6-5.8 0.5-1 — —

Baseline: 6.6±3.4 — — —

Post-ACTH stim:

157±53

— — —

Total serum T 4 (µg/dL) 2.26-5.82 36 3.6 3.08-4.74 3.4-6.22

Free T 4 (ng/dL) 1.26-2.03 — — 1.17-2.8

Total T 3 (ng/dL) 39-44 45.45 84.42-

110.39

—

Free T 3 (ng/dL) 0.221-0.26 — 52-77.9 110-1038

(pg/dL)

a

For ACTH stimulation test, inject 20 U ACTH IM; repeat sample 4 hr postinjection.

698

Table 9-19

Echocardiographic Measurements in Rodents. 18,45,68,74,116

Parameters

Chinchilla Guinea

Pig a Hamster a Mouse a Rat a

Left ventricular internal diameter in

diastole (mm)

Left ventricular internal diameter in

systole (mm)

Thickness of left ventricular free wall

in diastole (mm)

Thickness of left ventricular free wall

in systole (mm)

Thickness of interventricular septum

in diastole (mm)

Thickness of interventricular septum

in systole (mm)

4.3-7.5 6.49-7.21 3.7-4.5 3.48-

3.66

1.8-4.0 4.18-4.52 1.9-2.7 2.26-

2.42

1.8-3.1 1.44-2.06 0.9-1.1 0.41-

0.43

— 1.91-2.61 — 0.86-

0.92

1.6-2.5 1.88-2.68 0.9-1.1 0.42-

0.44

— 2.22-3.38 — 0.89-

0.93

5.93-

6.43

4.08-

4.42

1.12-1.7

2.02-2.7

1.06-

1.36

1.4-1.9

Left atrial diameter (mm) 4.3-5.9 4.61-5.29 — — —

Aortic diameter (mm) 3.6-4.9 4.4-4.9 — — —

a

Measurements obtained in anesthetized animals.

Table 9-20

Electrocardiographic Measurements in Rodents. 45,112

Parameters

Guinea Pig Prairie Dog, Black-Tailed

P-wave duration (sec) 0.015-0.035 0.02-0.03

P-wave amplitude (mV) 0.01 0.01-0.06

PR interval (sec) 0.048-0.06 0.04-0.06

QRS duration (sec) 0.008-0.046 0.02

QRS wave amplitude (mV) 1.1-1.9 0.1-1.15

QT interval (sec) 0.106-0.144 0.1-0.14

T-wave amplitude (mV) 0.062

Mean electrical axis (degrees) 120 to 180 −15 to +120

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707

C H A P T E R 1 0

Rabbits

Peter Fisher; Jennifer Graham

Table 10-1

Antimicrobial Agents Used in Rabbits. a


708

Amikacin

5-10 mg/kg SC, IM, IV

divided q8-24h 41

Azithromycin

Cefazolin


q24h 112

1.25 g/20 g

methylmethacrylate 41

4-5 mg/kg IM

q48h×7 days 19

15-30 mg/kg PO

q24h×15 days 41

2 g/20 g


Increased efficacy and decreased toxicity

when given once daily; for IV use,

dilute in 4 mL/kg saline and give over

20 min

Place in bone after surgical debridement of

jaw abscess

Effective against syphilis

PD; pulmonary infections


jaw abscess

Cefotaxime 50 mg/kg IM q8h 41 Pneumococcal endocarditis

Ceftazidime 50 mg/kg IM, IV q3h 1 PK

100 mg/kg IM q12h 41

Ceftiofur

2 g/20 g



jaw abscess

Ceftriaxone

40 mg/kg IM q12h×2- Effective against syphilis, pneumococcal

3 days 41 endocarditis

71 mg/kg IV q24h 28 Pneumococcal pneumonia

Cephalexin — Oral cephalosporins are not

recommended 41

15 mg/kg SC q12h 41 Parenteral form not available in the United

States; not generally recommended

Cephalothin

12.5 mg/kg IM

q6h×6 days 41

2 g/20 g


Cephalosporins are generally not

recommended; 112 not available in the

United States


jaw abscess

Chloramphenicol — The use of chloramphenicol in foodproducing

animals is prohibited in the

United States

25 mg/kg PO q8-12h 41


q8-24h 41,112

55 mg/kg PO q12h×4

wk 41

Effective against syphilis

709

Chlortetracycline 50 mg/kg PO q24h 41

Ciprofloxacin b — May cause arthropathies in young

animals 126

5-20 mg/kg PO q12h 41 Suspension in water is stable for 14 days

1 drop topical q8-12h 53 Nasal pasteurellosis; maintains therapeutic

levels in tear film for at least 6hr after

application (tears drain into nasal

sinus)

Difloxacin b (Dicural,

Fort Dodge)

5 mg/kg IM, IV q24h 3 PK; dose appropriate for E. coli infections

Doxycycline 2.5 mg/kg PO q12h 20

4 mg/kg PO q24h 41

Enrofloxacin b — May cause arthropathies in young dogs,

but similar effects using standard

dosages in rabbits have not been

reported; SC and IM injections may

cause muscle necrosis or sterile

abscesses; dilute before giving

parenterally 41

5 mg/kg IM, IV q12-

24h 36

Angora rabbits/PK

5 mg/kg PO, SC, IM, IV PK; 15,16 clinical trial for pasteurellosis, × 14

q12h 15,16,41 days 41

5-20 mg/kg PO, IM

q12h×14-30 days 41

Pasteurellosis

200 mg/L drinking

water×14 days 41

Florfenicol — In the United States, use of related drug

chloramphenicol is prohibited in foodproducing

animals

25 mg/kg IM, IV q6h 74 PK

30 mg/kg PO, IV q8h 2 PK

Furazolidone

5 mg/kg PO

q24h×14 days 41

5.5 g/L drinking water 41

50 mg/kg feed 41

The FDA has prohibited extra-label use in

food animals

Gentamicin — Seldom indicated; use with caution

4 mg/kg SC, IM q24h 41

710


q8-24h 41

1 g/20 g


Decreased toxicity when given once daily;

for IV use, dilute in 4 mL/kg saline and

give over 20 min


jaw abscess

Marbofloxacin b — Lowest MIC of nine antibiotics tested

against bacteria responsible for upper

respiratory infections 120

2 mg/kg SC, IM, IV

q24h 4,92 PK; study during Pasteurella infection 4

5 mg/kg PO

q24h×10 days 22

PK

Metronidazole 5 mg/kg IV q12h 112 Administer slowly


5 days 112

40 mg/kg PO

q24h×3 days 41

Minocycline 6 mg/kg IV q8h 100 PK

Moxifloxacin b

5 mg/kg PO, IM

q24h×10 days 39

40 mg/kg IV q12h×2

doses, then q24h 104

PK; susceptible infections (some bacteria

may require higher doses)

Bacterial meningitis

Netilmicin

(Netromycin,

Schering)

Ofloxacinb (Ocuflox,

Allergan)

Orbifloxacin b


q24h 41

For IV use, dilute and give over 20 min

7 mg/kg IV q12h 122 PK; induced renal tubular necrosis in 50%

of animals

20 mg/kg SC q8h 91 Urogenital, skin, respiratory infections


21 days 138 PK

Oxytetracycline 15 mg/kg IM q8h 94 PK; anorexia and diarrhea at 30 mg/kg IM

q8h; tissue irritation can occur

25 mg/kg SC q24h 41

50 mg/kg PO q12h 41

1 mg/mL drinking

water 41

Penicillin G — Do not give any form of penicillin orally to

rabbits

Benzathine form 42,000-60,000 U/kg IM Benzathine penicillin achieves lower serum

711

q48h 41

levels than other forms and is effective

against only highly susceptible

organisms

42,000-84,000 U/kg SC

q7d×3 wk 41

Procaine form

40,000 U/kg IM q24h×5-

7 days 41 Rabbit syphilis

42,000-84,000 U/kg SC,

IM q24h 41

60,000 U/kg IM q8h 139 PK

Benzylpenicillin 60,000 U/kg IM q12h 64 PK

Rifampin

(R)/azithromycin

(A)

(R) 40 mg/kg PO q12h+

(A) 50 mg/kg PO

q24h 41

Staphylococcus osteomyelitis

Rifampin

(R)/clarithromycin

(C)

(R) 40 mg/kg+(C)

80 mg/kg PO q12h 41 Staphylococcus osteomyelitis

Silver sulfadiazine

cream (Silvadene,

Marion)

Spectinomycin

Topical q24h 41

1 g/L drinking

water×7 days 112

Does not cause diarrhea if ingested

May cause diarrhea in weanling rabbits

Sulfadimethoxine 10-15 mg/kg PO q12h 112

Sulfamethazine

1 mg/mL drinking

water 41

5-10 g/kg feed 41

Sulfaquinoxaline

1 mg/mL drinking

water 41

0.6 g/kg feed 41

Tetracycline 50-100 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 112

Tilmicosin (Micotil,

Elanco)


water 41

12.5 mg/kg PO

q24h×7 days 48

Therapeutic levels not achieved even at

800-1600 mg/L; 108 250 mg/L not effective

in clinical trial for pasteurellosis 41

PK

25 mg/kg SC once 41 Pasteurellosis; use cautiously: at least one

rabbit death and several human deaths

have been reported; 20 has been

associated with anemia and leukopenia

712

Tobramycin

1 g/20 g


10% in calcium sulfate

pellets 99


jaw abscess

Biodegradable implants for treatment of

osteomyelitis

Trimethoprim/sulfa 15 mg/kg PO q12h 41

30 mg/kg PO, SC, IM

q12h 41,112

May cause tissue necrosis when given

SC 112

15-30 mg/kg PO q12-

24h 112

30-48 mg/kg SC

q12h 112

Tylosin

10 mg/kg PO, SC, IM

q12-24h 112

Vancomycin 50 mg/kg IV q8h 100 PD

10 mg vancomycin and

50 mg DL-lactide-coglycolide

copolymer 41

Osteomyelitis; effective locally for 56 days

a

There is a potential for antibiotic-induced enterotoxemia following administration of some antimicrobial

agents (see Table 10.15). Appetite and fecal character must be monitored closely during and following

therapy.

b

The use of fluoroquinolones in food-producing animals is strictly prohibited in the United States. Do not

use these drugs in rabbits that may be consumed by humans.

Table 10-2

Antifungal Agents Used in Rabbits. a


Albaconazole 5 mg/kg PO q24h 98 Cryptococcal meningitis

50 mg/kg PO

q24h 18

Disseminated Scedosporium prolificans

Amphotericin B — Severe fungal infections; use in

combination with fluconazole; 41

potentially nephrotoxic and

hepatotoxic

Desoxycholate form

1 mg/kg IV

q24h 41,112,121

Liposomal form 5 mg/kg IV q24h 110 Invasive aspergillosis

Clotrimazole (Lotrimin,

Bayer)

Topical 41

Localized dermatophytosis

713

Fluconazole 5 mg/kg PO q24h 98 Cryptococcal meningitis

25-43 mg/kg IV

(slow) q12h 87,112

Systemic fungal disease

38 mg/kg PO q12h 8 Aspergillus keratitis

80 mg/kg PO

q24h×21 days 41

Coccidioidal meningitis; controlled but

did not cure

Griseofulvin

12.5-25 mg/kg PO Advanced cases of dermatophytosis;

q12-24h×30- decrease dose by 50% if using ultramicrosize

form (Gris-PEG, Allergan

45 days 41 Herbert), which has better

absorption

Itraconazole

Ketoconazole

Lime sulfur (2%-3%)

Micafungin

15-25 mg/kg PO

q24h, or divided

q12h×30 days 58

5-10 mg/kg PO

q24h×30 days 38,58

20-40 mg/kg PO

q24h 41

40 mg/kg PO

q24h 107

10-40 mg/kg PO

q24h×14 days 38,41

Topical q5-7d×4

wk 41

Topical 1:32

dilution with

water 2×/wk 58

0.25-2 mg/kg IV

q24h 110

At high doses may cause bone marrow

suppression and panleukopenia

Dermatophytosis

Aspergillus pneumonia

Invasive aspergillosis

Dermatophytosis

Dermatophytosis; use with caution

Systemic candidiasis

Miconazole (Conofite,

Merck)

Topical q24h×14-

28 days 41 Localized dermatophytosis

Miconazole/chlorhexidine

shampoo

Nystatin

Bathe once daily 65

20 mg/kg PO

q12h×10 days 41

Dermatophytosis

Cyniclomyces guttulatus yeast overgrowth

Posaconazole 6 mg/kg PO q24h 109 Aspergillus pneumonia

20 mg/kg PO

q24h 41

Aspergillus pneumonia

Terbinafine — Best used as part of combination

714

therapy; little activity when used as

a single agent 41,73

10 mg/kg PO

q24h 58

100 mg/kg PO

q12h×21 days 41

Dermatophytosis

Less effective than fluconazole for

coccidioidal meningitis

100 mg/kg PO q12-

24h 41

100 mg/kg PO q24h

in combination

with

amphotericin B

0.4 mg/kg IV

q24h 73

Invasive aspergillosis

Voriconazole — The short terminal elimination half-life

of less than 1 hr in the rabbit

indicates that the efficacy of

voriconazole is less than optimal in

this species; 117 however, voriconazole

is effective as a topical antifungal

ophthalmic preparation in the rabbit

(see Table 10.6)

a

Antifungal protocols using amphotericin B administered intravenously or itraconazole, fluconazole, or

ketoconazole administered orally alone or in combination for deep mycotic infections have been based

on those used successfully in the dog and may be adequate treatment options in the rabbit; however,

this hypothesis requires confirmation and validation. 14 Certain antifungal protocols have not caused death

in rabbit models, even when given for extended periods. 18,41,107,109,110,121

Table 10-3

Antiparasitic Agents Used in Rabbits.


Albendazole

7.5-20 mg/kg PO Potential treatment for

q24h 41 ×3-

encephalitozoonosis; use

14 days 41,112 cautiously, deaths have been

reported 52

Amprolium (9.6%)

0.5 mL/pint drinking

water×10 days 112

0.625 mL/pint

drinking

water×21 days 41

Coccidiosis

Carbaryl powder 5% Topically q7d 41 Ectoparasites; use sparingly

715

Cyromazine 6% (Rearguard,

Novartis)

Topically q6-10wk 41

Preventative for myiasis

Decoquinate (Deccox, Rhone-

Poulenc)

62.5 ppm in feed 41 Coccidiosis

Diclazuril 4 mg/kg SC 106

1 ppm in feed 41,135 PD; intestinal and hepatic

coccidiosis

Doramectin

0.2 mg/kg IM

once 68,112

Psoroptes mites

0.3 mg/kg SC 50 PD

Emodepside 2.1%/praziquantel

8.6% (Profender, Bayer)

Eprinomectin

Febantel/pyrantel

pamoate/praziquantel

(Drontal Plus, Bayer)

0.14 mL/kg topically

once 41

0.2-0.3 mg/kg SC

once 105

2 mg/kg topically

once 140

½ tablet/5 kg PO

once 41

Trichostrongylus colubriformis

Psoroptes mites

Psoroptes mites

Use tablet for puppies and small

dogs (2-25 lb); effective against

nematodes and cestodes

Fenbendazole — On rare occasions, anemia and

arteritis have been reported 52

5 mg/kg PO 41

5-20 mg/kg PO

q24h×5 days;

repeat in 14

days 41

20 mg/kg PO

q24h×7 days

before and 2 days

after mixing

rabbits 130

20 mg/kg PO

q24h×28 days 112,130

Nematodes; use 20 mg/kg for

Passalurus ambiguous

Preventive against

encephalitozoonosis

Treatment for

encephalitozoonosis; failed to

clear all parasites

50 ppm in feed×2-6

wk 41

Fipronil (Frontline, Merial) Contraindicated 41 Can cause neurologic disease and

death

Imidacloprid (Advantage, Bayer)

10-16 mg/kg

topically once 41,61

Flea adulticide; use single 0.4 mL

dose, 10% solution

716

Imidacloprid (I) 10%/moxidectin

(M) 1% (Advantage Multi for

Cats, Bayer)

10 mg/kg

(I)+1 mg/kg (M)

topically q4wk×3

treatments 41

Psoroptes mites

Imidacloprid 8.8%/permethrin

44% (Advantix, Bayer)

11-16.6 mg/kg

topically once 12

Leporacarus gibbus (rabbit fur mite)

Ivermectin — Ectoparasites

0.1-0.2 mg/kg SC,

repeat in 14

days 41

0.2-0.44 mg/kg PO,

SC q8-14d 112

0.3-0.4 mg/kg SC,

repeat in 14

days 112

0.4 mg/kg SC q80h×3

doses 69

Ear mites, clinical trial

Psoroptes (ear mites)

Sarcoptes scabiei (sarcoptic mange);

Notoedres cati

Sarcoptic mange

Lasalocid 120 ppm in feed 41 Coccidiosis

Lime sulfur (2%-3%) 1-2

dips/wk×28 days 41 Ectoparasites; young animals

Dip q7d×4-6 wk 41,112

Lufenuron (Program, Novartis) 30 mg/kg PO q30d 112 Flea larvicide

Metronidazole 20 mg/kg PO q12h 41 Antiprotozoal agent

Monensin (CoBan 60, Elanco)

Moxidectin

0.002%-0.004% in

feed 41

0.2 mg/kg PO, repeat

in 10 days 112,136

Coccidiosis

Psoroptic mange

0.3 mg/kg SC 50 PD

Oxibendazole

30 mg/kg PO Encephalitozoonosis; no highly

q24h×7-14 days, effective treatment has been

then 15 mg/kg identified; bone marrow

PO q24h for 30- suppression has been reported

60 days 112 with the use of benzimidazoles,

so an intratreatment CBC is

recommended 52

Piperazine

100 mg/kg PO

q24h×2 days 41

Use with citrate formulation

200 mg/kg PO,

repeat in 14-

21 days 112 Use with citrate formulation

717

200-500 mg/kg

PO×2 days 112

750 mg/kg

PO×2 days 41

Adults; use with adipate

formulation

Juveniles; wash perianal area

Praziquantel

Pyrantel pamoate

Pyrethrins

Selamectin (Revolution, Zoetis)

Sulfadimethoxine


(Rofenaid 40, Roche)

Sulfadimidene

2-5 mg/mL drinking

water×7 days 41

5-10 mg/kg PO, SC,

IM, repeat in 10

days 112

5-10 mg/kg PO, SC,

IM, repeat in 10

days 41

5-10 mg/kg PO,

repeat in 14-

21 days 112

Topically as directed

for

puppies/kittens

q7d 41

12 mg/kg topically at

base of neck

once 72

20 mg/kg topically

q7d 21

30 mg (8-14 mg/kg)

topically q30

days×2 doses 37,76

30 mg (6-18 mg/kg)

topically once 76,96

50 mg/kg PO once,

then 25 mg/kg

q24h×10-20 days 41

62.5-250 ppm in

feed 41

100-233 mg/L

drinking water 41


Flea control

Cheyletiellosis

PK/flea infestation; further studies

are needed to assess long-term

safety in rabbits at this dose

following repeated application 21

Sarcoptic mange

Psoroptes

Coccidiosis

Coccidiosis

Coccidiosis

Sulfamerazine 100 mg/kg PO 41 Coccidiosis

0.05%-0.15% in

drinking water 41

718

Sulfamethazine 100 mg/kg PO q24h 41 Coccidiosis

0.77 g/L drinking

water 41

0.5%-1% in feed 41

Sulfamethoxine

50 mg/kg PO once, Coccidiosis

then 25 mg/kg

PO q24h×10-

20 days 41

Sulfaquinoxaline

0.02%-0.05% in

drinking water 41

Coccidiosis; prevention

0.025%-0.1% in Alternating 2 wk periods for 4-8

drinking water 112 wk during weaning

0.1%-0.15% in

drinking water 41

Coccidiosis; treatment

1 mg/mL in drinking

water 41

0.025%-0.03% in

feed×4-6 wk 112

During weaning

125-250 ppm in feed 41

Thiabendazole 25-50 mg/kg PO 41

50-100 mg/kg PO

q24h×5 days 112

0.1% in feed×3 mo 41

Toltrazuril 2.5-5 mg/kg PO 115 Intestinal coccidiosis

10 mg/kg PO 60,71 PK; 41 coccidiosis due to Eimeria

tenella 41

25 ppm in drinking

water (or

25 mg/kg PO)

q24h×2 days,

repeat after 5

days 41

50 ppm in drinking

water 17

Coccidiosis

Hepatic coccidiosis due to Eimeria

stiedae

Table 10-4

Chemical Restraint/Sedative/Anesthetic/Analgesic Agents Used in Rabbits. a,b

719


Acepromazine — See butorphanol, ketamine,

ketamine/xylazine for combinations

0.25-1 mg/kg IM 41 Preanesthetic; sedative; tranquilizer

1-5 mg/kg SC, IM 41 Preanesthetic; lower end of dose range is

preferred

Acetaminophen (Tylenol,

McNeil)

— Short-term use only; use with caution as

associated with liver failure 88

200-500 mg/kg PO 41 Analgesia

1-2 mg/mL drinking

water 41

Acetaminophen/codeine

(120 mg/12 mg per

5 mL)


(aspirin)

1 mL elixir/100 mL

drinking water 41

5-20 mg/kg PO

q24h 112

10-100 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 41

100 mg/kg PO q8-

24h 25,41


Analgesia

Antiinflammatory; for low grade

analgesia

Alfaxalone

(Alfaxan, Jurox)

— Neurosteroid anesthetic; IV dose

dependent respiratory depression; no

analgesic properties

0.5-1 mg/kg IM 85 For additional sedation when combined

with midazolam, an opioid, and

ketamine 85

1 mg/kg IV slowly to

effect 85

Anesthetic induction when used in

conjunction with preanesthetic

sedatives (i.e., midazolam 0.5 mg/kg,

hydromorphone 0.1 mg/kg, ketamine

7 mg/kg, and dexmedetomidine

0.005 mg/kg combined in single

syringe and given IM) 85

2-3 mg/kg IV 55 Anesthetic induction; give slow to effect

4 mg/kg IV 111 Dilute with 5% dextrose and give over

1 min for smooth induction that

allows intubation

4-6 mg/kg IM 62 Deep sedation; longer duration of action

with higher dose

720


Orion)

Give same volume

SC, IV, IP as

medetomidine or

dexmedetomidine

(5× medetomidine

or 10×

dexmedetomidine

dose in mg) 41

0.25 mg/kg IV 112

0.5 mg/kg SC,

IM 112

1 mg/kg SC, IM, IV 41

Dexmedetomidine and medetomidine c

reversal 41

Atracurium 0.1 mg/kg IV 41 Paralysis for intraophthalmic surgery;

requires assisted ventilation

Atropine — Many rabbits possess serum atropinase,

hence very high doses are often

administered; glycopyrrolate often

preferred

0.1-0.5 mg/kg SC,

IM 41

0.1-3 mg/kg SC 41

0.8-1 mg/kg IM 41

10 mg/kg SC

q20min 41,112

To treat organophosphate toxicity

Bupivicaine 0.125%, 0.5% — Local and regional anesthetic

techniques; concentrations of 0.125%

or less produce a good sensory block

with least motor effect; epidural

anesthesia; dilute with preservativefree

saline only; total volume should

not exceed 0.33 mL/kg 56

1 mg/kg 20 Injectable epidural; use 0.125%

preparation 56

2 mg/kg 84

Buprenorphine — Partial agonist that exerts significant

actions at the mu opioid receptor;

duration of analgesia may be dose

dependent; may cause respiratory

depression; 10 see midazolam for

combination

0.01-0.05 mg/kg SC,

IM, IV q6-12h 25,41

Analgesia

721

0.012 mg/kg 20,56 Epidural anesthesia; dilute with

preservative-free saline only; total

volume should not exceed

0.33 mL/kg 56

0.02-0.1 mg/kg SC,

IM, IV 41,83

Preanesthetic

0.06 mg/kg IV q8h 125 Analgesia

Buprenorphine SR-LAB

(1 mg/mL, ZooPharm)

0.12 mg/kg SC 32 Compounded formulation of sustainedrelease

buprenorphine

Butorphanol — See ketamine/xylazine and midazolam

for combinations; mixed

agonist/antagonist with low intrinsic

activity at the mu receptor and

strong agonist activity at kappa and

sigma receptors; duration of

analgesia may be dose dependent; use

lower doses IV

0.1-0.5 mg/kg SC, IM,

IV q4h 25,41

Analgesia

0.3-0.5 mg/kg SC, IM,

IV q2-4h 123

0.1-1 mg/kg SC, IM,

IV q4-6h 41

Butorphanol

(B)/acepromazine (A)

(A) 0.5 mg/kg+(B)

0.5 mg/kg SC, IM 43

Carprofen — Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory; chronic

osteoarthritis or degenerative joint

disease

1-2.2 mg/kg PO

q12h 25

1-5 mg/kg PO q12-

24h 41

2-4 mg/kg PO q12-

24h 10

2-4 mg/kg SC q24h 25,41

4 mg/kg SC, IM

q24h 10,41

Dexmedetomidine

(Dexdomitor, Orion)

— See ketamine/fentanyl and

midazolam/hydromorphone/ketamine

for combinations; α 2 agonist similar

to medetomidine; reverse with

722

atipamezole

0.005 mg/kg IM 79 Preanesthetic when combined with

ketamine

0.035-0.05 mg/kg IM 79 Induction/maintenance when combined

with ketamine

Diazepam — Benzodiazepine sedative; IV route

preferred; see ketamine for

combination

0.5-2 mg/kg IM,

IV 41,67,112

1 mg/kg

intracavernous 33

For sedation

Seizures; alternative to IV route

1-3 mg/kg IM 41 Preanesthetic; tranquilizer

1-5 mg/kg IM, IV 25,41 Preanesthetic; tranquilizer

Etomidate 1-2 mg/kg 79,80,83 Give slow to effect for anesthetic

induction; short-acting induction

agent; good choice with cardiac

patients

Fentanyl — Mu opioid agonist; analgesia; see

ketamine/dexmedetomidine and

medetomidine/midazolam for

combinations

0.0074 mg/kg IV 25,41

Fentanyl patch

½ patch/mediumsized

rabbit

patch; cover portion not in use

Postoperative analgesia; do not cut

(3 kg)×3 days 41

25 µg/h patch/3 kg

rabbit×3 days 45

12.5 µg/h patch/3/ kg

rabbit×3 days 25

Note: rapid hair regrowth decreases

plasma concentrations

Do not cut patches; may cause

drowsiness when initially applied

Fentanyl/fluanisone

(Hypnorm, Janssen)

0.2-0.3 mL/kg 41 Premedication; analgesia; sedation

0.25 mL/kg SC 41

Flumazenil

0.01-0.1 mg/kg IM,

IV 41

Reversal for benzodiazepines

Flunixin meglumine — Analgesia; nonsteroidal

antiinflammatory 41

0.3-2 mg/kg PO, IM,

IV q12-24h 41

Use for no more than 3 days

1.1 mg/kg SC, IM

723

q12h 41

1-2 mg/kg SC q12-

24h 41

Gabapentin — Neuropathic pain analgesic; indicated for

adjunctive treatment of chronic or

neurogenic pain in dogs and cats at

3 mg/kg PO q24h and for ancillary

therapy of refractory seizures in dogs

at 10-30 mg/kg PO q8h 112

3-5 mg/kg PO q12-

24h 41

25 mg/kg SC 75 Dose used to approximate plasma

concentrations in humans

Glycopyrrolate — Anticholinergic; premedication to

prevent salivation and bradycardia

0.01-0.02 mg/kg SC 41

0.01-0.1 mg/kg SC,

IM 41

0.02 mg/kg IV, IO,

intratracheally 57

Hydromorphone — Opioid analgesic; mainly a mu agonist

with less affinity for delta receptors

0.05-0.2 mg/kg SC, IM

q6-8h 20

0.1-0.2 mg/kg SC, IM,

IV q6-8h 66

Ibuprofen — Analgesia; nonsteroidal

antiinflammatory; may have

gastrointestinal side effects

2-7.5 mg/kg PO q4h 41

7.5 mg/kg PO q6-

8 h41

Isoflurane

3%-5% induction,

1.5%-1.75%

maintenance 41

3%-5% induction,

2%-3%

maintenance 41

MAC=2.05%; 41 prior use of a sedative or

injectable induction agent(s) is

recommended, as use of preanesthetic

agent or combinations will lower the

MAC of inhalants

724

Ketamine — NMDA receptor antagonist; should be

administered in combination with

other agents; combinations to follow

1-10 mg/kg IM 80

5-50 mg/kg SC, IM 41

7-10 mg/kg IM 79,81 Preanesthetic; add to midazolam/opioid

combination if additional sedation

required 81

15 mg/kg IV 41

15-20 mg/kg IV 41

20-50 mg/kg IM 41 60 min of sedation

20 mg/kg IM 79 Anesthetic induction, maintenance

Ketamine


(K) 25-40 mg/kg+(A)

0.25-1 mg/kg IM,

IV 41

Anesthesia

(K) 40 mg/kg+(A) 0.5-

1 mg/kg IM 41 Anesthesia

Ketamine

(K)/dexmedetomidine

(D)/fentanyl (F)

Ketamine (K)/diazepam (D)

(D) 0.02 mg/kg+(K) May result in mild respiratory

5 mg/kg+(F)

depression, respiratory acidosis and

0.01 mg/kg IM 119 hypoxemia; supplemental oxygen

recommended

(K) 10 mg/kg+(D)

0.5 mg/kg IV 41 Anesthesia; follow with isoflurane

(K) 15 mg/kg+(D)

0.3 mg/kg IM 41 Anesthesia; follow with isoflurane

(K) 20-40 mg/kg+(D) Anesthesia; follow with inhalant as

1-5 mg/kg IM 41 needed

(K) 30-40 mg/kg+(D) Surgical anesthesia; lower end of dose

2-5 mg/kg IM 41 range for (D) is preferred; less

preferable than aforementioned

(K)/(D) combinations

Ketamine

(K)/medetomidine (Me) c


(Mi)

(K) 5 mg/kg+(Me)

0.35 mg/kg IM,

IV 41

(K) 15 mg/kg+(Me)

0.25 mg/kg SC, 41

IM 54

(K) 15 mg/kg IM +

(Mi) 3 mg/kg IM 54

(K) 25 mg/kg+(Mi) 2-

725

Surgical anesthesia

Anesthetic induction; laryngospasm

common

Anesthetic induction

May be preferable to use (Mi) at

(K) 25 mg/kg+(Mi) 2- May be preferable to use (Mi) at

5 mg/kg IM 41 <2 mg/kg

Ketamine (K)/xylazine (X) — Anesthesia; may result in bradycardia;

less preferable than (K)/(D) with

isoflurane combinations; seldom

indicated

(K) 10 mg/kg+(X)

3 mg/kg IV 41

(K) 30-40 mg/kg+(X)

3-5 mg/kg IM 41


(X)/acepromazine (A)


(X)/butorphanol (B)

(K) 35 mg/kg+(X) Anesthesia; may result in bradycardia;

5 mg/kg+(A)


0.75 mg/kg IM 41 isoflurane combinations; seldom

indicated

(K) 35 mg/kg+(X) Anesthesia; may result in bradycardia;

5 mg/kg+(B)


0.1 mg/kg IM 41 isoflurane combinations; seldom

indicated


(Mi)/hydromorphone

(H)/dexmedetomidine

(D)

(K) 7 mg/kg+(Mi)

0.5 mg/kg+(H)

0.1 mg/kg +

(D) 0.005 mg/kg

IM 85

Preanesthetic

Ketoprofen — Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory

1 mg/kg IM q12-24h 41 Musculoskeletal pain; nonsteroidal

antiinflammatory

1-3 mg/kg IM q12-

24h 41

3 mg/kg SC, IM

q24h 25,41 Estimated duration of action 12-24 hr 44

Ketoprofen 2.5% topical gel

(Menarini, France)

Apply topically

(visceral) q6-12 h 7

Musculoskeletal pain

Lidocaine (2% injectable) — Amide local anesthetic; local, regional,

topical, and epidural anesthesia; also

see Table 5

1 mg/kg 78

2-3 mg/kg 83

1.5% 0.4 mL/kg epidural 41 Epidural anesthesia

10% Topical to glottis 41 Facilitates intubation

Lidocaine 2.5%/prilocaine

2.5% (Emla cream)

Topical to skin

Facilitates IV catheter placement

726

Maropitant citrate

(Cerenia, Zoetis)

2 mg/kg SC q24h×3-

5 days 24 Neurokinin (NK1) receptor antagonist;

gastrointestinal (visceral) and

arthritic pain; can be administered

long term q48h or 3× weekly as

needed 24

Medetomidine — Medetomidine is no longer commercially

available in the United States,

although it may be obtained from

select compounding services

0.1-0.25 mg/kg IM 41

Medetomidine

(Me) c /fentanyl

(F)/midazolam (Mi)

(Me) 0.2 mg/kg+(F) Anesthesia; endotracheal intubation and

0.02 mg/kg+(Mi) supplemental oxygen are required

1 mg/kg IM 41

Medetomidine

(Me) c /propofol (P)

(Me) 0.35 mg/kg IM +

(P) 3 mg/kg IV 41

Surgical anesthesia; note high

medetomidine dose 41

Meloxicam — Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory;

analgesia; antipyretic; used for

osteoarthritis and postoperative pain;

palatable PO form

0.2 mg/kg SC, IM

q24h 41

0.2-0.5 mg/kg PO, SC,

IM q24h 25

0.3 mg/kg PO

q24h×10 days 23

PK; a higher dose (≥0.5 mg/kg) 20 may be

required, but efficacy and safety

studies have not been performed 22


0.3-1.5 mg/kg PO

q24h×5 days 133

PK; the higher dose was based on a

limited sample size, but efficacy and

safety studies have not been

performed

1 mg/kg PO q24h 46 PK; dose required to achieve plasma

levels associated with analgesia in

other species; clinical efficacy was not

evaluated

1 mg/kg PO

q24h×29 days 30

PK; safety studies indicated may be safe

for long-term use in rabbits

Midazolam — Benzodiazepine sedative; may reverse

with flumazenil; more potent, shorter

action than diazepam; water soluble;

rapidly absorbed and less painful

than diazepam when given IM;

727

combinations to follow

0.25-0.5 mg/kg IM 57 When combined with an opioid

0.5-2 mg/kg IM, IV,

IP 25,41,57

Preanesthetic; tranquilizer

1-2 mg/kg IM, IV, IP 41 Preanesthetic; tranquilizer

Midazolam

(Mi)/buprenorphine

(Bpr)

Midazolam


Midazolam

(Mi)/oxymorphone (O)

(Mi) 0.5 mg/kg+(Bpr)

0.01-0.05 mg/kg

SC, IM 57

(Mi) 0.5 mg/kg+(B)

0.2-0.4 mg/kg SC,

IM 57

(Mi) 0.5-1 mg/kg+(B)

0.25-0.5 mg/kg

IM 90

(Mi) 0.5 mg/kg+(O)

0.05-0.2 mg/kg SC,

IM 57

Add ketamine (1-10 mg/kg) for

additional sedation


additional sedation and analgesia

Add ketamine 5-10 mg/kg IM for

additional sedation and analgesia


additional sedation

Morphine — Analgesic; mu receptor agonist;

decreases GI transit time 29

0.1 mg/kg 20,56 Epidural anesthesia; dilute with

preservative-free saline only; total

volume should not exceed

0.33 mL/kg 56

0.5-2.0 mg/kg SC, IM

q2-4h 20

Analgesia

2-5 mg/kg SC, IM q2-

4h 25,41

10 mg/kg IM 29 Decreased GI transit time and affected

stomach and cecum motility 29

Naloxone

Oxymorphone

0.01-0.1 mg/kg IM,

IV 25,41

0.05-0.2 mg/kg SC, IM

q8-12h 41

0.1-0.3 mg/kg SC, IM,

IV q3-4h 10,112 728

Narcotic reversal; note that analgesic

effects are also reversed; avoid use

following painful procedure as

sudden awareness of pain may

predispose to breath-holding,

increased catecholamine release, and

fatal arrhythmias; 41 mu opioid

agonist

Analgesia

Pentazocine (Talwin-V,

Upjohn)

5-10 mg/kg IM, IV q2-

4h 41

Analgesia

Pentobarbital 20-45 mg/kg IV, IP 41 Marginal analgesia; autonomic

depression; not recommended

Piroxicam 0.2 mg/kg PO q8h 41 Analgesia; nonsteroidal

antiinflammatory

Propofol — Intravenous nonbarbituate anesthetic;

slow IV; lower dose after pre-med,

higher dose when used alone; see

medetomidine for combination

2-3 mg/kg IV 41 Induction after premedication; maintain

with approximately 1 mg/kg IV

q15min

3-6 mg/kg IV 41

5-14 mg/kg slow IV

(20 mg/kg/min) 41,112 To effect

6-8 mg/kg IV

induction,

followed by 0.8-

1 mg/kg/min

CRI 118

Anesthetic induction and maintenance;

premedicated with dexmedetomidine

(20 µg/kg IM), ketamine (5 mg/kg

IM), fentanyl (10 µg/kg IM) 118

7.5-15 mg/kg IV 26

12.5 mg/kg IV, IO

followed by

1 mg/kg/min CRI 93 Anesthetic induction and maintenance

16±5 mg/kg IV 6 Anesthetic induction

Sevoflurane To effect 6 Anesthesia; MAC=3.7% 41

6%-8% induction,

1%-3%

maintenance

Prior use of a sedative or injectable

induction agent is recommended, as

use of preanesthetic combinations

will lower the MAC of inhalants

Thiamylal

Thiopental


(Telazol, Zoetis, Fort

Dodge)

15-25 mg/kg IV to

effect 41

15-30 mg/kg IV to

effect 41

3 mg/kg IM 41 Sedation prior to gas anesthetic;

tiletamine causes severe renal tubular

necrosis at 32 mg/kg and mild

nephrosis at 7.5 mg/kg; 41 not

generally recommended for use in

rabbits

729

Tramadol — Pharmacokinetic data reported to be

variable, data on clinical efficacy

lacking 10

4.4 mg/kg IV 34 Did not result in isoflurane-sparing

effects 34

5 mg/kg SC, IV q8h 25

5-15 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 25

10 mg/kg PO q12-

24h 10

Recommendation based on personal

experience and anecdotal reports

11 mg/kg PO 127 PK; did not achieve adequate plasma

concentrations for analgesia based on

human levels

Xylazine — See ketamine for combinations

1-5 mg/kg SC, IM 41 Preanesthetic; tranquilizer; lower end of

dose range preferred; seldom

indicated

Yohimbine 0.2-1 mg/kg IM, IV 41 Alpha 2 -adrenergic antagonist; xylazine

reversal

a

See Table 10-5 for Constant Rate Infusion (CRI) protocols.

b

Drugs and doses chosen dependent on individual patient requirements and health status, procedure

planned, and level of sedation desired. Combination of drugs mixed in one syringe unless otherwise

indicated. Atipamezole may be used to reverse dexmedetomidine or medetomidine, flumazenil may be

used to reverse midazolam, and naloxone may be used to reverse opioids.

c

Medetomidine is no longer commercially available in the United States although it may be obtained

from select compounding services.

730

Table 10-5

Constant Rate Infusion (CRI) Protocols Used in Rabbits. a

Agent(s) Loading Dose IV CRI Rate IV Per Hour Unless Noted

Butorphanol 0.2-0.4 mg/kg 56 0.1-0.2 mg/kg 112

0.2-0.4 mg/kg 56

Fentanyl 5-10 µg/kg 56 10-30 µg/kg 56

30-100 µg/kg/min 41

Ketamine 2-5 mg/kg 56 0.3-1.2 mg/kg 56

Ketamine

(K)/butorphanol (B)

Ketamine

(K)/butorphanol (B)

Ketamine (K)/fentanyl

(F)

Ketamine

(K)/hydromorphone

(H)

Ketamine

(K)/hydromorphone

(H)

(K) 0.4-0.5 mg/kg+(B)

0.02-0.06 mg/kg 81 (K) 0.6 mg/kg (0.4-1)+(B) 0.1-0.2 mg/kg 81

(K) 0.4-0.5 mg/kg+(B)

0.02-0.06 mg/kg 82 (K) 0.4-1 mg/kg+(B) 0.1-0.2 mg/kg 82

(K) 0.4-0.5 mg/kg+(F) (K) 0.6 mg/kg (0.4-1)+(F) 0.005-

0.005 mg/kg 81 0.02 mg/kg 81

(K) 0.4-0.5 mg/kg+(H) (K) 0.6 mg/kg (0.4-1)+(H) 0.025-

0.05 mg/kg 81 0.05 mg/kg 81

(K) 0.4-0.5 mg/kg+(H)

0.05 mg/kg 82 (K) 0.4-1 mg/kg+(H) 0.025-0.05 mg/kg 82

Lidocaine 2 mg/kg 124 50 or 100 µg/kg/min; 124 both CRI doses

decreased the isoflurane MAC 124

a

Surgical fluid rate is 10 mL/kg/h IV. 81

Table 10-6

Ophthalmologic Agents Used in Rabbits.


Amphotericin B (liposomal form)

(A)/moxifloxacin (Mo)

Atropine 1%

(A) 10 µg in 0.05 mL

+ (Mo) 100 µg in

0.05 mL

intravitreally 31

Topical to eyes q12h

prn 41

(Mo) strongly augments efficacy of

(A)

Mydriasis; systemic effects are

possible; may be ineffective in

rabbits with pigmented irides or

those that produce atropinase 141

Atropine 1%/phenylephrine 10% Topical to eyes 41 Mydriasis for non-albino eyes

731

Azithromycin 1% (Azasite, Akorn)

Topical to eyes

q12h×2 days,

then

q24h×5 days 5

Bacterial conjunctivitis

Besifloxacin 0.6% (Besivance,

Bausch & Lomb)

Betaxolol 0.5% (Betoptic, Alcon)

Ciprofloxacin 0.3% (Ciloxan,

Alcon)

Cyclosporine A 0.05% (Restasis,

Allergan)

Cyclosprine A 0.2% (Optimmune,

Schering-Plough)

Topical to eyes

q12h 113

Topical to eyes

q12h 70

Topical to eyes q8-

12h 41

2 drops topical q1h

for 7-14 hr 41

Topical to eyes

q12h 131

Topical to eyes

q12h 132

Fluoroquinolone; bacterial

conjunctivitis/endophthalmitis;

minimal systemic absorption

Glaucoma; effectively decreases

intraocular pressure in rabbits

Susceptible infections

Ocular penetration injuries; good

penetration into aqueous and

vitreous humor

Dry eye due to autoimmune

dacryoadenitis

Shown to increase tear production

in rabbits; may inhibit

recurrence of precorneal

membranous occlusion

postoperatively 49

Dichlorophenamide (Daranide,

Merck)

1-2 mg/kg PO q24h 41 Glaucoma

Diclofenac sodium 0.1% Topical to eyes 137 Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory

Topical to eyes

q12h 89 Blepharitis 141

Dorzolamide 2% (Trusopt, Merck) Topical to eyes q8-

12h 41,89

Glaucoma

Doxycycline monohydrate 2.5 mg/kg PO q12h 89 Encephalitozoon cuniculi-induced

glaucoma

Fluconazole 37.5 mg/kg PO q12h 8 Aspergillus keratitis

Flurbiprofen sodium 0.03% Topical to eyes 41 Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory;

blepharitis 141

Fusidic acid (Fucithalmic, Leo) Topical to eyes q12-

24h 41


Gatifloxacin 0.3% (Zymar,

Allergan)

Topical to eyes q8h 113


Gentamicin (Tiacil, Virbac) Topical to eyes q8h 41 Bacterial conjunctivitis

Ketorolac tromethamine 0.1% Topical to eyes 137 Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory;

blepharitis 141

732

Marbofloxacin (Marbocyl FD,

Vetoquinol)

4 mg/kg IV 116 Penetration of marbofloxacin into

the aqueous and vitreous humor

after IV administration was

significantly enhanced by

intraocular inflammation

Methylsulfonylmethane (MSM)

ophthalmic 15% (Alcon)

Metipranolol 0.1%/pilocarpine 2%

Moxifloxacin 0.5% (Vigamox,

Alcon)

Micafungin 0.1%

Topical to eyes

q12h 89

Topical to eyes

q8-12h 41

Topical to eyes

q6h 95,102

0.5 mL

subconjunctivally

q24h×3 wk 59

Encephalitozoon cuniculi-induced

glaucoma

Glaucoma

Bacterial conjunctivitis; good

aqueous concentration with

both oral and ophthalmic

administration; oral better for

vitreous concentration 47

Candida keratitis

Neomycin/bacitracin/polymyxin B Topical to eyes q6h 41 Susceptible infections; corneal

ulceration

Penicillin G

40,000 U/kg SC

q7d×3

treatments 49

Treponema cuniculi-induced blepharitis

Phenylephrine 10% — See atropine for combination

Topical to eyes 41

Prednisolone acetate 1% Topical to eyes q6-

12h 41

Topical to eyes

q12h 89

Mydriasis

Inflammation of eyes; rabbits are a

corticosteroid-sensitive species;

use with extreme caution

Encephalitozoon cuniculi-induced

glaucoma

Terbinafine 1% ointment Topical q6h×8 wk 13,112 Keratomycosis; compounded

Timolol 0.5% (Timoptic, Merck)

Topical to eyes

q12h 70

Glaucoma

Tobramycin 0.3% Topical to eyes q6h 13 Bacterial ulcerative keratitis

Tropicamide 1% Topical to eyes 41 Mydriasis

Trovafloxacin 0.5% Topical to eyes 9 Broad-spectrum; safe for intravitreal

injection up to 25 µg

Vancomycin 0.3%, 1%

Topical to eyes q2h

for 10 hr each

day×5 days 35

Commercially available product not

available in the United States;

compounded from injectable

form of vancomycin; used to

733

Voriconazole

Topical to eyes

q12h 128

treat methicillin-resistant

Staphylococcus aureus

Fungal keratitis; compounded to a

1% voriconazole solution 112

Table 10-7

Miscellaneous Agents Used in Rabbits.


Activated charcoal

(1 g/5 mL water)

1 g/kg PO q4-6h 63,103 May reduce intestinal absorption of toxins

Aluminum hydroxide 30-60 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 41

Phosphorus-binder; hyperphosphatemia due

to renal failure

Barium 10-14 mL/kg PO 41 Gastrointestinal contrast studies

Benazepril

0.25-0.5 mg/kg PO

q24h 41

Vasodilator; potentially less nephrotoxic than

enalapril

Blood transfusion

(whole blood)

10-20 mL/kg given Cross-matching advised, especially for

no faster than repeated transfusions

22 mL/kg/h 41

Calcium EDTA

(edetate calcium

disodium)

(Calcium

Disodium

Versenate, 3 M)

13-27 mg/kg SC,

IV 41

27 mg/kg SC q6-

12h prn 41

Chelation therapy

Lead toxicosis; diluted to <10 mg/mL with

0.45% NaCl/2.5% dextrose

Cellulose powder

(Unifiber, Niche)

½-1 tsp/feeding 41 Nonsoluble fiber source for rabbits on liquid

enteral diets; will pass through small

diameter feeding tubes

Chlorpheniramine

maleate

0.2-0.4 mg/kg PO

q12h 41

Antihistamine

Cholestyramine

(Questran Light,

Squibb)

2 g/animal PO Ion exchange resin for toxin absorption

q24h×18-

following inappropriate antibiotic

21 days 41 administration; use for treating

enterotoxemia; gavage with 20 mL water;

may result in constipation

Chondroitin sulfate

(Cosequin,

Nutramax)

Cimetidine

Used empirically at

feline dose 134

5-10 mg/kg PO, SC,

IM, IV q6-

12h 65,112

Arthritis; nutraceutical

Gastric and duodenal ulcers

734

Cisapride 0.5 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 112

Enhances gastrointestinal motility; must be

compounded in United States

Cyclizine

Cyproheptadine

8 mg/rabbit PO

q12h 41

1-4 mg/rabbit PO

q12-24h 51

Vertigo associated with torticollis

Possible appetite stimulant

Dexamethasone — Corticosteroids are seldom indicated in

rabbits; rabbits are a corticosteroidsensitive

species; 41 use with extreme

caution and consider concurrent

administration of a gastroprotective agent

0.2-0.6 mg/kg SC,

IM, IV 41

Antiinflammatory

0.5-2 mg/kg PO,

SC, then taper

dose q12h×3-

14 days 41

2 mg/kg IM, IV 41 Shock; effectiveness is controversial

Digoxin

Diltiazem

0.005-0.01 mg/kg

PO q12-24h 41

0.5-1 mg/kg PO

q12-24h 41

Congestive heart failure; atrial fibrillation

Calcium channel blocker for hypertrophic

cardiomyopathy

Diphenhydramine 2 mg/kg PO, SC q8-

12h 41,112

Torticollis, antihistamine

Doxapram

Enalapril

Epinephrine

Epoetin alpha,

recombinant

(Epogen, Amgen)

Famotidine

Fecal transfaunation

2-5 mg/kg SC, IV

q15min 41

0.1-0.5 mg/kg PO

q24-48h 65

0.2-0.4 mg/kg IM,

IV,

intratracheally 112

50-150 U/kg SC q2-

3d 112

0.5-1 mg/kg PO,

SC, IV q12-

24h 40,112

Mix fresh

cecotrophs with

warm saline,

strain through

Respiratory stimulant

Beware of hypotensive side effects

Cardiac arrest

Biosynthetic form of erythropoietin; treatment

of anemia; use until PCV is normal, then

q7d for at least 4 wk

H 2 -receptor antagonist used to reduce GI acid

production

Dysbiosis; placement of E-collar on donor

facilitates collection of sample

735

gauze, and

administer by

gavage 41

Ferrous sulfate

4-6 mg/kg PO

q24h 41

Iron deficiency anemia

Furosemide — Loop diuretic

0.3-2 mg/kg SC, IM,

IV 41 prn

Hetastarch (Hespan,

DuPont)

1-4 mg/kg SC, IM,

IV q4-6h 112

2-5 mg/kg PO, SC,

IM, IV q12h 112

prn

5 mL/kg IV given

over 5-10 min;

repeat if

necessary 41

20 mL/kg IV 101

Pulmonary edema

Congestive heart failure

Volume expansion in hypoproteinemic

patients; may be of benefit in endotoxemia

Human chorionic

gonadotropin

(hCG)

20-25 U/animal IV 41 Ovulation

Hydroxyzine 2 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 41

Antihistamine; antipruritic

Iron dextran 4-6 mg/kg IM once 41 Iron deficiency anemia (treatment or

prevention)

Lactated Ringer’s

solution or other

appropriate fluid of

choice

60-90 mL/kg ×

1 hr 41 Treatment for shock

100-150 mL/kg/day

CRI or divided

SC q6-12h 41

Maintenance fluid support

Lactobacilli — May aid in treatment of enteritis; 41 efficacy not

determined

Administer PO

during

antibiotic

treatment

period, then 5-7

days beyond

cessation 41

Give 2 hr before or 2 hr after antibiotic

treatment

Levetiracetam

(Keppra, UCB)

20 mg/kg PO q8h 11 Anticonvulsant; dosage not established in

rabbits, but PD are similar to those in dogs

736

Lidocaine

Loperamide

Maropitant citrate

(Cerenia, Zoetis)

Meclizine

Metoclopramide

Mirtazapine

1-2 mg/kg IV

(bolus) 41

2-4 mg/kg

intratracheally 41

0.1 mg/kg PO

q8h×3 days,

then

q24h×2 days 112

2 mg/kg SC

q24h×3-5 days,

then q48h or 3×

weekly if

needed 24

2-12 mg/kg PO

q24h 112

12.5-25 mg/kg

PO q8-12h 41

0.2-0.5 mg/kg PO,

SC q6-8 h 41

0.2-1 mg/kg PO,

IM, SC q6-24h 112

0.5 mg/kg PO, SC

q4-12 h 41

0.3-0.5 mg/kg PO

q24h 114

Cardiac arrhythmia

Cardiac arrhythmia

Enteropathies (nonspecific diarrhea); give in

1 mL water

May be helpful in arthritis or inflammatory

conditions; reduces visceral pain

Reduces disorientation and rolling with

torticollis (for prevention of motion

sickness in small animals)

Stimulates gastrointestinal motility

Appetite stimulant; dosage not established in

rabbits; cat dose given here

Nandrolone (Deca-

Durabolin,

Organon)

2 mg/kg SC, IM 41 Anabolic steroid; appetite stimulant; adjunct

to treatment for anemia, especially in

chronic renal failure

Omeprazole 20 mg/kg SC q12h 77 Proton pump inhibitor used as a

gastroprotective agent

Oxytocin 0.1-3 U/kg SC, IM 41 Use in delayed, but unobstructed, parturition;

agalactia

Pimobendan

Polysulfated

glycosaminoglycan

(Adequan,

Luitpold)

0.1-0.3 mg/kg PO

q12-24h 41

2.2 mg/kg SC, IM

q3d×21-28 days,

then q14d 112

Phosphodiesterase inhibitor; increases cardiac

contractility with dilated cardiomyopathy

or mitral valve disease

Noninfectious, traumatic, or degenerative

joint disease

Potassium citrate 33 mg/kg q8h 41 Urinary calculi; may decrease calcium-based

stone formation

737

Prednisolone — See dexamethasone; rarely indicated

0.25-0.5 mg/kg PO

q12h×3 days,

then

q24h×3 days,

then q48h 41

0.5-2 mg/kg PO

q12h 112

Treatment of nonresponsive torticollis, when

negative for pasteurellosis; give antibiotics

concurrently

Prednisone — See dexamethasone; rarely indicated

0.5-2 mg/kg PO 41,112 Antiinflammatory

Prochlorperazine

0.2-0.5 mg/kg PO

q8h 41

Torticollis; doses as high as 30 mg/kg q8h are

used to treat labyrinthine disorders in

humans

Ranitidine 2 mg/kg IV q24h 41

2-5 mg/kg PO

q12h 112

Gastric ulceration (often in inappetant rabbits)

Sevelamer

Silymarin (milk

thistle)

Simethicone

Dosage not

established in

animals

4-15 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 65

20-50 mg/kg PO

q24h 112

65-130 mg/animal

PO q1h×2-3

treatments 41

Human dosage is 2-4 capsules PO q8h; 112

phosphorus binder for hyperphosphatemia

associated with chronic renal failure;

consider monitoring coagulation

parameters, as vitamin K absorption may

be affected; drug is not absorbed

systemically so toxicity is unlikely

Nutraceutical used as an adjunctive treatment

for liver disease; hepatoprotectant; dosage

not established for rabbits; suggested dose

for small animals

May reduce abdominal discomfort associated

with excess gas

Sodium bicarbonate 2 mEq/kg IV, IP 41 Ketoacidosis (pregnancy toxemia); dose is

approximate

Stanozolol 0.5-2 mg PO once 112 Stimulates appetite following surgery or

illness; may be available from

compounding pharmacy

Succimer (DMSA)

1050 mg/m 2 PO×1

wk, then

700 mg/m 2 ×2

wk 142

Lead toxicity

Sucralfate 25 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 41

Gastrointestinal ulcers; may interfere with

other orally administered drugs

Sulfasalazine ⅛-¼ crushed May reduce inflammation of intestinal mucosa

738

500 mg

tablet/animal

q8-24 h 41

Verapamil 2.5-25 µg/kg/h IP 129 Postoperative administration decreases

adhesion formation

8-16 mg/kg PO plus

0.5-2 mg/kg SC

q24h 112

Slow-channel calcium blocking agent

Vitamin A 500-1000 U/kg IM 41

Vitamin B complex

Vitamin C (ascorbic

acid)

Vitamin K

0.02-0.4 mL/rabbit

SC, IM q24h 51

100 mg/kg PO

q12h 112

1-10 mg/kg IM

prn 41

Possible appetite stimulant; vitamin B

deficiency

Nutritional supplement

Select bleeding disorders and toxicities

Table 10-8

Hematologic and Serum Biochemical Values of Rabbits. 41

Measurement

Normal Values

Hematology

PCV (%) 30-50

Hgb (g/dL) 8-17.5

RBC (10 6 /µL) 4-8

MCV (fL) 58-75

MCH (pg) 17.5-23.5

MCHC (g/dL) 29-37

Reticulocytes (%) 2-4

Platelets (10 3 /µL) 290-650

WBC (10 3 /µL) 5-12

Heterophils (neutrophils) (%) 35-55

Lymphocytes (%) 25-60

Monocytes (%) 2-10

Eosinophils (%) 0-5

Basophils (%) 2-8

739

Chemistries

ALP (U/L) 4-70

ALT (U/L) 14-80

Amylase (U/L) 200-500

AST (U/L) 14-113

Bicarbonate (mEq/L) 16.2-31.8

Bile acids (µmol/L) <40

Bilirubin, total (mg/dL) 0-0.75

Calcium (mg/dL) 8-14.8

Chloride (mEq/L) 92-112

Cholesterol (mg/dL) 12-116

Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.5-2.6

Glucose (mg/dL) 75-150

LDH (U/L) 34-129

Lipids, total (mg/dL) 280-350

Phosphorus (mg/dL) 2.3-6.9

Potassium (mEq/L) 3.5-7

Protein, total (g/dL) 5.4-7.5

Albumin (g/dL) 2.5-5

Globulin (g/dL) 1.5-3.5

Sodium (mEq/L) 138-155

Triglycerides (mg/dL) 124-156

T 3 (ng/dL) 130-430

T 4 (µg/dL) 1.7-2.4

Urea nitrogen (mg/dL) 15-50

Vitamin A, plasma (µg/mL) 30-80

Vitamin E, plasma (µg/mL) >1

Vitamin D 3 (pmol/L)

20-45 (free-range, outdoors)

740

Table 10-9

Rabbit Blood Glucose and Sodium Levels as Prognostic Indicators. 65

Physiologic State

Blood

Glucose

Sodium (mEq/L)

Osmolarity a

Tonicity a

(mg/dL)

(mOsm/L)

(mOsm/L)

Normal 76-148 136-147 284-312 278-302

Stress (e.g., handling) 144-180 — — —

Severe disease (e.g.,

enterotoxemia, mucoid

enteropathy, GI obstruction)

360-540 <129 carries a 2.3

times

mortality risk

— —

Diabetes mellitus 540-601 — — —

Calculated tonicity:

Ton (mOsm/L)=2×Na (mEq/L)+glucose (mg/dL)/18

Calculated osmolarity:

P osm (mOsm/L)=2×Na (mEq/L)+glucose (mg/dL)/18+BUN (mg/dL)/2.8

a

Osmolarity and tonicity may be used to differentiate true hyponatremia from pseudohyponatremia (may

occur with hyperlipidemia, severe liver disease, or congestive heart failure).

741

Table 10-10

Biologic and Physiologic Data of Rabbits. 41

Parameter

Adult body weight, male (buck)

Adult body weight, female (doe)

Birth weight

Respiratory rate

Tidal volume

Heart rate

Rectal temperature

Life span

Food consumption

Water consumption

Gastrointestinal transit time

Breeding onset, male

Normal Values

1.5-5 kg

1.5-6 kg

30-80 g

30-60 breaths/min

4-6 mL/kg

130-325 beats/min

38.5-40°C (101.3-104°F)

5-6 years (up to 15 years)

50 g/kg/day

100 mL/kg/day

4-5 hours

6-10 months

Breeding onset, female

Breeding life of female

Reproductive cycle

Gestation period

4-9 months

4 months to 3.75 years

Induced ovulation

29-35 days

Litter size 4-10

Weaning age

4-6 weeks

Dental formula I2/1 C0/0 P3/2 M3/3

742

Table 10-11

Urinalysis Values in Rabbits. 41

Measurement

Normal Values

Urine volume

Large breeds

Average breeds

20-350 mL/kg/day

130 mL/kg/day

Specific gravity 1.003-1.051

pH 7.7-9.6

Crystals

Casts, epithelial cells,

or bacteria

Leukocytes or

erythrocytes

Albumin

Protein:creatinine

ratio

Protein (g/L,

reference assay)

Protein (Multistix

dipsticks)

Ammonium magnesium phosphate, calcium carbonate

monohydrate, anhydrous calcium carbonate

Absent to rare

Occasional

Occasional in young rabbits

0.11-0.47

0.57-10.66

Negative to +++

743

Table 10-12

Cerebrospinal Fluid Values in Rabbits. 41

Measurement

Leukocyte count

Alkaline phosphatase

Calcium

Carbon dioxide

Chloride

Cholesterol

Creatinine

Glucose

Lactic acid

Magnesium

Nitrogen, nonprotein

Phosphate

Potassium

Protein, total

Sodium

Urea nitrogen

Normal Values

≤4 cells/µL (1-97 cells/µL in E. cuniculi positive rabbits)

5 U/dL

5.4 mEq/L

41.2-48.5 mL%

127 mEq/L

33 mg/dL

17 mg/dL

75 mg/dL

1.4-4 mg/dL

2.2 mEq/L

5.6-16.8 mg/dL

2.3 mEq/L

3 mEq/L

13-59 mg/dL (31-154 mg/dL in E. cuniculi positive rabbits)

149 mEq/L

20 mg/dL

Table 10-13

Electrocardiographic (ECG) and Echocardiographic Values in Rabbits. 41

ECG Parameter

Heart rate

Normal Values

198-330 beats/min a

Measurements (lead II)

P wave

Duration (width)

Amplitude (height)

0.01-0.05 sec

0.04-0.12 mv

P-R interval

Duration

0.04-0.08 sec

QRS complex

744

Duration 0.02-0.06 sec

R-wave amplitude

0.03-0.039 mv

Q-T interval

Duration

0.08-0.16 sec

T wave

Amplitude

Electrical axis (frontal plane)

Thickness of interventricular septum in diastole

Thickness of interventricular septum in systole

Left ventricular internal diameter in diastole

Left ventricular internal diameter in systole

Thickness of left ventricular free wall in diastole

Thickness of left ventricular free wall in systole

0.05-0.17 mv

−43 to +80 degrees

0.143-0.310 cm

0.217-0.403 cm

1.187-1.906 cm

0.783-1.353 cm

0.16-0.28 cm

0.243-0.455 cm

Fractional shortening 22.6%-36.83%

Ejection fraction 49.07%-70%

Aortic diameter

Left atrial appendage diameter

0.673-0.980 cm

0.753-1.200 cm

Left atrial appendage diameter:aortic diameter 0.94-1.54

Mitral valve E-point–to–septal separation interval

Doppler heart rate

Maximal aortic outflow velocity

Maximal pulmonary artery outflow velocity

Maximal mitral E-wave velocity

Maximal mitral A-wave velocity

0.120-0.233 cm

115-234 beats/min

0.56-1.06 m/sec

0.34-0.84 m/sec

0.41-0.83 m/sec

0.19-0.44 m/sec

Maximal mitral E-wave velocity:A-wave velocity 1.34-3.55

a

Lower values may be expected in acclimated rabbits.

745

Table 10-14

Determining the Sex of Mature Rabbits. 41

Male

• Protrude penis by

manipulating skin of prepuce

• Palpate for testicles

• Anogenital distance is longer

Female

• There is a common orifice for both the vagina and

urethra (like dogs and cats)

• No structure like a “penis” can be protruded from

the urogenital orifice

• Anogenital distance is shorter

Table 10-15

Drugs Reported to Be Toxic in Rabbits. a

Drug

Amoxicillin 41

Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid 41

Ampicillin 41

Benzimidazoles (fenbendazole,

oxibendazole,

albendazole) 52

Cephalosporins 41

Clindamycin 41

Erythromycin 41

Fipronil 41

Lincomycin 41

Penicillin 112

Procaine 41

Tiletamine 41

Comments

Enteritis; enterotoxemia


Enteritis; enterotoxemia, high risk especially if given orally

Bone marrow suppression reported; recommend

intratreatment CBC to r/o anemia, leukopenia,

thrombocytopenia

Enteritis; enterotoxemia if given orally

Enteritis; enterotoxemia, high risk


Can cause neurologic disease and death

Enteritis; enterotoxemia, high risk

Enteritis; enterotoxemia if given orally

May be fatal at doses of 0.4 mg/kg

Nephrotoxic

a

There have also been some reports of antibiotic-related colitis in rabbits given penicillin/streptomycin,

trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, tetracycline, and gentamicin.

Table 10-16

Treatments Used in the Management of Rabbit Gastrointestinal Syndrome (RGIS). a


Buprenorphine 0.01-0.05 mg/kg SC, IV, IP q6-12h 41 Analgesia

746

Butorphanol 0.1-0.5 mg/kg SC, IM, IV q4h 41 Analgesia

Cisapride 0.5 mg/kg PO q8-12h 112 Enhances gastrointestinal

motility; compounded in

United States

Cyproheptadine

HCl

1-4 mg/rabbit PO q12-24h 51 Possible appetite stimulant

Enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg PO, SC, IM, IV q12h 15,16,41 Suspected primary bacterial

enteritis (rare in rabbits)

Famotidine 0.5-1 mg/kg PO, SC, IV q12-24h 40,111 H2-receptor antagonist used

to reduce GI acid

production

Fluid therapy

Weight (kg)×%

dehydration×1000 mL=fluid deficit

divided into SC boluses or divided IV

per hr over 12-24 hr 51

Add deficit to maintenance

requirement of 3-

4 mL/kg/h

60-90 mL/kg×1 hr Shock therapy

Herbivore critical

care diet

100-150 mL/kg/day constant rate

infusion or divided SC q6-12h

Follow manufacturer’s instructions

Maintenance fluid support

Syringe feeding; use fine

grind for nasogastric

tubes

Hydromorphone 0.05-0.2 mg/kg SC, IM, IV q6-8h 20 Analgesia

CRI for severe, refractory

Lidocaine 2 mg/kg IV loading dose given over 5

100 µg/kg/min 124

minutes followed by 60-

cases of RGIS

100 µg/kg/min×2 days 125 Better surgical and

postoperative outcome

than buprenorphine

Maropitant citrate

(Cerenia,

Zoetis)

2 mg/kg SC q24h×3-5 days; then q48h

or 3× weekly if needed 24

May be helpful in

inflammatory conditions;

reduces visceral pain

Meloxicam 0.3-1 mg/kg PO q24h 23,133 NSAID; use only if well

hydrated with normal

renal parameters

Metoclopramide 0.2-0.5 mg/kg PO, SC q6-8h 41 Stimulates gastrointestinal

motility

0.01-0.09 mg/kg/h IV 112 CRI

Metronidazole 20 mg/kg PO q12h for 3-5 days 112 For suspected clostridial

overgrowth and

enterotoxemia

747

5 mg/kg slow IV q12h 112

Midazolam 0.25-0.5 mg/kg IM, IV 57 Antianxiety; may also

stimulate appetite

Ranitidine 2 mg/kg IV q24h 41

Gastric ulceration (often in

2-5 mg/kg PO q12h 112 inappetant rabbits)

Simethicone

Thermal support

65-130 mg/animal PO q1h×2-3

treatments 41

Provide thermal support if body

temperature <99°F 51

May reduce abdominal

discomfort associated

with excess gas

Avoid overheating

Trimebutine 1.5 mg/kg PO, IV 86 Enhance GI motility; not


States; oral available in

Canada

Vitamin B Complex 0.02-0.4 mL/rabbit SC, IM q24h 51 Possible appetite stimulant

a

Concurrent to treatment, it is important to correct the cause (e.g., boredom, stress, excessive

shedding, inadequate dietary roughage, nutritional deficiency or imbalance, disease, toxin, obesity).

Surgical intervention is no longer considered the primary treatment option and is rarely indicated except

in cases of complete obstruction.

Table 10-17

Bronchoalveolar Lavage (BAL) in Rabbits. a,41

BAL Parameter

Volume

Leukocyte count

Results and Comments

40%-76% recovery=1.2-2.3 mL

200-700 cells/µL, predominantly macrophages

Heterophils 0-28 cells/µL (0%-5%)

Lymphocytes 15-98 cells/µL (4%-30%)

Macrophages 180-602 cells/µL (69%-94%)

Eosinophils 0-60 cells/µL (0%-12%)

a

Bronchoscopic bronchoalveolar lavage in New Zealand white rabbits was performed with 3 mL of sterile

saline into both left bronchus and right bronchus.

748

Table 10-18

Clinical Signs and Behavioral Changes Used in the Assessment of Pain in Rabbits. a

Clinical Signs

Change of body posture; tensing of abdominal

muscles, pressing abdomen onto ground

Change of body posture; tucking of abdomen,

hunched body; abdominal splinting on

palpation

Eyelids squinted; lack of focus; orbit may be

retracted or bulging

Muzzle and nares contracture; increased intensity

associated with level of pain

Increased teeth grinding (bruxism)

Ears pinned back, held close to head

Increased heart rate; increased frequency and

depth of respirations

Decreased body weight over time

Behavioral Changes

Decreased grooming activity;

piloerection; unkempt and ruffled fur

coat

Decreased interest in food or cessation of

food intake

Decreased frequency and duration of

exploring/searching

Decreased frequency and duration of

movement or response to stimuli

Decreased conspecific interaction

Irritable or aggressive temperament

Stiff gait, lameness, staggering; difficulty

finding comfortable resting position

Decreased fecal output or decreased size

of fecal pellets

a

Modified from Fisher (2010). 42 749

Table 10-19

Percentage of Antibiotic Susceptibility Results for the Most Common Bacteria

Isolated From Nasal Cultures of 121 Rabbits With Signs of Upper Respiratory

Disease. 120

Bacteria a

Pateurella

multocida

(N=106)

Bordetella

bronchiseptica

(N=99)

Pseudomonas

spp. (N=41)

Staphylococcus

spp. (N=27)

Antibiotic S I R S I R S I R S I R

Cephalexin 100 0 0 2.0 0 98.0 2.4 2.4 95.2 88.9 0 11.1

Danofloxacin 100 0 0 43.4 40.4 16.2 65.9 22.0 12.1 77.8 18.5 3.7

Doxycycline 97.2 2.8 0 88.9 2.0 9.1 56.1 7.3 36.6 74.1 3.7 22.2

Enrofloxacin 100 0 0 71.7 15.2 13.1 58.5 22.0 19.5 81.5 14.8 3.7

Gentamicin 99.1 0.9 0 96 1.0 3.0 75.6 4.9 19.5 85.2 0 14.8

Marbofloxacin 100 0 0 88.9 6.1 5.0 87.8 4.9 7.3 96.3 0 3.7

Oxytetracycline 97.2 0 2.8 86.9 2.0 11.1 63.4 9.8 26.8 74.1 0 25.9

Trimethoprimsulfamethoxazole

93.4 5.7 0.9 81.8 1.0 17.2 24.4 19.5 56.1 92.6 3.7 3.7

a

S, sensitivity; I, intermediate; R, resistant.

750

Table 10-20

Sensitivity and Specificity Calculators for IgM and IgG Titers and CRP Levels

Relative to the Diagnosis of Suspected Encephalitozoon cuniculi Infections in Pet

Rabbits. a,27

IgM ≥

1:64

IgG ≥

1:512

CRP >

38 mg/L

Sensitivity

(%)

Specificity

(%)

Positive

Predictive

Value (%)

Negative

Predictive

Value (%)

+ ND ND 69 75 88 48

ND + ND 62 78 88 44

ND ND + 40 89 90 38

+ + ND 58 89 92 41

+ ND + 27 100 100 34

ND + + 22 97 95 32

+ + + 20 100 100 32

a

CRP, C-Reactive Protein; ND, results of analyte not included in analysis.

References

1 Abd El-Aty A.M., Goudah A., Abo El-Sooud K. Pharmacokinetics, intramuscular

bioavailability and tissue residue profiles of ceftazidime in a rabbit model. Dtsch

Tierarztl Wochenschr. 2001;108:168–171.

2 Abd El-Aty A.M., Goudah A., Abo El-Sooud K., et al. Pharmacokinetics and

bioavailability of florfenicol following intravenous, intramuscular, and oral

administration in rabbits. Vet Res Commun. 2004;28:515–524.

3 Abd El-Aty A.M., Goudah A., Ismail M., et al. Disposition kinetics of difloxacin in

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C H A P T E R 11

Ferrets

James K. Morrisey; Matthew S. Johnston

Table 11-1

Antimicrobial and Antifungal Agents Used in Ferrets.


761

Amikacin


divided q8-24h 53

Potentially ototoxic and nephrotoxic

Amoxicillin

Amoxicillin/clavulanic

acid (Clavamox,

Zoetis)

Amphotericin B

10-15 mg/kg SC, IM

q12h 52

20 mg/kg PO, SC

q12h 52

30 mg/kg PO

q8h×21 days 16

13-25 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 52

18.75 mg per jill PO

q12h 15

0.15 mg/kg IV

3×/wk×2-4 mon 25

0.25-1 mg/kg IV q24h

or q48h until total

dose of 7-25 mg

has been given 25

Helicobacter; can use with metronidazole

and bismuth subsalicylate

For treatment of E. coli induced mastitis

Treatment of cryptococcosis

0.4-0.8 mg/kg IV q7d 52 Blastomycosis; monitor for azotemia;

total dose 7-25 mg

Ampicillin


q8-12h 51,52

Azithromycin 5 mg/kg PO q24h 60

Cefadroxil

Cefovecin (Convenia,

Zoetis)

15-20 mg/kg PO

q12h 52

8 mg/kg SC q2-3d 49 Second generation parenteral

cephalosporin; long-acting antibiotic

Cephalexin 15-30 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 53

Cephaloridine

Chloramphenicol

Ciprofloxacin

10-25 mg/kg SC, IM

q24h×5-7 days 53

25-50 mg/kg PO, SC,

IM, IV q12h 53

50 mg/kg SC, IM

q12h 15

10-30 mg/kg PO

q24h 53

Dermatitis

14-day minimum for proliferative bowel

disease

For treatment of mastitis

Mix 500 mg tablet in 10 mL water

(50 mg/mL); flavor for improved

acceptance

Clarithromycin 12.5 mg/kg PO q8- Helicobacter; use with ranitidine bismuth

762

12h×14 days 44 citrate

Clindamycin

50 mg/kg PO q24h or

divided

q12h×14 days 51

5.5-10 mg/kg PO

q12h 53

Helicobacter; use with omeprazole (or

ranitidine) and metronidazole

Anaerobic infections; bone and dental

disease

12.5 mg/kg PO q12h 53 Toxoplasmosis

Cloxacillin

10 mg/kg PO, IM, IV

q6h 65

Doxycycline 10 mg/kg PO q12h 37 May help with ferret systemic

coronavirus infection

Enrofloxacin (Baytril,

Bayer)

5 mg/kg PO, IM

q12h 15

5-10 mg/kg PO, SC,

IM q12h 53

10-20 mg/kg PO, SC,

IM q12-24h 52

For treatment of mastitis

IM for short term (generally 1 injection);

injectable form can be given PO in

palatable liquid; liquid for PO can

also be compounded

Erythromycin 10 mg/kg PO q6h 52

Fluconazole 50 mg/kg PO q12h 53

220 g/ton feed 53 Controlling Campylobacter diarrhea in

large groups

Gentamicin

2 mg/kg PO q12h×10- Parenteral form can be given PO;

14 days 21 proliferative colitis that is

nonresponsive to chloramphenicol 12,21


q12-24h 52

Griseofulvin 25 mg/kg PO q12-

24h 53

If given IV, dilute with saline and

administer over 20 min

Refractory dermatomycosis; use with

lime-sulfur dips q7d

Itraconazole 1.5 mg/kg PO q24h 41 Invasive nasal cryptococcosis

10 mg/kg PO q12h 20 Histoplasmosis

10-20 mg/kg PO

q24h 67

Cryptococcosis

25-33 mg/kg PO

q24h 25,72

Ketoconazole 10-50 mg/kg PO q12-

24h 39

Lime sulfur Dip q7d 52 Dermatomycosis; see griseofulvin

763

Lincomycin 11 mg/kg PO q8h 53

Metronidazole

15-20 mg/kg PO

q12h 52

Anaerobic infections; can use with

amoxicillin and bismuth subsalicylate

for Helicobacter

Neomycin 10-20 mg/kg PO q6h 52 Potential nephrotoxicity and

neuromuscular blockage

Netilmicin (Netromycin,

Schering)


q24h 53

Severe staphylococcal infections

Nitazoxanide (Alinia,

Romark Laboratories)

5 mg/kg PO q12h 25 Treatment of cryptosporidiosis

Oxytetracycline 20 mg/kg PO q8h 52

Penicillin G (sodium or

potassium)

20,000 U/kg IM q12h 39

40,000 U/kg SC,

IM q24h 52

Pentamidine isethionate 3-4 mg/kg SC q48h 25 Pneumocystis pneumonia

Pyremethamine 0.5 mg/kg PO q12h 25 Combine with trimethoprim sulfa

(30 mg/kg PO q12h) and folic acid (3-

5 mg/kg PO q24h) for treatment of

toxoplasmosis

Sulfadimethoxine

25 mg/kg PO, SC, IM

q24h 53

30-50 mg/kg PO q12-

24h 52

Sulfamethazine

1-5 mg/mL drinking

water 52

Sulfasoxazole 50 mg/kg PO q8h 53

Sulfathalidine

Mix in food at dose of

1 g/day/kg body

weight 12

Opioid useful for management of

Salmonella and to reduce shedding in

colonies

Tetracycline 20-25 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 52

Trimethoprim/sulfa 5 mg/kg PO q24h 15 Pyelonephritis

15 mg/kg IV q12h 8

15-30 mg/kg PO, SC

q12h 52

Dosage amount of combined drugs

Tylosin (Tylan, Elanco)

5-10 mg/kg PO, SC,

IM, IV q12h 51,52

764

Table 11-2

Antiparasitic Agents Used in Ferrets.


Amitraz (Mitaban,

Upjohn)

0.0125% topical

solution q7d×3

treatments, then

0.0375% q7d×3

treatments 52

0.03% topical

solution to

affected area

q7d×3-6

treatments 53

Demodecosis secondary to other illness

Demodecosis; use full concentration

Amprolium 19 mg/kg PO q24h 52 Coccidiosis


Decoquinate

Fenbendazole

Fipronil (Frontline, Merial)

100 mg/kg PO in food

or water for 7

days 25

Topical q7d×3-6

treatments 52

0.5 mg/kg PO for at

least 2 wk 60

20 mg/kg PO

q24h×5 days 52

50 mg/kg PO

q24h×30 days 52

1 pump of spray or

⅕-½ of cat pipette

topical q60d 52

0.2-0.4 mL topically

q30d 52

Isospora

Ectoparasites

Coccidiosis; larger groups of ferrets

Mesocestoides infection

Flea adulticide

Imidacloprid (Advantage,

Bayer)

10 mg/kg topically 36 Flea treatment; PD

0.1-0.4 mL topically

q30d 39,52

Flea adulticide; use small cat/kitten vial

Imidacloprid/moxidectin

(Advantage Multi,

Bayer)

Ivermectin

1.9-3.3 µg/kg

topically q30d 60

0.02 mg/kg PO, SC

q30d 69

Heartworm prevention

Heartworm prevention

0.05 mg/kg PO q30d Recommended treatment for

765

until negative

testing 69

0.05-0.3 mg/kg PO

q24h for 1 mo

after negative skin

scraping 6

0.2-0.5 mg/kg SC

q14d×3

treatments 52

heartworms; give prednisolone

(1 mg/kg/day) concurrently

Demodecosis

Sarcoptic mange

0.4 mg/kg PO, SC,

repeat in 14-

28 days 52 Ear mites, ticks

Lime sulfur

0.5-1 mg/kg in ears,


Dip 1:40 dilution

q7d×6 wk 21

Ear mites; half dose in each ear; treat

cats and dogs in house concurrently

Demodectic mange

Lufenuron (Program,

Novartis)

10 mg/kg SC 25 Flea larvicide

30 mg/kg PO in

food 25

Mebendazole

30-45 mg/kg PO

q30d 52

50 mg/kg PO

q12h×2 days 25

Nematodes

Melarsomine

dihydrochloride

(Immiticide, Merial)

2.5 mg/kg IM once, Heartworm adulticide; less commonly

repeat in 30 days used; use prednisone (1 mg/kg

with 2 treatments q24h×4 mo) following treatment

24 hr apart 52

Metronidazole

Milbemycin oxime

(Interceptor, Novartis)

15-20 mg/kg PO

q12h×14 days 52

1.15-2.33 mg/kg PO

q30d 52

Gastrointestinal protozoa

Heartworm preventive

Moxidectin 0.17 mg SC once 60 Heartworm adulticide

Paromomycin

Piperazine citrate

Praziquantel (Droncit,

Bayer)

165 mg/kg PO

q12h×5 days 60

50-100 mg/kg PO

q14d 53

5-10 mg/kg PO, SC,

repeat in 10 53 -14d 52

Cryptosporidiosis; possible treatment;

use with caution, severe renal

disease possible

Intestinal nematodes

Cestodes

25 mg/kg PO×3 days 60 Trematodes

766

Pyrantel pamoate


in 14 days 52

Pyrethrins Topical q7d prn 52 Fleas; use products safe for puppies and

kittens

Pyrimethamine 0.5 mg/kg PO q12h 25 Toxoplasmosis; antiprotozoal

Selamectin (Revolution,

Zoetis)

6-18 mg/kg

topically 51-53,60

Ectoparasites (fleas, lice, most mites

except Demodex)

15 mg topically q30d 14 Ear mites, fleas; PD

Sulfadimethoxine

Thiabendazole/dexamethasone/neomycin

(Tresaderm, Merial)

45 mg/ferret

topically 50

20-50 mg/kg PO

q24h 7

50 mg/kg PO, then

25 mg/kg

q24h×9 days 52

0.5 mL/kg of a 12.5%

solution mixed

into drinking

water 56

2 drops in each ear

q24h×7 days, off 7

days, on 7 days 55

Ear mites; although this dose has been

reported in a PD study, it appears

that lower (safer?) doses (see

previous) are also quite effective

Coccidia

For treatment of enteric coccidiosis in a

large group of ferrets

Ear mites

Table 11-3

Chemical Restraint/Anesthetic Agents Used in Ferrets.


Acepromazine — See ketamine for combination

0.1-0.25 mg/kg

SC, IM 52

0.1-0.5 mg/kg

SC, IM 33

0.2-0.5 mg/kg

SC, IM 52

Preanesthetic; light sedation

Rapid onset of sedation if given IM; doses

above 0.2 mg/kg are associated with

prolonged recovery times and hypothermia

Tranquilization


Jurox)

5 mg/kg IV 18 Anesthetic induction; PD

5-15 mg/kg IM 28 Sedative

767


Zoetis)

Atropine

Bupivacaine

0.4 mg/kg IM 53

1 mg/kg SC,

IV, IP 52

0.04-0.05 mg/kg

SC, IM, IV 52

1 mg/kg

epidurally 52

1-1.5 mg/kg SC

infiltrate 27

Dexmedetomidine and medetomidine reversal;

give same volume SC, IV, IP as

medetomidine or dexmedetomidine (5×

medetomidine or 10× dexmedetomidine dose

in mg)

Preanesthetic; bradycardia; hypersalivation

Epidural anesthesia; analgesia

Local anesthesia; lasts several hours

Butorphanol

Loading dose Constant-rate infusion (CRI) for perioperative

0.05-

analgesia; see ketamine, midazolam, and

0.2 mg/kg; tiletamine/zolazepam for combinations

maintenance

0.1-

0.4 mg/kg/hr 21

Dexmedetomidine


0.04-0.1 mg/kg

IM 49

α 2 agonist similar to medetomidine; not

commonly used because of bradycardia and

other side effects

Diazepam — See ketamine for combinations; drug is slowly

and incompletely absorbed following IM

administration

0.5 mg/kg PO, Smooth muscle relaxation in urethral

IM, IV q6- obstruction cases

8 h 59

0.5-1.5 mg/kg/h

constant-rate

infusion 3

Seizure control

1 mg/animal IV 52 Seizure control; 1-2 boluses

2 mg/kg SC, IM 25 Tranquilization; seizure control

Enflurane 2%

maintenance 52 Anesthesia

Etomidate 1 mg/kg IV 27 Induction and intubation of critically ill

animal

Fentanyl

citrate/fluanisone

(Hypnorm, Janssen)

Fentanyl/droperidol

(Innovar-Vet,

Schering Plough)

0.3 mg/kg IM 52 Anesthesia; not available in the United States

0.15 mL/kg IM 52 Minor surgical procedures; deep sedation

768

Glycopyrrolate 0.01 mg/kg IM 52 Preanesthetic; bradycardia; hypersalivation

Isoflurane To effect 32 Inhalant anesthesia

Ketamine — Ketamine combinations follow

10-20 mg/kg IM 52 Tranquilization; induction

30-60 mg/kg IM 52 Anesthesia; when used alone, high doses cause

poor muscle relaxation, rough recoveries,

and convulsions; not recommended as a

sole agent

Ketamine


(K) 20-35 mg/kg+

(A) 0.2-

0.35 mg/kg

SC, IM 52

Anesthesia


(D)

(K) 10-20 mg/kg+

(D) 1-2 mg/kg

IM 52 Anesthesia; poor analgesia 61

0.1 mL/kg IV 52 Induction; will allow intubation with

premedication; use equal volumes of (K) at

100 mg/mL and (D) at 5 mg/mL

Ketamine

(K)/dexmedetomidine

(D)

Ketamine

(K)/medetomidine

(M) or

dexmedetomidine

(D)/butorphanol (B)


(M)

(K) 5 mg/kg IM +

(D)

0.03 mg/kg

IM 52

(K) 5 mg/kg+(M)

0.08 mg/kg or

(D)

0.04 mg/kg+

(B) 0.2 mg/kg

IM 32

(K) 5-10 mg/kg+

(M) 0.25-

0.5 mg/kg IV 51

Medetomidine no longer commercially

available; dexmedetomidine at half the dose

of medetomidine may be effective

Medetomidine no longer commercially

available; induction or total injectable

anesthesia; allows for intubation; 60-

80 min of surgical plane of anesthesia

0.1 mL/kg IV 52 Induction; use equal volumes of (K) at

100 mg/mL and (M) at 5 mg/mL


(X)

(K) 10-25 mg/kg+

(X) 1-2 mg/kg

IM 52

Anesthesia; avoid in sick animals; 39 may result

in cardiac arrhythmias 61

Lidocaine

1-2 mg/kg total Local anesthesia; use 1%-2% solution; lasts 15-

SC 27 30 min

0.5-1.0 mg/kg IV

q12h 52

Midazolam (Versed, — See ketamine for combination; can be reversed

769

Roche)

with flumazenil at same volume

0.25-0.3 mg/kg

SC, IM 25

Mild sedation; premedication

Midazolam

(M)/butorphanol (B)

Naloxone (Narcan,

Dupont)

0.25-0.5 mg/kg

SC, IM, IV 53

(M) 0.2 mg/kg+

(B) 0.2 mg/kg

IM 10,58

0.01-0.03 mg/kg

IM, IV 52

0.04 mg/kg

SC, IM, IV 52

Good sedation; premedication for minor

procedures (i.e., ultrasonography,

endoscopy, etc.); if needed, can follow with

gas anesthesia or IV propofol; can reverse

midazolam with flumazenil

Reversal of opioids; up to 1 mg/kg may be used

Propofol 1-3 mg/kg IV 32 Induction when premedicants are used;

bradypnea or apnea and hypoxia common;

intubation and oxygen insufflation is

recommended

2-10 mg/kg IV 25 Induction

Sevoflurane To effect 51 Inhalant anesthesia



— Tiletamine/zolazepam combinations follow

12-22 mg/kg IM 52 Minor surgical procedures at 22 mg/kg;

recovery may be prolonged at higher doses;

poor muscle relaxation; rarely indicated


(T)/xylazine (X)


(T)/xylazine

(X)/butorphanol (B)


(T)/dexmedetomidine

(D)/butorphanol (B)

3 mg/kg

(T)+3 mg/kg

(X) IM 34

1.5 mg/kg

(T)+1.5 mg/kg

(X)+0.2 mg/kg

(B) 34

0.03 mL/kg IM of

prepared

solution (see

comment) 32

Small injection volume; rapid and smooth

induction; allows for endotracheal

intubation

Small injection volume; rapid and smooth

induction; allows for endotracheal

intubation; analgesia; profound

cardiorespiratory depression necessitates

oxygen insufflation

Telazol powder is reconstituted with 2.5 mL of

dexmedetomidine and 2.5 mL of

butorphanol (10 mg/mL) to form final

volume of 5 mL

Xylazine — See ketamine and tiletamine/zolazepam for

combinations

0.1-0.5 mg/kg

SC, IM 53

Tranquilization; may cause hypotension,

bradycardia, and arrhythmias; use with

care in sick animals

770

2 mg/kg IM 33 Rapid immobilization within 3-5 minutes;

associated with arrhythmias, hypotension,

bradycardia

Yohimbine (Yobine,

Lloyd)

0.2-0.5 mg/kg

IV 52

0.5-1 mg/kg

IM 52,53

Xylazine reversal

Table 11-4

Analgesic Agents Used in Ferrets.


Acetylsalicylic

acid (aspirin)

0.5-22 mg/kg PO

q8-24h 52

Analgesia; antiinflammatory; antipyretic; cannot be

compounded as molecule is unstable in aqueous

solution

Amantadine 3-5 mg/kg PO 49 May potentiate other analgesics via NMDA antagonist

action

Bupivicaine 1-2 mg/kg SC 32

Buprenorphine

12 µg/kg

epidurally 21

0.04 mg/kg IM

q4-6h 29

0.01-0.05 mg/kg

oral

transmucosal,

SC, IM, IV

q6-12h 32,52

Epidural analgesia/anesthesia

PK

Analgesia

Butorphanol — See ketamine, midazolam, and tiletamine/zolazepam

(see Table 11-3) for anesthetic combinations

Carprofen

(Rimadyl,

Zoetis)

Fentanyl citrate

0.05-0.5 mg/kg

SC, IM q8-

12h 32,52

0.3 mg/kg SC q2-

4h 29

1-5 mg/kg PO

q12-24h 21,52

4 mg/kg SC 32

1.25-5 µg/kg/h IV

via constant-

Analgesia; lower end of dose may be too low for

clinical effect; higher end of dose range may cause

profound sedation

PK

Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory; use caution in

animals with gastritis or enteritis


771

rate

infusion 21,49

Flunixin

meglumine

(Banamine,

Schering)

Gabapentin

10-30 µg/kg/h IV

via constantrate

infusion 21,49

0.3-2 mg/kg IV,

PO, SC

q12-24h 52,53

2.5 mg IM q12h 14

3-5 mg/kg PO

q8-24h 52

Perioperative analgesia; administer after loading dose

of 5-10 µg/kg IV

Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory; use caution in

animals with gastritis or enteritis; use caution in

using drug more than 5 days continuously; mix

injectable form with palatable syrup for PO

Neurotropic pain; may cause sedation at higher doses

Hydromorphone 0.1 mg/kg SC q1-

2h 29

Opioid; PK

0.1-0.2 mg/kg

SC, IM, IV 39

Ibuprofen 1 mg/kg PO q12-

24h 51

Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory

Ketamine

Ketoprofen

(Ketofen, Fort

Dodge)

Meloxicam

Meperidine

(Demerol,

Winthrop-

Breon)

Morphine

0.1-0.4 mg/kg/h

IV via

constant-rate

infusion 21

0.3-1.2 mg/kg/h

IV via

constant-rate

infusion 21

1-3 mg/kg PO,

SC, IM q24h 53

0.1-0.3 mg/kg

PO, SC, IM

q24h 24,25,27

5-10 mg/kg SC,

IM, IV q2-4h 25

0.1 mg/kg

epidurally 21

0.2-5 mg/kg SC,

IM q2-6h 52


Perioperative analgesia; administer after 2-5 mg/kg IV

loading dose

Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory; use caution with

gastritis or enteritis or if using >5 days

Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory; monitor liver and

kidney values

Analgesia

Analgesia

SC administration of 1 mg/kg associated with emesis,

excitability, and ptyalism 39

772

Nalbuphine

(Nubain,

Endo Labs)

0.5-1.5 mg/kg

IM, IV q2-3h 25

Analgesia

Oxymorphone

0.05-0.2 mg/kg

SC, IM, IV

q8-12 h 27,52 Analgesia

Pentazocine

(Talwin,

Sanofi

Winthrop)

5-10 mg/kg IM

q4h 52

Analgesia

Tramadol

5-10 mg/kg PO

q12-24 25 Analgesia; synergistic with NSAIDs

Table 11-5

Cardiopulmonary Agents Used in Ferrets.


Aminophylline 4-6.6 mg/kg PO, IM, IV q12h 52 Bronchodilator

Amlodipine

(Norvasc,

Pfizer)

Atenolol

(Tenormin,

ICI)

0.2-0.4 mg/kg PO q12h 28 Vasodilator

3.125-6.25 mg/kg PO q24h 35,52 β-adrenergic blocker for hypertrophic

6.25 mg/animal PO q24h 52 cardiomyopathy

Atropine 0.02-0.04 mg/kg SC, IM 52 Bradycardia

0.1 mg/kg intratracheal 52

Benazepril 0.25-0.5 mg/kg PO q24h 35,68 Vasodilator; less nephrotoxic than

enalapril

Captopril

(Capoten,

Squibb)

of 12.5 mg tablet/animal PO

q48h 52

Vasodilator; starting dose, gradually

increase to q12-24h; can cause

lethargy

Digoxin

(Cardoxin,

Evsco)

Diltiazem

(Cardizem,

Marion

Merrill Dow)

0.005-0.01 mg/kg PO q12-24h 52 Positive inotrope for dilated

cardiomyopathy; monitor serum

levels

1.5-7.5 mg/kg PO q12h 35,52 Calcium channel blocker for

hypertrophic cardiomyopathy

Dobutamine 0.01 mL/animal IV prn 28 Hypotension

773

Doxapram 1-2 mg/kg IV 52 Respiratory stimulant

5-11 mg/kg IV 52

Enalapril

(Enacard,

Merck)

0.25-0.5 mg/kg PO q24-48h 35,52 Vasodilator for dilated cardiomyopathy;

do not use with concurrent renal

disease

Epinephrine

0.02 mg/kg SC, IM, IV,

intratracheal 43

0.2 mg/kg IV, intracardiac, IO 25

0.2-0.4 mg/kg diluted in 0.9%

NaCl 25 intratracheal

Cardiac arrest; anaphylactic reactions

(including vaccine reactions)

Administer during cardiopulmonary

arrest

Furosemide 1-4 mg/kg PO, SC, IM, IV q8-

12h 52

2-3 mg/kg IM, IV q8-12h

followed by 1-2 mg/kg PO

q12h for long-term

management 69

Diuretic; use high dose in fulminant

heart failure

Emergency management of fulminant

heart failure

Hyperimmune

serum

1 mL/animal IV once 57 Use serum from a healthy, appropriately

vaccinated ferret for treatment of

canine distemper virus infection

Positive chronotrope to increase

Isoproterenol 20-25 µg/animal SC, IM q4-

40-50 µg/animal PO q4-6h 69 block

6h 69

ventricular rate in third-degree AV

Metaproterenol 0.25-1 mg/kg PO q12h 69 Positive chronotrope to increase


block

Nitroglycerin

(2%) ointment

(Nitrol,

Savage)

- inch/animal q12-24h 52 Vasodilator for cardiomyopathy; apply

to shaved inner thigh or pinna

Phosphodiesterase inhibitor; increases

Pimobendan 0.25-1.25 mg/kg PO q12h 25

0.625-1.25 mg/kg q12h 39 cardiomyopathy or mitral valve


cardiac contractility with dilated

disease

Propranolol

(Inderal,

Wyeth-Ayerst)

0.2-1 mg/kg PO q8-12h 52

2 mg/kg PO, SC q12h 52 β-blocker for hypertrophic

cardiomyopathy; may cause lethargy,

loss of appetite

Pseudophedrine 5 mg/kg PO q8h 69 Positive chronotrope to increase


block

Terbutaline 2.5-5 mg/kg PO q12-24h 27 Bronchodilator

Theophylline 4.25 mg/kg PO q8-12h 12 Bronchodilator; use elixir

774

Table 11-6

Adrenal Gland Disease Agents Used in Ferrets.


Anastrazole (Arimidex,

Astrazeneca

Pharmaceuticals)

Bicalutamide (Casodex,

Astrazeneca

Pharmaceuticals)

Deoxycorticosterone

pivalate (DOCP)

0.1 mg/kg PO

q24h 52

5 mg/kg PO

q24h 52

2 mg/kg IM

q21d 52

Estrogen inhibitor; precursor hormones blocked

by inhibition of aromatase enzyme; use until

signs resolve, then 7 days on, 7 days off, etc.;

pregnant owners should avoid handling

agent

Testosterone inhibitor; competitively inhibits

androgen by binding to receptors in target

tissues; use until clinical signs resolve, then 7

days on, 7 days off, etc.; pregnant owners

should avoid handling agent

Treatment of adrenal insufficiency following

bilateral adrenalectomy


Virbac Animal

Health)

— Long-acting GnRH analog that may suppress LH

and FSH; used to control signs of adrenal

disease; given as a subcutaneous implant

approximately once yearly; now available in

the United States

Finasteride (Proscar,

Merck)

Flutamide (Eulexin,

Schering)

2.7 mg implant

SC 38

3 mg or 4.7 mg

SC 38,71

4.7 mg implant

SC 25

9.4 mg implant

SC 25

5 mg/kg PO

q24h 52

5-10 mg/kg PO

q12-24h 11,52,63

Alternative to spay/neuter; the 2.7 mg implant is

not available in the United States

The 3 mg implant is not available in the United

States

Treatment of adrenal disease; lasts 10-18 months

Treatment of adrenal disease; lasts 16-48 months;

not available in the United States

Inhibits conversion of testosterone to active form

of dihydrotestosterone; also used in treatment

of prostatic enlargement

Androgen inhibitor; reduces enlarged

periurethral prostate tissue; lifetime treatment;

associated with mammary tumors

Leuprolide acetate

(Lupron, AbbVie)

— Long-acting GnRH analog that may cause an

initial stimulation, then suppression of LH

and FSH; palliative treatment of adrenal

disease (will not resolve tumor); administer

q28d until clinical signs regress, then

treatment interval can be up to 6-8 wk;

775

lifetime treatment; higher dosage may shrink

prostate within 12-48 hr which may improve

urine flow in cases of urethral obstruction;

must be prepared in aliquots and frozen

(although the effects of freezing on drug

efficacy are questionable) until used; very

expensive

1 mg IM q60-

75d 11

3 month

depot

Adrenal disease

Lupron, Depot 30 day

(TAP)

Lupron, Depot 4

month (TAP)

100-150 µg/kg

IM q4-

8wk 1,70

250 µg/kg

IM q4-8wk 26

250 µg/kg IM 59

2 mg/kg SC,

IM q16wk 52

Melatonin 0.5-

1 mg/animal

PO q24h 61

prn

5.4 mg implant

SC 52

Symptomatic treatment of hyperadrenocorticism;

may not affect tumor growth

Should last 6-12 mo

Mitotane (o,p′-DDD)

(Lysodren, Bristol-

Myers)

— Hyperadrenocorticism; variable results and not a

reliable alternative to adrenalectomy or other

drugs mentioned above; results have been

largely unsatisfactory and, therefore, use is

not recommended

Trilostane (Vetoryl,

Dechra)

2 mg/kg PO

q12h 52

May be useful for treating pituitary-dependent

hyperadrenocorticism or adrenal dependent

hyperadrenocorticism; reduces synthesis of

adrenal androgens

Table 11-7

Miscellaneous Agents Used in Ferrets. a


Activated charcoal 1-3 g/kg PO 52 Orally administered adsorbent for

gastrointestinal tract toxins/drug

overdoses

776

Amantadine

(Symmetrel, Endo

Labs)

6 mg/kg as aerosol

q12h 5,25,52

Influenza; experimental antiviral

Apomorphine 0.7 mg/kg SC 52 Emetic

5 mg/kg SC 52 Emetic; may cause excitation

Atropine

Azathioprine (Imuran,

GlaxoSmithKline)

5-10 mg/kg SC,

IM 52

0.9 mg/kg PO q24-

72h 9

Organophosphate toxicity

Immunosuppressive agent; may use in

chronic hepatitis

Barium (30%) 8-13 mL/kg PO 52 Gastrointestinal contrast study

Barium (60%) 17 mL/kg PO 66 Followed 30 minutes later by 42 mL/kg of air

for a double contrast gastrointestinal

study

Bismuth subcitrate,

colloidal

6 mg/kg PO q12h 52 In combination with enrofloxacin at

4.25 mg/kg q12h for Helicobacter


(Pepto-Bismol,

Procter & Gamble)

0.25-1 mL/kg PO

q4-8h 52

17.5 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 52

Gastrointestinal ulcers; may help prevent

Helicobacter colonization

Bleomycin (Blenoxane,

BristolMyersSquibb)

10 U/m 2 SC 52 Treatment of squamous cell carcinoma

Budesonide (Entocort,

Astrazenca)

Cabergoline

Calcium EDTA

Chitosan

Up to 1 mg/ferret

PO q24h 49

5 µg/kg PO

q24h×5 days 27

20-30 mg/kg SC

q12h 62

0.5 mg/kg on food

q12h 49

Novel steroid may have use as single agent

treatment for inflammatory bowel disease

Pseudopregnancy

Treatment of heavy metal toxicosis

Intestinal phosphorus and uremic toxin

absorbent; cellulose-like biopolymer from

exoskeletons of marine invertebrates

Chlorambucil

(Leukeran, Glaxo)

1 mg/kg PO 4

Antineoplastic; in chemotherapy protocols for

20 mg/m 2 PO 52 lymphoma a

Chlorpheniramine

(Chlor-Trimeton,

Squibb)

Cimetidine (Tagamet,

SmithKline)

1-2 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 52

5-10 mg/kg PO,

SC, IM q8h 52

10 mg/kg PO,

IV q8h 25

Antihistamine; control sneezing and

coughing when they interfere with eating

or sleeping

H 2 blocker; inhibits acid secretion;

gastrointestinal ulcers; unpalatable; give IV

(slow)

777

Ciproheptadine

(Periactin, Merck)

Cisapride (Propulsid,

Janssen)

Cobalamin

0.5 mg/kg PO

q12h 49

0.5 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 52

25 µg/kg SC q7d×6

wk, then

q14d×6 wk,

then q30d 24

Appetite stimulation

Antiemetic; motility enhancer; not currently

available in the United States; must be

compounded

Chronic diarrhea; with cobalamin

malabsorption

Cyclophosphamide 10 mg/kg PO, SC 52 Antineoplastic; use at higher dose for salvage

200 mg/m 2 PO,

treatment of lymphoma a

SC 4

Cyclosporine

250 mg/m 2 PO q4-

5wk 47

4-6 mg/kg PO

q12h 42

Part of a noninvasive protocol for treatment of

lymphoma a

Pure red cell aplasia

Cytarabine (Cytosar-U,

Zoetis)

Dexamethasone

300 mg/m 2 q8wk 47 Part of a noninvasive protocol for treatment of

lymphoma a

0.5 mg/kg SC, IM,

IV 52

1 mg/kg IM 52 Post-adrenalectomy; follow with prednisone

Dexamethasone sodium

phosphate

1-2 mg/kg IV 3 Cerebral edema therapy

2 mg/kg IM, IV 19 Anaphylactic reaction to vaccine

4-8 mg/kg IM, IV 52 Shock therapy

Dextrose 50% 0.25-2 mL IV 40 Bolus for hypoglycemia; give to effect

1.25%-5% IV 40 Infusion for hypoglycemic or inappetant

animal

Diazoxide (Proglycem,

Medical Market

Specialties)

Diphenhydramine

5-30 mg/kg PO

q12h 45,52

10 mg/kg PO

q24h or

divided q8-

12h 52

0.5-2 mg/kg PO,

IM, IV

q8-12h 43,52

Insulinoma; insulin-blocker; can cause

hypertension, lethargy, depression, nausea

Antihistamine; controls sneezing and

coughing when they interfere with eating

or sleeping; give at high dose IM

prevaccination when previous reaction

occurred or for treatment of vaccine

reaction

Doxapram 1-2 mg/kg IV 52 Respiratory stimulant

778

2-5 mg/kg IV 53

Doxorubicin

Epinephrine

Epoetin alfa (Epogen,

Amgen)

Famotidine (Pepcid,

Merck)

Fludrocortisone

(Florinef,

SquibbMark)

1 mg/kg IV q21d×4

treatments 4

0.02 mg/kg SC,

IM, IV, IT 52

50-150 U/kg PO,

IM q48h 52

0.25-0.5 mg/kg

PO, SC, IV

q24h 52

2.5 mg PO, SC, IV

q24h 25

0.05-0.1 mg/kg PO

q24h or

divided q12h 52

Antineoplastic agent; lymphoma; a salvage

treatment

Severe vaccine reaction; cardiac arrest

Stimulates erythropoiesis; after desired PCV is

reached, administer q7d for maintenance

Inhibits acid secretion; gastrointestinal ulcers

Mineralocorticoid replacement after adrenal

gland removal

Flunixin meglumine

(Banamine,

Schering)

1 mg/kg SC, IM 52 Prevention of prostaglandin-mediated

hypotension of endotoxemia

2.5 mg/animal SC,

IM q12h prn 14

Reduce inflammation in mastitis

Flurbiprofen sodium 1-2 drops q12-

24h 25

Ophthalmic inflammation

Gadoliniumdiethylenetriamine

pentaacetic acid (GI-

DPTA) (Omniscan,

GE Healthcare)

0.2 mL/kg 3 MRI contrast agent for neurological studies

Glucagon

15 ng/kg/min IV

constant-rate

infusion 8

Emergency management of hypoglycemia

secondary to insulinoma

Glutamine __ Amino acid; L form available OTC as a

nutritional supplement; improves immune

system, digestive health, and enhances

muscle production

0.5 g/kg PO

divided daily 49

Enterocyte supplementation with starvation

Gonadotropin-releasing

hormone (GnRH)

(Cystorelin, Sanofi)

20 µg/animal IM 14 Termination of estrus after day 10 of estrus;

repeat in 2 wk prn

Hairball laxative, feline

1-2 mL/animal PO

q48h 52

Trichobezoar prophylaxis

779

Heparin

100 U/animal

(0.45-1.35 kg)

SC

q24h×21 days 35

200 U/kg SC, IM

q12h×5 days 52

May be used in some heartworm treatments

Decreases thromboembolism; start day prior

to some heartworm adulticide treatments

Human chorionic

gonadotropin

(hCG) (Pregnyl,

Organon)

— Use 10 or more days after onset of estrus to

induce ovulation and prevent

hyperestrogenemia; repeat in 1-2 wk prn

50-100 U/animal

IM 14

200-1000 U/animal

IM 52

Hydrocortisone sodium

succinate

Hydrogen peroxide

(3%)

Hydroxyzine (Atarax,

Roerig)

25-40 mg/kg IV 52 Shock

2.2 mL/kg PO 52 Emetic

2 mg/kg PO q8h 52 Antihistamine; pruritus; may cause

drowsiness

Insulin, glargine 0.5 U SC q12h 23

Insulin, NPH

0.1 U/animal SC

q12h 52

Insulin, ultralente

Interferon-α

Iohexol

0.5-1 U/kg (or to

effect) SC 49

0.1 U/animal SC

q24h 52

107 units IV or

intranasal

q24h for

several days 31

0.25-0.5 mL

injected

epidurally at

the L5-L6

intervertebral

disc space/kg 3

Diabetes mellitus; diabetic ketoacidosis;

monitor blood glucose

Diabetes mellitus; monitor blood glucose

Adjunctive therapy for influenza

Myelography

10 mL/kg PO 52 Gastrointestinal contrast study; can dilute 1:1

with water

2.3 mL/kg IV 66 Excretory urography

Ipecac (7%)

2.2-6.6 mL/animal

PO 52

Emetic

780

Iron dextran

10 mg/animal IM

once 49

Iron deficiency anemia; hemorrhage

Isotretinoin 2 mg/kg PO q24h 4 Cutaneous epitheliotropic lymphoma

Kaolin/pectin 1-2 mL/kg PO q2-

6h prn 52

Gastrointestinal protectant

Lactulose syrup

(Cephulac, Merrill

Dow)

0.15-0.75 mL/kg

PO q12h 52

150-175 mg/kg

PO q8-12h 25

Absorption of blood ammonia in hepatic

disease; may cause soft stools at higher

dose

L-asparaginase 400 U/kg SC, IM 4 Antineoplastic

Levothyroxine

Loperamide

10,000 U/m 2 SC

q7d×3

treatments 47

50-100 µg/animal

q12h 72

0.2 mg/kg PO

q12h 52

Part of a noninvasive chemotherapy protocol

Hypothyroidism

Antidiarrheal

Mannitol 0.5-1 g/kg IV 3 Give over 20 min

Methotrexate 0.5 mg/kg IV 4 Antineoplastic

0.8 mg/kg IM 47 Part of noninvasive protocol for treatment of

lymphoma a

Metoclopramide


marianum)

Misoprostol (Cytotech,

Searle)

Nandrolone decanoate

Nutri-Cal (EVSCO)

Octreotide

(Sandostatin,

Novartis)

Omeprazole (Prilosec,

Astra Merck)

0.2-1 mg/kg PO,

SC, IM q6-8h 53

4-15 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 25

1-5 µg/kg PO

q8h 52

1-5 mg/kg IM

q7d 52

1-3 mL/animal PO

q6-8h 52

1-2 µg/kg SC q8-

12h 49

0.7 mg/kg PO

q24h 17

Antiemetic; motility enhancer

Hepatoprotective

Gastric ulcers

Anabolic steroid

Nutritional supplement

Somatostatin analogue; potential treatment

for insulinomas

Proton-pump inhibitor; decreases gastric

secretion of HCl

4 mg/kg PO q24h 25 Helicobacter; use with clarithromycin and

metronidazole

781

Ondansetron 1 mg/kg PO q12-

24h 49

Antiemetic

Oseltamivir phosphate

(Tamiflu,

Genentech)

Oxytocin

Penicillamine

Pentoxifylline (Pentoxil,

Upsher-Smith)

Pet-Tinic (SmithKline)

5-10 mg/kg PO

q12h×10 days 31

0.2-3 U/kg SC,

IM 52

10 mg/kg PO

q24h 25

20 mg/kg PO

q12h 37

0.2 mL/kg PO

q24h 52

Antiviral for influenza treatment

Expels retained fetuses; stimulates lactation

Copper toxicity

Improves perfusion to hypoperfused tissue by

increasing deformability of erythrocytes;

supportive treatment for ferret systemic

coronavirus

Nutritional/iron supplement for anemia

Phenobarbital 1-2 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 39,52

2-10 mg/kg/h IV

constant-rate

infusion 3

Seizure control

Seizure control if diazepam is not effective

Phenoxybenzamine

(Dibenzyline,

SmithKline

Beecham)

Polyprenol

(Vetimmune, Sass &

Sass)

3.75-

7.5 mg/animal

PO

q24-72h 59

3 mg/kg PO

3×/wk 37

α-Adrenergic antagonist; smooth muscle

relaxation for urethral obstruction;

potential gastrointestinal or cardiovascular

side effects

Antioxidant and immunostimulant;

supportive treatment for ferret systemic

coronavirus

Potassium bromide — Seizure control

Prazosin (Minipress,

Zoetis)

Prednisone

22-30 mg/kg q24h

PO 3

70-80 mg/kg q24h

PO 3

0.05-0.1 mg/kg PO

q8h 59

0.25 mg/kg PO

q12h×5 days,

then 0.1 mg/kg

q12h×10 days 52

Dose if used with phenobarbitol

Dose if used alone

α-Adrenergic antagonist; smooth muscle

relaxation for urethral obstruction;

potential for gastrointestinal and

cardiovascular side effects

Postoperative adrenalectomy; after initial dose

of dexamethasone

0.25-1 mg/kg PO Insulinoma; gradually increase to 4 mg/kg/day

782

divided q12h 52

prn; up to 2 mg/kg/day when given with

diazoxide

0.5 mg/kg PO Postoperative adrenalectomy

q12h×7-10

days, then

q24h×7-10

days, then

q48h×7-

10 days 52

1 mg/kg PO Use following heartworm adulticide

q24h×7-

treatment; thromboembolism

14 days 52

1.25-2.5 mg/kg PO

q24h 52

1.5 mg/kg PO

q24h×7 days,

then taper to

0.8 mg/kg PO

q24h 46

Eosinophilic gastroenteritis; treat until clinical

signs abate; gradually decrease to q48h

Management of eosinophilic gastroenteritis

2 mg/kg PO q24h 52 Palliative therapy for lymphosarcoma a or

chronic inflammatory bowel disease; taper

dose as able

Procarbazine

50 mg/m 2 PO

q24h×14 days 4

Part of a noninvasive protocol for treatment of

lymphoma a

Proligestone 50 mg SC 59 Induce ovulation when jill has been in estrus

for 10 days; not available in the United

States

Prostaglandin F 2 -α

(Lutalyse, Upjohn)

0.1-0.5 mg/animal

IM prn 7

Metritis; expels necrotic debris

0.5 mg/animal IM 7 Can induce delivery on day 41 if only one kit;

follow with 6 U oxytocin 1-4 hr later

Pyridostigmine

(Mestinon, Valeant)

1 mg/kg PO q8h 13 Oral cholinesterase inhibitor for potential

treatment of myasthenia gravis

1 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 2

Myasthenia gravis; overdose possible with

long-term use

Ranitidine bismuth

citrate (Pylorid,

Glaxo Wellcome)

24 mg/kg PO q8h 44 Helicobacter; use in combination with

clarithromycin; not available in the United

States

Ranitidine HCl (Zantac,

Glaxo Wellcome)

3.5 mg/kg PO

q12h 25,66

Inhibits acid secretion; gastrointestinal ulcers

S-adenosylmethionine 20-100 mg/kg PO Adjunctive treatment for liver disease;

783

(SAMe) (Vetri-

SAMe, Vetriscience

Labs)

Saw palmetto

Stanozolol (Winstrol,

Upjohn)

Sucralfate (Carafate,

Hoechst Marion

Roussel)

Sulfasalazine

q24h 49

0.15 mL/animal

PO q12h 52

0.5 mg/kg PO, SC

q12h 52

25-125 mg/kg PO

q8-12h 52

62.5-125 mg PO

q8-24h 49

hepatoprotectant; improves synthesis of

glutathione and other compounds

important for liver function

Homeopathic remedy used for dysuria

associated with prostatic enlargement

Anemia; anabolic steroid; use with caution in

hepatic disease

Gastrointestinal ulcers; give before meals;

requires acidic pH

Management of colitis

Theophylline elixir 4.25 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 52

Bronchodilator

Thyroid-stimulating

hormone (TSH)

1 U IV 30 Blood for T 4 measurement taken 120 min later

Thyroxine

Trientine (Syprine,

Valeant)

Ursodiol (Actigall,

Ciba)

0.2-0.4 mg/kg

q12h 52

10 mg/kg PO

q12h 25

15 mg/kg PO

q12h 9

Hypothyroidism; adjust and taper as needed

Chelating agent used for copper toxicosis

Treatment of chronic hepatopathies

Vincristine 0.12-0.2 mg/kg IV 4

0.75 mg/m 2 IV 4 Minimal myelosuppression

Vitamin A (retinol

palmitate)

Vitamin B complex

Vitamin C

Vitamin K

50,000 U IM

q24h×2

treatments 62

1-2 mg/kg IM

prn 52

50-100 mg/kg PO

q12h 25

2.5 mg/kg SC,

then 1-

2.5 mg/kg PO

divided q8-

12h×5-7 days 49

Reduced mortality secondary to canine

distemper virus infection

Dose based on thiamine content

Adjunct therapy for lymphoma

First generation rodenticide toxicity (e.g.,

warfarin class)

5 mg/kg SC, then Second generation rodenticide

2.5 mg/kg PO toxicity (e.g., brodifacoum class)

divided q8-

12h×3 wk 49

784

2.5-5 mg/kg SC,

then 2.5 mg/kg

PO divided q8-

12h×3-4 wk 49

Inandione or unknown anticoagulant toxicity

Yeast, brewer’s - tsp PO q12h 52 Source of chromium to stabilize glucose and

insulin for animals with insulinomas

Zanamivir (Relenza,

GlaxoSmithKline)

12.5 mg/kg

intranasal

only 5

0.3-1 mg/kg via

inhalation

q12h 31

Antiviral for influenza treatment; greater effect

if used with amantadine

a

See Table 11-13 for chemotherapy protocols for lymphoma.

Table 11-8

Hematologic and Biochemical Values of Ferrets. 22,43,52

Measurements Female Male

Hematology a

PCV (%) 34.6-55 33.6-61

RBC (10 6 /µL) 6.77-9.76 7.1-13.2

Hgb (g/dL) 11.9-17.4 12-18.5

MCV (fL) 44.4-53.7 42.6-52.5

MCH (pg) 16.4-19.4 13.7-19.7

MCHC (g/dL) 33.2-42.2 30.3-34.9

WBC (10 3 /µL) 2.5-18.2 4.4-19.1

Neutrophils (%) 12-84 11-82

Band cells (%) 0-4.2 0-2.2

Lymphocytes (%) 12-95 12-73

Monocytes (%) 1-8 0-9

Eosinophils (%) 0-9 0-8.5

Basophils (%) 0-2.9 0-2.7

Platelets (10 3 /µL) 264-910 297-730

Reticulocytes (%) 2-14 1-12

Biochemistries

ALP (U/L) 3-62 11-120

785

ALT (U/L) 54-280 54-289

AST (U/L) 40-120 28-248

Bilirubin, total (mg/dL) 0-1 0-0.1

Bile acids (µmol/L) 0.0-28.9 0.0-28.9

BUN (mg/dL) 10-45 11-42

Calcium (mg/dL) 8-10.2 8.3-11.8

Carbon dioxide (mEq/L) 16.5-27.8 12.2-28

Chloride (mEq/L) 112-124 102-126

Cholesterol (mg/dL) 122-296 64-221

Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.2-1 0.2-1

GGT (U/L) 0-5 0-5

Glucose (mg/dL) 85-207 62.5-198

LDH (U/L) — 241-752

Lipase (U/L) — 0-200

Phosphorus (mg/dL) 4.2-10.1 4-8.7

Potassium (mEq/L) 4.2-7.7 4.1-7.3


Albumin (g/dL) 3.2-4.1 2.8-4.2

Globulin (g/dL) 2.2-3.2 2-4

Albumin:globulin 1-1.6 0.8-2.1

Sodium (mEq/L) 142-156 137-162

Triglycerides (mg/dL) — 10-32

a

Several of these hematology values were obtained from ferrets under isoflurane anesthesia. This can

artificially lower red cell indices and may be responsible for the wide ranges in some values.

786

Table 11-9

Protein Electrophoresis Values for Ferrets. 48

Parameter

Normal Values

Total protein (g/dL) 5.6-7.2

Albumin (g/dL) 3.3-4.1

Alpha 1 globulins (g/dL) 0.33-0.56

Alpha 2 globulins (g/dL) 0.36-0.60

Beta globulins (g/dL) 0.83-1.2

Gamma globulins (g/dL) 0.3-0.8

A/G 1.3-2.1

Table 11-10

Biologic and Physiologic Data of Ferrets. 43,52,64

Parameter

Adult body weight, male

Adult body weight, female

Birth weight

Weight at 7 days

Weight at 14 days

Sexual maturity

Reproductive cycle

Gestation period

Normal Values

1-2 kg

0.65-0.95 kg

6-12 g

30 g average

60-70 g

6-12 mo (usually 1st spring after birth)

Induced ovulator

42±2 days

Litter size 1-18 (average 8, primiparous jill 10)

Weaning age

Eyes open

Hearing

Life span

Food consumption

Water consumption

Gastrointestinal transit time

Enteral feeding requirements

6-8 wk

34 days

32 days

5-9 yr (average in United States)

43 g/kg/day

75-100 mL/day

3-4 hr

2000-3000 kcal/kg/day

787

Dental formula 2(I 3/3 C 1/1 P 3/3 M 1/2)=34

Deciduous teeth erupt

Permanent teeth erupt

Canines erupt

Molars erupt (first to fourth)

Heart rate

Mean systolic blood pressure

Respiratory rate

Rectal temperature

Blood volume

Intraocular pressure

Endotracheal tube size

Prothrombin time (PT)

Partial thromboplastin time (PTT)

20-28 days

50-74 days

50 days

53-74 days

200-400 beats/min

133-161 mmHg

33-36 breaths/min

37.8-40°C (100-104°F)

60-80 mL (5%-7% body weight)

22.8±5.5 mmHg

2-4 mm ID

8-16.5 sec

16-25 sec

Table 11-11

Urinalysis Values of Ferrets. 52

Parameter Male Female

Volume (mL/24 hr) 26 (8-48) 28 (8-140)

Sodium (mmol/24 hr) 1.9 (0.4-6.7) 1.5 (0.2-5.6)

Potassium (mmol/24 hr) 2.9 (1-9.6) 2.1 (0.9-5.4)

Chloride (mmol/24 hr) 2.4 (0.7-8.5) 1.9 (0.3-7.8)

pH 6.5-7.5 a 6.5-7.5 a

Protein (mg/dL) 7-33 0-32

Exogenous creatinine clearance (mL/min/kg) b — 3.32±2.16

Insulin clearance (mL/min/kg) — 3.02±1.78

Specific gravity 1.040-1.052 __

a

Urine pH can vary according to diet; normal urine pH in ferrets on a high-quality, meat-based diet is

approximately 6.

b

Endogenous creatinine clearance (mL/min/kg)=2.5±0.93.

788

Table 11-12

Proposed Schedule of Vaccinations and Routine Prophylactic Care for Ferrets. 43,52

Age

Recommendation

4-6 wk CDV a vaccination if dam is unvaccinated

6-8 wk CDV a,b vaccination if dam was vaccinated; physical examination; fecal examination

10-11 wk CDV a-c vaccination; physical examination; fecal examination

12-14 wk CDV a-c vaccination; rabies vaccination; d physical examination; fecal examination

(optional)

4-8 mo Spay/castrate; fecal examination; remove musk glands (optional); start

heartworm and flea prevention (endemic areas)

1 yr CDV a,e booster; rabies booster; d physical examination; dental prophylaxis and

fecal examination if indicated; CBC; heartworm and flea prevention

2 yr CDV a,e,f booster; rabies booster; d physical examination; dental prophylaxis and

fecal examination if indicated; CBC; heartworm and flea prevention

3 yr and

older

(every

6 mo)

CDV a,e,f booster (annual); rabies booster d (annual); physical examination; dental

prophylaxis and fecal examination if indicated; CBC; serum chemistries,

including fasting blood glucose; heartworm and flea prevention

a

CDV, canine distemper vaccine; Purevax (Merial) is the only CDV approved for use in ferrets; if Purevax

is unavailable, other vaccines which have been used include Novibac DPv (Merck) and Recombitek

(Merial).

b

Purevax is recommended to be administered at 8 wk, then every 3 wk for 3 doses.

c

Vaccinations are generally administered at 2-3 wk intervals until the ferret is 12-14 wk of age.

d

Only a killed virus vaccine (Imrab 3, Rhône Merieux) should be used. Vaccines should be separated by

several days to reduce vaccine reactions.

e

In previously unvaccinated adults, an initial series of two vaccinations given 14-28 days apart should be

given.

f

Rabies and distemper titers are under evaluation and may alter the revaccination schedule of older

animals.

Table 11-13

Chemotherapy Protocols for Lymphoma in Ferrets. a

Protocol I 47,52

Week Day Agent Dosage

1 1 Prednisone 1-2 mg/kg PO q12h

and continued

throughout

therapy

789

1 Vincristine 0.025 mg/kg IV

3 Cyclophosphamide 10 mg/kg PO, SC

2 8 Vincristine 0.025 mg/kg IV



24 Cyclophosphamide 10 mg/kg PO, SC

7 46 Cyclophosphamide 10 mg/kg PO, SC

9 63 Prednisone Gradually decrease

dose to 0 over the

next 4 wk

Protocol II b,52

Week Agent Dosage


L-asparaginase

Prednisone

400 U/kg IP

1 mg/kg PO q24h and continued throughout therapy

2 Cyclophosphamide 10 mg/kg SC

3 Doxorubicin 1 mg/kg IV

4-6 As weeks 1-3 above,

but discontinue

L-asparaginase

—


10 Cyclophosphamide 10 mg/kg SC


14 Methotrexate 0.5 mg/kg IV

Protocol III 47

Week Agent Dosage

1 L-asparaginase 10,000 U/m 2 SC

Cytoxin

Prednisone

250 mg/m 2 PO, SC (in 50 mL/kg of NaCl SC)

colspan="2"2 mg/kg PO daily

for 7 days, then q48h

throughout therapy


Perform CBC c


790

Cytosar 300 mg/m 2 SC×2 days (dilute 100 mg with 1 mL H 2 0)

4 Perform CBC c

5 Cytoxin 250 mg/m 2 PO, SC (in 50 mL/kg of NaCl SC)

7 Methotrexate

Perform CBC c

0.8 mg/kg IM

8 Perform CBC c


11 Cytosar 300 mg/m 2 SC×2 days (dilute 100 mg with 1 mL H 2 O)

Leukeran

1 tablet/animal PO or ½ tablet/animal PO×2 days

12 Perform CBC c


15 Procarbazine 50 mg/m 2 PO q24h×14 days

16 Perform CBC c

17 Perform CBC c


20 Cytosar 300 mg/m 2 SC×2 days (dilute 100 mg with 1 mL H 2 O)

Leukeran

1 tablet/animal PO or ½ tablet/animal PO×2 days


26 Procarbazine 50 mg/m 2 PO q24h×14 days

27 Perform CBC c and

chemistry panel

If not in remission, continue weeks 20-26 for 3 cycles

Protocol IV 4

Week Agent Dosage

3 days L-asparaginase 400 U/kg SC (premedicate with diphenhydramine)


Prednisone

Cyclophosphamide

1 mg/kg PO q24h continue throughout therapy

10 mg/kg PO




Cyclophosphamide

10 mg/kg PO

7, 10, 13, etc. Vincristine 0.12 mg/kg IV

Cyclophosphamide

10 mg/kg PO

791

Continue therapy every 3 wk for 1 yr, then decrease to

every 4-6 wk

Rescue

treatment

Doxorubicin

1-2 mg/kg IV (over 20 min)

a

CBC should be checked weekly during therapy; after therapy is discontinued, continue to monitor CBC

and do physical examination at 3-mo intervals.

b

Protocol is continued in sequence biweekly after week 14, making the therapy protocol less intensive.

c

If CBC shows severe myelosuppression, reduce dosage by 25% for all subsequent treatments of the

previously used myelosuppressive drug.

792

Table 11-14

Conversion of Body Weight (kg) to Body Surface Area (m 2 ). 47

Body Weight (kg) Body Surface Area (m 2 )

0.5 0.063

0.6 0.071

0.7 0.079

0.8 0.086

0.9 0.093

1.0 0.100

1.1 0.107

1.2 0.113

1.3 0.119

1.4 0.125

1.5 0.131

1.6 0.137

1.7 0.142

1.8 0.148

1.9 0.153

2.0 0.159

2.1 0.164

2.2 0.169

2.3 0.174

2.4 0.179

2.5 0.184

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797


798

C H A P T E R 1 2

Miniature Pigs

Valarie V. Tynes; Kristie Mozzachio

Table 12-1

Antimicrobial Agents Used in Miniature Pigs. a


799

Amoxicillin

10-22 mg/kg PO

q12-24h 14

11-13 mg/kg PO

q24h 3


(Clavamox, Pfizer)

11-13 mg/kg PO

q12 21 -24h 10

12.5-25 mg/kg

PO q12h 25,b

Ampicillin

20 mg/kg SC, IM

q8h 3

6.5 mg/kg IM

q24h 10

• Sodium

10-20 mg/kg SC,

IM, IV

q6-8h 14,25,b

20-40 mg/kg PO

q8h 25,b

• Trihydrate

4.4-22 mg/kg IM

q8-24h 14

10-50 mg/kg SC,

IM q12-24h 25,b

Apramycin (Apralan,

Elanco)

Ceftiofur

• Hydrochloride

(Excenel, Zoetis)

• Sodium (Naxcel,

Zoetis)

• Long acting (Excede,

Zoetis)

Ceftriaxone

Cephalexin

10-20 mg/kg PO

q12-24h 10

3-10 mg/kg IM

q24h 10

3-5 mg/kg IM

q24h 14 ×3

days 25

3-5 mg/kg IM

q24h 14 ×3

days 25

5 mg/kg IM c q3-

5d 21

50-75 mg/kg IM,

IV q24h 28

10-30 mg/kg PO

q6-12h 21,25,b

No more than 2 mL/injection site c

Cephradine (Velosef,

Bristol-Myers Squibb)

25-50 mg/kg PO

q12h 28 800

Clindamycin

Doxycycline

Enrofloxacin (Baytril,

Bayer)

Florfenicol (Nuflor,

Intervet)

Nuflor 2.3% concentrate

solution

Gentamicin

Lincomycin

Metronidazole

11-33 mg/kg

q12h PO 21,25,b

3-5 mg/kg PO

q12h 21,25,b

10 mg/kg PO

q24h 25,b

2.5-5 mg/kg IM

q24h 25,30

7.5 mg/kg SC,

IM c

15 mg/kg IM

q48h 25

20 mg/kg IM

q48h 14

20 mg/kg PO,

IM, IV q48h 17

400 mg/gal

drinking

water×5

days 25

5 mg/kg PO

q24h 10

10-15 mg/kg SC,

IM q24h 25

1.1-2.2 mg/kg×3

days in

drinking

water 25

10 mg/kg IM

q24h 10

11 mg/kg IM

q24h 14,25

8.4 mg/kg q24h

in drinking

water 14 ×5-10

days 25

Anaerobes:

15 mg/kg PO

Tusk abscesses

Tick-associated illness

Extra-label use prohibited in food-producing

animals; oral form extremely unpalatable

to pigs making PO administration nearly

impossible, even with compounded

flavoring 21

Colibacillosis and swine dysentery

Mycoplasma

Swine dysentery

Prohibited in food-producing animals

801

q12h 25,b

Giardia: 12-

15 mg/kg PO

q12h for 8

days 25,b

15-20 mg/kg PO

q12h 15

Neomycin

10 mg/kg PO

q6h 10

11 mg/kg PO

q24h 2

Oxytetracycline

44-55 mg/kg PO

q24h 3

7-11 mg/kg IM

q24h 3

• Long acting

(Liquamycin LA-200,

Zoetis)

1.4-2.3 mg/kg

q24h

IM×maximum

4 days c

Penicillin G, procaine 15,000-25,000

U/kg IM

q24h 25

20,000-45,000

U/kg IM

q24h 10

20,000-60,000

U/kg IM

q24h 14

Spectinomycin (Spectam,

Merial)

6.6-22 mg/kg IM

q12-24h 25

Tetracycline

• Long acting

50-100 mg/pig

PO 25

10-20 mg/kg IM

q24h 10

11 mg/kg q12h in

water or as a

bolus 25

20 mg/kg IM

q48h 10

Enteritis and pneumonia


15 mg/kg PO

q12h 25,b 802

30 mg/kg PO

q12-24h 25,b

Tulathromycin (Draxxin,

Zoetis)

30 mg/kg PO

q24h 14

2.5 mg/kg IM as

a single

injection 25

Draxxin 25 formulation available for small

pigs

Tylosin (Tylan, Elanco) 9 mg/kg IM q12-

24h 10

a

Not to be used in animals for human consumption.

b

Authors note: In the past, in the absence of published dosages specific to swine, the authors have

often found it necessary to rely upon canine dosages published by Papich (2016) when treating pet pigs.

This has generally been found to be safe and effective.

c

From product insert.

803

Table 12-2

Antiparasitic Agents Used in Miniature Pigs. a


Dichlorvos

11.2-21.6 mg/kg PO

once 25

20 mg/kg PO 2

Doramectin

(Dectomax,

Zoetis)

0.3 mg/kg IM 16,25 Use same as ivermectin; may cause less

discomfort than ivermectin when

injected 21

Fenbendazole (Safe-

Guard, Intervet)

Ivermectin

3 mg/kg PO q24h×3

days 16

9 mg/kg PO in divided

doses×3-12 days b

0.3 mg/kg PO, SC,

IM 4,5,25

Whipworms

Repeat in 10-14 days for sarcoptic mange; PO

dosing ineffective for treating sarcoptic

mange; may cause pain on injection 21

Levamisole 10 mg/kg PO 2

8 mg/kg in drinking

water 25

Piperazine 200 mg/kg PO 2

110 mg/kg in drinking

water 25

Pyrantel pamoate


prn 4,5

22 mg/kg in feed,

once 21,25

Can give ½ of this dose initially if suspect

high parasite burden; in 7-10 days, repeat

with full dose 21

Sulfadimethoxine

(Albon, Zoetis)

25 mg/kg PO 2 Coccidia

55 mg/kg PO as

loading dose

followed by

27.5 mg/kg PO

q12h 25,c

a


b

From product insert.

c




804

Table 12-3

Chemical Restraint/Anesthetic Agents Used in Miniature Pigs. a


Acepromazine 0.1-0.45 mg/kg IM 3 Tranquilization; slow onset of action;

inconsistent results

0.2-1.1 mg/kg IM 5 Higher doses reportedly produce more

profound tranquilization

Acepromazine (A)/

ketamine (K)

(A) 0.5-1.1 mg/kg

IM, followed in

15 min by (K)

15-33 mg/kg IM 3

Atipamezole

Atropine

(A) 1.1 mg/kg+(K)

33 mg/kg IM,

SC 29

For IM dose, see

comments

0.02-0.05 mg/kg SC,

IM, IV 29

Reverses detomidine and dexmedetomidine,

and potentially other α 2 -adrenergic

agonists; actual volume is same as volume

used for detomidine (1 mg/mL) or

dexmedetomidine (0.5 mg/mL)

Anesthesia adjunct; increases heart rate,

decreases GI and respiratory secretions

Azaperone (Stresnil,

Schering-Plough)

— See also ketamine for combinations

0.25-0.5 mg/kg IM 4 Relaxation, sedation, without ataxia up to

0.25-2 mg/kg IM 24 0.5 mg/kg dose

2 mg/kg IM 4 Moderate sedation; doses exceeding 2 mg/kg

likely to produce negative side effects such

2-8 mg/kg IM,

as hypotension, bradycardia, and

SC 9,24,29

decreased cardiac output and

contractility 24

5-8 mg/kg IM 3

Azaperone (Az)/midazolam

(Mi)/± atropine (At)

(Az) 4 mg/kg+(Mi)

0.5 mg/kg±(At)

0.04 mg/kg IM 3 Moderate to deep sedation; no analgesia

Butorphanol — See detomidine, dexmedetomidine, ketamine,

tiletamine/zolazepam, xylazine for

combinations; see Table 12-4 for analgesic

doses


Zoetis)

— Detomidine combinations follow

805

Detomidine

(De)/butorphanol

(B)/Midazolam (Mz)

Dexmedetomidine


(De) 0.06-

Rapid, smooth induction with excellent

0.125 mg/kg+(B) relaxation

0.3-0.4 mg/kg +

0.3-0.4 (Mz) IM 24

— See

dexmedetomidine/midazolam/butorphanol

for combination

Dexmedetomidine

(De)/midazolam


(De) 0.01-

0.04 mg/kg+(Mi)

0.1-0.3 mg/kg+

(B) 0.2-0.4 mg/kg

IM 20,21

Can substitute xylazine 1 mg/kg (for

dexmedetomidine)

Diazepam — See ketamine for combination

0.1-0.5 mg/kg PO 24,33 Calming for car trip or veterinary

examination

0.5-1.5 mg/kg IV 30 Sedation; rarely used in conscious pigs since

venous access is extremely difficult

0.5-2 mg/kg IM 3 Effective muscle relaxation

5.5-8.5 mg/kg IM 7 Sedation

Fentanyl

0.02-0.04 mg/kg SC,

IM, IV q2h 25,b

0.02-0.05 mg/kg, IM,

IV 18

Fentanyl/droperidol

(Innovar-Vet, Schering-

Plough)

1 mL/10-14 kg IM 35 Sedation; maximum effect in 20 min;

analgesia with some mild sedation

1 mL/9-25 kg IM 5,18 Tranquilization; minor procedures

Flumazenil 0.02 mg/kg IV 25 Benzodiazepine (midazolam, diazepam)

reversal; use with caution if ketamine is

only other agent being used

1 mg/10-15 mg

midazolam IM 7

Glycopyrrolate

Guaifenesin(G)/ketamine

(K)/xylazine (X)

0.004-0.01 mg/kg

SC, IM, IV 29

0.5-1 mg/kg IV to

induce

unpremedicated

pig; decrease

dose by 50% if

sedative or

Anesthesia adjunct; increases heart rate,

decreases GI and respiratory secretions;

use with caution as heart may be

overtaxed; atropine preferred 20

Administer atropine IM prior to induction.

Combination prepared using (G)

(50 mg/mL), (K) (2 mg/mL), and (X)

(1 mg/mL); induction; maintain at

2 mL/kg/h; rarely used since IV access is

impractical in conscious pigs

806

tranquilizer

given prior to

induction 35

Isoflurane (or sevoflurane)

Ketamine

Ketamine (K)/azaperone

(Az)

Ketamine (K)/diazepam (D)

4%-5% induction or

to effect 21,33

1%-3%

maintenance 20,21,33

Use only in

combination

(K) 15 mg/kg+(Az)

2 mg/kg IM,

SC 9,29

(K) 8-10 mg/kg+(D)

1-2 mg/kg IM 3

(K) 15-20 mg/kg+(D)

2 mg/kg IM,

SC 9,29

Especially recommended for sick or

debilitated pigs and for those <8 weeks of

age

Ketamine combinations follow; see

guaifenesin, tiletamine/zolazepam for

additional combinations

Used alone results in poor muscle relaxation,

poor visceral analgesia, and rough

recovery (hyperkinesia, severe and

prolonged ataxia, distress vocalizations),

especially IM; use with other agents

Short-term anesthesia; prolong with (K) 2-

(D) 1-2 mg/kg IM,

12-20 mg/kg IM 5 smoother recovery than ketamine alone

followed by (K) 4 mg/kg IV prn; minimal analgesia;

Ketamine(K)/midazolam

(Mi)

(K) 10 mg/kg+(Mi) This drug combination can cause profound

1 mg/kg IM 3 hypothermia 29


(K) 15-20 mg/kg+(X)

2 mg/kg IM,

SC 3,9,29

(K) 10 mg/kg+(X)

1 mg/kg IM 20

Anesthesia; rough recovery

(X) 2.2 mg/kg IM, Short-term anesthesia; prolong with (K) 2-

followed by (K) 4 mg/kg IV prn

12-20 mg/kg IM 5


(X)/butorphanol (B)

(K) 5 mg/kg+(X) Anesthesia; butorphanol

2 mg/kg+(B) enhances analgesia

0.22 mg/kg IM 3

(K) 11 mg/kg+(X)

807

2 mg/kg+(B)

0.22 mg/kg IM 7


(X)/midazolam (Mi)


(X)/oxymorphone (O)

(K) 5-10 mg/kg+(X) Can substitute dexmedetomidine (for

1 mg/kg+(Mi) xylazine) at 10-40 mcg/kg

0.2 mg/kg IM 20

(K) 2 mg/kg+(X)

2 mg/kg+(O)

0.075 mg/kg IV 29

Lidocaine 2% Topical 18 Spray onto larynx 2 min before intubation to

prevent laryngospasm

Lidocaine/prilocaine (EMLA

cream, AstraZeneca)

Topical 18

Apply to skin at time of premedication to ease

intravenous access; may take 20-30 min to

take effect

Midazolam — See azaperone, dexmedetomidine, ketamine,

xylazine for combinations

0.1-0.5 mg/kg IM,

IV 9,29

Sedation

Naloxone (P/M Naloxone,

Schering-Plough)

0.5-2 mg/kg IV 29 Narcotic reversal; given to effect prn

Nitrous oxide — Nitrous oxide and oxygen at equal levels (1-

2 L/min) before isoflurane induction; may

help calm animal during mask induction

Pentobarbital 20-40 mg/kg IV 9,29 Anesthesia with some analgesia

Promazine hydrochloride 0.4-1 mg/kg IV 13 Tranquilization

0.5-2 mg/kg IM 13 Tranquilization

Sevoflurane — See isoflurane

Thiamylal 6.6-30 mg/kg IV 9,29 Induction



— Tiletamine/zolazepam combinations follow

Poor muscle relaxation; may cause rough

recovery; 24,33 avoid using as sole agent

Anesthesia with good analgesia


(T)/ketamine

(K)/xylazine (X)

— Reconstitute (T) (500 mg) with 2.5 mL (K)

(100 mg/mL) and 2.5 mL (X) (100 mg/mL),

instead of sterile water; mixture has

50 mg/mL each of tiletamine, zolazepam,

ketamine, xylazine; rough recovery

2.2-4.4 mg/kg IM 5 Induction; maintain with 2.2 mg/kg IV prn

0.03 mL/kg IM 21 Heavy sedation; useful prior to euthanasia

Tiletamine/zolazepam (T) 2 mg/kg+(X) Not routinely recommended; difficult venous

808

(T)/xylazine (X) 2 mg/kg IV 4 access in a conscious pig makes this

impractical

(T) 4-6 mg/kg+(X) Anesthesia; rapid induction; poor muscle

2.2 mg/kg IM 4,9 relaxation; may have rough recovery

(T) 4.4 mg/kg+(X)

4.4 mg/kg IM,

SC 29

(T) 4.4 mg/kg+(X)

2.2-4.4 mg/kg

IM 3

(T) 4.4-6 mg/kg+(X)

1.1-4.4 mg/kg

IM 7

(X) 2.2 mg/kg, then

(T) 2-4 mg/kg

IM 13

Anesthesia duration of 30-40 min; the use of

two separate injections makes this an

impractical choice


(T)/xylazine

(X)/butorphanol (B)

(T) 0.6 mg/kg+(X) 2-

3 mg/kg+(B) 0.3-

0.4 mg/kg IM 24

(T) 4.4 mg/kg+(X)

2.2 mg/kg+(B)

0.22 mg/kg IM,

SC 29

Xylazine — See also guaifenesin, ketamine,

tiletamine/zolazepam for combinations

0.5-3 mg/kg IM 5 Sedation; tranquilization; some analgesia;

deep sedation seldom encountered

Xylazine (X)/butorphanol

(B)/midazolam (Mi)

(X) 2-3 mg/kg+(B) Antagonize xylazine with atipamezole or

0.3-0.4 mg/kg+ yohimbine and butorphanol with

(Mi) 0.3-

naltrexone; xylazine or midazolam can be

0.4 mg/kg IM 24 administered as a premedicant or

concurrently 24

Yohimbine

0.25-0.5 mg/kg SC,

IM 25,b

0.11 mg/kg IV 25,b

0.3 mg/kg SC, IM,

IV 7

α 2 -antagonist (xylazine, dexmedetomidine,

detomidine reversal)

a


b




809

Table 12-4

Analgesic Agents Used in Miniature Pigs. a


Aspirin 10-20 mg/kg PO q6-8h 22,25,29 Also antiinflammatory and antipyretic; use

enteric coated tablets

Bupivicaine

(multivesicular

liposomal)

Infiltrate surgical site with

100-200 mg/site 25,b Local anesthetic

Buprenorphine 0.005-0.01 mg/kg IM q12h 11

0.005-0.01 mg/kg IM, IV q8-

12h 18

0.005-0.02 mg/kg IM q6-12h 3

0.01-0.05 mg/kg SC, IM, IV

q6-12h 22

0.01-0.05 mg/kg SC, IM q8-

12h 29

0.05-0.1 mg/kg IM q8-12h 9

Butorphanol 0.05-0.2 mg/kg SC, IV q3-

4h 11

0.1-0.3 mg/kg SC, IM q8-

12h 29

0.1-0.3 mg/kg SC, IM q4-

6h 3,9

0.2-0.4 mg/kg SC, IM, IV q2-

6h 22

Carprofen c 1-4 mg/kg SC q24h 3

2 mg/kg SC q24h 29

2.2 mg/kg SC q12h 22

2-3 mg/kg PO q12h 9,29

2-4 mg/kg SC, IV q24h 17

4.4 mg/kg SC q24h 22

Dexamethasone 0.01-0.04 mg/kg IM 21 Antiinflammatory used in treating

arthritis; administer once then switch

to oral medications

Etodolac c 10-15 mg/kg PO q24h 22 810

Fentanyl 0.03-0.1 mg/kg/h IV (CRI) 3 Analgesia

0.005-0.01 mg/kg SC, IM, IV

q2h 25,b

0.02-0.05 mg/kg IM, IV prn 22

0.02-0.05 mg/kg IM q2h 9

0.02-0.1 mg/kg/h IV CRI 22

Fentanyl,

transdermal

patch

Flunixin

meglumine

(Banamine,

Schering

Plough)

12.5 or 25 µg/h/27-82 kg 22 Intense or prolonged pain or when oral or

injectable analgesics are not an option;

apply 12 h before surgery 22 ; may last up

to 72 h

0.5-1 mg/kg SC, IV q12-24h 11

1.1 mg/kg SC, IM, IV q12-

24h 22

1-2 mg/kg SC q24h 3

2.2 mg/kg IM once 25

Gabapentin

5-15 mg/kg PO q12h, then

increase gradually to as

high as 40 mg/kg PO q8-

12h prn 21,25,b

Hydromorphone 0.1-0.2 mg/kg IV q2h 22

0.2 mg/kg SC, IM q4-6h 22

Ibuprofen c 10 mg/kg PO q6-8h 22

Ketoprofen c 1 mg/kg PO q24h up to 5

d 22,25,b

1-3 mg/kg PO, SC, IM q24h 29

3 mg/kg PO, SC, IM, IV

q24h 3,22,25

Meloxicam c 0.1-0.4 mg/kg PO q24h 21,22

0.4 mg/kg SC, IM q24h 22,29

Meperidine

(Demerol,

Winthrop

Breon)

Morphine

2-10 mg/kg IM q4h 9,11

10 mg/kg SC q8h 29

0.2 mg/kg (max total dose

20 mg) IM q4h or prn 11

0.2 mg/kg SC, IM q4h 22

0.2-0.5 mg/kg IM q4h 20

0.2-1 mg/kg IM q4h 3 811

Oxymorphone

0.1-0.2 mg/kg SC, IM, IV, redose

at 0.05-0.1 mg/kg

q1-2h 22

0.15 mg/kg IM, SC q8-12h 29

0.15 mg/kg IM q4h 9

Pentazocine

(Talwin-V,

Pharmacia &

Upjohn)

1.5-3 mg/kg IM, SC q4h 9,29

2-5 mg/kg SC, IM, IV q4h 22

Phenylbutazone 4 mg/kg IV q24h 22,25 Also antiinflammatory and antipyretic


5-20 mg/kg PO q12h 29

10-20 mg/kg PO q12h 9

Prednisone

0.5-1 mg/kg PO q12-24h

initially, then taper to

q48h 22

Antiinflammatory used in treating arthritis

Tramadol 2-4 mg/kg PO q6h-24h 22

a


b




c

Potential exists for gastrointestinal upset and gastric ulcers, although these are uncommon in the pet

pig; should be given with food and gastrointestinal protectants.

Table 12-5

Miscellaneous Agents Used in Miniature Pigs. a


Dantrolene sodium

(Dantrium, Procter

& Gamble)

1-3 mg/kg IV 25 Malignant hyperthermia

5 mg/kg PO (±)

8h 8

For treatment

2-5 mg/kg IV

q8h 8

For treatment and prevention

3.5-5 mg/kg IV 3

Dexamethasone

5 mg/kg PO, 8,25

IV 9

0.1 mg/kg IM,

IV 23

Malignant hyperthermia; treatment and

prevention

Shock; laryngeal edema

812

Dextrose 10 mL/kg of 10%

solution IP 4

Hypoglycemic neonate

Famotidine

Glucosamine

(G)/chondroitin

sulfate (C)

20 mL/kg of 5%

solution IP 4

0.1-0.2 mg/kg

PO, SC, IM,

IV q12h 21,24,b

(G) 12 mg/kg+

(C) 3.8 mg/kg

PO q12h×4

wk 22

(G) 4 mg/kg+(C)

1.3 mg/kg

q12h 22

Reduce gastric acid secretion

Loading dose

Maintenance dose

Hydrogen peroxide 1 mL/5 kg PO 30 Induces vomiting; some animals may require

larger dose

Ipecac syrup

7-15 mL/animal

PO 30

Induces vomiting

Iron dextran

25 mg/animal IM Iron deficiency in baby pigs; uncommon in

in first few miniature pigs so rarely used as a part of

days of life; routine management practices

may repeat in

2-3 wk 26

Kaolin/pectin

Metoclopramide

Oxytocin

Pentobarbital

Polysulfated

glycosaminoglycan

(Adequan,

1-2 mL/kg PO

q2-6h 25,b

0.2-0.5 mg/kg

q6-8h PO,

IM, IV 21,25,b

5-10 U/animal

IM 25

10-20 U/animal

IM 4

1 mL/4.5 kg

(1 mL/10 lb)

IV 21,25,b

>150 mg/kg IV 9,29

100-150 mg/kg

IV 3

4.4 mg/kg IM

once, then

3.3 mg/kg

Antidiarrheal

Prevent postoperative ileus; start with the lower

end of the dose to prevent cramping

Dystocia, if not obstructed

Dystocia, if not obstructed

Euthanasia

May not see results until after 3-4 treatments; if

good clinical results after first 8 treatments,

then decrease frequency to weekly for 1

813

Novartis)

q4d×7

treatments 15

month, then 2×/month, then monthly as

needed for maintenance

Prostaglandin F 2 -α

(Lutalyse,

Pharmacia &

Upjohn)

5 mg/animal IM 4 Induces parturition in 24-30 h when given

within 3 days of expected parturition; causes

abortion after 12 days of gestation

8 mg and 5 mg

(in a 25-kg

pig) 12 h

apart 16

For inducing estrus; estrus should occur 3-7 days

later

a


b




Table 12-6

Hematologic and Serum Biochemical Values of Miniature Pigs.

Measurement

Mean (Reference

Range) 6,a

Mean (Reference

Range) 3,b

Mean (Reference

Range) 12,c

Hematology

PCV (%) 36 (22-50) — —

Hematocrit (%) — 32-61 35-56

RBC (10 6 /µL) 5.7 (3.6-7.8) 5.30-9.25 5.6-9.3

Hgb (g/dL) 12 (7.8-16.2) 9-17 10.9-17.0

MCV (fL) 63 (55-71) 40-73 46.0-72.5

MCH (pg) 21 (18-24) 15.2-26.4 13.7-24.3

MCHC (g/dL) 33.5 (31-36) 29.4-37.9 29.6-34.5

Platelets (10 3 /µL) 310 (204-518) 148-898 152-845

WBC (10 3 /µL) 11.5 (5.2-17.9) 4.4-26.4 6.9-32.4

Neutrophils (10 3 /

µL)

Band cells (10 3 /

µL)

Lymphocytes

(10 3 /µL)

Monocytes (10 3 /

µL)

5.7 (0-11.4) — 1.8-6.4

0.03 (0-0.19) — 0.0-24.6

5.3 (0.8-9.8) — 2.1-17.3

0.2 (0-0.67) — 0.2-1.3

Eosinophils (10 3 / 0.14 (0-0.73) — 0-1.5

814

µL)

Basophils (10 3 /

µL)

0.15 (0-0.61) — 0-0.5

Fibrinogen (g/L) 2 (1-4) — —

Chemistries

ALP (U/L) 65 (27-160) — 166-576

ALT (U/L) 53 (11-95) 20-106 —

AST (U/L) 32 (16-64) 13-53 15-90

Bilirubin, total

(mg/dL)

0.25 (0.2-0.45) 0.0-0.3 0.1-0.41

BUN (mg/dL) 9.7 (4.2-15.1) — 5.7-29

Chloride (mEq/L) 110 (106-113) 94-140 95-114

Creatine kinase

(U/L)

701 (213-2852) 37-6000 —

Creatinine (mg/dL) 1.7 (1-2.3) 0.5-2.0 0.5-1.1

GGT (U/L) 35 (15-56) 25-86 20.4-96.4

Glucose (mg/dL) 105 (60-175) 43-153 56-123

Potassium (mEq/L) 4.3 (3.7-5) 3.5-7.4 3.9-7.7

Protein, total (g/dL) 7.7 (6.6-8.9) 6.0-9.4 4.9-9.4

Albumin (g/dL) 4.3 (3.6-5) 2.9-5.6 2.9-5.6

Globulin (g/dL) — 1.4-5.2 1.4-3.7

Sodium (mEq/L) 144 (139-149) 132-153 139-153

TCO 2 (mEq/L) 24 (8-31) — 20-29

Calcium (mg/dL) — 8.6-12.6 9.3-11.7

Phosphorus

(mg/dL)

— 4.9-9.8 5.0-10.7

a

n=100, 2- to 10-year-old healthy, Vietnamese potbellied pigs.

b

Combined ranges for adult Yucatan micropig, Gottingen, Sinclair, Yucatan, and Hanford minipigs

weighing 35-70 kg and 70-90 kg.

c

Combined ranges for male and female Hanford, Yucatan micropig, and male and female Gottingen

minipigs.

815

Table 12-7

Urinalysis Reference Values for Miniature Pigs. 1,16,21,34

Parameter

Reference Value

Specific gravity 1.010-1.050

pH 6.9 (range 5-8)

Color

Protein

Red blood cells (per

HPF)

White blood cells (per

HPF)

Crystals

Bacteria

Yellow-dark amber; may be slightly cloudy

Negative to trace

0-5

0-5

Common, occasionally pathologic; 21 calcium oxalate or triple

phosphate crystals

Numerous in voided samples; only significant if numerous WBCs

also present

Table 12-8

Biological and Physiological Data of Miniature Pigs. 3,5,12,16,19,22

Parameter

Value

Life expectancy 14-21 yr (avg 15-18)

Respiratory rate

(breaths/min)

Newborn 50-60

Weaned pigs 25-40

10-15 wk 30-40

15-26 wk 25-35

Adult 12-18

Heart rate

(beats/min)

Newborn 200-250

Weaned pigs 90-100

10-15 wk 80-90

15-26 wk 75-85

816

Adult 70-80

Rectal temperature

37.6-39°C (99.7-102.2°F); diurnal variation in body temperature exists;

temperature decreases as age increases

Weight

Birth

250-450 g

Adult 34-91 kg (avg 55)

Reproduction

Puberty

• Boars

• Gilts

3 mo of age

3.5-4 mo of age

Estrous cycle 17-25 days (avg 21)

Standing heat

duration

1-3 days

Ovulation

• Gilts

• Sows

24-36 h after onset of estrus

30-44 h after onset of estrus

Gestation length 112-116 days (avg 114)

Litter size 2-15 piglets (avg 6-8)

Table 12-9

Preventive Medicine Recommendations for Miniature Pigs. 5,12,16,21,32

Recommended Vaccinations

Pet pigs

• Erysipelas

• Leptospirosis

• Pneumonia

(Actinobacillus

pleuropneumoniae)

8-12 wk of age; repeat in 3-4 wk; revaccinate semiannually or

annually


annually; substantial risk of high fever after use 16


annually

• Rabies Off-label use but recommended if at risk of exposure; 14-16

wk of age; revaccinate annually

Breeder pigs

• Erysipelas

8-12 wk of age; repeat in 3-4 wk; revaccinate 3 wk before

breeding

817

• Leptospirosis

• Parvovirus

• Pneumonia

(Actinobacillus

pleuropneumoniae)

8-12 wk of age; repeat in 3-4 wk; revaccinate 3 wk before

breeding; substantial risk of high fever after use 16

5-6 mo of age; repeat in 3-4 wk; revaccinate 3-8 wk before

breeding; boars should be revaccinated semiannually

Sows: 5 and 2 wk before farrowing

Piglets: 3-8 wk of age; repeat in 3 wk

Selected Disease Vaccinations for Higher Risk Pigs

Colibacillosis (baby pig

scours) (E. coli)

Other enteritides (rotavirus,

TGE virus, Clostridium,

Salmonella)

Atrophic rhinitis (Bordetella

bronchiseptica, Pasteurella

multocida [types A and D])

Sows: 5 and 2 wk before first farrowing, and 2 wk before

each subsequent farrowing

Sows: 5 and 2 wk before farrowing



Piglets: 1 wk of age; repeat in 3 wk

Boars: semiannually or annually

Pneumonia (Mycoplasma

hyopneumoniae)



Piglets: 1 wk of age; repeat in 2-3 wk

Boars: semiannually or annually

Tetanus toxoid

Tetanus antitoxin

Vaccinate after surgery or trauma or annually when

exposure is likely

Administer 500-1500 U (depending on body weight) after

surgery, dental procedure, or trauma; if not current on

tetanus vaccine and where exposure is likely

Neonatal Care

Preferred environmental

temperature at 1-7 days of

age

Colostrum

Castration

Ovariohysterectomy or

ovariectomy

Tusk (canine) removal

Tusk (canine) trimming

33-35°C (91-95°F); may be lowered 1.7-2.8°C (3-5°F) each wk

for 4-6 wk until weaned

15-20 mL in 2-3 feedings within first 12 h of life

<3 mo of age and older

3-4 mo of age and older, but may be performed as early as 6

wk of age

Not recommended

As needed

Fecal Examination

Young (6 wk to 6 mo of age)

Bimonthly

818

Adults

Semiannually if potential for exposure

Table 12-10

Blood Collection Sites in Miniature Pigs. 21,24,27,30,34

Venipuncture Site

Cranial vena

cava/right

brachiocephalic

vein

Right external

jugular vein

Cephalic vein

Radial vein

Lateral auricular

vein

Subcutaneous

abdominal vein

Comments

Anesthesia required for safety

Short, fat neck of most pet pigs makes this challenging; best if pig is

anesthetized; advance a ≥1.5-inch needle cranially in the jugular

furrow, angled slightly medially while applying slight negative

pressure

Thick skin makes this difficult; cut down may be required; reasonable

choice for catheterization for fluid or medication administration if

pig is sedated or moribund

Can be easily sampled in a properly restrained, awake patient; vein runs

along medial aspect of front leg and landmarks are readily palpable

Easiest in debilitated or very cooperative pigs; good for obtaining very

small blood samples; recommended for most routine catheterization

Easy to visualize and access in most large, cooperative pigs

819

Table 12-11

Recommendations for Feeding Miniature Pigs. 21,31

• Miniature pet pigs should be offered feeds made specifically for the miniature pig.

• A rate of 1%-2% of the pig’s body weight daily, depending upon life stage, is usually

appropriate, or

• Piglet: ½ cup per 15-20 lb per day

• Adult: 1 cup per 50-80 lb per day

• The pig’s current body condition should be the most important consideration when

determining how much to feed.

• Divide daily ration into 2-3 meals daily when possible; ideally broadcast food on a

grassy area, or place in food-dispensing toys or in rooting boxes.

• Some manufacturers of feeds for miniature pigs:

Heartland Animal Health, Inc;

www.healthypigs.com

Mazuri Exotic Animal Nutrition;

www.mazuri.com

Ross Mill Farm’s

Champion Pet Pig Feed;

www.rossmillfarm.com

Table 12-12

Tips for Oral Dosing of Miniature Pigs. 21,33

• Choose flavored pediatric liquid formulations whenever possible.

• Mix medications with food items known to be favored by the individual; most pigs

prefer sweets, including:

• Jams or jelly, placed on a small piece of bread

• Fruit flavored gelatin

• Peanut butter

• Bread, cookies, pastry, etc.

• Fruit juice

• If a medication is known to be bitter, a few spoonfuls of peanut butter and jelly smeared

on a piece of bread is recommended; if the pig tastes the medication, it will likely refuse

this offering on the second dose; be prepared to change the food item for each dose.

• Small tablets can be placed inside a grape and will be consumed readily by most

individuals.

• Medications can be mixed with fruit juice and frozen into cubes.

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Pract. 1999;2:519–537.

35 Wertz E.M., Wagner A.E. Anesthesia in potbellied pigs. Compend Contin Educ Vet.

1995;17:369–383.

822

C H A P T E R 1 3

Primates

Kathryn C. Gamble

Table 13-1

Antimicrobial and Antifungal Agents Used in Primates.


823

Amikacin 2-3 mg/kg IM q24h 59

2.3 mg/kg IM q24h 3 Chimpanzees

5 mg/kg IM q8h 3 Monkeys

Amoxicillin

6.7-13.3 mg/kg PO,

IM q8h 3

Monkeys

7 mg/kg PO q8h 86 Macaques/quadruple treatment for

Helicobacter pylori with clarithromycin,

omeprazole, bismuth subsalicylate

10-15 mg/kg PO

q12h 7

10-20 mg/kg PO

q12h 90

Eulemurs

Prosimians

11 mg/kg PO q12h

or SC, IM

q24h 44,59

Amoxicillin trihydrate,

clavulanic potassium

500 mg/animal PO,

IM, IV q8h 3

6.7-13.3 mg/kg PO

q8h 3

13.75 mg/kg PO

q12h 3

15 mg/kg PO q12h 59

Chimpanzees

Monkeys

Chimpanzees

Amphotericin B

0.5 mg/kg IV 3×/wk Swamp monkey (n=1)/Cryptococcus;

suspended in discontinued due to nephrotoxicity

30 mL of 5%

dextrose,

increased to

1.7 mg/kg 86

Ampicillin

150 µg/kg IV

3×/wk×2-4 mo 41

10-30 mg/kg SC, IM,

IV q6-8h 7,90

20 mg/kg PO, IM,

IV q8h 3

25-50 mg/kg/day

IM, IV divided

q6-8h 3

150-200 mg/kg/day

IM, IV divided

q3-4h 3

Common marmosets

Prosimians, Eulemur

Chimpanzees

Monkeys

Monkeys/meningitis, septicemia

824

Azithromycin __ In humans, associated with increased

cardiac arrhythmogenicity; 75 use with

caution in older great apes

5-10 mg/kg PO

q24h 3,7,90 Chimpanzees, 3 prosimians 7,90

25 mg/kg PO

q24h×7 days, or

40 mg/kg PO

q24h×7 days, or

70 mg/kg PO

q24h×4 days 73

30-50 mg/kg IM

q12h×7-14 days 41

Macaques/antimalarial

Campylobacter-associated diarrhea

40 mg/kg PO q24h 44

40 mg/kg PO once,

then 20 mg/kg

PO q24h×4 days 3

Monkeys

Cefadroxil 20 mg/kg PO q12h 86 Prosimians

Cefazolin sodium 8-16 mg/kg IM q8h 5 Eulemur

10-30 mg/kg IM, IV

q8h 90

20 mg/kg IM, IV

q8h 3

Prosimians

Monkeys

25 mg/kg IM, IV

q12h 3,44 ×7 days 81 Chimpanzees, 3 rhesus macaques 81


Zoetis)

8 mg/kg SC 9,68,74 In studies of both New World primates 68

and Old World primates, 9,68,74

pharmacokinetics were not consistent

with those of dogs and cats; not

considered effective in nonhuman

primates 9,68,74

Ceftazidime 1 g IM, IV q6-12h 3 Chimpanzees

Ceftiofur

50 mg/kg IM, IV

q8h 3,59

1.1-2.2 mg/kg IM

q24h 7,90

Monkeys

Prosimians, Eulemur

2 mg/kg IM q24h 3 Chimpanzees

2.2 mg/kg IM q24h 44 Monkeys

Ceftiofur CFA

(Excede, Zoetis)

5 mg/kg SC once 81 Rhesus macaques/PK; with plasma

concentrations >0.2 µg/mL for at least

825

2 days

20 mg/kg SC once 53 Lion-tailed macaques; Streptococcus toxic

shock

20 mg/kg SC once 81 Rhesus macaques/PK; with plasma

concentrations >0.2 µg/mL for at least

7 days

Ceftriaxone 10 mg/kg IV 85 Macaques, chimpanzees/PK

25 mg/kg IM, IV

q24h 44


50-100 mg/kg IM

q12-24h 3

Chimpanzees

Cephalexin 1-4 g q8-12h 3 Chimpanzees

10 mg/kg IM q12h 29

20 mg/kg PO

q12h 7,59 Eulemur 7

30 mg/kg PO q12h 3 Monkeys

Cephalothin 25 mg/kg IM q12h 86 Macaques

Chloramphenicol

palmitate

Chloramphenicol sodium

succinate

20 mg/kg IM q12h 29

25 mg/kg PO q8h 3 Monkeys (infants)

20 mg/kg IM q12h 3 Chimpanzees


50 mg/kg SC q8h 3 Chimpanzees

Ciprofloxacin 10 mg/kg PO q12h 3 Monkeys

16-20 mg/kg PO

q12h 3

Chimpanzees

Clarithromycin

20 mg/kg PO q12h 59

10 mg/kg PO

q12h×10 days 86

Macaques/quadruple treatment of

Helicobacter pylori; see amoxicillin

20 mg/kg PO q24h 8 Macaques/PK

250-500 mg/animal

PO q12h×7-

14 days 3 Chimpanzees

Clindamycin 10 mg/kg PO q12h 59


150-300 mg/animal Chimpanzees

826

PO q6h 3

300-600 mg/animal

IM q8-12h 3

Chimpanzees

Doxycycline 2-5 mg/kg PO q12h 3 Chimpanzees

2.5 mg/kg PO

q12h×1 day, then

2.5 mg/kg PO

q24h 3

Monkeys

3-4 mg/kg PO

q12h 59

5-10 mg/kg PO

q12h 90

Prosimians

Enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg SC q12h 29

5 mg/kg IM q24h 44

5 mg/kg PO, SC, IM

q24h 59,90 Prosimians 90 /hallucinations in humans 59

Erythromycin

5 mg/kg PO, IM

q24h 7 ×6 days 50

5 mg/kg PO, IM

q12-24h 3

15-20 mg/kg/day IM

q12h 3

30-50 mg/kg IM

q12h 44

Rhesus macaques/PK; Shigella flexneri

Chimpanzees, monkeys

Monkeys


Ethambutol

75 mg/kg PO

q12h×10 days 59

Start 15 mg/kg,

then 25 mg/kg

PO q24h 3

Campylobacter-associated diarrhea

Chimpanzees/antituberculosis drug

Florfenicol 50 mg/kg IM q48h 21

Fluconazole

Flucytosine

2-3 mg/kg PO

q24h×30 days 86

18 mg/kg PO q12-

24h 59,86

50-150 mg/kg/day

PO divided q6h 3

143 mg/kg PO

q24h 86

Macaques/coccidioidomycosis; prolonged

treatment; relapses may occur

Swamp monkey (n=1)/Cryptococcus; treated

concurrently with flucytosine

Chimpanzees

Swamp monkey (n=1)/see fluconazole

827

Flurofamide

25 mg/animal PO

q12h×3 doses 41

Common marmosets/Ureaplasma; bacterial

urease inhibitor

Furazolidone 10 mg/kg PO q12h 3 Monkeys

10-15 mg/kg PO

q24h 86

Gentamicin

100 mg/animal PO

q6h 3

2-4 mg/kg IM, IV

q12h 3

Chimpanzees

Monkeys, chimpanzees

3 mg/kg IM q6-8h 89 Baboons/PK

3-5 mg/kg SC, IM

q24h 44

Griseofulvin

20 mg/kg PO

q24h 3,59

25 mg/kg PO q24h

for 30-60 days 69

Monkeys

Common marmosets/dermatophytosis

200 mg/kg PO once

every 10 days 3,59 Monkeys 3

500 mg/day PO

divided q6-24h 3

Chimpanzees

Isoniazid 5 mg/kg PO q24h 3 Monkeys

30-50 mg/kg PO

q24h×9 mo 3

Chimpanzees/active tuberculosis

300 mg PO q24h 3 Chimpanzee/prophylaxis; treat

concurrently with rifampin

Itraconazole

5-10 mg/kg PO

q12h 41

Common marmosets/dermatophytosis

10 mg/kg PO q24h 59 Fungal (yeast) gastroenteritis

Ketoconazole

5-10 mg/kg PO

q12h 3 ×30 days 69

10-30 mg/kg PO

q24h×60 days 41

Monkeys

Common marmosets

200-400 mg/day PO 3 Chimpanzees

Levofloxacin __ In humans, associated with increased

cardiac arrhythmogenicity; 75 use with

caution in older great apes

500 mg PO q24h 3 Chimpanzees

Metronidazole 25 mg/kg PO q24h 90 Prosimians

828

25 mg/kg PO

q12h 3,59

Chimpanzees

25-30 mg/kg PO

divided q12h 86

Clostridium; treat concurrently with

tylosin


Minocycline 4 mg/kg PO 3 Monkeys

200 mg, then

100 mg, IV

(slow) 3

Chimpanzees

200 mg PO q12h 3 Chimpanzees

Neomycin 10 mg/kg PO q12h 29


Nystatin

Ofloxacin

100,000 U/animal

PO q8h 3

100,000 U/kg PO

q24h×10 days 41

200,000 U/animal

PO q6h 44,59

500,000-1,000,000

U/animal PO

q8h 3

200-400 mg PO, IV

constant rate

infusion 3

Monkeys

Common marmosets/Candida

Gastrointestinal candidiasis; continue

48 hr after clinical recovery

Chimpanzees

Chimpanzees

Oxacillin 16.7 mg/kg IM q8h 3 Monkeys

Oxytetracycline

10 mg/kg SC, IM

q24h 3,59

Monkeys

25-50 mg/kg PO 3 Monkeys

250-300 mg/day PO,

IM divided q8-

24h 3

Chimpanzees

Penicillin G, benzathine

Penicillin G, procaine

20,000-60,000 U/kg

IM q12-24h 3,44 Monkeys 3

20,000 U/kg IM

q12h 59

20,000-40,000 U/kg

SC, IM q12h 3

Monkeys

22,000 U/kg IM Chimpanzees

829

q24h 3

Penicillin VK 11 mg/kg PO q6h 3 Chimpanzees

Pentamidine isethionate

Rifampin

Streptomycin

Sulfadimethoxine

4 mg/kg IM, IV

q24h×14 days 86

600 mg PO, IV

q24h 3

1-2 g/day divided

q6-24h 3

2.5-5 mg/kg IM

q12h 3

50 mg/kg first day,

then 25 mg/kg

IM q24h 3

Great apes/Pneumocystis; slow IV infusion;

associated with profound

hypotension, cardiac arrhythmias

Chimpanzees/tuberculosis; treat

concurrently with or without

isoniazid

Chimpanzees

Monkeys

Monkeys

Tetracycline 20 mg/kg PO q8h 3 Monkeys


20-25 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 3

65-100 mg/kg IV

q8h 3

200-300 mg/kg/day

divided evenly

q4-6h 3

Chimpanzees

Monkeys

Chimpanzees

Tilmicosin __ Shown to be fatal in humans and

nonhuman primates when injected 71

Trimethoprim/sulfa

30 mg/kg PO, IM

q24h 7

Prosimians

Trimethoprim/sulfadiazine 15 mg/kg PO q12h 59

30 mg/kg SC, IM

q24h 59

Trimethoprim

(T)/sulfamethoxazole

(S)

4 mg/kg PO, SC

q8h 3

Monkeys

(T) 4 mg/kg+(S)

20 mg/kg PO

q12h 44 Useful to treat shigellosis 69

(T) 5 mg/kg+(S)

25 mg/kg PO

q6h 86

15-20 mg/kg/day IV

divided q6-12h 2

Great apes/Pneumocystis carini

Chimpanzees

830

or

800 mg/animal

PO q12h 3

25 mg/kg PO, IM

q12h 90

Prosimians

Tylosin 2 mg/kg IM q24h 3 Monkeys

5 mg/kg PO q12h 86 Clostridium; treat concurrently with

metronidazole

Vancomycin

20 mg/kg IM

q24h×10 days 13

20 mg/kg IM, IV

q12h 3

500 mg/animal PO

q6h×7-10 days;

can give IV slow 3

Rhesus macaques/chronic diarrhea

Monkeys

Chimpanzees

Table 13-2

Antiparasitic Agents Used in Primates.


Albendazole 10 mg/kg PO 7 Eulemur 7

10 mg/kg PO q24h×6

wk 41

20 mg/kg PO

q12h×5 days 51

25 mg/kg PO

q12h×5 days 19,59

28.5 mg/animal PO

q12h×10 days×3

at 10 day

intervals 94

50 mg/kg PO

q12h×16 days 33,41

Common

marmosets/Encephalitozoon

cuniculi

Geoffroy’s tamarins

(n=3)/Angiostrongylus; treat

concurrently with

prednisolone

New World primates, Old World

primates/Filaroides, Giardia, 19

gastrointestinal nematodes 59

Red ruffed lemur

(n=1)/cysticercosis; administer

with praziquantel (SC)

Common marmosets, cottontopped

tamarins/Acanthocephalus sp.

100 mg/kg PO Common marmosets, cotton-

831

q12h×3 days,

then repeat 2×

weekly×4

treatments 33,41

Amitraz 250 ppm dip for 2-

5 min duration

q14d×4

treatments or

until resolution

of skin

lesions 19,40,59

topped

tamarins/Acanthocephalus sp.

Red-handed tamarins

(n=2)/demodectic mange; no

hair clipping or bathing; not

rinsed after treatment; dried by

hot-air; ataxia (transient)

Bunamidine

Chloroquine

Clindamycin

Diethylcarbamazine

25-100 mg/kg PO

once 19

2.5-5 mg/kg IM

q24h×4-7 days 19

5 mg/kg PO, IM

q24h×14 days 19

10 mg/kg IM

q24h×2 days,

then 5 mg/kg IM

q24h on day 3 86

10 mg/kg via

nasogastric tube

day 1 AM;

5 mg/kg via

nasogastric tube

day 1 PM, days 2

and 3 q24h 3

10 mg/kg PO, IM

once, then

5 mg/kg 6 hr

later, then

5 mg/kg

q24h×2 days 19,86

12.5 mg/kg PO, IM

q12h×28 days 19

12.5-25 mg/kg PO

q12h×28 days 59

50 mg/kg PO

q24h×10 days 86


primates/cestodes


primates/Plasmodium; follow

with primaquine; give drugs

separately to prevent toxicity


primates/Entamoeba histolytica

Plasmodium sp.; treat concurrently

with primaquine

Monkeys


primates/Plasmodium sp.; treat

concurrently with primaquine


primates/toxoplasmosis

Toxoplasma infection

Squirrel monkeys/filariasis;

effective against microfilaria

and adults

832

Diiodohydroxyquinoline(iodoquinol)

Dithiazanine

Doxycycline

Fenbendazole

12 mg/kg PO

q8h×10-20 days 3

12-16 mg/kg PO

q8h 86

30-40 mg/kg PO

q24h×3-21 days;

14-21 days for

Balantidium coli;

21 days for

Entamoeba

histolytica 86

35-50 mg/kg PO

q24h×21 days 86

630 mg PO

q8h×20 days 3

10-20 mg/kg PO

q24h×3-10 days 19

2.5 mg/kg PO

q12h×1 day,

q24h×10 days 19

10-20 mg/kg PO

q24h×30 days 41

10-25 mg/kg PO

q24h×3-10 days 19

20 mg/kg PO

q24h×7 days 19

20 mg/kg PO

q24h×14 days 19,59

25 mg/kg PO once,

repeat in 7 days 19

50 mg/kg PO

q24h×3 days, 22,59,77

repeat in 2 wk 44

50 mg/kg PO

q24h×3-14 days 19

Monkeys

Great apes (infants,

juveniles)/Balantidium coli

Great apes/minimal absorption;

use with other agents for

invasive disease

Great apes (juvenile)

Chimpanzees


primates/Strongyloides; low

margin of safety


primates/Balantidium

Common


cuniculi


primates/Anatrichosoma

cynomolgi


primates/Prosthenorchis


primates/Strongyloides,

Filaroides, 19 gastrointestinal

nematodes 59


primates/Ancylostoma

Baboons/ 77 gastrointestinal

nematodes, Filaroides, 59 Trichuris

trichura; 77 New World

primates/Capillaria hepatica 22


primates

833

50 mg/kg PO

q24h×5 days 41

Common marmosets/Baylisascaris

Fipronil (9.8% soln)

Furazolidone

50 mg/kg PO

q24h×14 days 19,41

50 mg/kg PO

q24h×3 days,

repeat in 3 wk 3

50 mg/kg PO every 2

wk until

infection

resolved 41

0.2 mL/kg topically

every 6 wk 19

5 mg/kg PO

q6h×7 days 86

100 mg/animal PO

q6h×7 days 86

Common marmosets/Filaroides sp.,

Trichospiura leptostoma

Chimpanzees/for monkeys repeat

in 3 mo

Common marmosets/Capillaria

hepatica

Prosimians/Cuterebra sp., ticks

Great apes (juveniles)/Giardia sp.

Great apes (adults)/Giardia sp.;

more palatable, but less

effective than other agents

Ivermectin 0.2 mg/kg PO 27 Lemurs

0.2 mg/kg PO, 3,7

SC, 3,12,44 IM 7,44

Chimpanzees, monkeys, Eulemur

0.2 mg/kg PO, SC,

IM, repeat in 10-

14 days 19,59

Levamisole

Mebendazole

0.2 mg/kg SC or

topically, repeat

after 4 wk 41

0.3 mg/kg PO every

7 days×4

treatments 42

2.5 mg/kg PO

q24h×14 days 86

5 mg/kg PO, repeat

in 21 days 19,59

7.5 mg/kg SC, repeat

in 14 days 19

3 mg/kg PO

q24h×10 days 19

Common

marmosets/Anatrichosoma,

Sarcoptes, Demodex,

Dipetalonema, pentastomids

Callitrichids/Gongylonema sp.

Prosimians/Physaloptera

Strongyloides, Trichuris, Spiruroides


primates/Trichuris, Ancylostoma


primates/Ancylostoma

10-20 mg/kg PO 7 Eulemur, 7

834

q12h×3 days,

repeat in 14

days 86

15 mg/kg PO

q24h×3 days 19

22 mg/kg PO

q24h×3 days,

repeat in 14

days 19,44 or repeat

in 3 wk 41

prosimians/gastrointestinal

nematodes

Strongyloides, Necator,

Pterygodermatites, Trichuris

Common marmosets 41 /Giardia sp.

22 mg/kg PO

q24h×3 days,

repeat in 10-

14 days 86 Gastrointestinal nematodes

Mefloquine

40 mg/kg PO

q24h×3 days,

repeat 3-4 times

per year for

prevention 19

40 mg/kg PO

q24h×30 days 59

50 mg/kg PO

q12h×3 days 3

70 mg/kg PO

q24h×3 days 19

100 mg/animal PO

q12h×3 days 3

100 mg/kg PO

q12h×3 days,

repeat in 3 wk 3

25 mg/kg PO once

via nasogastric

tube 3


primates/Pterygodermatites

Strongyloides, Trichuris,

Pterygodermatites

Monkeys

New World primates/oral

spiruridiasis

Chimpanzees, monkeys

Monkeys/Trichurus

Monkeys

Active infection: Chimpanzees

1250 mg PO

once; preventive:

250 mg PO q7d 19

Metronidazole

10-16.7 mg/kg PO

q8h×5-10 days 19

17.5-25 mg/kg PO

q12h×10 days 19


primates/Giardia

Enteric flagellates and amoebas

835

20 mg/kg PO q12h 41 Common marmosets/Entamoeba

25 mg/kg PO

q12h×5 days 19

25 mg/kg PO

q12h×10 days 59


primates/Giardia

Enteric protozoans

25 mg/kg PO q24h 90 Prosimians

30-50 mg/kg q24h×5-

10 days 41 Common marmosets/Giardia

30-50 mg/kg PO

q12h×5-10 days 86

Balantidium coli

30-50 mg/kg PO

q24h×5-

10 days 19,41,44 Common marmosets/Giardia 41

35 mg/kg PO

q24h×3 days 70

Macaques/Trichomonas vaginalis

Milbemycin oxime

1 mg/kg PO q24h

every 30 days for

3 mo 77 Baboons/Trichuris trichiura

Moxidectin

Niclosamide

0.5 mg/kg PO, IM

once 19

37.5 mg PO

q24h×5 days 3


primates/Strongyloides

Monkeys

100 mg/kg once 19 New World primates, Old World

primates/intestinal cestodiasis

Nifurtimox

15-20 mg/kg PO

q8h×90 days 41

Common marmosets/Trypanosoma

cruzi

Nitazoxanide 5 mg/kg PO q24h 41 Common

marmosets/Cryptosporidium

Oxytetracycline

25 mg/kg PO

q24h×5-7 days 90

1500 mg/animal

q24h IV constant

rate infusion 86

Prosimians/protozoa

Gorillas (n=2)/Balantidium coli

Paromomycin

10 mg/kg PO q8h×5-

10 days 86 Great apes/Entamoeba

10-20 mg/kg PO

q12h×5-10 days 19

12.5-15 mg/kg PO

q12h×5-10 days 19


primates/Balantidium coli

New World primates/amoebae;

minimal enteric absorption

836

15 mg/kg PO

q12h×28 days 34,41

Common marmosets

(n=2)/Cryptosporidium

100 mg/kg PO

q24h×10 days 19

Cercopithecids

Praziquantel 5 mg/kg IM 44 Cestodes

5 mg/kg PO, SC, IM

once 3,44

15-20 mg/kg PO,

IM 19,44,86

20 mg/kg PO, IM

once 59

20 mg/kg PO

q8h×1 day 3

23 mg/animal PO at

10 day

intervals×3

treatments 94

Monkeys


primates/trematodes 86

Cestodes

Chimpanzees

Red ruffed lemur

(n=1)/subcutaneous

cysticercosis; treat

concurrently with albendazole

40 mg/kg PO, IM 19,59 Trematodes, 19,59 cestodes 19

Primaquine

0.3 mg/kg PO via

nasogastric tube

q24h×14 days 3,86

0.3 mg/kg PO

q24h×14 days 19

Monkeys/ 3 Plasmodium; treat

concurrently with

chloroquine 86


primates/treat with

chloroquine; give drugs

separately to prevent toxicity

Pyrantel pamoate 5-10 mg/kg PO, 7

repeat in 2 wk 90

Eulemur, 7 prosimians/nematodes

6 mg/kg PO 27 Lemurs

10 mg/kg PO, repeat

in 3 wk 3

Chimpanzees

Pyrimethamine 0.5 mg/kg PO q12h 41 Common


cuniculi; treat concurrently with

trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole

and folic acid for

encephalitozoonosis or

toxoplasmosis

2 mg/kg PO

q24h×3 days,

then 1 mg/kg PO

Great apes/toxoplasmosis;

maximum dose of

100 mg/animal q24h for days 1-

837

q24h×28 days 86 3 and 25 mg/animal q24h for 28

days; treat concurrently with

sulfadiazine

10 mg/kg PO q24h 19 Plasmodium; folic acid antagonist

so monitor for deficiency

Pyrvinium

Quinacrine

5 mg/kg PO once,

repeat every 6

mo 19

2 mg/kg PO

q8h×7 days 19,86

10 mg/kg PO

q8h×5 days 19


primates/pinworms


primates/may cause

gastrointestinal upset in

squirrel monkeys; 19 great

apes/Giardia; maximum dose of

300 mg/day 86


primates/Giardia

Ronnel

55 mg/kg PO or Lung mites

topically q72h×4

treatments, then

every 7 days for

3 mo 19

Sulfadiazine

Sulfadimethoxine

Tetracycline

25-50 mg/kg PO

q6h 86

100 mg/kg PO

q24h 19

50 mg/kg PO once,

then 25 mg/kg

q24h 19

15 mg/kg PO

q8h×10-14 days 86

25-50 mg/kg PO

q24h×5-10 days 86

Great apes/toxoplasmosis,

maximum dose of

6 g/animal/day; treat

concurrently with

pyrimethamine

Toxoplasmosis; treat concurrently

with pyrimethamine

Coccidiosis

Great apes (infants,

juveniles)/Balantidium coli

Great apes/Entamoeba, Balantidium

500-1000 mg/animal

PO q8h×10-

14 days 86 Great apes (adults)/Balantidium coli

Thiabendazole 50 mg/kg PO 7

q24h×2 days 3,19

Eulemur, 7 infant monkeys 3 /Necator

50 mg/kg PO×3-

5 days 90 Prosimians/nematodes

838

75-100 mg/kg PO

q24h once, repeat

in 21 days 19


primates

100 mg/kg PO q24h 3 Monkeys (adult)

Tinidazole

100 mg/kg PO once,

repeat in 3 wk 44

750-1500 mg/animal

PO q24h×2 days

or 7 days 3,19

40-45 mg/kg PO

q24h×6 days 90

Strongyloides

Chimpanzees/visceral larval

migrans

Prosimians/protozoa

150 mg/kg PO q24h Marmosets/Giardia

once, then

77 mg/kg PO

q24h on day

4 19,41,52

Toltrazuril

7 mg/kg PO

q24h×2 days 41

Common

marmosets/toxoplasmosis; treat

concurrently with

trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole

Trimethoprim/sulfa 15 mg/kg PO q12h 59 Toxoplasmosis

Trimethoprim/

sulfamethoxazole

30 mg/kg PO q12h

for at least 3 wk 41

Common


cuniculi; treat concurrently with

folic acid and pyrimethamine

for encephalitozoonosis or

toxoplasmosis

Table 13-3

Chemical Restraint/Anesthetic/Analgesic Agents Used in Primates.


Acepromazine — See butorphanol and ketamine for

combinations

Acetaminophen

0.1-0.5 mg/kg IM,

IV 3

0.5-1 mg/kg PO, 59

SC, IM 3

5-10 mg/kg PO

q6h 41,59,72

Monkeys

Chimpanzees

New World primates, juvenile macaques,

common marmosets/pyrexia, mild pain

839


10-15 mg/kg PO

q8-12h 91

Prosimians

15-20 mg/kg

rectal 72

500-

1000 mg/animal

PO q8h 3

Chimpanzees

Acetaminophen/codeine

suspension

(120 mg/12 mg per

5 mL)


(aspirin)

10-15 mL PO q6h 3 Chimpanzees

— NSAID; analgesic; antipyretic; 59 avoid

aspirin based products during viral

infections due to concerns of Reyes

syndrome 65

5-10 mg/kg PO q4-

6h 3,41,59,86

10-20 mg/kg PO

q8-12h 91

20 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 3

20 mg/kg PO

q12h 2

Monkeys, common marmosets,

chimpanzees use q6h

Prosimians

Monkeys

Rhesus macaques/platelet aggregation was

significantly decreased

Alphaxalone — Injectable steroid anesthetic; available in

the United States as Alfaxan but not

yet reported as sole agent for doses

18 mg/kg IM, IV 86 Marmosets, small primates/Saffan

(9 mg/mL alphaxalone in 12 mg/mL);

therefore 13.5 mg of reported dose was

calculated as alphaxalone


Zoetis)

IM use only per

label

Specific α 2 -adrenergic antagonist; more

specific for medetomidine and

dexmedetomidine than for xylazine; as

a general rule, atipamezole is dosed at

the same volume of medetomidine or

dexmedetomidine; 38 atipamezole dose is

5× dose of medetomidine or 10× dose of

dexmedetomidine on mg basis 20

0.15-0.3 mg/kg IM, Chimpanzees; 3 use lower dose in monkeys 3

IV 3,72 and baboons 72

840

0.2 mg/kg IV 72 Squirrel monkeys

Bupivacaine (0.5%)

0.25 mg/kg IM,

IV 72

1.2 mg/kg epidural

as two

0.6 mg/kg

doses at 2 min,

then 20 min 86

2 mg/kg maximum

perineurally 25

Macaques

Rhesus macaques/epidural analgesia

Macaques/local anesthetic

Buprenorphine — Opioid agonist-antagonist; analgesia 35

0.005-0.01 mg/kg

SC, 38 IM, IV q6-

12h 29

Rhesus macaques, marmosets

0.005-0.01 mg/kg

SC, IM, IV q6-

12h 35

0.005-0.03 mg/kg

IM, IV q6-12h 41

0.01 mg/kg IM, IV

q6-8h 66,72

0.01 mg/kg IM

q12h 16

0.01-0.02 mg/kg

SC, IM, IV q8-

12h 91

Common marmosets

Macaques/PK; not to exceed 0.3 mg/animal

IM q8h in chimpanzees 72

Rhesus macaques/postoperative analgesia

Prosimians

0.01-0.02 mg/kg

IM q12h 59

0.01-0.05 mg/kg

IM, SC q8-12h 44

0.03 mg/kg IM

q12h 46,66 or IV

bolus 46

Sustained-release:

0.2 mg/kg SC

once 66

Macaques/PK

Macaques/single injection; plasma

concentrations 0.1 ng/mL

Butorphanol — In primates, butorphanol behaves more as

an agonist with intermediate efficacy;

may cause profound respiratory

depression—reverse with naloxone 41,59,67

0.01-0.02 mg/kg Common marmosets

841

SC, IM, IV q6-

12h 41

0.013 mg/kg IM

q8h 16

Rhesus macaques

0.02 mg/kg IM q3-

4h 59

0.02 mg/kg SC, IV

q8h 3,72

New World primates

0.05 mg/kg IM

q8h 3,72 Monkeys, 3 macaques 72

0.1-0.15 mg/kg SC

q6h 44

0.1-0.2 mg/kg IM

q12-48h 86

0.1-0.4 mg/kg IM 7 Eulemurs

Butorphanol

(B)/acepromazine (A)

Butorphanol

(B)/dexmedetomidine

(D)/ketamine (K)

0.1-0.4 mg/kg SC,

IM, IV q3-4h 91

(B) 0.013 mg/kg+

(A) 0.02 mg/kg

IM 86

(B) 0.3-0.4 mg/kg+

(D)

0.02 mg/kg+(K)

3-5 mg/kg

IM 90,91

Prosimians

Macaques/premedication for general

anesthesia; butorphanol could be

substituted with buprenorphine

(0.01 mg/kg) and ketamine (10 mg/kg)

Prosimians/can exchange ketamine with

0.2-0.3 mg/kg IM midazolam

Carfentanil — This product is no longer available

commercially in the United States; prior

publications suggest substantial

concern with use of this product, both

alone and in combinations, for use in

nonhuman primates 20,45,86

Carprofen 2 mg/kg PO q12h 3 Chimpanzees, monkeys

Celecoxib

2-4 mg/kg PO, SC,

IV q12-

24h 38,41,59,72,86

3-4 mg/kg IV, SC

once 28

200 mg/animal PO

q12-24h 3

NSAID; analgesia; antipyretic; half-life

varies with species; COX-1 selectivity 59

Macaques/preoperatively

Chimpanzees/COX-2 NSAID

Deracoxib 2 mg/kg PO q24h 3 Chimpanzees/COX-2 NSAID; chronic use

842

(Deramaxx, Eli Lilly)

4 mg/kg PO q24h 3 Chimpanzees

Diazepam — Used often as an adjuvant with ketamine

0.25-0.5 mg/kg PO,

IV 7,90

0.25-0.5 mg/kg IM,

IV 3

Prosimians, lemurs

Chimpanzees

0.5-1 mg/kg

PO 3,59,86 Chimpanzees 3

0.5-1 mg/kg IM,

IV 3

Monkeys/seizures

0.5-2.5 mg/kg IV 91 Prosimians

1 mg/kg IM 29 Marmosets

5 mg/animal PO 20 Gorillas (juvenile)

Droperidol

Etomidate

2.5-10 mg/animal

IM 3

0.1 mg/kg/min IV

constant rate

infusion 26

Chimpanzees/given 30-60 min prior to

procedure

Rhesus macaques/maintenance

1 mg/kg IV 26 Rhesus macaques/induction

Fentanyl — Produced respiratory depression and

analgesia at dosages as low as 2 µg/kg

IV, and apnea was seen consistently at

60 µg/kg 67

0.001-0.03 mg/kg/h

IV constant

rate infusion 90,91

0.05-0.15 µg/kg IM

as needed 3

1-2 µg/kg as an

adjunct to

general

anesthesia; 50-

150 µg/kg as

sole anesthetic 18

5-10 µg/kg IV

bolus 72 or IV

constant rate

infusion 3,25 or

10-25 µg/kg/h

IV constant

Prosimians

Monkeys

Great apes

Rhesus macaques, baboons, 72 chimpanzees 3

843

rate infusion 72

8 µg/kg IV 87 Rhesus macaques (n=6)/PK; published with

error in dose

10-15 µg/kg PO as

lollipops 20

25 µg/kg/h (5-

10 kg);

50 µg/kg/h

(10 kg) q48-

72h 3

Orangutans, gorillas/adequate sedation in

30-45 min; chimpanzees suboptimal

effects

Monkeys/transdermal patch

Fentanyl/droperidol

(Innovar-Vet, Janssen)

0.05 mL/kg IM 3 New World primates

0.1-0.3 mL/kg IM 3 Chimpanzees, monkeys

Flumazenil 0.02 mg/kg IV 72,91 Patas monkeys, prosimians

0.025 mg/kg IV 20,86 Chimpanzees, gorillas/did not significantly

enhance speed or quality of recovery

Flunixin meglumine

0.25-0.5 mg/kg SC,

IM, IV q24h 91

0.3-1 mg/kg SC, IV

q12-24h 59,86

Prosimians

NSAID; analgesia; antipyretic

1 mg/kg IM q12h 25 Rhesus macaques


Hydrocodone bitartrate

Hydromorphone

Ibuprofen

5 mg/animal PO

q4-6h prn 3

0.2 mg/kg IM, IV

bolus q4h 47

7 mg/kg PO

q12h 3,72

10 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 91

20 mg/kg PO

q24h 41,59

200-400 mg/animal

PO q8h 3

Chimpanzees

Rhesus macaques/PK; whole-body

pruritus, sedation, and decreased

appetite

Old World primates, New World

primates/NSAID; mild analgesia 72

Prosimians

Common marmosets

Chimpanzees

Isoflurane 1%-3%

maintenance 59,72

Marmosets, chimpanzees

Ketamine — Tranquilization; anesthesia; mg/kg dose

increases as size of animal decreases;

844

causes seizures in lemurs when used as

sole agent so not recommended for use

alone in prosimians 90

5 mg/kg IM 86 Great apes/follow with inhalant anesthetic;

ketamine provides a shorter recovery

time than tiletamine-zolazepam

5 mg/kg IV 3 Monkeys

5-12 mg/kg IM 67 Monkeys

5-15 mg/kg IM,

IV 59,91 Prosimians 91

5-15 mg/kg PO,

IM, IV or

rectally 18

Great apes/in general 6-10 mg/kg should

allow safe initial immobilization

5-40 mg/kg IM 3 Chimpanzees

10 mg/kg IM 3 Monkeys

10-15 mg/kg IM 3 New World primates

Ketamine


(K) 4 mg/kg+(A)

0.4 mg/kg IM 27 Lemurs

Ketamine (K)/detomidine

(Det)

(K) 9.6 mg/kg+

(Det)

0.32 mg/kg

PO 20

(K) 10 mg/kg+

(Det) 0.5 mg/kg

PO 60

Gorillas

Gorillas (n=6), mandrill baboons

(n=7)/reduced the reaction to darting

Ketamine

(K)/dexmedetomidine

(De)

Ketamine

(K)/medetomidine a (Me)

(K) 2-4 mg/kg+

(De) 0.02-

0.03 mg/kg IM 19 Medium to large primates


available; can be compounded; a replaced

with dexmedetomidine; recoveries can

be quite sudden even without reversal 20

(K) 2 mg/kg+(Me)

0.03-

0.04 mg/kg 18 Chimpanzees

(K) 2-4 mg/kg+

(Me) 0.04-

0.06 mg/kg IM 19 Medium to large primates

(K) 2-6 mg/kg+

(Me) 0.03-

Chimpanzees

845

0.06 mg/kg

IM 3,86

(K) 3 mg/kg+(Me)

0.02-0.03 mg/kg

IM 20

(K) 3-4 mg/kg+

(Me)

0.15 mg/kg

IM 56,67,72,84

Orangutans

Macaques, capuchins

(K) 5 mg/kg+(Me)

0.01 mg/kg IM 41 Common marmosets

(K) 5 mg/kg+(Me)

0.05 mg/kg IM 67 Japanese macaques

(K) 5-7.5 mg/kg IM

+ (Me) 0.05-

0.1 mg/kg IM,

IV 59,67

Use higher dosages for smaller primates

Ketamine

(K)/medetomidine a

(Me)/butorphanol (B)


available; can be compounded; a replaced

with dexmedetomidine

(K) 2-3 mg/kg+ Great apes

(Me) 0.02-

0.03 mg/kg+(B)

0.2-0.4 mg/kg 20

(K) 3 mg/kg+(Me)

0.04 mg/kg+(B)

0.4 mg/kg

IM 86,92

Ring-tailed lemurs/anesthesia; long

duration of action


(Mi)

(K) 1-2 mg/kg+

(Mi)

0.03 mg/kg IM 20 Orangutans

(K) 2.5 mg/kg+(Mi)

0.25 mg/kg IM 20 Chimpanzees

(K) 4-20 mg/kg IM

+ (Mi) 0.05-

0.2 mg SC, IM 38

(K) 5 mg/kg+(Mi)

0.1 mg/kg IM 72 Baboons

(K) 8 mg/kg+(Mi) Macaques/up to 1 mg/kg IM of

0.2 mg/kg IM 6,72 midazolam 44,56

(K) 9 mg/kg+(Mi)

0.05 mg/kg IM 20 Gorillas

846

(K) 10 mg/kg+(Mi)

1 mg/kg IM 32,67 Marmosets

(K) 15 mg/kg+(Mi)

0.05-0.09 mg

(lower body

weight) 35 or

0.05-0.15 mg

(higher body

weight) IV 72

Ketamine (K)/tiletaminezolazepam

(T)


(K) 1-3 mg/kg+(T) Great apes/combination reduces amount of

2-4 mg/kg IM 18 ketamine needed for induction

(K) 5 mg/kg+(X)

0.5-1 mg/kg 67 Monkeys

(K) 5-7 mg/kg+(X)

1-1.4 mg/kg

IM 20

Orangutans

(K) 5-10 mg/kg+(X)

0.25-0.3 mg/kg

SC, IM 38

(K) 7 mg/kg+(X)

0.6 mg/kg IM 3,72 Monkeys, macaques

(K) 10 mg/kg+(X)

0.25 mg/kg for

45 min, or (X)

2 mg/kg for

138 min

sedation 72

Macaques

(K) 10-20 mg/kg

IM + (X)

3 mg/kg IM 3 New World primates

(K) 15-20 mg/kg

IM + (X)

1 mg/kg IM 2,20,72 Chimpanzees 20

Ketoprofen 2 mg/kg IM q24h 20 Gorilla (n=1)

2 mg/kg IM, IV

q24h 3,44 Chimpanzees, monkeys 3

2 mg/kg PO, SC,

IM, IV 91

5 mg/kg IM q6-

8h 86

Prosimians/NSAID; reduce prosimians to

1 mg/kg q24h after first dose

Macaques

5 mg/kg IM q24h 25

847

Ketorolac

0.5-1 mg/kg 67 SC, NSAID

IM q8-

12h×4 days 38

15-30 mg/animal

IM 72

30 mg/animal PO

q6h 3,72

60 mg/animal PO

once 3

Baboons

Chimpanzees

Chimpanzees

Lidocaine 2-4 mg/kg 18 Great apes/preferred to bupivacaine for

dental procedures

6 mg/kg maximum

perineurally 25

Macaques/local anesthetic

Medetomidine a — Medetomidine is a more selective, potent

and specific α 2 -agonist than xylazine;

can be compounded; replaced with

dexmedetomidine

0.01-0.035 mg/kg

IM 3,44 Monkeys 3

0.1 mg/kg PO 20 Great apes

0.1 mg/kg SC, IM 72 Squirrel monkeys, baboons

0.15 mg/kg 72 Macaques

Medetomidine

(Me) a /midazolam (Mi)

Meloxicam

(Me) 0.03-

0.06 mg/kg+

(Mi) 0.3 mg/kg

IM 67

0.1 mg/kg PO

q24h 11

0.1-0.2 mg/kg SC

q24h 29 up to 3

days 72

0.2 mg/kg IM

q24h 11

0.2-0.3 mg/kg PO,

SC, IM

Japanese macaques

Cynomolgus macaques/PK; sustainedrelease

formation (0.6 mg/kg SC)

achieved adequate steady-state plasma

concentration for 2-3 days; PO

formulation limited use

Marmosets, rhesus macaques/NSAID

Cynomolgus macaques/PK; see above dose

for cynomolgus macaques; IM provided

adequate plasma concentrations for 12-

24 hr

Lower dose—common marmosets, 41

macaques 72

848

q24h×4 days 38

0.3 mg/kg PO, SC

q24h 2

Rhesus macaques/platelet aggregation was

not affected

Meperidine 2 mg/kg IM 72 Macaques

2-4 mg/kg IM, 72 IV

q30-60 min 3 Baboons, monkeys/analgesia

50-150 mg/animal

PO 72 q3-4h prn 3

Chimpanzees

Midazolam — See ketamine and medetomidine for

combinations

0.05-0.1 mg/kg IM,

slow IV 3,44 Monkeys 3

0.1-0.3 mg/kg

IM, 7,91 IV 91

Eulemurs, prosimians

0.5 mg/kg PO 59 More applicable in larger species

0.7-1.2 mg/kg PO 20 Gorillas, chimpanzees, orangutans

1-2.5 mg/animal

IV, or

5 mg/animal

IV 3

Chimpanzees

Morphine — Opioid analgesia; dose dependent

respiratory depression 59

0.01-0.1 mg/kg

IV 3,72

0.15 mg/kg

epidurally 72

Chimpanzees

Baboons

1 mg/kg PO, SC,

IM, IV q4h 59

Nalbuphine

1-2 mg/kg SC, 72,86

IM, IV q4h 3,72

1-2 mg/kg SC, IM

q6h 41

0.5 mg/kg IM, IV

q3-4h 86

2.5-5 mg/kg IM q3-

4h 3

10 mg SC, IM, IV

q3-6h as

needed 3

Monkeys, macaques, baboons, squirrel

monkeys

Common marmosets

Agonist-antagonist opioid

Monkeys

Chimpanzees

849

Naloxone — Opioid antagonist/reversal; 59 short acting;

a second dose may be necessary to

avoid the return of respiratory

depression 72

0.015 mg/kg SC,

IM, IV 3,72

Chimpanzees

0.01-0.05 mg/kg

IM, IV 41,59 Common marmosets 41

0.02 mg/kg IM 91 Prosimians

0.1 mg/kg SC, IM,

IV as needed 3

0.1-0.2 mg as

needed 72

Monkeys

Macaques, baboons, squirrel monkeys,

common marmosets

Naproxen 5 mg/kg PO q24h 3 Chimpanzees

Nitrous oxide (N 2 O)

10 mg/kg PO

q12h 86

Up to 60% with

O 2

38

Lemurs

Not acceptable as sole agent

Oxymorphone — Opioid analgesia

0.025 mg/kg SC,

IM, IV q4-6h 3

0.075 mg/kg IV

bolus 49

0.075 mg/kg IM, IV

q4-6h 72

0.15 mg/kg SC,

IM, IV

q4-6h 3,44,49,72

1-1.5 mg/animal

SC, IM q4-6h 3,72

New World primates

New World primates, rhesus macaques

(n=4), titi monkeys (n=4)/PK

Squirrel monkeys, marmosets

Old World primates, 49 macaques,

baboons, 72 monkeys 3

Chimpanzees

Pentobarbital

(pentobarbitone

sodium)

— The product has considerable variation

between species; severe respiratory

depression; inability to modulate depth

of anesthesia; 38 should be used for

euthanasia only, not for sedation

Propofol — Dose to maintain anesthesia in great apes

5-10× less than human dose; 18 use

sterile technique due to vehicle

0.3-0.5 mg/kg/min

constant rate

850

infusion 44

1 mg/kg IV 44 Induction

1-2 mg/kg IV

bolus, followed

by constant

rate infusion to

effect 3,72

Chimpanzees

2 mg/kg IV bolus 58 Neonatal rhesus macaques (n=4)/induction

2-4 mg/kg/min IV

constant rate

infusion 72

2-5 mg/kg IV

bolus; 41

maintenance

with 0.3-

0.4 mg/kg/min

IV constant

rate infusion 72

2.5-5 mg/kg IV

bolus;

maintenance

with 0.3-

0.4 mg/kg/min

constant rate

infusion 3

Baboons

Common marmosets, macaques

Monkeys

3-6 mg/kg IV 91 Prosimians

5 mg/kg IV bolus Japanese macaques (n=5)/step down started

at

at 0.6 mg/kg/min, then 0.3 mg/kg/min

0.6 mg/kg/min 61 for 10 min, then 0.2 mg/kg/min for

100 min

5-10 mg/kg IV,

then 0.3-

0.6 mg/kg IV

constant rate

infusion 29

Marmosets

Sevoflurane 1 MAC=2% 72 Macaques

Thiamylal sodium

15-25 mg/kg IV to

effect 3

Monkeys/barbiturate anesthesia

Thiopental — Barbiturate anesthesia

5-7 mg/kg IV if

combined with

Macaques

851

ketamine 72

15-17 mg/kg/h IV

constant rate

infusion 72

25 mg/kg IV to

effect 3

Baboons

Monkeys

Tiletamine-zolazepam

(Telazol, Fort Dodge;

Zoletil, Virbac)

— Can concentrate in vial; see ketamine for

combination

1-2.5 mg/kg IM 3 New World primates

1.5-3 mg/kg IM 86

2-5 mg/kg IM 19 New World primates, Old World primates

2-6 mg/kg IM 20,72 Chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans (up to

6.9 mg/kg)

3-5 mg/kg IM 3,44,72,91 Prosimians/for restraint only 44

4-6 mg/kg IM 72,86 Macaques, baboons

5-8 mg/kg IM 3 Chimpanzees, monkeys

10 mg/kg 67,72,78 Squirrel monkeys, 72 chimpanzees 78

Tiletamine-zolazepam

(T)/medetomidine (Me) a

(T) 0.8-2.3 mg/kg+

(Me) 0.02-

0.06 mg/kg

IM 20,67

Orangutans, monkeys, gibbons, macaques

(T) 1-3 mg/kg+

(Me) 0.02-

0.06 mg/kg 67 Monkeys, macaques, gibbons

(T) 1.25 mg/kg+

(Me)


(T) 2 mg/kg+(Me)


(T) 3 mg/kg+(Me)


Tramadol

(T) 3 mg/kg IM +

(Me) 0.1 mg/kg

PO 63

1-4 mg/kg PO

q12h 91

1.5 mg/kg IV

q24h 48

Chimpanzees

Prosimians

Rhesus macaques/PK; sedation, pruritus

3 mg/kg PO 48 Rhesus macaques/PK; PO bioavailability

852

poor; oral dosages of 4-20× this dose

may be required for analgesia

Xylazine — See ketamine for combination

0.5-6 mg/kg IM 3 Monkeys

1.1 mg/kg IV 3 Chimpanzees


Yohimbine 0.1 mg/kg IM, IV 3 Monkeys, chimpanzees (0.11 mg/kg)

0.125-0.25 mg/kg

IM 20

Chimpanzees

0.5 mg/kg IV or

1 mg/kg IM 72,86 Macaques/xylazine reversal

Zuclopenthixol (Clopixol,

Lundbeck)

0.1-0.36 mg/kg PO

q12h 20

Gorillas/antipsychotic drug; not approved

for use in the United States

a


compounding services (i.e., Wildlife Pharmaceuticals, www.zoopharm.net); limited data on the efficacy

and safety of dexmedetomidine in primates; the effects of the v/v use of the two drugs may not be

equivalent, so the dose of dexmedetomidine may need to be adjusted based on clinical response.

Table 13-4

Miscellaneous Agents Used in Primates.


Allopurinol 200-600 mg PO q24h 3 Chimpanzees

Aminophylline 10 mg/kg IV 3,27 Chimpanzees, 3 lemurs

25-100 mg/animal PO

q24h 3

Monkeys

Amlodipine 0.1 mg/kg PO q24h 3 Chimpanzees/antihypertensive agent

Atropine

0.02-0.04 mg/kg SC, IM,

IV 72

Chimpanzees; for marmosets use

higher dose

0.02-0.05 mg/kg SC, 41 IM 72 Macaques, baboons, common

marmosets

Atropine sulfate 0.01 mg/kg IM 20 Orangutan (n=1)

0.02-0.04 mg/kg SC, IM,

IV 3

0.02-0.05 mg/kg SC, IM,

IV 3

Monkeys

Chimpanzees

0.04 mg/kg IM 20 Gorillas

853

2-5 mg/animal IM 20 Chimpanzees (juvenile)

Azathioprine 1-2 mg/kg PO q24h 3 Monkeys/immunosuppressive agent;

purine antagonist

1-2.5 mg/kg PO q24h 3 Chimpanzees

Benazepril 0.25-0.5 mg/kg PO q24h 41 Common marmosets/less

nephrotoxicity than enalapril

Bisacodyl 10-15 mg PO as needed 3 Chimpanzees

Bismuth subsalicylate 10 mg/kg PO q12h 86 Macaques/quadruple treatment for


(Table 13.1)

30 mL PO as needed 3 Chimpanzees

40 mg/kg PO q8-12h 3 Monkeys

Budesonide

0.5 mg/animal PO q24h×8

wk, then 0.75 mg PO

q24h×8 wk 41

Common marmosets/marmoset

wasting syndrome

Calcitonin 10 U/kg q48h×3 wk 41 Common marmosets/must be

normocalcemic

Calcitriol 0.03 mg/kg PO q24h 3 Chimpanzees

Calcium glubionate 1 mL/kg PO q12h 41 Common marmosets/metabolic bone

disease

Calcium gluconate 200 mg/kg SC, IM, IV 3,86 Chimpanzees/hypocalcemia;

hyperkalemia; prophylaxis and

therapy of nutritional secondary

hyperparathyroidism

Captopril 1 mg/kg PO 86 ACE inhibitor and vasodilator

Carvedilol

3.125 mg PO q12h×2 wk,

then 6.25 mg PO q12h,

increase as needed 3

Chimpanzees

Cimetidine 5-10 mg/kg PO 41 Common marmosets/Helicobacter

10 mg/kg PO, IM q8h 3 Monkeys/gastrointestinal ulceration

300 mg/animal PO, IM,

slow IV

q6-8h 3

Chimpanzees

Cisapride 0.2 mg/kg PO q12h×3 wk 86 Macaques/promotes gastrointestinal

motility; compounded in United

States

Dapsone

50 mg/animal PO q24h;

100 mg/animal PO

q24h 3

Chimpanzees/use higher dose with

leprosy

854

Depoprovera 2.5-5 mg/kg IM 80 Old World primates/contraception

for 45-90 days; higher doses for

smaller species

5 mg/kg IM 7,80 Prosimians/contraception for 30-45

days, during breeding season

(Nov-March)

20 mg/kg IM 80 New World primates/contraception

for 30 days


Virbac)

Dexamethasone

Digoxin

4.7 mg SC implant

effective for 6 mo;

9.4 mg SC implant

effective for 12 mo 41,59,80

0.25-1 mg/kg PO, IM

q24h 3

0.005-0.01 mg/kg PO q12h

or IV as needed 3

GnRH antagonist implant; need

secondary contraception of

megesterol acetate (not

depoprovera) for 7 days prior to

and postimplantation

Monkeys

Chimpanzees

0.01 mg/kg PO q24h 41 Common marmosets/congestive

heart failure

2-12 µg/kg PO, IM, IV

divided q12-24h 3

Monkeys/maintenance dose

Diphenhydramine

5 mg/kg/day PO, IM, 27 IV, Monkeys, 3 lemurs 27

daily total may be

divided q6-8h 3

25-50 mg/animal PO, IM,

IV q6-8h 3

Chimpanzees

Dobutamine

2.5-10 µg/kg/min IV

constant rate infusion 3 Chimpanzees, monkeys/adrenergic β 1

agonist; increases cardiac output

Docusate sodium (DSS) 10-40 mg/animal PO 3 Monkeys

50-200 mg/animal PO 3 Chimpanzees

Dopamine

2-5 µg/kg/min IV constant

rate infusion 3

2-10 µg/kg/min IV

constant rate infusion 18

5-15 µg/kg/min IV


Chimpanzees, monkeys/low to

moderate doses; positive inotropic

effects and renal vasodilation

Great apes/stimulates dopaminergic,

α and β adrenergic receptors;

positive inotrope which

significantly can improve blood

pressures intraoperatively

Monkeys

855

Doxapram 2 mg/kg IV 3 Chimpanzees/respiratory stimulant

Duloxetine 30-60 mg/kg PO q12h 54 Drill (n=1)/serotonin-norepinephrine

reuptake inhibitor

Enalapril 0.015-0.125 mg/kg PO q12-

24h 86

Gorillas/antihypertensive

0.3 mg/kg PO, IV 3 Chimpanzees/ACE inhibitor;

balanced vasodilator

0.5 mg/kg PO q48h 41 Common marmosets

Enoxaparin sodium

Ephedrine

20 mg SC q24h×10 days,

repeat in 2 mo 88

0.1-0.5 mg/animal SC, IM,

IV, IC 3

Rhesus macaque (n=1)/deep vein

thrombosis; low-molecular

weight heparin

Monkeys

1.25-2.5 mg/kg IV 72 Macaques, baboons/vasopressor;

safest during maternal

hypotension

2.5 mg/kg IV bolus 72 Use when hypotension is

accompanied by bradycardia

Epinephrine

0.1-0.5 mg/animal SC, IV,

IM, IC 3

0.2-0.4 mg/kg diluted in

5 mL sterile water, 41 IT

if ≥3 kg or 1:10,000

dilution 31

Monkeys

Common marmosets/cardiac arrest

0.2-1 mg/animal SC, IM;

0.5-10 mg IV, IC 3 Chimpanzees

Fluoxetine 0.45 mg/kg PO q24h 86 Bonobo (n=1) 86 /antianxiety;

serotonin reuptake inhibitor;

antidepressant used to moderate

abnormal behaviors 76

0.5-1 mg/kg PO q24h 3 Chimpanzees

2 mg/kg PO q24h 55 ×1-4

wk 30

Rhesus macaques (n=6)/reduction of

self-biting behavior, but not selfdirected

stereotypes; venlafaxine

ineffective

Folic acid 15 µg/kg PO q24h 3 Monkeys

500 µg/kg PO 3 Chimpanzees

Furosemide 1-2 mg/kg PO, IM, IV 3 Chimpanzees/diuresis; congestive

heart failure; pulmonary edema

856

1-4 mg/kg PO, SC q12h 41 Common marmosets/congestive

heart failure

1-4 mg/kg IV 3 Monkeys

2-4 mg/kg IM q8h 3 Monkeys

Glipizide 1.25 mg/kg PO q24h 86 Titi monkey (n=1)/sulfonylurea;

gestational diabetes

Glycopyrrolate 0.004 mg/kg IM, IV 3 Chimpanzees

0.004-0.008 mg/kg IM 3 Monkeys

0.005-0.01 mg/kg IM 20,72 Macaques, baboons, chimpanzees 72

0.01 mg/kg IM 16,20 Rhesus macaques, 16 orangutan 20

1 mg/animal PO q8h 3 Chimpanzees

GnRH

immunocontraceptive

vaccine (GonaCon,

USDA Wildlife

Services)

500 µg dose IM 24 Vervet monkeys/1 of 3 monkeys

(adjuvant 1) cycled at 33 wk; 3 of

3 monkeys (adjuvant 2) cycled 25

wk; both had localized swelling

at injection site

Guaifenesin 10-20 mL PO q4-6h 3 Chimpanzees

Guanfacine — Self-injurious behavior; decreased

agitation without profound

sedation

0.3 mg/kg PO, IM q12h×5- Baboon (n=1)/recurrence controlled

10 days, followed by by returning to 0.3 mg/kg q12h

gradual reduction to

0.15 mg/kg q24h over

30 days 57

0.5 mg/kg PO, IM q12h×5- Macaques (n=2)/recurrence controlled

10 days, followed by by returning to 0.5 mg/kg q12h

gradual reduction to

0.25 mg/kg q24h over

30 days 57

Haloperidol 0.03-0.05 mg/kg IM q12h 3 Monkeys

0.5-5 mg PO q8-12h 3 Chimpanzees

60 mg PO q24h 76 Gorilla (n=1)/antipsychotic; treat

concurrently with sulpiride;

extrapyramidal symptoms;

neuroleptic malignant syndrome

is a rare but potential side effect

Heparin

5000-10,000 units IV q6h;

10,000-20,000 units SC

q12h 3

Chimpanzees

857

Human chorionic

gonadotropin (hCG)

5000-10,000 U IM 3 Chimpanzees

Hydrochlorothiazide 1 mg/kg PO q24h 3 Chimpanzees

Hydrocortisone sodium

succinate

5 mg/kg IM, IV q12h 3 Chimpanzees

Insulin, NPH 0.1 U/animal SC q12h 41 Common marmosets/glucose

monitoring

0.25-0.5 U/kg SC q24h 3 Chimpanzees/starting dose; diabetes

mellitus; diabetic ketoacidosis

0.5 U/kg q24h 86 Advisable to start with this dose and

reevaluate with blood glucose

2.5 U/kg divided into 2

doses IM 86

Cynomolgus macaques/use

combination of short-acting and

longer-acting insulin (70:30);

dose is highly variable

Iron dextran 10 mg/kg IM q7d 3 Monkeys

11-22 mg/kg IM 3 Chimpanzees

Isoproterenol



0.1-1 µg/kg/min IV

constant rate infusion

or 0.02-0.06 mg IV

bolus 3

Monkeys/nonselective β-adrenergic

agonist

Chimpanzees

Lactulose 0.25-1.1 mL/kg PO q8-

12h 41

Common marmosets

Leuprolide acetate

(Lupron)

Effective contraception for

1-6 mo

0.3 mg/kg IM every 4 wk 3

3.75 mg suspension

once/mo for 6 mo 39

New World primates/GnRH

antagonist implant; need

secondary contraception of

megesterol acetate (not

depoprovera) for 7 days prior to

and postimplant placement 80

Allen’s swamp monkey (n=1)/uterine

fibroids and ovarian cysts

Levothyroxine

0.05 mg/animal PO q24h; Gorilla (n=1)/hypothyroidism;

incremental changes of monitor TSH and T 4 q6-8wk

0.025 mg q24h at 30

day intervals up to

0.1 mg q24h 86

Lidocaine 0.7-1.4 mg/kg IV as Monkeys, chimpanzees at 1-

858

needed 3

1.5 mg/kg IV and max of 3 mg/kg

1-2 mg/kg IV bolus 41,72 Common marmosets 41

20-50 µg/kg/min IV


Ventricular arrhythmia

Lisinopril 0.25-0.5 mg/kg PO q24h 3 Chimpanzees

Loperamide 0.04 mg/kg PO q8h 3 Monkeys

4 mg/animal PO prn 3 Chimpanzees

Mannitol (25%) 0.25-0.5 g/kg IV over 5-

10 min 3 Monkeys/diuretic

0.5-1 g/kg IV constant rate

infusion 3

Chimpanzees

1.65-2.2 g/kg IV over

20 min 3 Monkeys/cerebral edema

Medroxyprogesterone

acetate

5 mg/kg IM q6wk 59 Lemurs/seasonal contraceptive

5-10 mg/animal PO

q24h×5-10 days 3

Monkeys/contraceptive

150 mg/animal IM once

q3mo 3 or q30d 23

Chimpanzees,

monkeys/contraceptive; 3 rhesus

macaques/endometriosis 23

Megestrol acetate 800 mg/animal PO q24h 3 Chimpanzees

Melengestrol acetate

implant (MGA,

WildPharm)

— Implant must be ethylene oxide

sterilized then degassed for 2 wk

before surgical placement;

available only in United States

0.06 g/kg 80 Great apes, gibbons

0.1 g/kg 80 Old World primates, except colobinae

(0.15 g/kg)

0.25 g/kg 80 Lemurs

0.4 g/kg 80 Howler monkeys

0.5 g/kg 80 Spider monkeys, saki monkeys,

cebids

0.7 g/kg 80 New World primates other than

howler, spider, saki, capuchin,

and squirrel monkeys; not

recommended in Callimico 41,80

1 g/kg 80 Squirrel monkeys

Metformin 5-10 mg/kg PO q12h 41 Common marmosets/oral

hypoglycemic

859

Metoclopramide 0.2-0.5 mg/kg IM q8-24h 3 Monkeys/antiemetic; stimulates

motility of upper gastrointestinal

tract

0.4 mg/kg PO, 20 IM, slow

IV q8-24h 3

Chimpanzees

Milk thistle (silymarin) 4-15 mg/kg PO q8-12h 41 Common marmosets

Mirtazapine 15 mg PO q24h 15 Mandrill (n=1)/antianxiety

Misoprostol

5 µg/kg PO q6h; 1-3 µg/kg

intravaginal 3

Chimpanzees

Nitroglycerin (2%

ointment)

3 mm topically q12-24h 41 Common marmosets/congestive

heart failure

7.5 mg topically q8h 3 Chimpanzees

Nitroprusside

Norepinephrine

Omeprazole



0.05-0.1 µg/kg/min IV


0.2-0.4 µg/kg/min IV


0.4 mg/kg PO

q12h×10 days 86

Chimpanzees

Hypotension

Chimpanzees

Macaques/quadruple treatment of


(Table 13.1)

Ondansetron 1-2 mg/kg PO×2 doses 86 Macaques/antiemetic

Oxytocin

0.5-1 U/min IV constant

rate infusion 3

1-2 U IM every 20 min×4

doses 41

Chimpanzees

Common marmosets

2 U/dose as needed 3 Monkeys

5-30 U/animal SC, IV as

needed 3

Chimpanzees

Paroxetine 0.3 mg/kg PO q12-24h 86 Bonobo (n=1)/antianxiety

PGF 2 alpha 1 mg/kg IM q24h 3 Monkeys

Phenobarbital

1-6 mg/kg PO, or 2 mg/kg

IV 3

Monkeys/seizures

Phentolamine mesylate 5-10 mg SC, IV 3 Chimpanzees/antihypertensive

Phenylephrine

1-2 µg/kg IV bolus,

followed by 0.5-

1 µg/kg/min IV


Drug of choice to treat isofluraneinduced

hypotension

860

Phenytoin

2.5 mg/kg PO q12h,

increase as needed 3

125 mg PO q8h, increase

as needed 3

Monkeys

Chimpanzees

Pimobendan 0.2 mg/kg PO q24h 41 Common marmosets/congestive

heart failure

Polysulfated

glycosaminoglycan

(Adequan, Luitpold

Pharmaceuticals)

2 mg/kg IM q3-5d×2-3 mo 3 Monkeys

2-3 mg/kg IM q4d×2 mo 3 Chimpanzees

Potassium chloride 0.5-1 mEq/kg/h IV 3 Chimpanzees, monkeys

20-100 mEq PO q24h 3 Chimpanzees, monkeys

Prednisolone sodium

succinate

1 mg/kg PO q24h 41 Common marmosets/myelofibrosis

10 mg/kg IM, IV 3,27 Chimpanzees, monkeys, 3

lemurs/shock 27

Prednisone 0.5-2 mg/kg PO 3 Monkeys

0.5-2.2 mg/kg PO 3 Chimpanzees

Probencid

Procainamide

1 g/animal PO

q12h×7 days 3

50 mg/kg/day PO divided

q6h 3

Chimpanzees

Chimpanzees

Prochlorperazine 0.12 mg/kg IM, IV 3 Monkeys/antiemetic

5-10 mg PO, IM, IV q8-

24h 3

Chimpanzees

Propanolol 0.25-1 mg/kg PO q8-12h 3 Chimpanzees

Quinidine 100-200 mg/animal PO q8-

12h 3

Chimpanzees

Ranitidine 0.5 mg/kg PO q12h 3 Monkeys

150 mg/animal PO q8-12h 3 Chimpanzees

Ribavirin

150 mg/kg IM

q24h×6 days 33

Callitrichid hepatitis virus

S-Adenosylmethionine

(SAM-e) (Denosyl,

Nutramax)

18 mg/kg PO q24h 3 Chimpanzees

Spironolactone 20-300 mg/day divided q8-

24h 3

Chimpanzees

Stanozolol 2 mg/animal PO q6-8h 3 Chimpanzees

861

5-10 mg/kg IM q4-7d 3 Monkeys

Sucralfate

0.5 g/animal PO;

maintenance q12h,

active ulcer q6h×4-6

wk 3

Monkeys/prevent or treat gastric

ulcers

1 g/animal PO q12h 3 Chimpanzees

Sulpiride

400-800 mg/animal PO

q24h 76

Gorilla (n=1)/antipsychotic; treat

concurrently with haloperidol;

extrapyramidal symptoms;

neuroleptic malignant syndrome

is rare but potential side effect

Telmisartan 1 mg/kg PO 41 Common marmosets/protein losing

nephropathy

Terbutaline 0.05 mg/kg IM, IV 18 Great apes/bronchodilator

5 mg/animal PO q24h 3 Chimpanzees

Theophylline

Tolbutamine

Triamcinolone

5 mg/kg, then 2-4 mg/kg

PO q6-8h 3

250 mg/animal PO q24h,

then

100 mg/animal PO

q48h 86

0.2-2 mg/kg IM prn 3 or

q3d 86

Chimpanzees

Capuchin monkey (n=1)/non–

insulin-dependent diabetes

mellitus

Monkeys

Vitamin B 12 3-5 mL PO, IM, IV 3 Chimpanzees

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) — Vitamin C is an essential nutrient for

nonhuman primates 59,64,71


3-6 mg/kg PO q24h to

prevent scurvy 69

Common marmosets/maintenance;

up to 25 mg/kg/day 59

4-25 mg/kg PO q24h 3 Chimpanzees

25 mg/kg PO, IM 86

q12h×5 days 41

Macaques, 86 common

marmosets 41 /deficiency situation


Vitamin D 3 — Vitamin D is an essential nutrient for

nonhuman primates; 10 elevated

concentration that is not D 2 is

required for New World

primates 64

20 U/kg PO q24h 3 Chimpanzees

862

110 U/100 g 59 New World primates/UVB light

2000 U/kg 41 Common marmosets

5000 U ergocalciferol depot

(sesame oil) IM once at

age 4 mo and

ergocalciferol 400 U PO

q24h from age 4 mo

until weaning 43

Infant chimpanzees/prevention of

rickets

Vitamin E 3.75 U/kg PO q24h 3 Chimpanzees

Vitamin K 1 1 mg/kg PO, IM q8h 3 Chimpanzees

1-5 mg/animal IM q24h 3 Monkeys

Winstrol 2-4 mg PO q24h 3 Chimpanzees

Zinc

2.5 µg/animal PO

q24h×3 days 3

Monkeys

75 mg PO q12h as needed 3 Chimpanzees

Zuclopenthixol 10-25 mg PO q8h 76 Gorilla (n=1)/aggression; tapered

with a decrease of 5 mg/wk;

antipsychotic; extrapyramidal

symptoms; neuroleptic malignant

syndrome is a rare but potentially

side effect

Table 13-5

Hematologic and Serum Biochemical Values of Primates. 19,37,41,59,62,90,93

Measurement

Baboon

(Papio

spp.)

Capuchin

Monkey

(Cebus

sp.)

Chimpanzee

(Pan

troglodytes)

Common

Marmoset

(Callithrix

jacchus) b

Ring-

Tailed

Lemur

(Lemur

catta)

Hematology

PCV (%) 45 45-53 38-51 45-48 44-57

RBC (10 6 /µL) 4.5-4.8 6 4.7-6.4 2.5-10.4 6.7-8.6

Hgb (g/dL) 13 14-17 7.6-10.7 15.1-15.5 13.8-17.2

WBC (10 3 /µL) 14.1 5-24 7.3-15.7 3-15 4.8-12.5

Neutrophils (%) 60.5 55 3.0-10.7 a 28-55 1.2-7.5 a

Lymphocytes

(%)

36 41 2.0-7.3 a 43-67 1.7-5.7 a

863

Monocytes (%) 1.5 1.8 64.8-572.2 a 0.4-2.1 0-0.8 a

Eosinophils (%) 1.5 1.6 68.8-629.6 a 0.5-0.6 0-0.7 a

Basophils (%) 0.4 <1 0-23.6 a 0.3-1.3 0-0.1 a

Platelets (10 3 /µL) 406 108-187 130-379 390-490 161-379

Chemistries

ALT (U/L) 12-20 13-43 20.5-62.1 9.5-10.2 36-154

AST (U/L) 22-28 21-57 12.1-56.6 160-182 12-80

Bilirubin (mg/dL) 0.3-0.4 0-4 0.2-0.6 0.5-0.6 0.2-1

BUN (mg/dL) 8-14 24-44 8.3-17.8 13.0-38.5 13-29

Calcium (mg/dL) 8-10 10 7.8-10.5 9.5-10.2 8.8-10.4

Cholesterol

(mg/dL)

60-134 170-254 166.8-295.8 89-292 1.6-3.0

Glucose (mg/dL) 80-95 44-94 66-118 95-257 66-222

Phosphorus

(mg/dL)

Protein, total

(g/dL)

5.5-8.5 7 1.5-4.9 1.6-10.4 3.3-6.7

6-7 7.5-8.7 6.7-8.4 4.1-8.9 6.5-8.1

Measurement

Rhesus

Macaque

(Macaca

mulatta)

Spider

Monkey

(Ateles

spp.)

Squirrel

Monkey

(Saimiri

sciureus)

Tamarin (Saguinus spp.)

Hematology

PCV (%) 39-43 35-40 43-56 45

RBC (10 6 /µL) 4.5-6 5.5 7.1-10.9 6.6

Hgb (g/dL) 12.7 16 12.9-17 15.5

WBC (10 3 /µL) 11.5-12.4 10-12 5.1-10.9 12.6-14.4

Neutrophils (%) 20-56 52 36-66 43-64

Lymphocytes

(%)

40-76 40 27-55 34-49

Monocytes (%) 0-2 3 0-6 2-5

Eosinophils (%) 1-3 5 0-11 1-1.2

Basophils (%) 0-1 0-1 <1 0.1

Platelets (10 3 /µL) 130-144 239-343 112 331-650

Chemistries

ALT (U/L) 145-171 8-78 59-99 7-14

864

AST (U/L) 20-34 42-210 56-118 49-59

Bilirubin (mg/dL) 0.10-0.66 0.1-1.0 0.1-0.53 0.14-0.26

BUN (mg/dL) 14.2-19.6 25.9 23-39 6-12

Calcium (mg/dL) 8.1-11.3 12.8 8.3-9.7 10

Cholesterol

(mg/dL)

94-162 76-278 127-207 69

Glucose (mg/dL) 53-87 82.3 52-108 125-189

LDH (U/L) 201-665 — 271-490 0-1578

Phosphorus

(mg/dL)

Protein, total

(g/dL)

4-6 2.1-8.5 3.3-7.7 3-6

6.1-7.1 10.2 6.9-8.1 6.2-8.6

a

These values are reported as absolute differential as 10 3 /μL for more accuracy when they were

available.

b

Chemistry values for this species were not obtained from standard deviation but direct high and low

values for n=21 animals as reported in the cited study. 93

865

Table 13-6

Biologic and Physiologic Data of Primates. 4,19,20,31,59,62,79,90

Species

Temperature

°C (°F)

Respiratory

(breaths/min)

Heart Rate

(beats/min)

Avg Adult

Wt (kg)

M/F

Estrus

Length

(days)

Gestation

(days)

Baboon (Papio

sp.)

37-39 (98.6-

103.1)

22-35 85-90 14-41;

males

50%

larger

32-36 154-193

Capuchin

monkey

(Cebus sp.)

37-38.5

(98.6-101.3)

30-50 165-225 3.5-

3.9/2.5-

3

18-23 180

Chimpanzee

(Pan

troglodytes)

34.6-38.7

(94.3-101.7)

20-60 60-200 45-90/40-

80

28-53 215-239

Common

marmoset

(Callithrix

jacchus)

Ring-tailed

lemur

(Lemur catta)

Rhesus

macaque

(Macaca

mulatta)

38.4-39.1

(101.1-

102.4)

37.9-38.1

(100.2-

100.6)

37-39

(98.6-103.1)

36-44 204-399 0.34-0.35 16-30 141-145

30-60 168-210 2-3 39 130-136

35-50 98-122 6-11/4-9 24-40 144-210

Spider monkey

(Ateles sp.)

— — — 6-10/6-8 26 225-232

Squirrel

monkey

(Saimiri

sciureus)

37-38.5

(98.6-101.3)

20-50 200-350 0.75-1.1 7-16 140-180

Tamarin

(Saguinus

sp.)

— — — 0.225-0.9 15 140

866

Table 13-7

Identifying Characteristics of Small Nonhuman Primates by their Taxonomic

Classification. 19,31,79,90

Characteristic

Prosimians

New World Monkeys

(Platyrrhini)

Old World Monkeys

(Catarrhini)

Tapetum Yes — —

Moist rhinarium Yes — —

Specialized scent

glands

Yes — —

Uterus Bicornuate Simplex Simplex

Placenta Epitheliochorial Hemochorial Hemochorial

Closed orbits — Yes Yes

Incisor comb Yes — —

Dental formula 2.1.3.3./2.1.3.3.

(36)

2.1.3.3./2.1.3.3.

(36)

2.1.2.3./2.1.2.3.

(32)

Grooming claw Yes — —

Prehensile tail — Yes —

Nostrils

At end of

rhinarium

Round, directed laterally

Narrowed, directed

ventrally

Claws or nails Claws Claws Nails

Ischial callosities — — Yes

867

Table 13-8

ECG Intervals and Durations. 5,41,82

Species

P Wave

duration (sec)

PR Interval

(sec)

QT Interval

(sec)

QRS Duration

(sec)

Baboon (Papio sp.) 0.02-0.06 0.05-0.09 0.13-0.19 0.01-0.05

Capuchin monkey (Cebus

sp.)

0.02-0.04 0.07-0.09 0.14-0.16 0.01-0.03

Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) <0.12 0.104-0.242 0.327-0.445 0.059-0.103

Common marmoset

(Callithrix jacchus)

Rhesus macaque (Macaca

mulatta)

0.021-0.029 0.052-0.062 0.088-0.156 —

0.03-0.05 0.08-0.1 0.18-0.22 0.02-0.04

Squirrel monkey (Saimiri

sciureus)

0.02-0.04 0.05-0.07 0.14-0.16 0.01-0.03

Table 13-9

Preventive Medicine Recommendations for Primates. 19,35,36,41,59,62

Procedure Schedule Comments

Routine

examination

Tuberculin skin

testing

(Intradermal

Mammalian

Old

Tuberculin,

Synbiotics)

Annually for

small or

medium

nonhuman

primates;

q2-3yr great

apes

0.1 mL ID via

27 g needle;

test at

routine

examination

intervals

Routine: physical examination, hemogram, serum

biochemical analysis, serum banking, rectal culture,

mycobacterial screening, radiographs, ultrasound

By institution history: viral serology, vaccination

Typically, the test is placed intrapalpebrally so test site

can be examined without restraint; an alternative site,

or used for subsequent screening, is the areolar area;

following test placement, test is evaluated visually at

24, 48, and 72 hr; a positive reaction is erythema,

edema, induration, or combination of these signs

persisting for >48 hr; false positives (especially in

orangutans) and false negatives (anergic animals) can

occur; comparative testing with evaluation of

hemogram, comparative antigens (e.g., avian purified

protein derivative), thoracic radiographs,

mycobacterial culture of tracheal or gastric lavage

assists interpretation; imported primates to the United

868

States have testing dictated by Centers for Disease

Control and Prevention with three negative

intradermal tests required over a 30-day interval; for

all caretakers, tuberculin screening for in-contact staff

is recommended annually; comparative testing could

include serologic testing for gamma interferon, but

often this methodology is not available reliably as a

commercial test for nonhuman primates; although it

is available for humans, these products were not

validated for nonhuman primates.

Fecal parasite

examination

Fecal culture

0.05 mL ID via

27 g needle;

test

annually 37

q3-12mo based

on

collection

history or

when

abnormal

fecal quality

is present

At collection

entry; at

routine

examination

schedule;

based on

collection

history or

when

abnormal

fecal quality

is present

Commonly used dose reduction for callitrichids and

similar sized New World primates; see previous

comments

Direct wet mount of fresh feces for protozoa; flotation

and/or sedimentation procedures for parasite ova;

trichrome stains can be used to identify protozoal

cysts; direct staining of fecal smears for cell

populations

Culture for Salmonella, Shigella, Campylobacter, Yersinia;

may take multiple samples to identify asymptomatic

carriers of Salmonella or Shigella

Table 13-10

Immunization Recommendations for Primates. a

Species Immunization Dose/Schedule Comments

Prosimians

There are no specific recommendations

for prosimians 91

Rabies

Killed vaccine only; consider with

elevated exposure risk situations 91

Tetanus Tetanus toxoid Used in some institutions; 91 of note,

869

current preparations are combined

with Diphtheria prophylaxis

New World

primates

Measles

Measles in New World primates is a

severe disease that may be associated

with epizootics of high morbidity

and mortality; in callitrichids, the

virus targets the gastrointestinal

tract; 59 in the United States, only an

attenuated measles/mumps/rubella

vaccine is available; however, it is

rarely recommended due to declined

human incidence of this disease and

extensive vaccination of humans 19,59

Rabies

Tetanus

Volume of vaccine

adjusted by

body size: 19

callitrichids,

0.05-0.1 mL;

medium-sized

primates,

0.25 mL; 69

larger primates,

0.5 mL

1 mL dose of killed

vaccine IM

(quadriceps

muscle) days

2,7,12,19,33

postexposure

and single dose

of human rabies

immunoglobulin

IM 5 days

postexposure 86

Volume of tetanus

toxoid adjusted

by body size: 19

callitrichids,

0.05-0.1 mL;

medium-sized

primates,

0.25 mL;

larger primates,

0.5 mL

Used by some institutions in rabiesendemic

areas; use only killed virus

preparation 69

Capuchin monkeys/postexposure

prophylaxis in monkeys that had

direct contact with rabid bats;

animals developed and maintained

levels of rabies virus neutralizing

antibody >0.05 U/mL by 67 days

postexposure 86

New World monkeys are susceptible to

Clostridium tetani; 19 of note, current

preparations are combined with

Diphtheria prophylaxis

Old World Measles In the United States, only an attenuated

870

primates

measles/mumps/rubella vaccine is

available; however, it is rarely

recommended due to declined human

incidence of this disease and

extensive vaccination of humans 19

Rabies

Tetanus

Volume of vaccine

adjusted by

body size: 19

medium-sized

primates,

0.25 mL;

larger primates,

0.5 mL

Volume of tetanus

toxoid adjusted

by body size: 19

medium-sized

primates,

0.25 mL;

larger primates,

0.5 mL



preparation

Old World monkeys are susceptible to

tetanus; 19,83 of note, current

preparations are combined with


Optional; 62 risk of shedding live virus

Great apes Measles MMR II (liveattenuated

6 yr of age 62 labeled in pregnant humans; from

product; Merck)

– 12-15 mo; 4-

and susceptibility of pregnant

females and fetus is unquantified but

rubella component has fetal concerns

Attenuvax (Merck) product vaccine,

seroconversion occurred in Western

lowland gorillas and persisted for at

least 11 yr following 1, 2, or 3

vaccinations on 12 mo, 15 mo, and

10 yr of age or 2 doses separated by

2-4 wk for unvaccinated,

seronegative adults 14

Polio

Rabies

Inactivated

Although human adult vaccination in

poliovirus – 2, 4, the United States is no longer

6-18 mo; 4-6 yr 62 considered necessary, catch-up

protocols exist for pediatric patients



preparation 62

Tetanus

Diphtheria, tetanus,

pertussis (DTaP)

– 2, 4, 6, 15-18

mo; 11-12 yr;

Based on human schedule; of note,

current products are combined with


871

q10yr 62

a

Vaccination protocols are highly individualized to institutional risk with considerations of potential

exposure, age of animals, outdoor housing, access to humans, and community health profiles of the inaccess

human population. 62 Additionally, killed vaccine products are strongly encouraged whenever

possible with caution of live or attenuated products for monitoring for vaccine-induced disease. It also

should be noted that immunoprophylaxis products vary with availability to the medical community and

human health issues and, therefore, absolute recommendations are not possible. Sources to consider

for planning a program-specific approach include: www.cdc.gov, American Academy of Pediatrics

publications, 1 Conn’s Current Therapy (published annually), 17 AAZV’s Infectious Diseases of Concern to

Captive and Free-Ranging Animals in North America, 33 and species care guidelines available on

www.aza.org.

Table 13-11

Nonhuman Primate Laboratories.

Antech Diagnostics

17672-B Cowan Avenue, Irvine, CA 92614, USA

ANTECH West: 1-800-745-4725; ANTECH East: 1-800-872-1001; ANTECH Test Express:

1-888-397-8378

http://www.antechdiagnostics.com/Main/TestGuide.aspx

Arbovirus Diagnostic Laboratory

3156 Rampart Road, Fort Collins, CO 80521, USA

970-221-6400

http://www.cdc.gov/ncezid/dvbd/specimensub/arboviral-shipping.html

B Virus Research and Resource Laboratory

Dr. Julia Hilliard

Georgia State University, Viral Immunology Center, 161 Jesse Hill Jr Dr., Atlanta, GA

30303, USA

For emergency: 404-358-8168

http://www2.gsu.edu/~wwwvir/

BioReliance, Serology/PCR Laboratories

14920 Broschart Rd., Rockville, MD 20850, USA

301-610-2227

http://www.bioreliance.com/us/services

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

1600 Clifton Rd. Atlanta, GA 30329, USA

800-232-4636

http://www.cdc.gov/

Clinical Parasitology Diagnostic Service Laboratory

University of Tennessee College of Veterinary Medicine, 2407 River Drive, Knoxville, TN

37996, USA

865-974-5645

https://vetmed.tennessee.edu/vmc/dls/Pages/default.aspx

Colorado State University Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory

300 West Drake Road, Ft. Collins, CO 80526

872

970-297-1281

http://csu-cvmbs.colostate.edu/vdl/Pages/default.aspx

Comparative Pathology Laboratory

University of Miami, Clinical Research Building, 1120 NW 14th Street, 14th Floor, Suite

1409, Miami, FL 33136, USA

305-243-7284

http://www.pathology.med.miami.edu/clinical-pathology

Diagnostic Center for Population and Animal Health (DCPAH)

Clinical Pathology Laboratory, A215 Veterinary Medical Center, Michigan State

University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA

517-355-1774

https://www.dcpah.msu.edu/Sections/

IDEXX Laboratories, Inc.

One IDEXX Drive, Westbrook, ME 04092, USA

1-207-556-0300

1-800-548-6733

https://www.idexx.com/small-animal-health/products-and-services/products-andservices.html

Infectious Diseases Laboratory

University of Georgia College of Veterinary Medicine

110 Riverbend Rd., Riverbend North, Room 150, University of Georgia, Athens, GA

30602, USA

Lab: 706-542-5812

http://www.vet.uga.edu/idl/

Infectious Disease Pathology Activity

CDC (MS-G32), 1600 Clifton Rd, NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA

1-800-232-4636

Kansas State University Diagnostic Laboratory

Kansas State University, 1800 Denison Avenue, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA

785-532-5650

http://www.ksvdl.org/

Louisiana Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory

School of Veterinary Medicine, 1909 Skip Bertman Drive, Room 1519, Baton Rouge, LA

70803, USA

225-578-9777

http://www.lsu.edu/vetmed/laddl/index.php

MiraVista Diagnostics

4705 Decatur Blvd., Indianapolis, IN 46241, USA

317-856-2681

http://miravistalabs.com/veterinary-fungal-infections/

New York State Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory

Cornell University, 240 Farrier Rd, Ithaca, NY 14852, USA

607-253-3900

https://ahdc.vet.cornell.edu/test/list.aspx?Species=16&Test_Name=&TstTyp=&WebDisc=

873

North Carolina State University College of Veterinary Medicine Vector Borne Disease

Diagnostic Laboratory

1060 William Moore Drive, Room 462A Raleigh, NC 27607, USA

919-513-8279

https://cvm.ncsu.edu/research/labs/diagnostic-testing-labs/

Northwest ZooPath

654 W Main St., Monroe, WA 98272, USA

360-794-0630

http://www.zoopath.com/

Pathogen Detection Laboratory

California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Road 98 &

Hutchison

Davis, CA 95616, USA

530-752-8242

http://www.cnprc.ucdavis.edu/our-services/core-services/pathogen-detection-laboratorycore-2/services/

Primate Diagnostic Services Laboratory (PDSL)

Washington National Primate Research Center

University of Washington, 3000 Western Ave, B-411, Seattle, WA 98195, USA

206-543-0440

https://www.wanprc.org/

Texas A&M Veterinary Medical Diagnostic Laboratory

PO Box Drawer 3040, College Station, TX 77841, USA

979-845-3414

888-646-5623

https://tvmdl.tamu.edu/

The Fungus Testing Laboratory

Department of Pathology, Room 329E, Mail Code 7750, The University of Texas Health

Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA

210-567-4131

http://pathology.uthscsa.edu/strl/fungus/index.shtml

UC Davis Coccidioidomycosis Serology Laboratory, 3416 One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA

95616, USA530-752-9402

http://www.ucdmc.ucdavis.edu/medmicro/cocci-lab.html

USDA-APHIS-VS-NVSL

1920 Dayton Ave. (packages), Ames, IA 50010, USA

515-337-7266

https://www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/ourfocus/animalhealth/lab-infoservices/ct_laboratory_information_services

Veterinary Molecular Diagnostics, Inc.

5989 Meijer Dr., Suite 5, Milford, OH 45150, USA

513-576-1808

http://www.vmdlabs.com/

Virus Reference Laboratories, Inc. (VRL)

874

P.O. Box 40100, 7540 Louis Pasteur Road, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA

877-615-7275

http://www.vrlsat.com/nhp

Zoological Pathology Program

3300 Golf Road, Brookfield, IL 60513, USA

312-585-9050

http://vetmed.illinois.edu/vet-resources/veterinary-diagnostic-laboratory/zoologicalpathology-program/

Zoologix Inc.

9811 Owensmouth Avenue, Suite 4, Chatsworth, CA 91311, USA

818-717-8880

http://zoologix.com/primate/index.htm

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881

882

C H A P T E R 1 4

Wildlife

David L. McRuer; Heather Barron

Table 14-1

Checklist for the Care of Sick, Injured, or Orphaned Wildlife. a-c

The information contained within this section is designed to help a veterinarian triage and

883

provide basic stabilizing care to injured or orphaned wildlife. The veterinarian is strongly

encouraged to transfer these animals to or consult with experienced wildlife veterinarians

or wildlife rehabilitators as soon as possible. In addition, any individual working with

wildlife should check with state and federal officials on permit requirements. In the event

of bites inflicted by rabies vector species or wild mammals showing neurologic signs to

persons or domestic pets, the local health department should be contacted regarding

appropriate rabies prevention procedures.

A. Regulations and reporting

a. Permits: check with state and federal officials on laws and permit requirements for

hospitalizing wildlife; if you do not have permits, stabilize the animal and transport it

to a permitted facility as soon as possible.

b. Species reporting: check with state wildlife officials for a list of reportable endangered,

threatened, or listed species; these may vary from state to state.

c. Illegal activity: report injuries caused by illegal activities such as gunshot wounds to

nongame species to local, state, or federal wildlife authorities.

d. Reportable diseases: reportable or foreign animal diseases diagnosed in wildlife should

be reported to the USDA-APHIS Area veterinarian-in-charge

(https://www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/ourfocus/animalhealth/contact-us).

e. Banded birds: band numbers on federally banded birds should be reported to the US

Geological Survey Bird Banding Laboratory (http://www.pwrc.usgs.gov/bbl/).

f. Advise the public not to approach rabies vector species and to contact local authorities

instead. In addition, bats should never be handled bare handed. If a rescuer has

handled a rabies vector species, report any potential rabies exposure (bite or contact

with saliva through broken skin or mucous membranes) to the local health

department.

B. Patient background

a. Is the “orphan” truly an orphan? If not, return to nest or site found because natural

parents provide the best care. Human scent will not cause rejection of the young by the

mother.

i. Fledgling birds normally spend time on the ground before gaining full flight ability.

The parents will continue to feed and guard the fledgling.

ii. Adult rabbits and deer normally leave their young unattended for much of the day.

Parents will return to the site where offspring were left to reunite, often hours later.

Check for a “milk line” in young rabbits to determine if they were recently fed.

b. Get precise information. When was animal found? Exact location? Circumstances? Has

any medical or supportive care been provided?

c. The rescue location of many turtle species is particularly important as they have high

site fidelity.

d. Obtain rescuer’s name, address, and phone number in case further details are required.

C. Initial patient triage

a. What is medically wrong with the animal? Can it be treated, survive the rehabilitation

period (sometimes months), and be released or placed into an education program?

Check with experienced wildlife veterinarians if unsure. Unfortunately, euthanasia is

often required.

b. Address life-threatening problems first. ABC: Check that the airway is clear, the animal

is breathing, and cardiac beat and pulse are present. Provide cardiopulmonary

884

resuscitation if needed.

c. Control hemorrhage. Total blood loss of more than 1% of body weight is considered an

emergency. Remove broken blood feathers by pulling the feather shaft out of the follicle

with straight, steady pressure. Apply direct pressure to hemorrhage sites. Use topical

epinephrine, cautery, and ligation if needed.

d. Assess for shock. Evaluate neonates for hypoglycemia and hypothermia. Clinical signs

include cold extremities, pale and tacky mucous membranes, and rapid heart rate. Treat

with fluids and supplemental heat if needed, and treat hypoglycemia with intravenous

or oral dextrose. Treat hyperthermia with fluids, placing the patient in a cool place and

spraying limbs with cool water.

e. Perform full examination once the patient is stable. Examination may need to be

delayed, limited to a cursory exam, or done in stages to minimize patient stress.

i. If possible, determine the species, gender, life stage, body condition, and weight.

ii. Is zoonotic disease or infectious disease a concern? Isolate the patient if necessary.

D. Develop treatment and supportive care plan

a. Assume most wildlife patients are 10% dehydrated on admission. Provide hydrating

solutions and electrolyte support for the first 24 to 48 hours parenterally (Normasol,

2.5% dextrose, LRS, 0.9% saline) or orally with a multispecies electrolyte solution (e.g.,

Pedialyte [Abbott], Gatorade [Gatorade], or Bounce Back [Manna Pro]). Continue to

treat if ongoing fluid losses occur. Most birds, reptiles, and mammals can be triaged

with fluids based on an assumed maintenance rate of 40-60 mL/kg/day, 10-

25 mL/kg/day, and 60 mL/kg/day, respectively.

b. Provide supplemental heat to neonates at 80-90°F (27-32°C). Keep heating pads on low

to prevent thermal burns. Use wrapped hot water bottles and warmed air.

c. Treat and prevent infection. Most open wounds will require antimicrobial therapy.

d. Provide analgesia and antiinflammatory medications if needed. Nonsteroidal

antiinflammatory drugs are useful for soft-tissue injury, head trauma, and spinal

trauma. Although steroids are used by some clinicians to treat acute spinal trauma and

shock, their use in shock, especially in birds, may be controversial and is generally not

recommended. Opioids are useful for severe soft-tissue injury and fractures.

e. Develop a nutritional plan. Attempt to calculate the calories needed for each day’s

feeding. Except for neonates, do not provide food for the first 24 hours while the

animal is being rehydrated. Emaciated animals may need special diets (Emeraid

Nutritional Care System [Lafeber]; Carnivore and Critical Care [Oxbow]) to avoid

refeeding syndrome.

f. Neonatal mammals must be stimulated to urinate and defecate by gently brushing anal

and genital areas with moist cotton or clean tissue after each feeding.

g. Determine appropriate housing. The main goals are safety and to reduce stress on the

animal by preventing noise and visual stimulation. In general, minimize contact to

people and domestic animals. Wildlife should not be kept in close proximity to domestic

animals while being housed for veterinary care.

E. Rehabilitation

a. Contact the International Wildlife Rehabilitation Council (866-871-1869;

https://theiwrc.org/), the National Wildlife Rehabilitators Association (320-230-9920;

www.nwrawildlife.org), or State Rehabilitation Associations to find a rehabilitator

near you.

885

b. Transfer the animal to a qualified rehabilitator for continued therapy and to prepare

the animal for release.

c. Rehabilitators are often familiar with animal nutrition and natural history and can

provide initial supportive care recommendations as well.

F. Release criteria

a. Animals must meet the following criteria in order to be released to the wild:

i. Initial illness or injury is resolved with no risk of recurrence. Animals must have

normal laboratory values if tested.

ii. All secondary problems have been resolved.

iii. The animal does not pose an unnatural risk to the wild population, humans, or the

environment. It is not likely to spread pathogens or contribute to disease processes

in other ways. The animal does not pose a zoonotic risk.

iv. The animal can effectively avoid predators.

v. The animal is able to find food by foraging or hunting in the wild. This requires

adequate vision and locomotive skills.

vi. The animal can function reasonably within the population and can reproduce.

vii. The animal displays proper species behavior (not improperly imprinted) and the

fight or flight behavioral response.

viii. The animal must be the correct age and weight for independent survival.

ix. The animal must possess pelage or plumage that is adequate for that species to

survive. The animal must exhibit waterproof pelage/plumage sufficient for that

species.

b. Animals should be released at the original site of capture unless conservation efforts or

safety considerations dictate otherwise. Animals should be released in their natural

environment and habitat suitable for species survival but in areas away from traffic,

people, and pets. The habitat must be within carrying capacity for the species. Release

diurnal species in the morning and nocturnal species at dusk. Check local and state

laws regarding release of rabies vector species and deer.

c. Animals that cannot be returned to the wild for any reason should be euthanized

unless they can be legally placed in educational, breeding, or research programs.

National Wildlife Rehabilitation Association—http://www.nwrawildlife.org

International Wildlife Rehabilitation Council—http://theiwrc.org/

Wildlife Center of Virginia—www.wildlifecenter.org

USGS National Wildlife Health Center—http://www.nwhc.usgs.gov/

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service—http://www.fws.gov/

Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study—http://vet.uga.edu/scwds

Birds of North America Online—https://birdsna.org/Species-Account/bna/home

World Organization for Animal Health—http://www.oie.int/

National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians—http://www.nasphv.org/

a

See references in appendices.

b

For information on nutritional management of captive wildlife, see Carpenter JW, ed. Exotic Animal

Formulary. 3rd ed. St. Louis: Saunders/Elsevier; 2005.

c

Web resources:

Table 14-2

886

Considerations for Developing a Wildlife Policy in Private Practice. 2,4,15,34,56,76,78,79,83,84

Topic

Notes

General Considerations

Whether your practice admits wildlife or not, all veterinary clinics should

have a wildlife policy to ensure injured and orphaned wildlife receive

timely care, regulatory and public health guidelines are followed, and a

consistent message is presented to the public regarding the practice’s

willingness to see wildlife. Wildlife policies do not need to be

complicated and are often built on lessons learned from prior wildlife

patients and experiences.

Treating injured

and

orphaned

wildlife

Legalities

Preparedness

and safety

Euthanasia

Although practitioners should not feel obligated to treat wildlife, referral

information should be on-hand to expedite appropriate treatment

and/or supportive care. The referral list should contain contact

information for veterinarians that treat wildlife, permitted wildlife

rehabilitators, referral wildlife hospitals, game wardens, wildlife

biologists, animal control officers, and state and federal wildlife

agencies. It may be advantageous to build a network of volunteer

transporters able to quickly move the wild animal to an appropriate

location for initial or additional treatment. Depending on the comfort

level and expertise of the veterinarians and staff, the clinic may decide

to see only certain types of wildlife, may treat to stabilize and transfer,

or admit only severely injured animals for humane euthanasia.

Practitioners need to be aware of local, state, and federal laws pertaining to

wildlife. Endangered, threatened, and listed species need to be reported

immediately to the appropriate authorities. Practitioners should also

check with local wildlife agencies and veterinary licensing boards for

guidance on how long wildlife may be in a practitioner’s possession

without rehabilitation permits. The state veterinarian and local APHIS

Veterinary Services need to be contacted if you suspect or confirm a

notifiable animal disease. The state public health agency needs to be

contacted if you suspect or confirm a notifiable disease of public health

concern.

Does the practice have the necessary restraint devices, enclosures, food,

and experienced veterinarians and staff to provide treatment and

supportive care to wildlife? Is there a space to house wildlife away

from domestic animals? Are biosecurity measurements in place to

prevent the spread of potential infectious diseases or parasites?

Appropriate personal protective equipment should be onsite and

appropriate for the species. Additional considerations include

reservoir or vector status of the animal, rabies immunization and

titers of staff, and general safety for staff, clients, domestic patients,

and the public.

Injured wildlife may require humane euthanasia to alleviate pain and

suffering due to injuries that are either severe or nonconducive to

887

release or placement in an education program. Euthanasia of wild

animals should be conducted according to the AVMA Guidelines on

Euthanasia or the AAZV Guidelines for the Euthanasia of

Nondomestic Animals. Wildlife authorities should be contacted if a

wild animal is fitted with a band, transmitter, tag, or other

identification device. Consideration of carcass disposal is necessary, the

usual means being incineration, burial/landfill, composting, or newer

evolving technologies. Animals euthanized with pentobarbital should

never be disposed in a manner that makes the carcass accessible to

scavenging and subsequent secondary pentobarbital toxicosis. All

carcasses, parts, and feathers from bald eagles and golden eagles must

be sent to the National Eagle Repository. According to the Migratory

Bird Treaty Act, it is illegal to keep carcasses, parts and feathers from

any migratory bird without an appropriate federal permit.

Table 14-3

Recommendations for Safe Restraint of Native Wildlife. 5,9,11,12,19,28,47,49,54,57,58,70,72,75

Topic

Notes a

Wild animals may carry a variety of infectious and parasitic diseases that

may present a health risk to veterinary staff, clients, the public, and

domestic patients. It is strongly advised to wear a primary barrier

(latex gloves) when handling wild animals.

Badgers,

coyotes,

foxes,

bobcats, and

lynx

Raccoons

Skunk

River otters

Young kits/cubs weighing less than 1 kg can be handled by wearing latex

gloves under long leather gloves and caught up by wrapping in a

thick towel or blanket. For long procedures or fractious adults,

anesthetize by injectable/inhalant combinations. Inject larger animals

(over 3 kg) using squeeze cage, netting, or syringe pole. Do not scruff

animals for restraint because they can still turn and bite. Restrain by

grasping the head around the back of the neck and holding the dorsal

pelvis with the legs aimed away from your abdomen to avoid personal

injury. Use muzzles to prevent biting.

Infants/juveniles may be restrained by the scruff of the neck or by holding

the shoulder area of the forelegs with one leg in each hand. Animals

tend to scream, grasp, or bite at the gloves and may urinate with

handling. Restrain older juveniles and adults with chemical or a

combination of chemical and gas anesthesia.

Limit handling in this species to avoid being sprayed from the musk

glands. Wear eye protection when handling. For young animals,

attempt to drape a towel or plastic sheet and tuck the tail between the

hind legs to decrease the possibility of being sprayed. Restrain older

juveniles and adults with chemical and/or gas anesthesia.

Natural defense is to bite, grasp, and twist which may cause significant

tissue trauma. Appropriate protective gear includes elbow-length

888

leather gloves for protection against teeth and nails. Adult animals

may need to be anesthetized for restraint.

Opossums

Rabbits and

hares

Wild rodents

Birds of prey

Passerines,

woodpeckers,

doves, etc.

Waterfowl,

pelagic, and

wading birds

Insectivorous

bats

Appropriate protective gear includes elbow-length leather gloves for

protection against teeth and nails. Anesthesia may be required for

examination of adults.

Appropriate protective gear includes a towel or light gloves for adults.

Cover with a towel before picking up to reduce stress. Restrain so that

the patient cannot kick its hind legs and injure its back. Avoid

overhandling and anesthetize for prolonged restraint.

Adults of these species can deliver hard bites. Appropriate protective wear

includes leather gloves to the elbow. Use nets for initial restraint of

larger rodents. A noose-style catch pole may be appropriate for initial

restraint of large beavers.

Appropriate protective gear includes leather gloves (garden gloves for

small species and up to the elbows or higher for larger hawks and

eagles) and protective eyewear. A leather welder’s jacket may be used

for large raptors such as eagles. Raptors will use talons for primary

defense but may also use their beak. Restrain feet first and head

second. A body grab should be used if the bird has a known leg

injury. A towel may be placed over the body before restraint to reduce

wing flapping. Vulture defense includes regurgitation. Keeping the

patient’s neck extended will reduce regurgitation efforts. Keep the

patient’s eyes covered with a hood or light cloth during handling to

reduce patient stress.

Appropriate protective gear includes light leather gloves. Patients may

become stressed or overheat with handling. Watch the patient closely

and perform procedures in stages if needed. Secure smaller birds using

fore and middle fingers around the base of the head and the bird’s back

pressed against your palm. Do not compress the body by grasping too

tightly as this may compromise breathing. Cup doves, pigeons, and

similar species in a light towel.

Appropriate protective gear includes vinyl or light leather gloves.

Powdered latex gloves and bare hands are inappropriate for waterfowl,

pelagic birds, and other species that require waterproofing of the

feathers. Handle passerine-sized precocial birds the same as altricial

birds. Waterfowl and large wading birds should be restrained by

securing the legs with one hand, tucking the bird’s body between

your side and the arm restraining the legs, and securing the head and

neck with the opposite hand. Long-billed birds such as herons and

loons require the handler to wear goggles and/or face shields to

protect the eyes.

Appropriate protective gear includes latex gloves under leather garden

gloves. Place the bat gently in a soft cloth and cover. Expose portions

of the bat to perform a physical exam. Cotton tip applicators are useful

to examine wing membranes, head and oral cavity, integument, etc.

889

Snakes

Chelonians

Lizards

Nonvenomous snakes may be restrained by grasping the head just

behind the mandibles and securing the body with the other hand. An

additional handler is needed for every 3-4 feet of snake to support the

spine. Venomous snakes should be restrained only by experts using

snake hooks and tongs to handle and clear plastic tubes for restraint.

Chelonians may scratch with claws or bite. Appropriate handling gear

includes latex gloves. Nonaggressive species may be restrained by

grasping the sides of the shell between the front and back legs. Larger

turtles, especially snapping turtles, require a hand under the caudal

third of the plastron and the other hand grasping the tail or the

caudal carapace. Snapping turtles can extend the head and neck twothirds

their body length caudally. Consider using a toilet plunger over

a snapping turtle’s head to reduce the risk of biting.

Place the index finger and thumb around the base of the mandibles to

secure the head and prevent biting. Use the free hand to restrain the

hind legs and tail. Never grab lizards by the tail, especially in species

with tail autonomy. To calm lizards, a vagal response can be created by

placing cotton balls over the eyes and securing with bandage material.

a

Although this outline is intended to provide general guidelines for the care of injured wildlife, the

veterinarian is strongly encouraged to transfer these animals to experienced rehabilitators as soon as

possible and/or to contact rehabilitators if questions arise. In addition, any individual working with wildlife

should check with state and federal officials on permit requirements.

Table 14-4

Recommendations for Venipuncture Sites in Native Wildlife. 19,22,28,31,35,57,62,65,68,72,75

Topic

Badgers, river

otters,

skunks,

coyotes,

foxes,

raccoons,

bobcats, lynx

Opossums

Rabbits and

hares

Wild rodents

Birds of prey

Notes

Medial saphenous vein, lateral saphenous vein, jugular vein, cephalic

vein, ventral coccygeal vein, femoral vein, cranial vena cava (in otters)

Lateral coccygeal and ventral tail vein/artery, cephalic vein, saphenous

vein, pouch vein in females

Jugular vein, cephalic vein, femoral vein, lateral saphenous vein

Small rodents often require cranial vena cava venipuncture under

anesthesia; larger species have accessible jugular veins, cephalic veins,

and medial and lateral saphenous veins; beavers have accessible tail

vein

Jugular vein (right is larger), basilic vein in either wing, medial metatarsal

890

vein (use caution when working near talons)

Passerines,

woodpeckers,

doves, etc.

Waterfowl,

pelagic, and

wading birds

Insectivorous

bats

Snakes

Chelonians

Lizards

Right jugular vein; basilic vein in larger birds is an alternative site

Medial metatarsal vein is preferred; jugular vein and basilic veins are

secondary sources

Need 24 µL for a manual complete blood cell count; venipuncture sites

include heart, infraorbital sinus, jugular, peripheral vessels (median

vein, cephalic vein, uropatagial vein)

Heart (snakes >200 g; dorsal recumbency; insertion of needle under

central abdominal scale at 45° angle caudal to heart; pericardial fluid

contamination can occur), jugular vein (needle is inserted parallel or

perpendicular to the ribs and 9 ventral scales cranial to the heart), or

ventral coccygeal vein; venomous snakes should only be handled by

professionals using appropriate equipment (tongs, hooks, clear snakehandling

tubes)

Jugular, dorsal venous sinus/dorsal coccygeal vein, subcarapacial venous

sinus; less commonly used vessels include brachial venous plexus,

femoral venous plexus, and femoral vein; all sites except the jugular

vein may be subject to lymph contamination

Ventral coccygeal vein (accessed laterally or ventrally), jugular, ventral

abdominal/coelomic vein

891

Table 14-5

Recommendations for Meat Withdrawal Times in Game Species for Select

Medications. 3,14,27,82,89

Drug use in wild animals is considered extra-label and as such is regulated by the Food and

Drug Administration (FDA) through the Animal Medicinal Drug Use Clarification Act

(AMDUCA). This act is divided into food-producing animals and non–food-producing

animals. Drug residues in game animals are a potential public health risk to those who

consume the meat. Game animals are defined by the FDA as “an animal, the products of

which are food, that is not classified as livestock, sheep, swine, goat, horse, mule or other

equine, or as poultry or fish.” Game animals include mammals such as deer, antelope,

rabbit, squirrel, opossum, raccoon, nutria, or muskrat, and nonaquatic reptiles such as

land snakes. The FDA classifies wild game birds as “poultry” and includes “migratory

waterfowl or game birds, pheasant, partridge, quail, grouse, or pigeon.”

Practitioners need to be aware of potential meat withdrawal times (defined as the time

between drug administration and when the meat can safely be consumed by a human)

when administering drugs to game species during or just before established hunting and

trapping seasons. There are very few established withdrawal times for wildlife, and

practitioners should check the Food Animal Residue Avoidance Database (FARAD) for

guidance on drug administration in game species that could be consumed. If a game

animal cannot be held until the meat withdrawal time has passed, it should be identified

with a unique number and warning that the meat should not be consumed. Permission

to tag wildlife may also require permission from state or federal authorities.

Some drugs may never be used in food-producing animals throughout the year. These

include: chloramphenicol, clenbuterol, diethylstilbestrol, dimetridazole, ipronidazole,

metronidazole, other nitromidazoles, furazolidone, nitrofurazone, glycopeptides, and

fluoroquinolones. Adamantane and neuraminidase inhibitors are prohibited in wild

game birds. The following is a list of recommended withdrawal times for select drugs used

in wildlife.

Agent

Meat Withdrawal Time

(days)

Agent

Meat Withdrawal Time

(days)

Acepromazine 14 Naloxone 30

Atipamezole 14 Naltrexone 30

Diazepam 14 Penicillin (long-acting) 21

Diprenorphine 30 Tolazoline 30

Etorphine 30 Xylazine 30

Ivermectin 49 Yohimbine 30

Ketamine 3 Zolazepam and

tiletamine (1:1)

14

Medetomidine 14

Table 14-6

892

Antimicrobial Agents Used in Wild Mammals. a-c


Amikacin


q12h 90

Rodents

20 mg/kg SC q24h 7 Bats

1.25 g/20 g


To make antibiotic impregnated

polymethylmethacrylate beads

Amoxicillin 10-20 mg/kg PO q8h 67 Rats, mice, squirrels, bats, raccoons,

opossums, wild felids, canids; do

not use in rabbits and certain

species of rodents

Amoxicillin/

clavulanic acid

(Clavamox, Zoetis)

Ampicillin

sodium/sulbactam

(Unasyn, Pfizer)

— Do not use in rabbits and certain

species of rodents

13-22 mg/kg PO q8-

12h 67,74

Rats, mice, squirrels, bats, raccoons,

opossums, wild felids, canids

— Stable for 3 days refrigerated and 3 mo

frozen

10-20 mg/kg IM, IV

q8h 67

For infections susceptible to

amoxicillin/clavulanate in patients

unable to receive oral doses

Ampicillin trihydrate — Do not use in rabbits and certain

species of rodents

6.6 mg/kg SC, IM q12h 67 Canids, felids


q8h 67,74

Rats, mice, squirrels, raccoons,

opossums

Azithromycin

(Zithromax, Pfizer)

5-10 mg/kg PO q24h×3-

5 days 67 Carnivores

20 mg/kg PO q24h 7 Bats

Cefazolin sodium — Do not use in rabbits and rodents


Zoetis)


q8h 67

2 g/20 g


8 mg/kg SC once, repeat

in 10 days if

indicated

Carnivores

To make antibiotic impregnated

polymethylmethacrylate beads

Carnivores; based on authors’

experience in raccoons, foxes,

otters 8,54

Ceftazidime 25-30 mg/kg IM, IV q8-

12h 67

Carnivores

893

Ceftiofur crystalline-free

acid (Excede, Zoetis)

7 mg/kg SC 45,81 Carnivores

Cephalexin — Do not use in rabbits and certain

species of rodents

22-60 mg/kg PO q6-

12h 7,67

Rats, mice, bats, squirrels, raccoons,

opossums, wild felids, canids

Clindamycin — Do not use in rabbits, rodents, and

ruminants 58,69

11-33 mg/kg PO q24h 67 Felids

15-30 mg/kg PO q12h 67 Carnivores

Doxycycline 2.5-5 mg/kg PO q12h 68 Rabbits, rodents


Enrofloxacin — Injectable may cause tissue necrosis;

in general, more than one IM

injection not advised; appears

stable when compounded; dilute

1:10 to reduce irritation

5 mg/kg PO q24h 67 Felids/contraindicated in young,

growing animals

5-10 mg/kg PO, IM

q12h 21


q24h 67

Rabbits, rodents

Canids/contraindicated in young,

growing animals

Metronidazole 10-15 mg/kg PO q12h 67 Felids

Penicillin G procaine — Do not use in rabbits or rodents

20,000-40,000 IU/kg IV

q6h or SC, IM q12h 67

Carnivores

Piperacillin/tazobactam

(Zosyn, Wyeth)


(Tribrissen, Schering-

Plough)

50 mg/kg IV q8h 67 Canids

15 mg/kg PO q12h 67 Felids

15-30 mg/kg PO q12h 7,67 Canids, bats

Tylosin (Tylan, Elanco) — Not recommended for use in rodents;

injectable may cause tissue

necrosis


a

Additional drug doses for other classes of wild animals may be found in other chapters of this

formulary.

b

“Carnivores” may include wild North American felids, canids, procyonids, ursids, and mustelids.

894

c

Many species of wildlife are hunted for human consumption. Drugs prohibited for use in food animals

should not be administered to these species if they will be released to the wild and/or consumed by

humans. See www.farad.org for list of drugs.

Table 14-7

Antiparasitic Agents Used in Wild Mammals. a-c


Fenbendazole (Panacur,

Intervet)

— Toxicosis reported in

porcupines and

rabbits 32,88

10-25 mg/kg PO q24h×5 days 51 Prairie dogs, other rodents

25 mg/kg PO q24h×5 days 6 Marsupials/Capillaria

25-50 mg/kg PO q12h×10-

14 days 67 Canids, felids/Paragonimus

50 mg/kg PO q24h×3-5 days 67 Canids, felids/ascarids,

hookworms,

whipworms, Taenia

50 mg/kg PO q24h×3-7 days 67 Canids, felids/Giardia

Fipronil — Most species/do not use in

rabbits 68

Mix 1 mL fipronil with 4 mL Bats

70% isopropyl alcohol; apply

0.5 mL to 15 g bat; 0.7 mL to

20 g bat; 1 mL to 25 g bat 7

Imidacloprid/moxidectin

(Advantage Multi,

Bayer)

0.2 mg/kg topically prn 87 Most species

Mix 0.1 mL imidacloprid with

0.9 mL water 7 Bats/imidacloprid only;

apply 1 drop of solution

to back of head

Ivermectin — Intravenous lipid emulsion

has been successfully

used to treat ivermectin

toxicosis in mammals 49

0.2-0.4 mg/kg PO, SC q7d 1,68 Most species/many

endoparasites and

ectoparasites; continue 2

wk past negative skin

scrape for mites

100 µg/kg PO once 7 Bats/toxicosis possible;

higher doses not

recommended 18

895

Metronidazole 15-25 mg/kg PO q12h×5-7 days 67 Carnivores/Giardia

10-40 mg/kg PO q24h 10 Rodents

Moxidectin

0.2-0.4 mg/kg PO q7-10d×3-6

doses 87

Carnivores, rabbits

Nitenpyram (Capstar,

Novartis)

— Capstar wound flush: one

11.4 mg tablet crushed

and mixed with 30 mL

sterile 0.9% NaCl or

water 55

11.4 mg (1 tablet) PO for

animals weighing 0.9-

11.36 kg 67 Carnivores/fleas, myiasis

Praziquantel (Droncit,

Bayer)

5-10 mg/kg PO, SC 67 Carnivores/cestodes

20-25 mg/kg PO q24h×3-

10 days 67 Carnivores/trematodes

Pyrantel pamoate

5-10 mg/kg PO after meal

q2-3wk 44,67

Carnivores

Sulfadimethoxine (Albon,

Zoetis)

25-50 mg/kg PO q24h 1,51,71 Most species

a


formulary.

b


c




896

Table 14-8

Antifungal Agents Used in Wild Mammals. a-c


Amphotericin B

0.25 mg/kg IV 3×/wk; maximum

dose 8 mg/kg; 4 mg/kg if

used with an azole 60

Carnivores/efficacy against aspergillosis

may be low; MIC indicated 77

Griseofulvin 1 mg/kg IV q24h 73 Rabbits, rodents

— Administer with fatty meal; may cause

bone marrow depression; monitor

CBC during treatment

25 mg/kg PO q12h or 50 mg/kg

PO q24h 60

Carnivores/dermatophytosis; continue

therapy 2 wk beyond clinical

resolution

25 mg/kg PO q24h×28 days 1,39 Rabbits, rodents, Virginia opossums,

eastern grey

squirrels/dermatophytosis

Itraconazole

(Itrafungol,

Elanco)

Nystatin

100,000 IU/mL

suspension

— Give with meal for most effective

absorption; monitor liver function

5-10 mg/kg PO q24h 38,67 Carnivores, rabbits

— Apply topically to oral lesions

5,000 IU/kg PO q8-12h 59 Opossums

50,000-150,000 IU topically

q6-8h 67

Carnivores/oral candidiasis

Terbinafine 8-20 mg/kg PO q24h 38 Rabbits

10-20 mg/kg PO q24h 67 Carnivores/dermatophytosis; can do

pulse therapy (7 days on, 21 days

off)

Voriconazole — Not recommended in felids due to

significant side effects

4 mg/kg PO q12h 67 Canids

a


formulary.

b


c




Table 14-9

897

Chemical Restraint/Anesthetic Agents Used in Wild Mammals. a-c


Acepromazine

0.5-2.5 mg/kg

IM 37

Prairie dogs

0.1 mg/kg IM 37 Beavers, porcupines


Jurox)

Atipamezole

(Antisedan,

Zoetis)

5-10 mg/kg IM or


— Dexmedetomidine and medetomidine reversal; give

same volume SC, IV, IP as medetomidine and

dexmedetomidine (dexmedetomidine is used at

one-half the dose of medetomidine but the

same volume due to higher concentration);

medetomidine is no longer commercially

available, but can be compounded

Atropine sulfate

Dexmedetomi-dine

(Dexdomitor,

Zoetis)

Diazepam

(available as a

1 mg/mL oral

solution)

Flumazenil

Glycopyrolate

0.03-0.05 mg/kg

SC 67

0.05-1 µg/kg IM,

IV (use lower

end of range if

giving IV) 36

0.1-1 mg/kg IM,

PO 37

0.5-2 mg/kg IM,

SC, PO 7

1-2.5 mg/kg PO,

IM, IP 37

0.01-0.05 mg/kg

IM, IV, IO;

repeat q1h

prn 67

0.01 mg/kg SC,

IM 37

0.01-0.02 mg/kg

SC, IM 37

Most species/preanesthetic dose; may not be

effective in lagomorphs and some rodents

Most species/generally insufficient alone to

produce sedation in most wild mammals;

combine with opioids and/or benzodiazepines;

see ketamine for combinations

Beavers, porcupines

Bats

Prairie dogs

If using 5 mg/mL midazolam and 0.1 mg/mL

flumazenil, use 2× the volume of midazolam

given

Beavers, porcupines

Prairie dogs

Ketamine — Combinations frequently used by the authors;

most can be followed by intubation and

inhalant anesthetic drugs if general anesthesia

is required; concentrated formulations of

ketamine (200 mg/mL), butorphanol (30-

50 mg/mL), and medetomidine (10 or

898

30-100 mg/kg SC 7 Bats

20 mg/mL) are available from compounding

pharmacies and are advised for larger

mammals; sustained release (SR) products

available from compounding pharmacies; can

also be combined with benzodiazepines

Ketamine

(K)/medetomidine

(M)

(K) 2-5 mg/kg+

(M) 0.04-

0.1 mg/kg

IM 26

Carnivores

Ketamine

(K)/medetomidine

(M)/dexmedetomidine

(D)/butorphanol

(B)

(K) 2-4 mg/kg+ Carnivores/deepen anesthesia with isoflurane for

(M)

invasive procedures; reverse dexmedetomidine

0.02 mg/kg+ with equal volume of atipamezole IM (wait at

(B) 0.04-

least 30 min after ketamine is administered)

0.2 mg/kg or

0.01 mL/lb IM

each of (K)

100 mg/mL,

(D)

0.5 mg/mL,

and (B)

10 mg/mL 26

Midazolam

0.1-0.5 mg/kg

IM 37

0.2-0.5 mg/kg IM,

IV 26

1-2 mg/kg IM,

IP 37

Beavers, porcupines

Carnivores/preanesthetic or sedative

Prairie dogs

Propofol — Reduce dose with hypoproteinemia; supplemental

oxygen recommended; induces profound

respiratory depression; be prepared to ventilate

3-7 mg/kg IV

slowly to

effect 67

0.1-

0.6 mg/kg/min

constant rate

infusion 36

Carnivores

Carnivores/sedation at lower doses; light

anesthesia at higher doses

a


formulary.

b


c




899

Table 14-10

Analgesic and Nonsteroidal Antiinflammatory Agents Used in Wild Mammals. a-c


Buprenorphine

0.01-0.02 mg/kg SC, IM q12h; may be

administered via transmucosal route

at higher dosage of 0.02-0.03 mg/kg

q12h 68

0.01-0.05 mg/kg SC, IM, IV, IP, oral

transmucosal q6-12h 23,29

Felids

Most species

0.1 mg/kg SC q24h 7 Bats

Buprenorphine-SR

(Buprenorphine

SR-LAB,

ZooPharm)

— Acquired from

compounding pharmacy;

sustained release; shelf

life 1 yr; refrigerate

0.06-0.12 mg/kg SC q72h 13 Carnivores

Butorphanol 1-2 mg/kg SC q48-72h 25,46 Rodents

— Can be compounded at 30-

50 mg/mL by

compounding pharmacy

0.1-0.5 mg/kg SC, IM, IV q2-4h 67 Carnivores

2 mg/kg SC, IM q4h 90 Prairie dogs

Carprofen 2-5 mg/kg SC, PO q12h 24 Rodents

2.2 mg/kg PO q12h 67 Canids/not recommended

for felids

Fentanyl

Transdermal patch

Most species/dysphoria more

1-5 µg/kg/h 67 prevalent at higher end

of dose range

Gabapentin 5-10 mg/kg PO q12h 67 Carnivores/anecdotal dosage

100 mg/kg PO q24h 33 Rodents

Ketoprofen 2-5 mg/kg SC q24h 7 Bats

Meloxicam 0.1 mg/kg PO q24h 7 Bats

0.2 mg/kg PO, SC, IV, then 0.1 mg/kg PO

q24h 67

Label dosage: 0.3 mg/kg SC once for 3-4-

day effect; 67

Extra-label dosage: 0.2 mg/kg PO

once, then 0.1 mg/kg PO q24h in

Canids

Felids, raccoons, Virginia

opossums, skunks

900

food for 3-4 days 8

Morphine 1 mg/kg PO q24h × 29 days 17 Rabbits

1-2 mg/kg PO, SC q24 8 Rodents

0.1-0.5 mg/kg SC, IM q4-6h 67 Felids/not recommended to

use alone

0.5-2 mg/kg SC, IM q4-6h 67 Canids

Tramadol — Compounded suspension

has a shelf life of 90 days

at 5°C/41°F 86

0.5-2 mg/kg PO q12h 67 Felids

3-5 mg/kg PO q8-12h 67 Canids

Lidocaine — Toxic dose varies with

species; use lowest dose

possible

<3 mg/kg 90 Felids

<4 mg/kg 90 Canids

Bupivicaine — Toxic dose varies with

species; use lowest dose

possible

2 mg/kg 90 Carnivores

a


formulary.

b


c




Table 14-11

Agents Used in Wild Mammal Emergencies. a-c


Activated charcoal

1-4 g/kg with 5-10 mL

of water per g of

charcoal PO q4-6h 67

Carnivores

Atropine (0.54 mg/mL) 2-3 g/kg PO 43 Rabbits, rodents

0.02-0.04 mg/kg IM, IV 67 Carnivores; bradycardia

0.04 mg/kg IV, IO;

repeat

Carnivores; cardiopulmonary

resuscitation

901

q3-5min prn for

maximum of 3 doses

or 0.08-0.1 mg/kg

intra-tracheal; dilute

with 5-10 mL sterile

water before

administration 67

0.04-0.05 mg/kg SC,

IM 36,37

0.2-0.5 mg/kg; give ¼

dose IV and

remainder SC, IM 67


Organophosphate toxicity

Crystalloid fluids

(isotonic) bolus

volume for shock

Crystalloid fluids

(maintenance)

0.8-1 mg/kg SC, IM 61 Rabbits/many have serum atropinase and

need higher doses

90 mL/kg 1st hr 40 Most species/administer one quarter of

total dose over 15 min, then reassess

heart rate, blood pressure, mucous

membranes

40-60 mL/kg/day 80 Carnivores

Diazepam

0.5-1 mg/kg IV,

intranasally, rectally;

repeat 2× prn 67

Carnivores/status epilepticus or cluster

seizures

Dexamethasone

sodium phosphate;

methylprednisolone

sodium succinate

— High dose (e.g., 30 mg/kg IV), fast-acting

corticosteroids are no longer

recommended for use in shock or CNS

trauma (still controversial); recent

studies have not demonstrated

significant benefit and it actually may

cause increased deleterious effects 67

Dextrose 50%

0.5 mL/kg IV bolus

(dilute by half to

make a 25%

solution), follow up

with constant rate

infusion of 5%

dextrose in a

balanced electrolyte

solution 67

0.25 mL/kg of 50%

dextrose diluted 50%

w/saline 50

Most species/hypoglycemia

Small mammal CPR

Edetate calcium

disodium

— Nephrotoxic; consider administration of

fluids during treatment to maintain

902

(CaEDTA)

hydration

25 mg/kg SC q6- Most species/recheck lead levels after 5

12h×5 days 16,51,67 days of treatment; if still elevated,

allow 5-7 day rest period before

restarting treatment

Epinephrine 1:1000

(1 mg/mL)

— Most species

0.01 mg/kg IV/IO

epinephrine

administered every

3-5 min 50,67,69 Low-dose; early in CPR is recommended

0.1 mg/kg IV, IO 50,67,69 High-dose; consider after prolonged CPR

0.1-0.2 mg/kg IV, IO,

intratracheal 50,67,69

Furosemide 1-4 mg/kg IM, IV q4-

12h 42

2-4 mg/kg IM, IV q1-2h

until respiration

improves 67

Dilute in 5-10 mL sterile water or saline

for intratracheal administration

Rabbits/pulmonary edema

Carnivores/pulmonary edema, ascites

Hetastarch

1-2 mL/kg/h IV

constant rate

infusion 67

1-2 mL/kg/h IV

constant rate

infusion 67

5-10 mL/kg IV bolus

over 15-30 min 40

Canids/do not exceed 25 mL/kg/day

Felids/do not exceed 10 mL/kg/day

Felids

10-20 mL/kg IV bolus

15-30 min 40 Carnivores

Mannitol 0.5-1.5 g/kg IV over 10-

20 min 67 Most species/traumatic brain injury;

repeat q6-8h prn for maximum of 3

boluses and only if patient is showing

response

Pralidoxime (2-PAM)

20 mg/kg SC, IM, IV

(slowly) q6-12h

until nicotinic signs

are present 67

Carnivores

Saline (NaCl;

hypertonic; 7.5%)

4-6 mL/kg slow bolus 67 Most species/head trauma, pulmonary

contusions; consider using with a

colloid to prolong effect

a


formulary.

903

b


c




Table 14-12

Miscellaneous Agents Used in Wild Mammals. a-c


Most species/can be stored in refrigerator for 6

Acetylcysteine Nebulize 50 mg as a 2%

with saline 60,67

solution diluted mo; do not freeze

Calcium

gluconate

— Dilute the 23% solution 1:1 with saline or

sterile water for IM or IV administration

50-100 mg/kg IV for 10- Most species/hyperkalemic cardiotoxicity

20 min 67 (serum K >8 mEq/L); monitor ECG

Cimetidine

94-140 mg/kg IV slowly

to effect 67

5-10 mg/kg PO, SC,

IM, IV q6-12h 44,67,71

Most species/hypocalcemia; monitor respiration

and cardiac rhythm during administration;

halt administration if arrhythmias occur

Most species

Diphenhydramine 2 mg/kg PO, SC 7,67 Most species

Famotidine

Iron dextran

0.5 mg/kg PO, SC, IM,

IV q6-12h 60,67

10-20 mg/kg IM

followed by oral

therapy 67

Most species

Carnivores

Isoxuprine 1 mg/kg PO q24h 67 Canids

Lactulose 0.25-0.5 mL/kg PO q6-

8h until stools are

loose 67

Carnivores

Loperamide

Maropitant

(Cerenia,

Zoetis)

0.1 mg/kg PO

q8h×3 days, then

q24h×2 days (give

in 1 mL water) 44,60

0.5-1 mg/kg SC, IV

slow q24h

2-4 mg/kg PO q24h up

to 5 consecutive

days 60,67

Most species

Carnivores

Carnivores

904

Meclizine 2-12 mg/kg PO q12-

24h 44,60,67

Most species

Metoclopramide


q6-8h 51,60,67

Carnivores, rodents, rabbits

Omeprazole 0.5-1 mg/kg PO q24h 67 Carnivores

Oxytocin

Simethicone

(66 mg/mL)

Sucralfate

0.2-3 IU/kg SC, IM,

IV 53,64

60 mg/kg PO q8-12h or

at every feeding for

infants 60

25-125 mg/kg PO

q8h 41,71

Most species

Most species (adult or infant)/also consider

burping nursing neonates after every

feeding

Most species/give 30-60 min after histamine-2

blockers

Vitamin B

complex

10-20 mg/kg SC, IM q8-

12h prn 67 Carnivores/dose based on thiamine (B 1 )

a


formulary.

b


c




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61 Olson M.E., Vizzutti D., Marck D.W., et al. The parasympatholytic effects of

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1994;58:254–258.

62 Olsson A. Blood collection and hematological values. In: Barnard S.M., ed. Bats in

Captivity Vol 1. Biological and Medical Aspects. Washington DC: Logos Press;

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63 Oxbow Animal Health (Murdock, NE). Available at:

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Medicine and Surgery. 2nd ed. St. Louis: WB Saunders Co; 2004:183–193.

65 Paul-Murphy J. Critical care of the rabbit. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract.

2007;10:437–461.

66 Plumb D.C. Plumb’s Veterinary Drug Handbook. 7th ed. Wiley-Blackwell: Ames;

2011.

67 Plumb D.C. Plumb’s Veterinary Drug Handbook. 8th ed. Wiley-Blackwell: Ames;

2015.

68 Quesenberry K.E., Carpenter J.W., eds. Ferrets, Rabbits, and Rodents: Clinical

Medicine and Surgery. 2nd ed. St. Louis: WB Saunders Co; 2004.

69 Ramer J.C., Paul-Murphy J., Benson K.G. Evaluating and stabilizing critically ill

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70 Reed-Smith J., Ball J. North American River Otter Husbandry Notebook. 2nd ed.

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71 Riggs S.M., Mitchell M.A. Chinchillas. In: Mitchell M.A., Tully T.N., eds. Manual

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72 Samour J.H., ed. Avian Medicine. 3rd ed. St. Louis: Elsevier; 2016.

73 Sanati H., Ramos C.F., Bayer A.S., et al. Combination therapy with amphotericin

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74 Schott R. Triaging the wildlife patient. Proc Student Chap Am Vet Med Assoc

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79 State and Territorial Public Health Offices. Available at:

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81 Travis E., Duncan M., Weber M., et al. Ileocecocolic strictures in two captive

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84 United States Fish and Wildlife Service. National Eagle Repository. Available at:

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85 Vennen K.M., Mitchell M.A. Rabbits. In: Mitchell M.A., Tully T.N., eds. Manual of

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86 Wagner D.S., Johnson C.E. Stability of oral liquid preparations of tramadol in

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910

C H A P T E R 1 5

Select Topics for the Exotic

Animal Veterinarian

Julie Swenson; James W. Carpenter

Table 15-1

Classification of Select Antimicrobials Used in Exotic Animal Medicine.

911

Class

Benzyl penicillins a

Antimicrobial Agent

Benzathine penicillin G

Procaine penicillin G

Extended-spectrum penicillins a

Aminopenicillins

Amoxicillin

Ampicillin

Antipseudomonal penicillins

Carboxypenicillins

Carbenicillin

Ticarcillin

Piperazine penicillins

Carbapenems b

Piperacillin

Imipenem

Meropenem

β-lactamase inhibitors

Ampicillin a /sulbactam

Piperacillin a /tazobactam

Clavulanic acid

Amoxicillin a /clavulanate

Ticarcillin a /clavulanate

First-generation cephalosporins a

Cefadroxil

Cefazolin

Cefovecin

Cefpodoxime

Cephalexin

Third-generation cephalosporins a

Cefixime

Cefotaxime

Ceftazidime

Ceftiofur

Fourth-generation cephalosporins a

Cefepime

Cefpirome

Macrolides b

Clarithromycin

Erythromycin

Tilmicosin

Tylosin

Azalides b

Azithromycin

912

Ketolides b Telithromycin

Tetracyclines b

Chlortetracycline

Doxycycline

Oxytetracycline

Tetracycline

Chloramphenicol (or its derivative) b

Chloramphenicol

Florfenicol

Lincosamides c

Clindamycin

Lincomycin

Pirlimycin

Aminoglycosides a

Amikacin

Gentamicin

Kanamycin

Neomycin

Streptomycin

Tobramycin

Aminocyclitols b

Nitroimidazole d

Spectinomycin

Metronidazole

Ronidazole

Sulfonamides b

Sulfachlorpyridazine

Sulfadiazine

Sulfadimethoxine

Sulfamethazine

Sulfamethoxazole

Sulfaquinoxaline

Sulfathiazole

Sulfisoxazole

Trimethoprim a

Trimethoprim/sulfas a

Trimethoprim



Quinolones b

Fluoroquinolones a

Nalidixic acid

Ciprofloxacin

Danofloxacin

913

Difloxacin

Enrofloxacin

Marbofloxacin

Orbifloxacin

a

Bactericidal.

b

Bacteriostatic.

c

Bacteriostatic or bactericidal.

d

Cidal vs. amoebae, Giardia, Trichomonas, and most obligate anaerobes; inactive vs. most aerobic

bacteria or facultative anaerobes.

Table 15-2

General Efficacy of Select Antimicrobial Agents Used in Exotic Animals.

Infectious Agent

Antimicrobial Agent

Gram-positive bacteria

Gram-positive

bacteria (in general)

Staphylococcus spp.

Streptococcus spp.

• Aminoglycosides (select) (amikacin, gentamicin)

• Azalides (i.e., azithromycin)

• Cephalosporins

• Chloramphenicol

• Erythromycin

• Florfenicol

• Fluoroquinolones

• Lincosamides

• Macrolides

• Penicillins

• Tetracyclines

• Aminoglycosides (select) (amikacin, gentamicin)

• Azithromycin

• β-lactams (early-generation)

• Cephalosporins (cefovecin, cefpodoxime)

• Chloramphenicol

• Clindamycin


• Lincosamides

• Macrolides

• Penicillin/β-lactamase inhibitor (amoxicillin/clavulanate,

ampicillin/sulbactam, piperacillin/tazobactam,

ticarcillin/clavulanate)

• Trimethoprim/sulfas

• Azithromycin

• β-lactams (early-generation)

• Cephalosporins

914

• Chloramphenicol

• Clindamycin

• Lincosamides

• Macrolides

• Penicillins

• Tetracyclines


Clostridium spp. and

other anaerobes

• Azithromycin

• Cephalosporins (cefotetan, cefoxitin)

• Chloramphenicol

• Clindamycin

• Erythromycin

• Florfenicol

• Lincomycin

• Metronidazole a

• Penicillins (amoxicillin/clavulanate)

• Tetracyclines

Gram-negative

bacteria

Enterobacteriaceae

(in general)

Campylobacter spp.

Pasteurella spp.

(resistance may

occur)

Pseudomonas spp.

• Aminoglycosides (amikacin, gentamicin)

• Azalides

• Carbapenems

• Cephalosporins (third/fourth-generation)


• Penicillins (extended-spectrum)


• Amoxicillin

• Azithromycin

• Ceftriazone

• Chloramphenicol

• Clindamycin

• Doxycycline

• Erythromycin


• Furazolidone

• Gentamicin

• Neomycin

• Aminoglycosides (amikacin, gentamicin)

• Chloramphenicols (chloramphenicol, florfenicol)

• Erythromycin


• Penicillins

• Sulfonamides

• Tetracyclines


• Aminoglycosides (frequently in combination with an

915

(often resistant)

advanced-generation β-lactam)

• Carbapenems

• Ceftazidime and fourth-generation cephalosporins

(frequently in combination with an aminoglycoside)

• Chloramphenicol


• Penicillins (advanced-generation) (carbenicillin, ticarcillin;

frequently in combination with an aminoglycoside)

Salmonella spp.

Chlamydia

Mycoplasma spp.

• Aminoglycosides

• Chloramphenicol


• Penicillins (advanced-generation)


• Azithromycin

• Enrofloxacin (vs. some species)

• Erythromycin

• Tetracyclines (doxycyline)

• Azithromycin

• Chloramphenicol

• Clindamycin

• Enrofloxacin

• Lincosamides

• Macrolides

• Tetracyclines

a

Effective vs. most obligate anaerobes; inactive vs. most aerobic bacteria or facultative anaerobes.

Table 15-3

Antimicrobial Therapy Used in Exotic Animals According to Site of Infection. a,b

Site of Infection

Antimicrobial Agent

Bacteremia,

septicemia

Aerobic bacteria

Aminoglycoside with a penicillin or cephalosporin

Cephalosporins (third-generation)

Fluoroquinolone with amoxicillin

Penicillins (penicillin, amoxicillin, amoxicillin/clavulanate,

ampicillin/sulbactam)

Anaerobic

bacteria

Azithromycin

Cefoxitin, cefotetan

Chloramphenicol

916

Clindamycin

Florfenicol

Metronidazole

Penicillin

Soft-tissue

infection

Azithromycin

Cephalosporins

Clindamycin or metronidazole (vs. anaerobes)

Fluoroquinolones

Fluoroquinolone with metronidazole (vs. polymicrobial aerobic and

anaerobic infections)

Penicillin/β-lactamase inhibitor (amoxicillin/clavulanate)

Tetracyclines

Trimethoprim/sulfas

Respiratory tract

Azithromycin

Cephalosporins

Chloramphenicol

Clindamycin (includes anaerobes)

Enrofloxacin (vs. Mycoplasma, etc.)

Florfenicol

Macrolides (vs. Mycoplasma)

Metronidazole (vs. anaerobes)

Penicillins

Tetracyclines (vs. Mycoplasma and Chlamydia)

Trimethoprim/sulfas

Alimentary tract

Amoxicillin

Cephalosporins

Fluoroquinolones


Neomycin

Tetracyclines

Trimethoprim/sulfas

Skin


Azithromycin

917

Cephalosporins

Clindamycin

Erythromycin

Fluoroquinolones

Lincomycin

Trimethoprim/sulfas

Bone and/or joint

Aminoglycosides

Azithromycin

Cephalosporins

Cephalosporins (third-generation) with clindamycin (vs. anaerobes)

Clindamycin

Fluoroquinolones

Lincosamides

Penicillins (extended-spectrum)

Penicillins with clindamycin (vs. anaerobes)

Urinary tract

Cephalosporins (cefadroxil, cefazolin, cephalexin)

Fluoroquinolones

Penicillins (amoxicillin, amoxicillin/clavulanate, ampicillin)

Sulfisoxazole

Tetracyclines

Trimethoprim/sulfas

Central nervous

system

Azithromycin

Cephalosporins (third-generation) (excluding cefovecin, cefpodoxime)

Chloramphenicol (encephalitis)

Florfenicol

Fluoroquinolones (meningitis)


Penicillins (in cases of inflammation)

Trimethoprim/sulfas

Reproductive tract


Chloramphenicol

Clindamycin (vs. anaerobes)

Fluoroquinolones

918

Florfenicol

Trimethoprim/sulfas

a

Definitive therapy should be based on bacterial culture and sensitivity and host species involved.

b

Modified from: Carpenter JW, ed. Exotic Animal Formulary. 4th ed. St. Louis: Elsevier-Saunders; 2013;

Papich MG. Saunders Handbook of Veterinary Drugs. Small and Large Animal. 4th ed. St. Louis:

Elsevier; 2016; Plumb DC, ed. Plumb’s Veterinary Drug Handbook. 8th ed. Ames: Wiley Blackwell;

2015.

919

Table 15-4

Antimicrobial Combination Therapies Commonly Used in Exotic Animals. a

Antimicrobial Agent

Aminoglycosides b

(amikacin,

gentamicin)

Amoxicillin

Ampicillin

Cephalosporin

Clindamycin

Fluoroquinolones

(enrofloxacin,

ciprofloxacin,

marbofloxacin)

Lincomycin

Metronidazole

Ormetoprim

Penicillins (ampicillin,

carbenicillin,

piperacillin)

Penicillins, early

generation

Ticarcillin

Trimethoprim

Tylosin

Synergistic or Combination Agent

Cephalosporins, clindamycin, fluoroquinolones, lincomycin,

metronidazole, penicillins (amoxicillin, ampicillin, carbenicillin,

piperacillin, ticarcillin), trimethoprim/sulfas

Clavulanate

Sulbactam

Aminoglycosides, b clindamycin, fluoroquinolones, metronidazole,

semi-synthetic penicillins

Aminoglycosides, cephalosporins (third-generation), enrofloxacin,

penicillins

Aminoglycosides, b cephalosporins (third-generation), clindamycin,

metronidazole, penicillins (extended-spectrum)

Aminoglycosides, b spectinomycin

Amikacin, azithromycin, carbenicillin, cefazolin, cefotaxime,

chloramphenicol, enrofloxacin, gentamicin, marbofloxacin,

others as indicated

Sulfadimethoxine

Aminoglycosides, b fluoroquinolones

Aminoglycosides, b third-generation cephalosporins,

fluoroquinolones

Clavulanate

Sulfadiazine, sulfamethoxazole

Oxytetracycline

a

Indicated when synergy is advantageous in definitive therapy, to treat polymicrobial infections, to

broaden empiric coverage, or to attempt to prevent the development of antimicrobial resistance.

b

Generally amikacin, occasionally gentamicin.

Table 15-5

Select Laboratories Conducting Exotic Animal Diagnostic Procedures.

Laboratory

Select Tests/Procedures

920

Animal Health Diagnostic Center


Cornell University

PO Box 5786

Ithaca, NY 14852 USA

(607) 253-3900

ahdc.vet.cornell.edu

Antech Diagnostics

10 Executive Boulevard

Farmingdale, NY 11735 USA

(800) 745-4725 (West)

(800) 872-1001 (East)

(800) 341-3440 (Canada)

antechdiagnostics.com

Avian Biotech International

Animal Genetics, Inc.

1336 Timberlane Road

Tallahassee, FL 32312 USA

(800) 514-9672

(850) 386-1145

avianbiotech.com

Avian & Exotic Animal Clin Path Labs

2712 North Highway 68

Wilmington, OH 45177 USA

(937) 383-3347

(800) 350-1122

avianexoticlab.com

General: Chemistry, hematology,

clotting panels, histopathology,

microbiology, necropsy,

parasitology, virology

Avian: Chlamydia, Cryptosporidium,

Giardia, Mycobacterium, Mycoplasma,

infectious bronchitis virus,

infectious bursal disease, influenza

virus, paramyxovirus, West Nile

virus, viral isolation, blood

lead/zinc

Mammal: Ferret enteric

coronavirus, ferret influenza virus,

mink enteric coronavirus, ferret

adrenal testing

Reptile: Cryptosporidium, Salmonella

General: Chemistry, electrophoresis,

hematology, microbiology, virology

Avian: Mycoplasma, Chlamydia,

Aspergillus, polyomavirus,

psittacine beak and feather disease

virus, West Nile virus, sex

determination, blood lead/zinc

Mammal: Pasteurella,

Encephalitozoon, Treponema,

Toxoplasma, ferret adrenal panel,

distemper virus, Aleutian disease

virus

Reptile: Mycoplasma

Avian: Bordetella, Chlamydia,

Mycobacterium, Salmonella,

Aspergillus, Candida, Cryptosporidium,

Giardia, paramyxovirus, pigeon

circovirus, polyomavirus,

psittacine beak and feather disease

virus, herpes virus, influenza

virus, West Nile virus, Pacheco’s

disease, sex determination


hematology, histopathology,

microbiology, parasitology,

toxicology, virology

Avian: Chlamydia, Salmonella,

Aspergillus, Histoplasma,

Cryptosporidium, Giardia, Sarcocystis,

921

adenovirus, influenza virus,

Pacheco’s disease, paramyxovirus,

polyomavirus, West Nile virus,

blood iron/lead/zinc

Mammal: Heartworm testing,

Toxoplasma, distemper virus

Herps: Cryptosporidium, Giardia,

chytrid, inclusion body disease,

ophidian paramyxovirus

Avian and Wildlife Laboratory

Division of Comparative Pathology

University of Miami School of Medicine

1611 NW 12th Avenue

Miami, FL 33136 USA

(305) 585-6303

cpl.med.miami.edu

Diagnostic Center for Population and Animal

Health

Michigan State University

4125 Beaumont Road

Lansing, MI 48910 USA

(517) 353-1683

animalhealth.msu.edu

Diagnostic Laboratory Service



hematology

Avian: Aspergillus, Chlamydia,

Cryptosporidium, Pacheco’s virus,

polyomavirus, psittacine beak and

feather disease virus, sex

determination

Mammal: CAR bacillus, Clostridium

piliforme, Mycoplasma, Pasteurella, E.

cuniculi, guinea pig adenovirus,

coronavirus, Kilham’s rat virus,

lymphocytic choriomeningitis

virus, mouse hepatitis virus,

minute virus of mice, pneumonia

virus of mice, parainfluenza virus

3, parvovirus, rotavirus, Sendai

virus, Theiler’s murine

encephalomyelitis virus


histopathology, microbiology,

necropsy, protein electrophoresis,


Avian: Chlamydia, Mycobacterium,

Mycoplasma, Aspergillus,

Cryptosporidium, Salmonella,

Newcastle disease virus, infectious

bronchitis virus, infectious

laryngotracheitis virus, influenza

virus, West Nile virus, blood lead

Mammal: Cryptosporidium, Giardia,

Salmonella, Aleutian disease virus,

ferret enteric coronavirus, ferret

rotavirus

Herps: Mycoplasma, Salmonella,

Cryptosporidium

General: Chemistry, endocrinology,

hematology, histopathology,

922

University of Tennessee

2407 River Drive

Knoxville, TN 37996 USA

(865) 974-8387

vetmed.tennessee.edu/vmc/dls

Georgia Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratories


University of Georgia

501 DW Brooks Drive

Athens, GA 30602 USA

(706) 542-5568

vet.uga.edu/dlab/

Kansas State Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory


Kansas State University

1800 Denison Avenue

Manhattan, KS 66506 USA

(866) 512-5650

microbiology, necropsy,

parasitology, toxicology, virology


Mycoplasma, Aspergillus,

Cryptosporidium, sex determination

Mammal: Giardia, influenza A

virus, ferret adrenal panel, rabbit

adrenal panel

Herps: Mycoplasma, Cryptosporidium,

herpesvirus, ophidian

paramyxovirus, ranavirus



necropsy, parasitology, toxicology,

virology


Mycoplasma, Salmonella, Aspergillus,

Cryptosporidium, Plasmodium,

herpesvirus, influenza virus,

Newcastle disease virus, West Nile

virus, Pacheco’s disease

Mammal: Bordetella, Clostridium

(toxin panel), Francisella tularensis,

Helicobacter, Lawsonia, Mycobacteria,

Mycoplasma, Pasteurella, Salmonella,

Treponema, Encephalitozoon,

herpesvirus, influenza A virus,


virus, morbiliviruses, mouse

hepatitis virus, mouse reoviruses,

murine norovirus, paramyxovirus,

pneumonia virus of mice, rabies

virus, rodent parvoviruses, Sendai

virus, simian virus 5, Tyzzer’s

disease

Herps: Cryptosporidium, Mycoplasma,

Salmonella, adenovirus,

herpesvirus, ranavirus

Aquatic: Aquatic bacterial and

fungal cultures (including

Mycobacterium and Mycoplasma)



necropsy, parasitology, protein

electrophoresis, toxicology,

virology


923

vet.k-state.edu/depts/dmp/service

Salmonella, Aspergillus,

Cryptosporidium, influenza virus,

Newcastle disease virus, West Nile

virus, blood lead

Mammal: Francisella tularensis,

Lawsonia, Giardia, Cryptosporidium,

influenza virus, rabies virus

Herps: Salmonella

National Veterinary Services Laboratory

USDA-APHIS-VS-NVSL

PO Box 844

Ames, IA 50010 USA

(515) 337-7266

aphis.usda.gov/aphis/ourfocus/animalhealth/labinfo-services

Northwest ZooPath

654 West Main Street

Monroe, WA 98272 USA

(360) 794-0630

zoopath.com

Research Associates Laboratory

14556 Midway Road

Dallas, TX 75224 USA

(972) 960-2221

vetdna.com

General: Microbiology, virology

Avian: Avibacterium paragallinarum,

Bordetella, Chlamydia, Mycobacterium,

Mycoplasma, Ornithobacterium

rhinotracheale, Pasteurella, Salmonella,

adenoviruses, avian pox virus,

chicken anemia virus, duck viral

enteritis virus, encephalomyelitis

virus, goose parvovirus,

herpesviruses, infectious bronchitis

virus, infectious bursal disease,

infectious laryngotracheitis,

influenza virus, Marek’s disease,

metapneumovirus, nephritis virus,

paramyxoviruses, reovirus,

rotavirus, West Nile virus

Mammal: Francisella tularensis

Aquatic: Various bacterial and viral

testing options for aquaculture

(contact lab for arrangements)

General: Pathology

General: Microbiology, virology

Avian: Bartonella, Bordetella,

Chlamydia, Cryptosporidium,

Helicobacter, Mycobacterium,


Candida, avian gastric yeast, Giardia,

plasmodium, adenoviruses,

circoviruses, duck enteritis virus,

herpesviruses, Marek’s disease,

polyomavirus, poxvirus, psittacine

beak and feather disease virus, sex

determination

924

Mammal: Anaplasma, Babesia,

Bartonella, Bordetella, Brucella,

Campylobacter, Chlamydia,

Clostridium, Coxiella, E. coli, Ehrlichia,

Francisella tularensis, Helicobacter,

Lawsonia intracellularis, Pasteurella,

Mycobacterium, Mycoplasma, Candida,

Cryptosporidium, Encephalitozoon,

Entamoeba, Enterocytozoon, Giardia,

Hepatozoon, Plasmodium, Sarcocystis,

Spironucleus, Toxoplasma, Aleutian

disease, astrovirus, distemper virus,

ferret epizootic catarrhal enteritis,

hantavirus, hepatitis E virus,


virus, myxomavirus,

orthopoxvirus, rabies virus, West

Nile virus

Herps: Campylobacter, Clostridium,

Mycobacterium, Mycoplasma,

Pasteurella, Salmonella, Aspergillus,

Candida, CANV, chytrid,

Cryptosporidium, Entamoeba, Giardia,

Plasmodium, Spironucleus,

arenavirus, atadenovirus,

herpesviruses, iridovirus,

fibropapillomatosis, ophidian

paramyxovirus, ranavirus,

sunshine virus, West Nile virus

Aquatic: Bacterial, viral, and

parasitic testing (see Web site for

extensive list)

Texas Veterinary Medical Diagnostic Laboratory

Texas A&M University

1 Sippel Road

College Station, TX 77843 USA

(979) 845-3414

(888) 646-5623

tvmdl.tamu.edu



necropsy, protein electrophoresis,




Cryptosporidium, avian

encephalomyelitis virus, duck

enteritis virus, infectious bronchitis

virus, infectious bursal disease

virus, infectious laryngotracheitis

virus, influenza virus,

paramyxoviruses, reovirus,

reticuloendotheliosis virus, West

Nile virus, blood lead/zinc/iron

925

Mammal: Bordetella, E. coli,

Mycoplasma, Salmonella,

Cryptosporidium, Giardia, distemper

virus, rabies virus

Herps: Mycoplasma, Salmonella,

Cryptosporidium

Veterinary Medical Diagnostic Lab


University of Missouri

PO Box 6023

Columbia, MO 65205 USA

(573) 882-6811

vmdl.missouri.edu

Veterinary Molecular Diagnostics, Inc.

5989 Meijer Drive, Suite 5

Milford, OH 45150 USA

(513) 576-1808

vmdlabs.com

Wisconsin Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory

University of Wisconsin

455 Easterday Lane

Madison, WI 53706 USA

(608) 262-5432

(800) 608-8387

wvdl.wisc.edu

General: Histopathology,

microbiology, necropsy, toxicology,

virology



rhinotracheale, Salmonella,

Cryptosporidium, avian encephalitis

virus, hemorrhagic enteritis virus,


influenza virus, Newcastle disease

virus, rotavirus, blood lead/zinc

General: Molecular diagnostics



Aspergillus, avian gastric yeast,

adenovirus, bornavirus,

circoviruses, coronavirus,

polyomavirus, psittacine beak and

feather disease virus, psittacine

herpes virus, West Nile virus, sex

determination

Mammal: Campylobacter, Helicobacter,

Lawsonia, Encephalitozoon, Aleutian

disease virus, epizootic catarrhal

enteritis virus

Herps: Cryptosporidium, Mycoplasma,

bearded dragon atadenovirus

General: Histopathology,

microbiology, necropsy, virology


Mycoplasma, Salmonella,

Cryptosporidium, avian encephalitis

virus, duck viral enteritis virus,


infectious bursal disease virus,

infectious laryngotracheitis virus,

influenza virus, paramyxovirus,

pneumovirus, polyomavirus,

poxvirus, psittacine herpes virus,

turkey hemorrhagic enteritis virus,

926

West Nile virus

Herps: Mycoplasma, Salmonella

Zoo/Exotic Pathology Service

2825 Kovr Drive

West Sacramento, CA 95605 USA

(916) 725-5100

zooexotic.com

Zoologix, Inc

9811 Owensmouth Avenue

Suite 4

Chatsworth, CA 91311 USA

(818) 717-8880

zoologix.com

General: Pathology

General: Molecular diagnostics

Avian: Avibacterium paragallinarum,

Bordetella, Chlamydia, Mycobacterium,


rhinotracheale, Salmonella, Aspergillus,

Candida, Atoxoplasma,

Cryptosporidium, Plasmodium,

adenovirus, bornavirus, circovirus,

herpesvirus, infectious bronchitis

virus, infectious bursal disease

virus, infectious laryngotracheitis

virus, influenza virus, Newcastle

disease virus, Pacheco’s disease,

polyomavirus, poxvirus, psittacine

beak and feather disease virus,

reovirus, West Nile virus

Mammal: Bordetella, Campylobacter,

E. coli, Francisella tularensis,

Helicobacter, Lawsonia intracellularis,


Pasteurella, Salmonella, Giardia,

Treponema, Aleutian disease virus,

hantavirus, lymphocytic

choriomeningitis virus, mink

enteritis virus, monkeypox, mouse

adenovirus, mouse

cytomegaloviruses, mouse hepatitis

virus, mouse minute virus, mouse

norovirus, mouse parvovirus,

mouse polyoma virus, mouse pox

virus, mouse rotavirus, pneumonia

virus of mice, rabbit fibroma virus,

rabies virus, rat coronavirus,

reovirus, rotavirus, Sendai virus,

sialodacryoadenitis virus, Tyzzer’s

disease

Herps: Mycobacterium, Mycoplasma,

Salmonella, chytrid fungus,

Cryptosporidium, ranavirus

927

Zoo Medicine Service


University of Florida

PO Box 100126

Gainesville, FL 32610 USA

(352) 392-4700 (ext. 5700)

http://labs.vetmed.ufl.edu/samplerequirements/zoo-med-infections/

General: Consensus polymerase chain

reaction (PCR) and sequencing

Herps: Chlamydiales, Mycobacterium,

Mycoplasma, coccidia,

Cryptosporidium, microsporidians,

pentastomids, adenoviruses,

arenaviruses, astroviruses,

erythrocytic iridoviruses,

ferlaviruses, herpesviruses,

orthoreoviruses, papillomaviruses,

paramyxoviruses, poxviruses,

ranaviruses, rhabdoviruses

Table 15-6

Professional Associations for Veterinarians Interested in Exotics. a

Organization

American Association of Wildlife Veterinarians

American Association of Zoo Veterinarians

American Board of Veterinary Practitioners

American College of Zoological Medicine

American Society of Laboratory Animal Practitioners

Association of Amphibian and Reptilian Veterinarians

Association of Avian Veterinarians

Association of Exotic Mammal Veterinarians

Association of Primate Veterinarians

Association of Sugar Glider Veterinarians

Association of Zoo Veterinary Technicians

British Veterinary Zoological Society

Canadian Association of Zoo and Wildlife Veterinarians

European Association of Zoo and Wildlife Veterinarians

International Association for Aquatic Animal Medicine

National Wildlife Rehabilitators Association

Web Site

aawv.net

aazv.org

abvp.com

aczm.org

aslap.org

arav.org

aav.org

aemv.org

primatevets.org

asgv.org

azvt.org

bvzs.org

cazwv.org

eazwv.org

iaaam.org

nwrawildlife.org

a

Web sites accessed on August 2, 2016.

Table 15-7

Exotic Animal Online Resources for Practitioners. a

928

Site Name

American

Society for

the

Prevention

of Cruelty to

Animals

Amphibian

Diseases

Home Page

Web Site

aspca.org

arwh.org/amphibian-dz-homepage

Animal

Diversity

Web

animaldiversity.org

Avibase

avibase.bsc-eoc.org

Biodidac

biodidac.bio.uottawa.ca

BioOne

bioone.org

Center for

Agricultural

Bioscience

International

cabi.org

Convention on

cites.org

929

International

Trade in

Endangered

Species

The Colyer

Institute

colyerinstitute.org

Dental Anatomy

arbl.cvmbs.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/digestion/pregastric/dentalanat.html

Diseases of

Research

Animals

(DORA)

dora.missouri.edu

Exotic DVM

exoticdvm.com

Exotic Pet Vet

Net

exoticpetvet.net

The Humane

Society

humanesociety.org

International

Species

Information

System

(recently

renamed:

Species 360)

International

Union for

the

species360.org

(previous Web site: isis.org)

iucn.org

930

Conservation

of Nature

International

Veterinary

Information

System

ivis.org

An Introduction

to Ratite

Ranching

and Medicine

Medirabbit

instruction.cvhs.okstate.edu/kocan/ostrich/ostbk2a1.htm

medirabbit.com

The Merck

Veterinary

Manual

merckvetmanual.com

PubMed

ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed

Species 360

(formerly

International

Species

Information

System)

Tufts University

Open

Courseware,

Zoological

Medicine

Course

species360.org

ocw.tufts.edu/Course/60

931

University of

Pennsylvania

Computer

Aided

Learning

research.vet.upenn.edu/Home/tabid/5849/Default.aspx

USDA APHIS

aphis.usda.gov

Veterinary

Information

Network

vin.com

Veterinary

Partner

veterinarypartner.com

World

Organization

for Animal

Health (OIE)

oie.int

a

Web sites accessed on August 1, 2016. Please note that Elsevier Inc. and the editor of the Exotic

Animal Formulary, 5th ed. have not reviewed all of the content of these sites and, therefore, cannot

confirm the accuracy of the information presented.

932

Table 15-8

Captive Husbandry Web Sites for Owners of Exotic Animals. a

Category Site Name Web Site Description

Aquatics Fish Channel fishchannel.com Web site with information on

tropical and saltwater

aquariums including a large

variety of species-specific

information

Fish Lore fishlore.com Tropical fish, freshwater

aquarium, and saltwater

aquarium information Web

site

Fish Tank Guide fish-tank-guide.com Web site including information

on basic tank care, fish care,

and medical information.

Also contains some speciesspecific

information on

common aquarium fish

Goldfish Society

of America

goldfishsociety.org

Association for goldfish

enthusiasts; includes

husbandry and care

information

International

Fancy

Guppy

Association

ifga.org

Association dedicated to the

Fancy Show Guppy;

contains general starter

information and medical

information on guppies

Herptile

Bearded Dragon

Care

beardeddragoncare.net

Web site dedicated to provide

bearded dragon care

information to pet lizard

owners

Boa Tips boatips.com Web site for pet snakes; includes

husbandry and care articles

as well as species-specific

information and

photographs

Box Turtle Care

and

Conservation

Chameleon Care

and

Information

boxturtlesite.info

chameleoninfo.com

Web site for natural history and

captive care of North

American box turtles

Web site devoted to chameleons;

includes husbandry and

care articles

933

Center

Frog World frogworld.net Web site concerning natural

history, husbandry, and care

of multiple frog species

Green Iguana

Society

Lizard

Landscapes

The Lizard

Lounge

Melissa Kaplan’s

Herp Care

Collection

greenigsociety.org

lizard-landscapes.com

the-lizard-lounge.com

anapsid.org

Society dedicated to providing

quality information on

iguana care; contains

husbandry and care articles

as well as some medical

information

Web site with husbandry and

care information for

multiple species of reptiles;

also contains information

on building cage landscapes

Web site containing husbandry

and care information as well

as taxonomy, photographs,

natural history, and medical

information on multiple

species of lizards


and care articles on

amphibians, reptiles, and

invertebrates

Pet Snakes pet-snakes.com Web site containing husbandry

and care information as well

as listings of some exotic

animal vet clinics by states

Poison Dart

Frogs

poisondartfrog.co.uk


and care information on

Dendrobates species

Reptile Web reptilesweb.com A world reptile amphibian

information center; contains

husbandry and care

information for reptiles,

amphibians, and

invertebrates

Tortoise Trust tortoisetrust.org Web site with information on

turtles and tortoises

including species care sheets

and husbandry articles

World

Chelonian

chelonia.org

Web site with information on

turtles and tortoises

934

Trust

including species care sheets

and chelonian taxonomy.

Avian

African Love

Bird Society

africanlovebirdsociety.org

Association dedicated to

keeping, breeding, and

showing of love birds;

contains husbandry and

care information along with

information on the nine

species

American

Budgerigar

Society

abs1.org

Society for information about

keeping, breeding, and

exhibiting budgerigars

American Dove

Association

americandoveassociation.com

Association for dove

enthusiasts; contains

husbandry and care

information along with

information on the different

species

American

Federation of

Aviculture

afabirds.org

Nonprofit organization whose

purpose is to represent all

aspects of aviculture and to

educate the public about

keeping and breeding birds

in captivity

American

Ostrich

Association

ostrich.org

Association to establish the

standards for the highest

quality American ostrich

products to ensure the longterm

viability of the

industry

Foraging For

Parrots

foragingforparrots.com

Web site on how to make

foraging toys for psittacine

birds

International

Cockatiel

Society

cockatiels.org

Society dedicated to providing

information on the proper

care, handling,

maintenance, and breeding

of cockatiels

National Finch

and Softbill

Society

nfss.org

Society dedicated to promoting

the enjoyment of keeping

and breeding finches and

softbills

Parrot

A.L.E.R.T.

parrotalert.org

Web site for reporting lost and

found parrots; also includes

935

husbandry articles

Parrot Outreach

Society

parrotoutreachsociety.org

Society dedicated to helping

birds find homes; includes

basic bird care articles

World Parrot

Trust

parrots.org

Organization to promote

survival of all parrot species

in the wild and to advocate

for the welfare of individual

birds in our homes

Mammal

American Fancy

Rat and

Mouse

Association

afrma.org

Association to promote and

encourage the breeding and

exhibition of fancy rats and

mice for show and pets

American Ferret

Association

ferret.org

Association to promote the

domestic ferret as a

companion animal through

public education via shows,

newsletters, legislative

education, and other venues

American Gerbil

Society

agsgerbils.org

Society providing support and

education to breeders,

caregivers, and gerbil

enthusiasts

American Rabbit

Breeders

Association

arba.net

Association dedicated to the

promotion, development,

and improvement of the

domestic rabbit and cavy

Cheeky

Chinchilla

cheekychinchillas.com

Husbandry and care

information for chinchillas

Ferret Universe ferretuniverse.com Husbandry and care

information for ferrets

Ferret Village ferretvillage.org Message boards concerning

ferrets

Gerbil Care gerbilcare.org Husbandry and care

information for gerbils

Guinea Lynx guinealynx.info Husbandry and care

information for guinea pigs

Hamster

Hideout

hamsterhideout.com

Husbandry and care

information for hamsters

Hamsterific hamsterific.com Husbandry and care


House Rabbit rabbit.org Society that rescues rabbits

936

Society

from animal shelters and

educates the public on

rabbit care and behavior

International

Ferret

Congress

International

Hedgehog

Association

My House

Rabbit

North American

Sugar Glider

Association

Pet Hamster

Care

ferretcongress.org

hedgehogclub.com

myhouserabbit.com

mynasga.org

pethamstercare.com

Organization to enhance the

welfare of the domestic ferret

as a companion animal

Association to educate the

public in the care and

betterment of hedgehogs

Web site celebrating house

rabbits and educating the

public about rabbit care and

behavior

Association to provide

information to persons

considering getting a sugar

glider for a family pet

Husbandry and care


Rat Guide ratguide.com A layman’s guide to health,

medication use, breeding,

and responsible care of pet

rats

Sugarglider sugarglider.com Husbandry and care

information for sugar

gliders

Weasel Words weaselwords.com Husbandry and care

information for ferrets

a

Web sites accessed on August 1, 2016. Please note that Elsevier Inc. and the editor of the Exotic

Animal Formulary, 5th ed. have not reviewed all of the content of these sites and therefore cannot

confirm the accuracy of the information presented.

Table 15-9

Emergency Drug Doses (in mL) Commonly Used in Exotic Animals. a

Emergency Drug

Gerbils, Hamsters, Mice, Rats

Drug Conc Route 25 g 50 g 75 g 100 g 125 g 150 g 250 g

Epinephrine 0.01 mg/mL IV, IM,

IO

0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.08

937

Atropine 0.54 mg/mL IM,

SC

Glycopyrrolate 0.2 mg/mL IM,

SC

0.03 0.04 0.06 0.07 0.09 0.11 0.19

0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03

Dex SP 4 mg/mL IV, IM 0.03 0.06 0.09 0.13 0.16 0.19 0.32

Doxapram 20 mg/mL IV, SC 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.07 0.08 0.13

Diazepam 5 mg/mL IV, IM,

IO

Furosemide 5 mg/mL IV, IM,

SC

Emergency Drug

0.01 0.03 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.09 0.15

0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.2

Rabbits

Drug Conc Route 0.5 kg 1 kg 1.5 kg 2 kg 3 kg 4 kg 5 kg

Epinephrine 1 mg/mL IV, IM,

IO


SC

Glycopyrrolate 0.2 mg/mL IM,

SC

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0

0.5 0.9 1.4 1.9 2.8 3.7 4.6

0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

Dex SP 4 mg/mL IV, IM 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

Doxapram 20 mg/mL IV, SC 0.13 0.25 0.38 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.3


IO

Furosemide 50 mg/mL IV, IM,

SC

0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.8 2.4 3.0

0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.24 0.32 0.4

Diphenhydramine 50 mg/mL IV, IM — — — — — — —

Emergency Drug

Avian (Psittacine Birds)

Drug Conc Route 0.05 kg 0.1 kg 0.2 kg 0.3 kg 0.4 kg 0.5 kg 0.6 kg

Epinephrine 1 mg/mL IV, IM,

IO


SC

Doxapram 20 mg/mL IV, IM,

IO

0.05 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

0.05 0.09 0.19 0.28 0.37 0.46 0.56

0.05 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

Dex SP 4 mg/mL IV, IM 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

Ca gluconate 100 mg/mL IV, IM 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

Diazepam 5 mg/mL IV, IM, 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12

938

IO

Emergency Drug

Reptiles

Drug Conc Route 0.1 kg 0.25 kg 0.5 kg 0.75 kg 1 kg 2 kg 3 kg

Atropine 0.54 mg/mL IV, IM,

SC

0.01 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.07 0.15 0.22

Glycopyrrolate 0.2 mg/mL IV, IM 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.1 0.15

Dex SP 4 mg/mL IV, IM 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.06 0.13 0.19


ICe

Ca gluconate 100 mg/mL IV, IO,

SC

0.05 0.12 0.25 0.38 0.5 1.0 1.5

0.1 0.3 0.5 0.75 1.0 2.0 3.0

a

Modified from Kottwitz J, Kelleher S. Emergency drugs: Quick reference chart for exotic animals.

Exotic DVM 2003;5.5:23-25.

939

Table 15-10

Fluid Solutions Used in Exotic Animal Medicine.

Solution

Type

Solution

Na +

(mEq/L)

K + (mEq/L)

Cl − (mEq/L)

Ca ++

(mEq/L)

Mg ++

(mEq/L)

Buffer

Crystalloids Ringer’s solution 147 4 156 4 0 0

Lactated Ringer’s

solution

130 4 109 3 0 28 (lactate)

0.9% NaCl 154 0 154 0 0 0

5% Dextrose 0 0 0 0 0 0

2.5%

Dextrose/0.45%

NaCl

77 0 77 0 0 0

Plasma-Lyte 140 5 98 0 3 27 (acetate)

23 (gluconate)

Normosol-R 140 5 98 0 3 27 (acetate)

23 (gluconate)

Colloids

Dextran 6% and

0.9% NaCl

154 0 154 0 0 0

Hetastarch 154 0 154 0 0 0

Pentastarch 154 0 154 0 0 0

940

Table 15-11

Common Abbreviations Used in Prescription Writing.

a.c. before meals o.d. right eye

a.d. right ear o.s. left eye

ad lib at pleasure o.u. both eyes

adm administer oz ounce

aq water p.c. after meals

a.s. left ear PO (p.o.) per os

a.u. both ears prn (p.r.n.) as needed

b.i.d. twice a day q. (q) every

c. with q.d. every day

cap(s) capsule(s) q4h every 4 hours, etc.

cc cubic centimeter q24h once a day

disp dispense q.i.d. four times a day

fl oz fluid ounce q.o.d. every other day

g (gm) gram q.s. a sufficient quantity

gr grain ® trademarked name

gtt(s) drop(s) SC (SQ) subcutaneously

h (hr) hour Sig: instructions to patient

h.s. at bedtime sol’n solution

IM intramuscularly stat immediately

inj inject susp suspension

IP intraperitoneally tab(s) tablet(s)

IV intravenously Tbs tablespoon

kg kilogram t.i.d. three times a day

lb pound tsp teaspoon

mg milligram ut dict. as directed

mL

milliliter

Table 15-12

941

Common Weight, Liquid Measure, Length, Percentage, and

Milliequivalent Conversions.

Weights

1 milligram (mg)=1000 micrograms (mcg orig)=0.015 grain

1 grain (gr)=64.8 mg (≈65 mg)

1 gram (g)=15.43 grains (≈15 grains)=1000 mg

1 kilogram (kg)=1000 g=2.2 lb

1 ounce (oz)=28.35 g

1 pound (lb)=454 g=16 oz=0.45 kg

2.2 pound=1 kg

Liquid Measures

1 drop=0.05 (1/20) milliliter (mL)

1 cubic centimeter (cc)=1 mL

1 liter (L)=1000 mL

1 teaspoon (tsp)=5 mL

1 tablespoon (Tbs)=15 mL

1 fluid ounce (fl oz)=29.57 mL (≈30 mL)

1 pint=473.2 mL (≈473 mL)

1 quart=2 pints=32 fl oz=0.946 L

1 gallon=4 quarts=3.785 L

1 cup=8 fl oz=237 mL=16 Tbs

Linear Measures

1 millimeter (mm)=0.039 inches (in)

1 centimeter (cm)=0.39 in

1 meter (m)=39.37 in

1 inch (in)=2.54 cm

1 foot (ft)=30.48 cm

1 yard (yd)=91.44 cm

Percentage Equivalents

0.1% solution=1 mg per mL

1% solution=10 mg per mL

10% solution=100 mg per mL

Milliequivalents

1 mEq Na=23 mg Na=58.5 mg NaCl

1 g Na=2.54 g NaCl=43 mEq Na

1 g NaCl=0.39 g Na=17 mEq Na

1 mEq K=39 mg K=74.5 mg KCl

1 g K=1.91 g KCl=26 mEq K

1 g KCl=0.52 g K=13 mEq K

1 mEq Ca=20 mg Ca

1 g Ca=50 mEq Ca

1 mEq Mg=0.12 g MgSO 4

× 7H 2

O

942

1 g Mg=10.2 g MgSO 4 × 7H 2 O=82 mEq Mg

Table 15-13

Equivalents of Celsius (Centigrade) and Fahrenheit Temperature Scales. a

°C °F °C °F °C °F

0 32.0 17 62.6 34 93.2

1 33.8 18 64.4 35 95.0

2 35.6 19 66.2 36 96.8

3 37.4 20 68.0 37 98.6

4 39.2 21 69.8 38 100.4

5 41.0 22 71.6 39 102.2

6 42.8 23 73.4 40 104.0

7 44.6 24 75.2 41 105.8

8 46.4 25 77.0 42 107.6

9 48.2 26 78.8 43 109.4

10 50.0 27 80.6 44 111.2

11 51.8 28 82.4 45 113.0

12 53.6 29 84.2 46 114.8

13 55.4 30 86.0 47 116.6

14 57.2 31 87.8 48 118.4

15 59.0 32 89.6 49 120.2

16 60.8 33 91.4 50 122.0

a

Conversions: °C=5/9×(°F −32); °F=9/5×(°C)+32.

943

Table 15-14

System of International (SI) Units Conversion Factors of Hematology Commonly Used

in Exotic Animal Medicine. a

Component

Conventional (USA) Units SI Unit

Hemoglobin (Hgb) g/dL g/L

Red blood cells (RBC) × 10 6 /µL × 10 12 /L

Reticulocytes % %

Mean corpuscular volume (MCV) fL fL

Mean corpuscular Hgb (MCH) pg pg

Mean corpuscular Hgb concentration (MCHC) g/dL g/L

Platelets × 10 3 /µL × 10 9 /L

White blood cells (WBC) × 10 3 /µL × 10 9 /L

Neutrophils (segmented) × 10 3 /µL × 10 9 /L

Neutrophils (bands) × 10 3 /µL × 10 9 /L

Lymphocytes × 10 3 /µL × 10 9 /L

Monocytes × 10 3 /µL × 10 9 /L

Eosinophils × 10 3 /µL × 10 9 /L

Basophils × 10 3 /µL × 10 9 /L

a

Adapted from Veterinary Laboratory Medicine: Interpretation and Diagnosis, Meyer DH, Harvey JW, 3rd

ed., Copyright, 2004, with permission from Elsevier.

Table 15-15

System of International (SI) Units Conversion Factors of Clinical Chemistries

Commonly Used in Exotic Animal Medicine. a

Component

Conventional (USA) Units Conversion Factor (x) SI Unit

Albumin g/dL 10 g/L

Alkaline phosphatase U/L 1.0 IU/L

ALT (SGPT) U/L 1.0 IU/L

Ammonia (NH 3 ) µg/dL 0.5871 µmol/L

Amylase U/L 1.0 IU/L

AST (SGOT) U/L 1.0 IU/L

Bilirubin mg/dL 17.10 µmol/L

944

Calcium mg/dL 0.2495 mmol/L

Carbon dioxide mEq/L 1.0 mmol/L

Chloride mEq/L 1.0 mmol/L

Cholesterol mg/dL 0.02586 mmol/L

Copper µg/dL 0.16 µmol/L

Cortisol µg/dL 27.59 nmol/L

Creatine kinase U/L 1.0 IU/L

Creatinine mg/dL 88.40 µmol/L

Fibrinogen mg/dL 0.01 g/L

Glucose mg/dL 0.05551 mmol/L

Iron µg/dL 0.1791 µmol/L

Lipase

Sigma Tietz U/dL 280 IU/L

Cherry-Crandall U/L 1.0 IU/L

Lipid, total mg/dL 0.01 g/L

Magnesium mEq/L 0.5 mmol/L

Osmolality mOsm/kg 1.0 mmol/kg

Phosphate (as inorganic P) mg/dL 0.3229 mmol/L

Potassium mEq/L 1.0 mmol/L

Protein (total) g/dL 10 g/L

Sodium mEq/L 1.0 mmol/L

Thyroxine (T 4 ) µg/dL 12.87 nmol/L

Triglycerides mg/dL 0.011 mmol/L

Tri-iodothyronine (T 3 ) µg/dL 15.6 nmol/L

Urea nitrogen mg/dL 0.3570 mmol/L b

Uric acid mg/dL 59.48 umol/L

a

Adapted from Veterinary Laboratory Medicine: Interpretation and Diagnosis, Meyer DH, Harvey JW, 3rd

ed., Copyright, 2004, with permission from Elsevier.

b

Urea.

Table 15-16

Select Compounding Pharmacies. a,b

State City Name Web Site Phone

945

uscompounding.com 800-

AR Conway US Compounding

Pharmacy b 718-

3588

AZ Scottsdale Diamondback Drugs diamondbackdrugs.com 866-

646-

2223

AZ Phoenix Roadrunner Pharmacy roadrunnerpharmacy.com 877-

518-

4589

CA Bakersfield Precision Pharmacy myprecisionpharmacy.com/vet 877-

734-

3338

Bellflower

B&B Pharmacy and bbpharmacy.com 800-

Health Care Center b 231-

8905

Encino

La Habra

Los Angeles

Valley Drug and

Compounding

Central Drugs

Compounding

Pharmacy

American Health

Solutions Pharmacy

valleydrug.net 818-

788-

0635

centraldrugsrx.com 877-

447-

7077

ahsrx.com 800-

337-

2844

Merced

Valley Prescription and valleyrxandcompounding.com 209-

Pharmacy b 5765

Compounding

722-

North

Hollywood

Placerville

E-Compounding

Pharmacy

Grandpa’s Compounding

Pharmacy

ecompounding.com/pharmacy 800-

366-

4961

grandpas-rx.com 530-

622-

2323

Rancho

Cucamonga

Parkview Compounding parkviewrx.com 800-

Pharmacy b 605-

0166

San Jose Leiter’s Pharmacy leiters.com 800-

292-

6773

San Rafael

Golden Gate Veterinary ggvetrx.com 415-

Pharmacy b 455-

5590

946

CO Monument Monument Pharmacy monumentpharmacy.com 800-

595-

7565

CT Southington Beacon Compounding

Pharmacy

beaconcompounding.com 860-

628-

3972

DE Newark Save Way Pharmacy savewaypharmacy.com 302-

369-

5520

FL Gainesville Westlab Pharmacy b westlabpharmacy.com 352-

373-

8111

IL Chicago Braun PharmaCare braunrx.com 773-

549-

0634

Naperville

Martin Avenue

martinavenue.com 630-

Pharmacy b 355-

6400

IN Fort Wayne Fort Wayne Custom Rx b fwcustomrx.com 260-

490-

3447

KS Arkansas City Taylor Drug taylordrug.net 800-

567-

3733

Lenexa

Midwest Compounders

Pharmacy

mwcpharmacy.com 888-

245-

3012

Overland Park Stark Pharmacy b starkpharmacy.com 913-

345-

3800

MA Scituate Animal Pharm, LLC animalpharmllc.com 866-

544-

3010

MI Imlay Creative Compounding

Center

ccc-rx.com 800-

672-

2177

Saginaw

Healthway

healthwayrx.com 866-

Pharmacy b 8868

Compounding

883-

MN Saint Peter Soderlund Village Drug villagedrug.com 800-

603-

8196

947

MO Jackson Horst Pharmacy horstpharmacy.com 800-

640-

5940

NE Ord Good Life Pharmacy goodliferx.com 800-

752-

5694

easternstatescompounding.com 603-

NH Littleton Eastern States

Pharmacy b 0094

Compounding

444-

NJ Swedesboro Wedgewood Pharmacy wedgewoodpharmacy.com 800-

331-

8272

NY Canandaigua Animal Pharmacy animalpharmacy.net 800-

663-

5261

Cross River

Cross River Pharmacy

and Compounding

Center

crossriverpharmacy.com 914-

763-

3152

Jamestown Pharmacy Innovations pharmacyinnovations.net 716-

720-

5121

tristaterx.com 513-

OH Cincinnati Tri-State Compounding

Pharmacy b 624-

7333

Fairview Park Nature’s Pharmacy naturescompound.com 440-

331-

8509

OR Tualatin Northwest Compounders northwestcompounders.com 800-

968-

0742

PA Hatboro Philadelphia Professional

Compounding

Agency

ppcpharmacy.com 215-

672-

8552

Pitcairn

Yakim’s Compounding

Pharmacy

yakims.com 800-

368-

3112

RI

South

Kingstown

Bayview Pharmacy bayviewrx.com 401-

284-

4505

TN Cordova Regel PharmaLab regelpharmalab.com 866-

907-

3435

948

TX Houston BCP Veterinary Pharmacy bcpvetpharm.com 800-

481-

1729

UT Sandy Meds for Vets medsforvets.com 866-

633-

4838

amapharmacy.com 703-

VA Alexandria Alexandria Medical Arts

Compounding Lab b 4350

Pharmacy &

549-

WA Bellevue Custom Prescriptions b custom-prescriptions.com 425-

289-

0347

Puyallup

Bealls Compounding

Pharmacy

beallspharmacy.com 253-

858-

8444

Seattle Ballard Plaza Pharmacy ballardplazapharmacy.com 888-

782-

6354

WI Milwaukee Pet Apothecary petapothecary.com 414-

247-

8633

a

Web sites accessed on September 1, 2016.

b

Accredited by the Pharmacy Compounding Accreditation Board (PCAB). Accessed November 15,

2016.

Table 15-17

Additional Compounding Resources. a

Name

AVMA

Compounding

FAQs

Compounding

Today

Contact

Web site: Avma.org/KB/Resources/FAQs/Pages/Compounding-FAQs.aspx

Web site: compoundingtoday.com

Fagron

Web site: us.fagron.com

949

FDA

Compounding

Resources

Web site:

fda.gov/AnimalVeterinary/ResourcesforYou/ucm268128.htm#Compounding_of_Animal

Flavorx

Web site: flavorx.com

Humco

Web site: humcocompounding.com

Medisca

Web site: medisca.com

Perrigo

Web site: perrigo.com

Trissel’s Stability of

Compounded

Formulations,

5th ed b

Publisher: American Pharmacists Association

U.S.

Pharmacopeial

Convention

Web site: usp.org/usp-healthcare-professionals/compounding

a

Web sites accessed on September 1, 2016.

b

Trissel LA, American Pharmacists Association. Trissel's Stability of Compounded

Formulations/Lawrence A Trissel. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: American Pharmacists Association, 2005.

950

Index

Note: Page numbers followed by t indicate tables.

A

Abbreviations, used in prescription writing 657t

Abnormalities

of standard avian biochemical profile 312–313t

of standard avian hematology profile 311t

Acemannan, for birds 267–270t

Acepromazine

for birds 218–236t

for ferrets 536–539t

for hedgehogs 447–448t

for miniature pigs 561–565t

for primates 586–594t

for rabbits 503–511t

for reptiles 93–103t

for rodents 467–470t

for sugar gliders 434–435t

for wild mammals 627–628t

Acepromazine/ketamine, for miniature pigs 561–565t

Acepromazine/propofol, for reptiles 93–103t

Acetaminophen

for backyard poultry and waterfowl 404–405t

951





Acetaminophen/codeine suspension, for primates 586–594t

Acetic acid

for birds 189–195t, 275–283t

glacial

for fish 25–30t

for invertebrates 5–6t

N-Acetyl-L-cysteine, for birds 246–248t

Acetylcysteine




for birds 236–239t, 275–283t





Acriflavine

for amphibians 58–60t

for fish 17–24t

Activated charcoal

for birds 248–252t, 272t




Activated charcoal-kaolin suspension, for reptiles 113–116t

Acyclovir

952

for backyard poultry and waterfowl 391t




Adrenal gland disease agents, for ferrets 542–543t

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), for birds 240–245t

Aerobic bacteria, antimicrobial therapy for 641–642t

African grey parrot (Psittacus spp.)

biologic and physiologic values of 307–308t

hematologic and biochemical values of 284–292t

lipoprotein panel of 314t

T 4

values of 315t

African Love Bird Society, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

African spurred tortoise (Centrochelys sulcata), hematologic and serum biochemical

values of 117–136t

Aglepristone, for rodents 476–479t

Albaconazole, for rabbits 498–499t

Albendazole



for fish 25–30t





Aldabra tortoise (Aldabrachelys gigantea), hematologic and serum biochemical values

of 117–136t

Alexandria Medical Arts Pharmacy & Compounding Lab 661–662t

Alfalfa pellets, for anorectic or debilitated reptiles 139–140t

Alfaxalone

953




for fish 31–33t





Alfaxalone/fentanyl, for birds 218–236t

Alfaxalone/fentanyl/midazolam, for birds 218–236t

Alfaxalone/midazolam, for birds 218–236t

Alimentary tract infection, antimicrobial therapy for 641–642t

Allopurinol




Aloe vera, for birds 275–283t

Alpha chloralose, for birds 218–236t

Alpha-tocopherol, for amphibians 65–67t

Alphachloralose for backyard poultry and waterfowl 399–403t

Alphadolone, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 399–403t

Alphaxalone




Alphaxalone/medetomidine, for reptiles 93–103t

Aluminum hydroxide




954



Amantadine


for ferrets 539–540t, 543–549t

Amazon parrot (Amazona spp.)




T 4 values of 315t

American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)

environmental, dietary, and reproductive characteristics of 137–138t

hematologic and serum biochemical values of 117–136t

American Association of Wildlife Veterinarians 648t

American Association of Zoo Veterinarians 648t

American Board of Veterinary Practitioners 648t

American Budgerigar Society, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

American College of Zoological Medicine 648t

American Dove Association, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

American Fancy Rat and Mouse Association, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–

653t

American Federation of Aviculture, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

American Ferret Association, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

American Gerbil Society, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

American Health Solutions Pharmacy 661–662t

American kestrel (Falco sparverius)



American Ostrich Association, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

American Rabbit Breeders Association, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

955

American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals 648–650t

American Society of Laboratory Animal Practitioners 648t

Amidotrizoate, for reptiles 113–116t

Amikacin



for birds 168–189t, 246–248t, 270–271t


for fish 17–24t







Amikacin sulfate, for sugar gliders 433t

Aminocyclitols 637–638t

Aminoglycosides 637–638t

Aminoloid, for birds 275–283t

Aminopentamide hydrogen sulfate, for birds 275–283t

Aminophylline

for birds 246–248t, 272–283t





Amitraz


for hedgehogs 446t


956



Amitriptyline



Amlodipine



Ammonium solution, for birds 275–283t

Amoxicillin



for fish 17–24t






for sugar gliders 433t






Amoxicillin sodium, for birds 168–189t

Amoxicillin trihydrate




Amphibian Diseases Home Page 648–650t

957

Amphibians 53–80

analgesic agents for 60–64t

anesthetic agents for 60–64t

antifungal agents for 56–57t

antimicrobial agents for 54–55t

antiparasitic agents for 58–60t

blood collection sites in 71t

chemical restraint agents for 60–64t

differential diagnoses by predominant signs in 71–74t

hormones used in 65t

miscellaneous agents for 65–67t

nematode parasites in 75t

physiologic and hematologic values of 68–70t

quarantine protocols for 75–77t

selected disinfectants for 74t

Amphotericin B



for birds 189–195t, 246–248t, 263–267t



for rabbits 498–499t, 511–513t



for wild mammals 626t

Amphotericin B liposome, for birds 246–248t

Ampicillin


for fish 17–24t


958






Ampicillin sodium, for birds 168–189t

Ampicillin sodium/sulbactam, for wild mammals 623–625t

Ampicillin trihydrate




Amprolium





An Introduction to Ratite Ranching and Medicine 648–650t

Anaerobic bacteria, antimicrobial therapy for 641–642t

Analgesic agents





for fish 31–33t







959




Anastrozole, for ferrets 542–543t

Anesthetic agents





for fish 31–33t










Animal Diversity Web 648–650t

Animal Health Diagnostic Center 643–647t

Animal Medicinal Drug Use Clarification Act (AMDUCA) 623t

Animal Pharm, LLC 661–662t

Animal Pharmacy 661–662t

Anorectic animals

birds as, gavage feeding in 319t

reptiles as 139–140t

Anseriformes

biologic and physiologic values of 415t

hematologic and serum biochemical values of 413t

960

Antech Diagnostics 643–647t

9, 10 Anthraquinone, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 411t

Antiepileptic agents, for birds 253–257t

Antifungal agents





for fish 17–24t

for hedgehogs 445t








Antimicrobials

according to site of infection 641–642t




classification of 637–638t

combination therapies 643t


for fish 17–24t

general efficacy of 639–640t


-impregnated polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) agents, for birds 270–271t


961


partial list of 416t







Antiparasitic agents





for fish 25–30t

for hedgehogs 446t


for miniature pigs 561t







Antipseudomonal penicillins 637–638t

Antiviral agents




Apomorphine, for ferrets 543–549t

Apple cider, for birds 275–283t

962

Apramycin



Aquatic birds, nutritional recommendations for rehabilitation of 322t

Arginine vasopressin, for birds 275–283t

Arginine vasotocin



with dystocia 142–143t

Argon, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 410–411t

Armor All Protectant, for birds 275–283t

Arrhythmias, in birds 331t

Arthropods, as common captive invertebrate taxa 11t

Artificial sea salts, for fish 25–30t

Ascorbic acid 258–263t


Asparaginase



L-asparaginase



Aspirin


for birds 236–239t, 275–283t


Association of Amphibian and Reptilian Veterinarians 648t

Association of Avian Veterinarians 648t

Association of Exotic Mammal Veterinarians 648t

Association of Primate Veterinarians 648t

963

Association of Sugar Glider Veterinarians 648t

Association of Zoo Veterinary Technicians 648t

Atenolol




Atipamezole





for fish 31–33t








Atorvastatin, for birds 275–283t

Atracurium



Atropine



doses of 654–655t


for fish 34–36t


964





for rodents 467–470t, 473–479t



Atropine sulfate


toxicologic conditions of 407–408t

for birds 218–236t, 248–252t, 272–274t



Avian & Exotic Animal Clin Path Labs 643–647t

Avian and Wildlife Laboratory Division of Comparative Pathology 643–647t

Avian Biotech International Animal Genetics, Inc. 643–647t

Avian encephalomyelitis, vaccine for 421–422t

Avian species See Birds

Avibase 648–650t

AVMA Compounding FAQs 663t

Azalides 637–638t

Azaperone



Azathioprine



Azithromycin (A)



965

for fish 17–24t






Aztreonam, for fish 17–24t

B

Baby foods, for anorectic or debilitated reptiles 139–140t

Bacitracin



Bacitracin methylene disalicylate



Bacitracin/neomycin/polymyxin B sulfate, for birds 263–267t

Bacitracin ophthalmic ointment, for hedgehogs 444–445t

Bacitracin zinc ointment



Backyard poultry and waterfowl 376–431

antifungal agents for 390t



antiviral and immunomodulating agents for 391t

chemical restraint/anesthetic/analgesic agents for 399–403t

euthanasia agents for 410–411t

hormones and steroids for 406t

meat and egg withdrawal for, sources of information on 420t

966

miscellaneous agents for 411t

nebulization agents for 406–407t

nonsteroidal antiinflammatory agents for 404–405t

nutritional/mineral support for 408–409t

oncologic agents for 410t

ophthalmologic agents for 409t

serological tests for 417–418t

toxicologic conditions of, agents for 407–408t

vaccines for 421–422t

water and feed consumption rates for 420t

Bacteremia, antimicrobial therapy for 641–642t

Bacteria, nitrifying

for fish 34–36t


Bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus)



Ball python (Python regius)



Ballard Plaza Pharmacy 661–662t

Barium



Barium sulfate





Barn owl (Tyto alba)

967



Barred owl (Strix varia)



Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, disinfectants for 74t

Bayview Pharmacy 661–662t

B&B Pharmacy and Health Care Center 661–662t

BCP Veterinary Pharmacy 661–662t

Beacon Compounding Pharmacy 661–662t

Bealls Compounding Pharmacy 661–662t

Bearded Dragon Care, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

Bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps)



Becaplermin, for fish 34–36t

Benazepril






Benzalkonium chloride


for fish 17–24t

for inverte brates 2–4t

Benzathine penicillin



Benzocaine

968



for fish 31–33t, 36–37t


Benzylpenicillin 637–638t


Besifloxacin, for rabbits 511–513t

Betaxolol, for rabbits 511–513t

Bicalutamide, for ferrets 542–543t

Biochemical values

abnormalities of standard avian 312–313t

of Passeriformes 295t

of Piciformes and Columbiformes 297–298t

of Psittaciformes 284–292t

juvenile 293–294t

of raptors 298–306t

of ratites 296t

Biodidac 648–650t

Biologic values

of birds 307–308t

of ferrets 550–551t

of hedgehogs 452t

of miniature pigs 570t

of primates 604t

of rabbits 519t

of rodents 482t

of sugar gliders 438t

BioOne 648–650t

Biotin


969


Birds 167–375

abnormalities of standard biochemical profile of 312–313t

abnormalities of standard hematology profile of 311t



anorectic, gavage feeding in 319t



antimicrobial-impregnated polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) agents for 270–271t


antiviral and immunomodulating agents for 196–197t

approximate resting respiratory rates of 316t

arrhythmias in 331t


blood gases of 314t

blood pressure values of 330t

calculation of enteral feeding requirements for 320t

cardiopulmonary resuscitation for 326–327t


chemotherapeutic protocols used in 325t

dystocia or egg binding in, management of 323t

ECG measurements in 332t

echocardiographic reference intervals in 333t

emergencies in, agents for 272–274t

euthanasia agents for 274t

fluid therapy for 318t

hematologic and biochemical values of

Passeriformes 295t

Piciformes and Columbiformes 297–298t

970

Psittaciformes 284–294t

raptors 298–306t

ratites 296t

hormones and steroids for 240–245t



mycobacteriosis in 324t

nebulization agents for 246–248t

nonsteroidal antiinflammatory agents for 236–239t

nutritional/mineral support and supplementation for 258–263t

oncologic agents and radiation therapy for 267–270t

ophthalmic diagnostic tests for 317t

ophthalmologic agents for 263–267t

psychotherapeutic agents for 334–336t

psychotropic and antiepileptic agents for 253–257t

raptors 309–310t, 317t, 322t

ratites 307–308t

routes of administration and maximum suggested volumes of fluid therapy for 319t

sources of formulated and medicated diets for 321t

spectral Doppler echocardiographic reference intervals in 333t

supportive care procedures used in companion medicine 318t

T 4 values of 315t

toxicologic conditions of, agents for 248–252t

treatment of oiled 272t

urinalysis values of 316t

vaccines for 328–329t

wild, nutritional recommendations for rehabilitation of 322t

Bisacodyl, for primates 594–601t

Bismuth subcitrate, for ferrets 543–549t


971

for birds 272t, 275–283t



Bismuth sulfate, for birds 248–252t

Bleomycin



Blood

collection sites, in amphibians 71t See also Venipuncture sites

gases, of birds 314t

pressure values in birds 330t

volumes of rodents with safe-bleeding volume recommendations 483t

Blood python (Python curtus), hematologic and serum biochemical values of 117–136t

Blood transfusion

homologous, for birds 272–274t


Blue and gold macaw (Ara ararauna)


T 4

values of 315t

Blue-tongued skink (Tiliqua scincoides), hematologic and serum biochemical values

of 117–136t

Boa constrictor (Boa constrictor)



Boa Tips, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

Body weight, conversion to body surface area, in ferrets 554t

Boldenone undecylenate, for birds 240–245t

Bone cement, for birds 270–271t

Bone infection, antimicrobial therapy for 641–642t

Botulinum antitoxin

972


type C


for toxicologic conditions, of backyard poultry and waterfowl 407–408t

Box Turtle Care and Conservation, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

Braun PharmaCare 661–662t

Brewer's yeast



British Veterinary Zoological Society 648t

Bromhexine, for rodents 476–479t

Bromhexine HCl, for birds 275–283t

Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL), in rabbits 523t

Bronopol, for fish 17–24t

Budesonide



Budgerigar parakeet (Melopsittacus undulatus)



Bunamidine, for primates 580–585t

Bupivacaine









973


Bupivacaine HCl



Buprenorphine








for RGIS 522–523t



sustained release, for birds 218–236t


Buprenorphine HCl



Buprenorphine-SR, for wild mammals 628–629t

Buprenorphine SR-LAB, for rabbits 503–511t

Burmese python (Python bivittatus), hematologic and serum biochemical values of 117–

136t

Buserelin acetate depot, for birds 240–245t

Buspirone HCl, for birds 253–257t

Butorphanol (B)




974

for fish 31–33t







for RGIS 522–523t




Butorphanol (B)/acepromazine (A), for primates 586–594t

Butorphanol (B)/dexmedetomidine (D)/ketamine (K), for primates 586–594t

Butorphanol/medetomidine, for reptiles 93–103t

Butorphanol/midazolam



Butorphanol tartrate



C

Cabergoline




Caffeine, for amphibians 65–67t

Caique (Pionites spp.), hematologic and biochemical values of 284–292t

Calcitonin


975



with metabolic bone diseases 144–145t


Calcitriol, for primates 594–601t

Calcium



for reptiles



as nutritional/mineral/fluid support 108–113t

Calcium borogluconate, for birds 258–263t

Calcium carbonate, for reptiles 108–113t

Calcium chloride, for birds 258–263t

Calcium EDTA (edetate calcium disodium)







Calcium glubionate






Calcium gluconate


976

for birds 258–263t, 272–274t

doses of 654–655t







Calcium gluconate/borogluconate, for reptiles 108–113t

Calcium glycerophosphate/calcium lactate, for reptiles 108–113t

Calcium lactate/calcium glycerophosphate, for birds 258–263t

Calcium levulinate, for birds 258–263t

Cambendazole, for birds 197–217t

Campylobacter spp., antimicrobial agents for 639–640t

Canadian Association of Zoo and Wildlife Veterinarians 648t

Canary (Serinus canaria)


hematologic and biochemical values of 295t

T 4

values of 315t

Captan powder, for rodents 460–463t

Captive husbandry web sites, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

Captopril



Carbamazepine, for birds 253–257t

Carbapenems 637–638t

Carbaryl 5%



Carbaryl powder

977






Carbenicillin


for birds 168–189t, 246–248t


Carbimazole, for rodents 476–479t

Carbon, activated

for fish 34–36t


Carbon dioxide (CO 2

)


for birds 274t

for fish 31–33t, 36–37t


Carbon monoxide (CO)


for birds 274t

Carboplatin



Cardiac measurements, for hedgehogs 455t

Cardiopulmonary agents, for ferrets 540–541t

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation, for birds 326–327t

Cardiovascular agents, for rodents 473–474t

Carfentanil


978


Carnidazole, for birds 197–217t

L-Carnitine

for birds 258–263t, 267–270t


Carnivore Care



Carnivore Critical Care, for amphibians 65–67t

Carp pituitary extract, for fish 34–36t

Carpet python (Morelia spilota ssp.), hematologic and serum biochemical values of 117–

136t

Carprofen











Carvedilol



Cefadroxil




979

Cefazolin


for birds 168–189t, 270–271t



Cefazolin sodium



Cefoperazone, for reptiles 82–86t

Cefotaxime

for birds 168–189t, 246–248t, 270–271t



Cefovecin




for fish 17–24t




Cefovecin sodium, for sugar gliders 433t

Cefoxitin, for birds 168–189t

Cefquinome, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 377–389t

Ceftazidime


for birds 168–189t, 270–271t

for fish 17–24t



980




Ceftiofur


for birds 168–189t, 270–271t

extended release formulation 168–189t





Ceftiofur crystalline-free acid



Ceftiofur sodium, for hedgehogs 444–445t

Ceftriaxone

for backyard poultry and waterfowl 377–389t, 406–407t





Cefuroxime, for reptiles 82–86t

Celecoxib



Cellulose powder, for rabbits 513–517t

Celsius temperature scales, equivalents of 659t

Center for Agricultural Bioscience International 648–650t

Central Drugs Compounding Pharmacy 661–662t

Central nervous system infection, antimicrobial therapy for 641–642t

981

Cephalexin











Cephaloridine, for ferrets 533–534t

Cephalosporins

first-generation 637–638t

fourth-generation 637–638t

third-generation 637–638t

Cephalothin






Cephradine



Cerebrospinal fluid values, in rabbits 520t

Chameleon Care and Information Center, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

Charcoal, for rodents 474–479t

Cheeky Chinchilla, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

Chelonians

982


tracheal/pulmonary and colonic lavage for 141t


venipuncture sites in 141–142t

Chemical restraint agents





for fish 31–33t










Chemotherapy

for birds 325t


Chinese (Asian) water dragon (Physignathus cocincinus), hematologic and serum

biochemical values of 117–136t

Chitosan, for ferrets 543–549t

Chlamydia, antimicrobial agents for 639–640t

Chlorambucil




983


Chloramine-T, for fish 17–30t

Chloramphenicol 637–638t




for fish 17–24t







Chloramphenicol ophthalmic drops, for birds 263–267t

Chloramphenicol palmitate



Chloramphenicol sodium succinate, for primates 576–580t




Chlorhexidine




Chlorhexidine shampoo



Chlorine, for birds 168–189t

Chlorine/chloramine neutralizer

984

for fish 34–36t


Chloroquine



Chloroquine diphosphate, for fish 25–30t

Chloroquine phosphate



Chlorpheniramine, for ferrets 543–549t

Chlorpheniramine maleate



Chlorpromazine, for birds 253–257t

Chlortetracycline







Chlortetracycline bisulfate, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 377–389t

Cholestyramine



Chondroitin sulfate, for rabbits 513–517t

CHOP therapy, for reptiles 113–116t

Cimetidine



985







Ciprofloxacin



for birds 168–189t, 270–271t


for fish 17–24t







Ciprofloxacin HCl, for birds 263–267t

Ciprofloxacin ophthalmic ointment, for reptiles 82–86t

Cisapride






for RGIS 522–523t



Cisplatin

986



Citrate phosphate dextrose adenine solution (CPDA), for birds 275–283t

Citric acid, for birds 275–283t

Clarithromycin 495–498t







Clavulanic acid 637–638t



Clavulanic potassium, for primates 576–580t

Clazuril



Clindamycin

for birds 168–189t, 270–271t









Clinicare, for reptiles 108–113t

Clofazimine, for birds 168–189t

987

Clomipramine



Clonazepam, for birds 253–257t

Clonidine, for rodents 470–473t

Clopidol, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 391–398t

Clorsulon



Closantel, for fish 25–30t

Clostridium spp., antimicrobial agents for 639–640t

Clotrimazole

for birds 189–195t, 246–248t



Clove oil (eugenol)


for fish 31–33t


Cloxacillin



Cobalamin, for ferrets 543–549t

Coccidiosis, vaccine for 421–422t

Cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus)



T 4 values of 315t

Cockatoos (Cacatuidae)


988


T 4 values of 315t

Codeine




Coelenterates 11t

Colchicine, for birds 275–283t

Colloids 656t

Colonic lavage, for reptiles 141t

Columbiformes



Combination therapies, antimicrobials 643t

Commercial dry or moist diets, for anorectic or debilitated reptiles 139–140t

Common captive invertebrate taxa 11t

Compounding pharmacies 661–662t

Compounding resources 663t

Compounding Today 663t

Constant rate infusion (CRI) protocols, for rabbits 511t

Conures (Aratinga and Pyrrhura spp.)



T 4

values of 315t

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species 648–650t

Copper sulfate ("bluestone")



for fish 25–30t

Corn snake (Pantherophis guttata), hematologic and serum biochemical values of 117–

989

136t

Coumaphos, for birds 197–217t

Creative Compounding Center 661–662t

Crested gecko (Rhacodactylus ciliatus)



Critical Care for Herbivores, for reptiles 108–113t

Crocodilians



Cross River Pharmacy and Compounding Center 661–662t

Crotamiton, for birds 197–217t

Crystalloids 656t


Custom Prescriptions 661–662t

Cyanoacrylate surgical adhesive, for amphibians 65–67t

Cyclizine, for rabbits 513–517t

Cyclophosphamide





Cycloserine, for birds 168–189t

Cyclosporine

for birds 189–197t, 275–283t




Cypermethrin


990


Cyproheptadine




Cyproheptadine HCl, for RGIS 522–523t

Cyromazine, for rabbits 500–502t

Cytarabine, for ferrets 543–549t

D

Danofloxacin, for reptiles 82–86t

Danofloxacin mesylate



Dantrolene sodium, for miniature pigs 568t

Dapsone, for primates 594–601t

Debilitated reptiles, force-feeding 139–140t

Decoquinate




Deferiprone



Deferoxamine mesylate, for birds 248–252t

Delmadinone, for birds 240–245t, 253–257t

Deltamethrin, for birds 197–217t

Demecarium bromide, for birds 263–267t

Dental Anatomy 648–650t

2-deoxy-2-fluoro-d-glucose, for birds 275–283t

991

Deoxycorticosterone, for ferrets 542–543t

Depoprovera, for primates 594–601t

Deracoxib, for primates 586–594t

Desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii)



Desflurane, for birds 218–236t

Deslorelin

for birds 240–245t, 253–257t



Deslorelin acetate



Deslorelin implant, for birds 267–270t

Desmopressin, for birds 240–245t

Desoxycholate form, for rabbits 498–499t

Detergent, for birds 272t

Detomidine



Detomidine/butorphanol/midazolam, for miniature pigs 561–565t

Dex SP, emergency drug doses of 654–655t

Dexamethasone


for birds 240–245t, 263–267t


for fish 34–36t

for hedgehogs 444–445t, 448–449t


992






Dexamethasone sodium phosphate

for birds 240–248t, 272–274t




Dexmedetomidine




for fish 31–33t








Dexmedetomidine/alfaxalone, for birds 218–236t

Dexmedetomidine/butorphanol, for ferrets 536–539t

Dexmedetomidine HCl, for birds 218–236t

Dexmedetomidine/ketamine, for reptiles 93–103t

Dexmedetomidine/ketamine/butorphanol, for birds 218–236t

Dexmedetomidine/ketamine/morphine, for reptiles 93–103t

Dexmedetomidine/midazolam, for birds 218–236t

Dexmedetomidine/midazolam/butorphanol, for miniature pigs 561–565t

993

Dexmedetomidine/midazolam/ketamine, for reptiles 93–103t

Dexmedetomidine/thiafentanil oxalate/tiletamine-zolazepam, for birds 218–236t

Dextran 70, for birds 272–274t

Dextroketamine, for reptiles 93–103t

Dextroketamine/midazolam, for reptiles 93–103t

Dextrose


for birds 258–263t, 272–274t



in water, for reptiles 108–113t

Dextrose 50%, for wild mammals 629–631t

Diagnoses See Differential diagnoses

Diagnostic Center for Population and Animal Health 643–647t

Diagnostic Laboratory Service 643–647t

Diagnostic procedures, laboratories conducting 643–647t

Diamondback Drugs 661–662t

Diatomaceous earth, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 391–398t

Diatrizoate meglumine, for invertebrates 9–10t

Diatrizoate meglumine sodium, for birds 258–263t

Diatrizoate sodium, for invertebrates 9–10t

Diazepam



for birds 218–236t, 253–257t

doses of 654–655t





994






Diazepam/ketamine, for hedgehogs 447–448t

Diazoxide



Dichlorophenamide, for rabbits 511–513t

Dichlorophene, for birds 197–217t

Dichlorvos



Diclazuril




Diclofenac


for birds 236–239t, 263–267t


Diclofenac sodium, for rabbits 511–513t

Dietary characteristics

of hedgehogs 452–453t

of reptiles 137–138t

of sugar gliders 439–440t

Diethylcarbamazine, for primates 580–585t

Diethylstilbestrol diphosphate, for birds 240–245t

Diets and commercial products

995

for birds 321t


Differential diagnoses, for amphibians 71–74t

Difloxacin

for fish 17–24t


Diflubenzuron

for fish 25–30t


Digoxin







Dihydrostreptomycin, for reptiles 82–86t

Diiodohydroxyquinoline, for primates 580–585t

Diltiazem




Dimercaprol, for birds 248–252t

Dimercaptosuccinic acid, for birds 248–252t

Dimethyl phosphonate, for fish 25–30t

Dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO), for birds 236–239t, 275–283t

Dimetridazole



for fish 25–30t

996



Dinitolmide, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 391–398t

Dinoprost tromethamine, for birds 240–245t

Dinoprostone, for birds 240–245t

Dinoprostone gel, for reptiles, with dystocia 142–143t

Dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate



Diphenhydramine

for birds 248–257t, 267–270t, 275–283t

emergency drug doses of 654–655t







Diphenoxylate, with atropine, for birds 275–283t

Diphenylhydantoin, for rodents 476–479t

Diprenorphine, for birds 218–236t

Dipyrone



Diquat dibromide, for fish 17–24t

Disease testing, in rodents 486–487t

Diseases, zoonotic

in hedgehogs 454t

in rodents 485–486t

Diseases of Research Animals (DORA) 648–650t

997

Disinfectants, for amphibians 74t

Disoprofol, for reptiles 93–103t

Distilled water, for amphibians 58–60t

Dithiazanine, for primates 580–585t

Dobutamine

for birds 218–236t, 272–274t



Docusate sodium (DSS), for primates 594–601t

Dog/cat food, for anorectic or debilitated reptiles 139–140t

Dopamine




Dopamine HCl, for birds 218–236t

Doramectin


for fish 25–30t




Dorzolamide



Dosing

of emergency drug 654–655t


Doxapram



998

doses of 654–655t


for fish 34–36t







Doxepin, for birds 253–257t

Doxorubicin




Doxycycline

for amphibians 54–55t, 65–67t


for birds 168–189t, 197–217t


for fish 17–24t








Doxycycline hyclate, for birds 168–189t, 246–248t

Doxycycline monohydrate, for rabbits 511–513t

Doxycycline recipes, used in Psittacines 321t

999

Droperidol, for primates 586–594t

Duloxetine



Dwarf caiman (Paleosuchus palpebrosus), hematologic and serum biochemical values

of 117–136t

Dystocia

in birds, management of 323t

in reptiles 142–143t

E

E-Compounding Pharmacy 661–662t

Eastern box turtle (Terrapene carolina)



Eastern screech owl (Megascops asio)



Eastern States Compounding Pharmacy 661–662t

Echinacea 189–197t

Echinoderms 11t

Echocardiographic measurements, in rodents 488t

Eclectus parrot (Eclectus roratus)



T 4

values of 315t

Edetate calcium disodium (CaEDTA), for wild mammals 629–631t

Edetate disodium, for birds 263–267t

EDTA-Tris, with atropine, for birds 275–283t

EDTA-tromethamine, for birds 275–283t

1000

Egg binding, in birds, management of 323t

Egg withdrawal, in backyard poultry and waterfowl 420t

Electrocardiographic values, in rabbits 520–521t

Electrolyte solutions

for anorectic or debilitated reptiles 139–140t


Emamectin, for fish 25–30t

Emeraid Carnivore



Emeraid Exotic Carnivore



Emeraid Herbivore



Emeraid Omnivore



Emerald tree boa (Corallus caninus), hematologic and serum biochemical values of 117–

136t

Emergencies, agents used in, for wild mammals 629–631t

Emergency drugs


doses, for exotic animals 654–655t


Emodepside




1001

Emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae)



Enalapril








Endocrine values, in rodents 487t

Enflurane



Enilconazole


for hedgehogs 445t


Enilconazole emulsion, for birds 189–195t

Enoxaparin sodium, for primates 594–601t

Enrofloxacin



for birds 168–189t, 246–248t, 270–271t


for fish 17–24t




1002




for RGIS 522–523t


and silver sulfadiazine solution, for amphibians 54–55t



Enteral feeding, for birds 320t

Enterobacteriaceae, antimicrobial agents for 639–640t

Environmental characteristics, of reptiles 137–138t

Ephedrine



Epinephrine




for fish 34–36t








Epoetin alfa



Eprinomectin, for rabbits 500–502t

1003

Epsom salts, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 390t

Erythromycin


for birds 168–189t, 246–248t


for fish 17–24t




Erythromycin phosphate, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 377–389t

Erythromycin thiocyanate, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 377–389t

Erythropoietin, for hedgehogs 449–450t

Essential fatty acids, for birds 258–263t

Estradiol benzoate



Ethambutol



Ethanol

for fish 31–33t, 36–37t


Ethanol/menthol, for invertebrates 6–9t

Etilefrine, for rodents 470–474t

Etodolac



Etomidate


for fish 31–33t

1004



Etorphine



Etorphine/acepromazine, for birds 218–236t

Etorphine/acepromazine/xylazine, for birds 218–236t

Etorphine HCl, for birds 218–236t

Etorphine/ketamine, for birds 218–236t

Eugenol (clove oil)


for fish 31–33t, 36–37t


Eurasian eagle owl (Bubo bubo)



European Association of Zoo and Wildlife Veterinarians 648t

Euthanasia agents


for birds 274t

for fish 36–37t

Exotic animal online resources, for practitioners 648–650t

captive husbandry web sites 650–653t

Exotic DVM 648–650t

Exotic Pet Vet Net 648–650t

F

F10, for birds 246–248t

F10 super concentrate disinfectant, for reptiles 87–89t

Fagron 663t

1005

Fahrenheit temperature scales, equivalents of 659t

Famciclovir



Famotidine








Fatty acids, for birds 258–263t

FDA Compounding Resources 663t

Febantel




Fecal transfaunation, for rabbits 513–517t

Feed consumption rate, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 420t

Feed estimates, for hand-rearing sugar gliders 441t

Feline Clinical Care Liquid, for amphibians 65–67t

Fenbendazole





for fish 25–30t

for hedgehogs 446t


1006







Fentanyl









Fentanyl citrate




Fentanyl/droperidol




Fentanyl/midazolam, for birds 218–236t

Fentanyl patch, for rabbits 503–511t

Ferret Universe, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

Ferret Village, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

Ferrets 532–557

adrenal gland disease agents for 542–543t


1007





biochemical values of 549–550t

biologic data of 550–551t

cardiopulmonary agents for 540–541t


chemotherapy protocols for lymphoma in 552–554t

hematologic values of 549–550t


physiologic data of 550–551t

protein electrophoresis values for 550t

schedule of vaccinations and routine prophylactic care for 552t


Ferric subsulfate, for birds 275–283t

Ferrous sulfate, for rabbits 513–517t

Finasteride, for ferrets 542–543t

Fipronil








Fipronil spray, for hedgehogs 446t

Fish 16–52



1008





euthanasia agents for 36–37t



serum biochemical values of 37–44t

Fish Channel, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

Fish Lore, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

Fish Tank Guide, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

Flavorx 663t

Flea products (feline), for hedgehogs 446t

Florfenicol


for fish 17–24t




Fluanisone




Flubendazole



Fluconazole




1009






Flucytosine




Fludrocortisone, for ferrets 543–549t

Fluid support


solutions used in exotic animal medicine 656t

Fluid therapy


for birds 272t

routes of administration and maximum suggested volumes of 319t

for RGIS 522–523t

Flumazenil









Flumequine


for fish 17–24t

1010

Flumethasone, for birds 240–245t

Flunixin meglumine











Fluoroquinolones 637–638t

Fluoxetine





Flurbiprofen sodium



Flurofamide, for primates 576–580t

Flutamide, for ferrets 542–543t

Folic acid



Food Animal Residue Avoidance Database (FARAD) 623t

Food-producing animals, various designations of drugs in, definition of 419t

Foraging For Parrots, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

Force-feeding reptiles 139–140t

1011

Formalin


for fish 17–30t


Formic acid, for invertebrates 5–6t

Fort Wayne Custom Rx 661–662t

Fospropofol, for reptiles 93–103t

Fowl cholera, vaccine for 421–422t

Fowl cholera bacterin, vaccine for 421–422t

Fowl pox, vaccine for 421–422t

Freshwater

for fish 25–30t


Frog World, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

Fumagillin



Furazolidone



for fish 17–24t




Furosemide


doses of 654–655t


for fish 34–36t


1012







Fusidic acid, for rabbits 511–513t

G

Gabapentin

for birds 218–236t, 253–257t






Gadolinium-diethylenetriamine pentaacetic acid, for ferrets 543–549t

Gadopentate dimeglumine, for birds 275–283t

Galapagos tortoise (Chelonoidis nigra), hematologic and serum biochemical values

of 117–136t

Gallamine, for reptiles 93–103t

Galliformes



Gallium-67 citrate, for birds 275–283t

Game animals 623t

Garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis), environmental, dietary, and reproductive

characteristics of 137–138t

Gatifloxacin, for rabbits 511–513t

Gavage feeding, of anorectic birds 319t

Gemfibrozil, for birds 275–283t

1013

Gentamicin


for birds 168–189t, 246–248t, 270–271t


for fish 17–24t






1014



Gentamicin/betamethasone ophthalmic drops, for reptiles 82–86t

Gentamicin ophthalmic drops, for hedgehogs 444–445t

Gentamicin ophthalmic ointment, for reptiles 82–86t

Gentamicin sulfate



Gentian violet, for birds 275–283t

Georgia Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratories 643–647t

Gerbil Care, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

Gila monster (Heloderma suspectum), hematologic and serum biochemical values of 117–

136t

Glauber's salt, for birds 248–252t

Glipizide

for birds 240–245t, 275–283t


Glucagon, for ferrets 543–549t

Glucans, for fish 34–36t

Glucosamine (G)/chondroitin sulfate (C), for miniature pigs 568t

Glutamine, for ferrets 543–549t

Glyceryl trinitrate, for rodents 470–474t

Glycopyrrolate








1015





Glycosaminoglycan, for birds 275–283t

GnRH immunocontraceptive vaccine, for primates 594–601t

sGnRHa + domperidone, for fish 34–36t

Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos)



Golden Gate Veterinary Pharmacy 661–662t

Goldfish Society of America, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

for amphibians 65t



Good Life Pharmacy 661–662t

Gopher snake (Pituophis catenifer), hematologic and serum biochemical values of 117–

136t

Gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus), hematologic and serum biochemical values

of 117–136t

Gram-negative bacteria, antimicrobial agents for 639–640t

Gram-positive bacteria, antimicrobial agents for 639–640t

Grandpa’s Compounding Pharmacy 661–662t

Great gray owl (Strix nebulosa), hematologic and biochemical values of 298–306t

Great-horned owl (Bubo virginianus), hematologic and biochemical values of 298–306t

Greek tortoise (Testudo graeca), environmental, dietary, and reproductive characteristics

of 137–138t

Green iguana (Iguana iguana), hematologic and serum biochemical values of 117–136t

Green Iguana Society, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

Green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas), hematologic and serum biochemical values of 117–

1016

136t

Green tree python (Morelia viridis), hematologic and serum biochemical values of 117–

136t

Grey-cheeked parakeet (Brotogeris pyrrhoptera), hematologic and biochemical values

of 284–292t

Griseofulvin



for hedgehogs 445t







Grit, for birds 248–252t

Growth and development, of sugar gliders 439t

Guaifenesin



Guaifenesin (G)/ketamine (K)/xylazine (X), for miniature pigs 561–565t

Guanfacine, for primates 594–601t

Guinea Lynx, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

Gyrfalcon (Falco rusticolus)



H

Hairball laxative, for ferrets 543–549t

Halofuginone, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 391–398t

Haloperidol

1017


for fish 34–36t



Hamster Hideout, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

Hamsterific, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

Hand-rearing feed estimates

for orphaned hedgehogs 453t


Harris hawk (Parabuteo unicinctus)



Hawksbill sea turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata), hematologic and serum biochemical values

of 117–136t

Healthway Compounding Pharmacy 661–662t

Hedgehogs 443–458





antiparasitic agents for 446t


cardiac measurements in 455t


differential diagnoses based on physical examination findings in 454t

hand-rearing orphaned 453t


injection and venipuncture sites in 453–454t


preventive medicine for 454t

1018

suggested diets for 452–453t

vocalizations in 454t

zoonotic diseases carried by 454t

Hematologic values

abnormalities of standard avian 311t

of amphibians 68–70t

of Anseriformes 413t


of fish 37–44t

of Galliformes 412t

of hedgehogs 451t



of Piciformes and Columbiformes 297–298t

of primates 602–603t


juvenile 293–294t

of rabbits 517–518t


of ratites 296t


of rodents 481t


Hemicellulose, for birds 258–263t

Hemoglobin glutamer-200



Hemorrhagic enteritis, vaccine for 421–422t

Heparin


1019




Heparin/aloe vera, for birds 275–283t

Herbivore critical care diet, for RGIS 522–523t

Hetastarch







Hexyl ether pyropheophorbide-a, for birds 267–270t

High protein powders, for anorectic or debilitated reptiles 139–140t

Hill's Feline, for amphibians 65–67t

Hormones

for amphibians 65t




Horst Pharmacy 661–662t

House Rabbit Society, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)

for amphibians 65t



for fish 34–36t




1020

Humco 663t

Hummingbirds, nutritional recommendations for rehabilitation of 322t

Husbandry, captive 650–653t

Hyaluronidase




Hydrochlorothiazide



Hydrocodone, for rodents 470–473t

Hydrocodone bitartrate, for primates 586–594t

Hydrocortisone


for fish 34–36t

Hydrocortisone sodium succinate



Hydrogen peroxide


for fish 17–30t, 34–36t



Hydromorphone







1021


for RGIS 522–523t


Hydroxyapatite cement, for birds 270–271t

Hydroxychloroquine sulfate, for birds 197–217t

Hydroxyethyl starch, for reptiles 108–113t

Hydroxyzine

for birds 253–257t, 275–283t



Hygromycin B



Hyperimmune serum, for ferrets 540–541t

Hypertonic saline, for amphibians 65–67t

I

Ibuprofen







Imidacloprid


for hedgehogs 446t




1022

Imidacloprid 10% + moxidectin 1%, for hedgehogs 446t

Imidacloprid/moxidectin, for wild mammals 625–626t

Imidapril hydrochloride, for rodents 470–474t

Imidocarb dipropionate, for birds 197–217t

Imiquimod cream, for birds 189–197t

Immunizations See Vaccinations

Immunomodulating agents



Indian star tortoise (Geochelone elegans), hematologic and serum biochemical values

of 117–136t

Indigo snake (Drymarchon corais), hematologic and serum biochemical values of 117–

136t

Indomethacin, for rodents 470–473t

Infection site, antimicrobials and 641–642t

Infectious bronchitis, Newcastle disease combination and, vaccine for 421–422t

Infectious laryngotracheitis, vaccine for 421–422t

Inhalant anesthetics, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 410–411t

Injection sites, for hedgehogs 453–454t

Injured wildlife, care of 617–619t

Inositol, for birds 258–263t

Insulin


glargine, for ferrets 543–549t

NPH





ultralente, for ferrets 543–549t

1023

Insulin/dextrose 50%, for birds 272–274t

Interferon-α, for ferrets 543–549t

Interferon α 2 , for birds 189–197t

International Association for Aquatic Animal Medicine 648t

International Cockatiel Society, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

International Fancy Guppy Association, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

International Ferret Congress, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

International Hedgehog Association, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

International Species Information System 648–650t

International Union for the Conservation of Nature 648–650t

International Veterinary Information System 648–650t

Invertebrates 1–15







common captive taxa of 11t


Iodine


tincture 275–283t


1% solution, for birds 189–195t

potentiated, for fish 17–24t



Iodine compound, for reptiles 113–116t

Iohexol

1024





Ipecac



Ipronidazole, for birds 197–217t

Iron, for birds 258–263t

Iron dextran








Isoeugenol, for amphibians 60–64t

Isoflurane



for birds 218–236t, 263–267t, 274t


for fish 31–33t







1025



Isoflurane/sevoflurane, for fish 36–37t

Isoniazid



Isoproterenol



Isotretinoin, for ferrets 543–549t

Isoxsuprine


Isoxuprine


Itraconazole



for birds 189–195t, 246–248t, 270–271t


for fish 17–24t

for hedgehogs 445t








Ivermectin


1026

for backyard poultry and waterfowl 391–398t, 409t



for fish 25–30t

for hedgehogs 446t









J

Jardine's parrot (Poicephalus gulielmi)


T 4

values of 315t

Joint infection, antimicrobial therapy for 641–642t

Juvenile Psittaciformes, hematologic and biochemical values of 293–294t

K

K-Y jelly, for reptiles 113–116t

Kanamycin



Kanamycin sulfate, for fish 17–24t

Kansas State Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory 643–647t

Kaolin/pectin


1027




Ketamine




for fish 31–33t, 36–37t










Ketamine/acepromazine




Ketamine/azaperone, for miniature pigs 561–565t

Ketamine/butorphanol, for reptiles 93–103t

Ketamine/butorphanol/medetomidine, for birds 218–236t

Ketamine/detomidine, for primates 586–594t

Ketamine/dexmedetomidine


for fish 36–37t



1028

Ketamine/diazepam





Ketamine HCl



Ketamine/medetomidine



for fish 31–33t





Ketamine/medetomidine/butorphanol, for primates 586–594t

Ketamine/medetomidine/dexmedetomidine/butorphanol, for wild mammals 627–628t

Ketamine/medetomidine/midazolam, for reptiles 93–103t

Ketamine/medetomidine/morphine, for reptiles 93–103t

Ketamine/midazolam







Ketamine/midazolam/butorphanol, for birds 218–236t

Ketamine/propofol, for reptiles 93–103t

Ketamine/tiletamine/zolazepam

1029



Ketamine/xylazine






Ketamine/xylazine/acepromazine, for birds 218–236t

Ketamine/xylazine/butorphanol, for miniature pigs 561–565t

Ketamine/xylazine/midazolam, for miniature pigs 561–565t

Ketamine/xylazine/oxymorphone, for miniature pigs 561–565t

Ketoconazole





for fish 17–24t

for hedgehogs 445t





Ketolides 637–638t

Ketoprofen



for fish 31–33t



1030




Ketorolac, for primates 586–594t

Ketorolac tromethamine, for rabbits 511–513t

Kingsnake (Lampropeltis getula)



L

Laboratories, non-human primate 609–611t

β-lactamase inhibitors 637–638t

Lactated Ringer's solution (LRS)





Lactobacilli




Lactobacillus acidophilus, for birds 258–263t

Lactulose

for birds 272t, 275–283t






Lactulose syrup, for ferrets 543–549t

1031

Lasalocid



Laxative, for amphibians 65–67t

Lecirelin, for birds 240–245t

Leiter’s Pharmacy 661–662t

Length conversions 658t

Leopard gecko (Eublepharis macularius), environmental, dietary, and reproductive


Leopard tortoise (Stigmochelys pardalis), hematologic and serum biochemical values

of 117–136t

Leuprolide acetate

for birds 240–245t, 253–257t, 267–270t





Levamisole




for fish 25–30t

for hedgehogs 446t







Levetiracetam

1032




Levofloxacin, for primates 576–580t

Levonorgestrel depot form, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 406t

Levothyroxine







Lidocaine





for fish 31–33t






for RGIS 522–523t




Lidocaine/morphine, for reptiles 104–106t

Lidocaine/prilocaine, for miniature pigs 561–565t

Lime sulfur

1033


for hedgehogs 445t


Lime sulfur dip, for rodents 460–466t

Lincomycin


for birds 168–189t, 246–248t





Lincomycin HCl, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 377–389t

Lincomycin hydrochloride monohydrate, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 377–389t

Lincomycin/spectinomycin, for birds 168–189t

Lincosamides 637–638t

Linear measures 658t

Linoleic acid, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 408–409t

γ-Linolenic acid, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 408–409t

Lipoprotein panel, of birds 314t

Liposomal form, for rabbits 498–499t

Liquid measures 658t

Lisinopril, for primates 594–601t

Lizards




Loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta), hematologic and serum biochemical values

of 117–136t

Loperamide


1034





Lorazepam, for birds 253–257t

Lories



T 4 values of 315t

Lorikeets



Lovebirds (Agapornis spp.)



T 4

values of 315t

Lufenuron


for fish 25–30t

for hedgehogs 446t


Lugol's 5% solution, for invertebrates 2–4t

Lugol's iodine, for birds 258–263t

Lupron, for ferrets 542–543t

Luteinizing hormone, for amphibians 65t

Luteinizing releasing hormone analog (LRH-A), for fish 34–36t

Lymphoma, in ferrets 552–554t

Lysine, for hedgehogs 449–450t

M

1035

Macaws (Ara and Anodorhynchus spp.)



Macrolides 637–638t

Maduramicin ammonium, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 391–398t

Magnesium chloride, for invertebrates 6–9t

Magnesium hydroxide, for rodents 476–479t

Magnesium hydroxide/activated charcoal, for birds 248–252t, 275–283t

Magnesium sulfate

for birds 248–252t, 258–263t, 275–283t



Maintenance crystalloid solution, for reptiles 108–113t

Malachite green

for fish 25–30t


zinc-free, for fish 17–24t

Mannitol






Marbofloxacin







1036

Marek's disease, vaccine for 421–422t

Maropitant



Maropitant citrate



for RGIS 522–523t


Martin Avenue Pharmacy 661–662t

Maximum suggested volumes of fluid therapy, for birds 319t

Meat withdrawal, in backyard poultry and waterfowl 420t

Mebendazole




for fish 25–30t

for hedgehogs 446t




Meclizine



Medetomidine



for fish 31–33t



1037





Medetomidine/ketamine/fentanyl, for hedgehogs 447–448t

Medetomidine/midazolam, for primates 586–594t

Medirabbit 648–650t

Medisca 663t

Medroxyprogesterone acetate



Meds for Vets 661–662t

Mefloquine, for primates 580–585t

Mefloquine HCl, for birds 197–217t

Megestrol acetate

for birds 240–245t, 253–257t





Melatonin



Melengestrol acetate implant, for primates 594–601t

Melissa Kaplan's Herp Care Collection, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

Meloxicam





1038






for RGIS 522–523t




Melphalan, for reptiles 113–116t

Menthol, for invertebrates 5–6t

Mepacrine HCl, for birds 197–217t

Meperidine







Meperidine/midazolam, for reptiles 93–103t

Meropenem, for birds 168–189t, 270–271t

Metabolic bone diseases, in reptiles 144–145t

Metamizole, for rodents 470–473t

Metaproterenol, for ferrets 540–541t

Metformin, for primates 594–601t

Methadone



Methimazole


1039


Methocarbamol



Methohexital, for reptiles 93–103t

Methohexital sodium, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 399–403t

Methotrexate



Methoxyflurane, for birds 274t

Methylene blue


for fish 17–30t

Methylmethacrylate, for invertebrates 9–10t

Methylprednisolone




Methylprednisolone acetate, for birds 240–245t

Methylprednisolone sodium succinate, for wild mammals 629–631t

Methylsulfonylmethane (MSM), for rabbits 511–513t

Methyltestosterone, for fish 34–36t

Metildigoxin, for rodents 470–474t

Metipranolol, for rabbits 511–513t

Metoclopramide






1040




for RGIS 522–523t




Metomidate

for fish 31–33t


Metomidate HCl



Metronidazole



for birds 168–189t, 197–217t, 270–271t


for fish 25–30t

for hedgehogs 446t





for reptiles 82–86t, 89–93t, 108–113t

for RGIS 522–523t




Metyrapone, for rodents 476–479t

1041

Mexiletine, for birds 275–283t

Micafungin, for rabbits 498–499t, 511–513t

Miconazole


for birds 189–195t, 246–248t, 263–267t

for fish 17–24t



Midazolam








for RGIS 522–523t




Midazolam/buprenorphine, for hedgehogs 447–448t

Midazolam/butorphanol



Midazolam HCl



Midwest Compounders Pharmacy 661–662t

Milbemycin, for reptiles 89–93t

Milbemycin oxime

1042






Milk snake (Lampropeltis triangulum), hematologic and serum biochemical values

of 117–136t

Milk thistle (Silybum marianum)

for birds 196–197t, 267–270t, 275–283t






Milliequivalent conversions 658t

Mineral oil



Mineral support




Miniature pigs 558–574




antiparasitic agents for 561t

biologic and physiologic data of 570t

blood collection sites in 572t


1043

feeding recommendations for 572t

hematologic and serum biochemical values for 569t


oral dosing of 573t

preventive medicine recommendations for 571–572t

urinalysis reference values for 570t

Minocycline




Miporamicin, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 377–389t

Mirtazapine



Miscellaneous agents




for fish 34–36t









Misoprostol



1044

Mitotane



Mollusks, as common captive invertebrate taxa 11t

Monensin




Monument Pharmacy 661–662t

Morphine



for fish 31–33t








Morphine sulfate



Moxidectin




for hedgehogs 446t



1045




Moxifloxacin, for rabbits 495–498t, 511–513t

MS-222

for fish 31–33t


Multivitamin products, for reptiles 108–113t

Mupirocin, for hedgehogs 444–445t

My House Rabbit, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

Mycobacteriosis, in birds 312–313t

Mycoplasma spp., antimicrobial agents for 639–640t

Mynah (Gracula religiosa)



N

Nalbuphine




Nalbuphine HCl, for birds 218–236t

Nalidixic acid, for fish 17–24t

Nalorphine, for amphibians 60–64t

Naloxone






1046




Naloxone HCl, for birds 218–236t, 253–257t

Naltrexone, for amphibians 60–64t

Naltrexone HCl, for birds 218–236t, 253–257t

Nandrolone



Nandrolone decanoate, for ferrets 543–549t

Nandrolone laurate, for birds 240–245t

Naproxen, for primates 586–594t

Narasin, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 391–398t

Natamycin, for birds 263–267t

National Finch and Softbill Society, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

National Veterinary Services Laboratory 643–647t

National Wildlife Rehabilitators Association 648t

Nature’s Pharmacy 661–662t

Nebulization agents



Nematode parasites, amphibians with 75t

Neomycin





for fish 17–24t



1047





Neomycin/polymyxin B/dexamethasone, for birds 263–267t

Neomycin/polymyxin B/gramicidin, for birds 263–267t

Neomycin sulfate



Neostigmine, for reptiles 93–103t

Netilmicin



Newcastle's disease, vaccine for 421–422t

Niacin



Nicarbazin

for backyard poultry and waterfowl 391–398t, 411t


Niclosamide


for fish 25–30t



Nicotinic acid, for birds 258–263t

Nifurpirinol, for fish 17–24t

Nifurtimox, for primates 580–585t

Nitazoxanide


1048


Nitenpyram



Nitrifying bacteria

for fish 34–36t


Nitrofuran, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 377–389t

Nitrofurazone



for fish 17–24t



Nitrogen, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 410–411t

Nitroglycerin



Nitroimidazole 637–638t

Nitroprusside, for primates 594–601t

Nitrous oxide/isoflurane/vecuronium, for birds 218–236t

Nitrous oxide (N 2 O)




Nonhuman primate laboratories 609–611t

Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory agents




1049

Norepinephrine, for primates 594–601t

Norfloxacin



North American Sugar Glider Association, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–

653t

Northern saw-whet owl (Aegolius acadicus), hematologic and biochemical values of 298–

306t

Northwest Compounders 661–662t

Northwest ZooPath 643–647t

Nortriptyline, for birds 253–257t

Novobiocin, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 377–389t

Novobiocin sodium, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 377–389t

Nucleotide, for fish 34–36t

Nuflor, for miniature pigs 559–560t

Nutri-Cal, for ferrets 543–549t

Nutritional support and data




for rodents 485t

Nystatin

for amphibians, 1% cream 56–57t








1050



O

Octreotide, for ferrets 543–549t

Ofloxacin




Oiled birds, treatment of 272t

Oleandomycin



Olive oil, for reptiles 89–93t

Omega-3, for birds 258–263t

Omega-6, for birds 258–263t

Omeprazole





Oncologic agents



Ondansetron



Ophthalmic diagnostic tests

in avian species 420t

in birds 317t

1051

Ophthalmologic agents




Oral dosing, of miniature pigs 573t

Oral electrolyte solutions, for birds 272t

Orange-winged Amazon parrot (Amazona amazonica), hematologic and biochemical

values of 284–292t

Orbifloxacin




Oregano essential oil, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 391–398t

Ormetoprim





for birds 168–189t, 197–217t

Ornate box turtle (Terrapene ornata), hematologic and serum biochemical values of 117–

136t

Orphaned wildlife, care of 617–619t

Oseltamivir phosphate, for ferrets 543–549t

Ostrich (Struthio camelus)



Oxacillin, for primates 576–580t

Oxfendazole



1052


Oxibendazole, for rabbits 500–502t

Oxolinic acid

for fish 17–24t


Oxybuprocaine, for birds 263–267t

Oxycodone, for rodents 470–473t

Oxygen


for fish 34–36t


Oxyglobin, for birds 272–274t

Oxymorphone







Oxytetracycline



for birds 168–189t, 246–248t, 270–271t


for fish 17–24t






1053



Oxytetracycline ophthalmic ointment, for hedgehogs 444–445t

Oxytetracycline/polymyxin B, for birds 263–267t

Oxytocin











P

Pacific pond turtle (Actinemys marmorata), hematologic and serum biochemical values

of 117–136t

Painted turtle (Chrysemys picta)



Pancreatic enzyme powder, for birds 258–263t

Panther chameleon (Furcifur pardalis), hematologic and serum biochemical values

of 117–136t

Pantothenic acid, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 408–409t

Papaya enzyme, for birds 272t

Parakeets, hematologic and biochemical values of 284–292t

Parasites, nematode, amphibians with 75t

Parconazole, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 390t

Parkview Compounding Pharmacy 661–662t

1054

Paromomycin







Paroxetine



Parrot A.L.E.R.T., websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

Parrot Outreach Society, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

Parrotlets (Forpus spp.), hematologic and biochemical values of 284–292t

Parrots, hematologic and biochemical values of 284–292t

Passeriformes



Pasteurella spp., antimicrobial agents for 639–640t

Peanut butter, for birds 248–252t, 275–283t

Penciclovir, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 391t

Penicillamine




Penicillin


extended-spectrum 637–638t



Penicillin benzathine/procaine, for birds 168–189t

1055

Penicillin G


benzathine, for primates 576–580t





procaine






Penicillin procaine



Penicillin VK, for primates 576–580t

Pentamidine isethionate



Pentastarch, for birds 272–274t

Pentazocine





Pentobarbital

for fish 31–33t

for miniature pigs 561–565t, 568t


1056


for reptiles 93–103t, 113–116t


Pentobarbital sodium





Pentobarbital sodium + sodium phenytoin, for amphibians 60–64t

Pentosan polysulphate, for rodents 476–479t

Pentoxifylline



Percentage conversions 658t

Peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus)



Perflutren lipid microspheres, for birds 275–283t

Permethrin


high-cis 197–217t

for hedgehogs 446t




Perrigo 663t

Pet Apothecary 661–662t

Pet Hamster Care, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

Pet Snakes, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

Pet-Tinic, for ferrets 543–549t

1057

Pethidine



PGF 2 alpha, for primates 594–601t

Pharmacy Innovations 661–662t

Phenobarbital



Phenobarbital sodium, for birds 253–257t

Phenoxybenzamine



2-phenoxyethanol

for fish 31–33t, 36–37t


Phentolamine mesylate, for primates 594–601t

Phenylarsonic acid, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 391–398t

Phenylbutazone



Phenylephrine





Phenytoin, for primates 594–601t

Philadelphia Professional Compounding Agency 661–662t

Physiologic values

of amphibians 68–70t

of birds 307–308t

1058


of hedgehogs 452t


of primates 604t

of rabbits 519t

of rodents 482t


Physostigmine, for amphibians 65–67t

Phytonadione, for birds 248–252t, 258–263t

Piciformes, hematologic and biochemical values of 297–298t

Pigeon (Columba livia)



T 4

values of 315t

Pigs See Miniature pigs

Pilocarpine, for rabbits 511–513t

Pimaricin, for birds 263–267t

Pimobendan









Pionus parrots (Pionus spp.)



T 4

values of 315t

1059

Piperacillin


for birds 168–189t, 246–248t



Piperacillin/tazobactam



Piperazine




for fish 25–30t





Piperazine adipate, for rodents 464–466t

Piperazine citrate



Piperazine penicillins 637–638t

Piperonyl butoxide/pyrethrin, for birds 197–217t

Piperonyl butoxide/pyrethrin/methoprene, for birds 197–217t

Piroxicam




Poison Dart Frogs, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

Policosanol, for birds 275–283t

1060

Polymerized bovine hemoglobin, for reptiles 108–113t

Polymyxin B





Polymyxin B sulfate



Polymyxin B sulfate/bacitracin/neomycin sulfate, for fish 17–24t

Polyprenol, for ferrets 543–549t

Polysulfated glycosaminoglycan (PSGAG)






Ponazuril





Porfimer sodium, for birds 267–270t

Posaconazole, for rabbits 498–499t

Potassium bromide



Potassium chloride


for birds 258–263t, 272–274t

1061




Potassium citrate





for fish 17–30t


Povidone-iodine

for birds 168–195t, 275–283t



Pralidoxime (2-PAM)



Pralidoxime mesylate, for toxicologic conditions, of backyard poultry and waterfowl 407–

408t

Praziquantel



for birds 197–217t, 246–248t


for fish 25–30t

for hedgehogs 446t





1062



Prazosin, for ferrets 543–549t

Precision Pharmacy 661–662t

Prednisolone







Prednisolone acetate



Prednisolone sodium succinate


for birds 240–245t, 272–274t



Prednisone


for birds 240–245t, 267–270t







Pregnant mare serum gonadotropin (PMSG), for amphibians 65t

Prehensile-tailed skink (Corucia zebrata), hematologic and serum biochemical values

1063

of 117–136t

Prescription writing, common abbreviations used in 657t

Preventive medicine

for hedgehogs 454t


for primates 606t

Prilocaine, for rabbits 503–511t

Primaquine




Primates 575–615






biologic data of 604t


ECG intervals and durations in 605t


immunization recommendations for 607–608t


nonhuman primate laboratories for 609–611t

physiologic data of 604t

preventive medicine recommendations for 606t


taxonomic classification of 605t

Probenecid


1064



Probucol, for birds 275–283t

Procainamide, for primates 594–601t

Procaine




Procarbazine, for ferrets 543–549t

Prochlorperazine



Professional associations, for veterinarians 648t

Progesterone, for amphibians 65t

Proligestone, for ferrets 543–549t

Promazine hydrochloride, for miniature pigs 561–565t

Proparacaine, for reptiles 104–106t

Propentofylline



Propionibacterium acnes, for birds 196–197t

Propofol





for fish 31–33t, 36–37t




1065



Propranolol




for reptiles, with dystocia 142–143t

Propylene phenoxetol, for invertebrates 6–9t

Prostaglandin E 2



Prostaglandin F 2α





for reptiles, with dystocia 142–143t

Proxymetacaine, for birds 263–267t

Pseudoephedrine, for rodents 476–479t

Pseudomonas spp., antimicrobial agents for 639–640t

Pseudophedrine, for ferrets 540–541t

Psittaciformes


doxycycline recipes for 321t


juvenile 293–294t

ophthalmic diagnostic tests in 317t

routes of administration and maximum suggested volumes of fluids for 319t

Psittacines, doxycycline recipes used in 321t

Psychotherapeutic agents, for birds 334–336t

1066

Psychotropic agents, for birds 253–257t

Psyllium, for birds 248–252t, 275–283t

PubMed 648–650t

Pulmonary lavage, for reptiles 141t

Pyrantel pamoate




for fish 25–30t







Pyremethamine, for ferrets 533–534t

Pyrethrin powder, for sugar gliders 433–434t

Pyrethrin spray, for reptiles 89–93t

Pyrethrins





Pyridostigmine, for ferrets 543–549t

Pyrimethamine





Pyrvinium, for primates 580–585t

1067

Q

Quaker parakeet (Myopsitta monachus), hematologic and biochemical values of 284–292t

Quarantine protocols, for amphibians 75–77t

Quinacrine



Quinacrine HCl, for birds 197–217t

Quinaldine sulfate, for fish 31–33t, 36–37t

Quinidine, for primates 594–601t

Quinine sulfate, for reptiles 89–93t

Quinolones 637–638t

R

Rabbit gastrointestinal syndrome (RGIS), treatment for 522–523t

Rabbits 494–531







blood glucose and sodium levels as prognostic indicators 518t

bronchoalveolar lavage in 523t

cerebrospinal fluid values in 520t


clinical signs and behavioral changes used in assessment of pain in 523–524t

constant rate infusion (CRI) protocols for 511t

determining sex of mature 521t

drugs reported to be toxic in 521–522t

echocardiographic values in 520–521t

1068

electrocardiographic values in 520–521t



ophthalmologic agents for 511–513t


sedative agents for 503–511t


with signs of upper respiratory disease 524t

suspected Encephalitozoon cuniculi infections in 524t

urinalysis values in 519t

Radiated tortoise (Astrochelys radiata), hematologic and serum biochemical values

of 117–136t

Radiation therapy, for birds 267–270t

Rafoxanide, for birds 197–217t

Rainbow boa (Epicrates cenchria), hematologic and serum biochemical values of 117–136t

Ranavirus, disinfectants for 74t

Ranitidine



for RGIS 522–523t


Ranitidine bismuth citrate, for ferrets 543–549t

Ranitidine HCl, for ferrets 543–549t

Raptors



nutritional recommendations for rehabilitation of 322t

ophthalmic diagnostic tests in 317t

Rat Guide, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

Rat snake (Elaphe obsoleta), hematologic and serum biochemical values of 117–136t

1069

Ratites



Red-eared slider (Trachemys scripta elegans), environmental, dietary, and reproductive


Red-footed tortoise (Chelonoidis carbonaria), hematologic and serum biochemical values

of 117–136t

Red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis), hematologic and biochemical values of 298–306t

Regel PharmaLab 661–662t

Rehabilitation, of wild birds, nutritional recommendations for 322t

Releasing hormone, for amphibians 65t

Replacement crystalloid solutions, for reptiles 108–113t

Reproductive characteristics


of rodents 484t

Reproductive tract infection, antimicrobial therapy for 641–642t

Reptile Web, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

Reptiles 81–166






antiviral agents for 86–87t


dystocia in 142–143t


force-feeding anorectic or debilitated 139–140t


hormones and steroids for 106–108t

1070

metabolic bone diseases in 144–145t


nutritional/mineral/fluid support for 108–113t


source of diets and other commercial products for 145–149t




Research Associates Laboratory 643–647t

Reserpine, for fish 34–36t

Resorantel, for birds 197–217t

Respiratory tract infection, antimicrobial therapy for 641–642t

Resting respiratory rates, of birds 316t

Reticulated python (Python reticulatus), hematologic and serum biochemical values

of 117–136t

Rhea (Rhea spp.)



Ribavirin, for primates 594–601t

Riboflavin, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 408–409t

Rifabutin, for birds 168–189t

Rifampicin, for birds 168–189t

Rifampin




Rifampin/pefloxacin, for birds 270–271t

Rifampin/piperacillin, for birds 270–271t

Ringer's solution

amphibian 65–67t

1071


Roadrunner Pharmacy 661–662t

Robenidine HCl, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 391–398t

Rocuronium, for reptiles 93–103t

Rocuronium bromide, for birds 263–267t

Rodents 459–493







blood volumes with safe-bleeding volume recommendations in 483t

cardiovascular agents for 473–474t


common and scientific names of 480t

disease testing in 486–487t

echocardiographic measurements in 488t

electrocardiographic measurements in 488t

emergency drugs for 474–475t

endocrine values in 487t

hematologic values of 481t


nutritional data for 485t


reproductive data for 484t

serum biochemical values of 481t

sex determination of 485t

urinalysis reference values of 483t

zoonotic diseases in 485–486t

1072

Romark, for ferrets 533–534t

Ronidazole




Ronnel, for primates 580–585t

Ropivacaine, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 399–403t

Rosuvastatin, for birds 275–283t

Rosy boa (Lichanura trivirgata), hematologic and serum biochemical values of 117–136t

Routes of administration, of birds 319t

Routine prophylactic care, for ferrets 552t

Russian tortoise (Testudo horsfieldii)



S

S-Adenosylmethionine (SAM-e)





Safe-bleeding volume recommendations, in rodents 483t

Saline

hypertonic, for rodents 474–475t


Salmonella spp., antimicrobial agents for 639–640t

Salt


for fish 25–30t, 34–36t

Sand boa (Eryx sp.), environmental, dietary, and reproductive characteristics of 137–138t

1073

Sarafloxacin


for fish 17–24t

Satureja montana (winter savory extract), for invertebrates 2–4t

Savannah monitor (Varanus exanthematicus), hematologic and serum biochemical values

of 117–136t

Save Way Pharmacy 661–662t

Saw palmetto, for ferrets 543–549t

Seawater, for fish 25–30t

Sedative agents, for rabbits 503–511t

Selamectin




for hedgehogs 446t




Selenium



Senegal parrot (Poicephalus senegalus)


T 4

values of 315t

Septicemia, antimicrobial therapy for 641–642t

Serological tests, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 417–418t

Serum biochemical values

of Anseriformes 413t

of Columbiformes 297–298t


1074

of fish 37–44t

of Galliformes 412t

of hedgehogs 451t



of primates 602–603t


of rabbits 517–518t


of ratites 296t


of rodents 481t


Sevelamer, for rabbits 513–517t

Sevoflurane













Sex determination, of rodents 485t

Sharp-shinned hawk (Accipiter striatus)


1075


Short-eared owl (Asio flammeus), hematologic and biochemical values of 298–306t

Sick wildlife, care of 617–619t

Sildenafil, for birds 275–283t

Sildenafil citrate, for rodents 476–479t



for fish 17–24t




Silymarin

for birds 196–197t, 267–270t, 275–283t



Simethicone


for RGIS 522–523t


Skin infection, antimicrobial therapy for 641–642t

Skin-So-Soft (Avon), for birds 275–283t

Sliders (Trachemys scripta spp.), hematologic and serum biochemical values of 117–136t

Snakes




Snowy owl (Bubo scandiaca)



Soderlund Village Drug 661–662t

1076

Sodium benzoate, for birds 189–195t, 275–283t

Sodium bicarbonate


for fish 31–33t



Sodium bicarbonate tablets

for fish 31–33t


Sodium chloride


for birds 246–248t, 258–263t

for fish 25–30t, 34–36t


Sodium pentobarbital, for invertebrates 6–9t

Sodium sulfate, for birds 248–252t

Sodium tetradecyl sulfate, for birds 275–283t

Sodium thiosulfate


for fish 34–36t


Soft-tissue infection, antimicrobial therapy for 641–642t

Somatostatin, for birds 240–245t

Songbirds, nutritional recommendations for rehabilitation of 322t

Species 360 648–650t

Spectinomycin


for birds 168–189t, 246–248t



1077

Spectinomycin sulfate tetrahydrate, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 377–389t

Spectral Doppler echocardiographic reference intervals, in birds 333t

Spiny-tailed lizard (Uromastyx spp.), hematologic and serum biochemical values of 117–

136t

Spiramycin




1078

Spironolactone



STA solution, for birds 189–195t

Stanozolol




Staphylococcus spp., antimicrobial agents for 639–640t

Stark Pharmacy 661–662t

Sterile water, for birds 246–248t

Steroids




Streptococcus spp., antimicrobial agents for 639–640t

Streptomycin





Strontium (Sr-90), for birds 267–270t

Succimer (DMSA)



Succinylcholine, for reptiles 93–103t

Sucralfate




1079






Sugar gliders 432–442

analgesic agents for 435t



antimicrobial agents for 433t


biologic values of 438t


dietary components for 439–440t

feed estimates for hand-rearing 441t

growth and development of 439t

hematologic values of 437t


physiologic values of 438t

serum biochemical values of 437t

suggested diets for 440t


Sugarglider web site 650–653t

Sulfachlorpyrazine, for birds 197–217t

Sulfachlorpyridazine


for birds 168–189t, 197–217t

Sulfachlorpyridazine/trimethoprim, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 377–389t

Sulfadiazine


1080




Sulfadimethoxine


for birds 168–189t, 197–217t, 246–248t











for fish 17–24t


Sulfadimidine

for hedgehogs 446t


Sulfadimidine sodium, for birds 197–217t

Sulfamerazine




Sulfamethazine




1081





Sulfamethoxazole




Sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim, for invertebrates 2–4t

Sulfamethoxine, for rabbits 500–502t

Sulfamethoxypyrazine, for rodents 464–466t

Sulfaquinoxaline






Sulfasalazine, for rabbits 513–517t

Sulfasoxazole, for ferrets 533–534t

Sulfathalidine, for ferrets 533–534t

Sulfonamides


for exotic animal medicine 637–638t


Sulpiride, for primates 594–601t

Supportive care procedures, in companion bird medicine

System of International (SI) units conversion factors

of clinical chemistries 660t

of hematology 659t

1082

T

T 4 values, of birds 315t

Tamoxifen, for reptiles 113–116t

Tamoxifen citrate



Tannic acid, for birds 258–263t

Tapentadol, for reptiles 104–106t

Taurine, for rodents 470–474t

Taylor Drug 661–662t

Tea, for birds 248–252t, 258–263t

99m Technetium-diethylenetriaminepenta-acetic acid, for birds 275–283t

99m Technetium-disofenin, for birds 275–283t

99m Technetium-mebrofenin, for birds 275–283t

Tegu lizard (Tupinambis spp.), hematologic and serum biochemical values of 117–136t

Telmisartan, for primates 594–601t

Temperature elevation, for amphibians 56–57t

Tepoxalin, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 404–405t

Terbinafine

for birds 189–195t, 246–248t

for hedgehogs 445t





Terbinafine hydrochloride, for amphibians 56–57t

Terbutaline

for birds 246–248t, 272–283t



1083



Testosterone, for birds 240–245t

Tetanus antitoxin, for birds 248–252t

Tetracaine, for birds 263–267t

Tetracycline











Tetracycline/furaltadone, for birds 197–217t

Texas Veterinary Medical Diagnostic Laboratory 643–647t

The Colyer Institute 648–650t

The Humane Society 648–650t

The Lizard Lounge, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

The Merck Veterinary Manual 648–650t

Theophylline






Theophylline elixir, for ferrets 543–549t

Therapeutic agent, for fish 34–36t

1084

Thermal support, for RGIS 522–523t

Thiabendazole





for fish 25–30t






Thiafentanil oxalate/medetomidine, for birds 218–236t

Thiamazole, for rodents 476–479t

Thiamine




Thiamphenicol, for fish 17–24t

Thiamylal



Thiamylal sodium, for primates 586–594t

Thiopental




Thiostrepton, for hedgehogs 444–445t

Thymol, for invertebrates 5–6t

Thyroid releasing hormone, for birds 240–245t

1085

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)




Thyroxine, for ferrets 543–549t

Tiamulin



Tiamulin/chlortetracycline 377–389t

Ticarcillin






Tiletamine













Tiletamine/zolazepam/dexmedetomidine/butorphanol, for ferrets 536–539t

Tiletamine/zolazepam/ketamine/xylazine, for miniature pigs 561–565t

1086

Tiletamine-zolazepam/medetomidine, for primates 586–594t

Tiletamine/zolazepam/xylazine



Tiletamine/zolazepam/xylazine/butorphanol



Tilmicosin





Timolol, for rabbits 511–513t

Tincture of iodine, for birds 275–283t

Tinidazole




Tissue plasminogen activator (rTPA), for birds 263–267t

Tobramycin


for birds 168–189t, 263–267t, 270–271t

for fish 17–24t



Toco toucan (Ramphastos toco), hematologic and biochemical values of 297–298t

Tolazoline HCl, for birds 218–236t

Tolbutamine, for primates 594–601t

Tolfenamic acid, for rodents 470–473t

Tolnaftate, for reptiles 87–89t

1087

Toltrazuril



for hedgehogs 446t





Toremifene, for rodents 476–479t

Tortoise Trust, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

Toxic drugs, in rabbits 521–522t

Toxicologic conditions, of birds, agents for 248–252t

Tracheal lavage, for reptiles 141t

Tramadol









Tramadol HCl



Tri-State Compounding Pharmacy 661–662t

Triamcinolone


for hedgehogs 444–445t, 448–449t


1088

Tricaine methanesulfonate


for fish 31–33t, 36–37t



Trichlorfon (dimethyl phosphonate), for fish 25–30t

Trientine, for ferrets 543–549t

Trifluralin, for invertebrates 2–4t

Trilostane





Trimebutine, for RGIS 522–523t

Trimethoprim









for birds 168–189t, 197–217t







1089

for birds 168–189t, 197–217t

for fish 17–24t





Triple antibiotic ointment, for fish 17–24t

Tris EDTA (Tricide-Neo, Molecular Therapeutics), for invertebrates 2–4t

Trissel’s Stability of Compounded Formulations, 5th ed 663t

Tropicamide, for rabbits 511–513t

Trovafloxacin, for rabbits 511–513t

Trypsin-balsam of Peru castor oil, for birds 275–283t

d-Tubocurarine, for birds 263–267t

Tufts University Open Courseware, Zoological Medicine Course 648–650t

Tulathromycin, for miniature pigs 559–560t

Turkey vulture (Cathartes aura)



Tylosin


for birds 168–189t, 246–248t, 263–267t










1090

Tyrode's solution, for birds 275–283t

U

Umbrella cockatoo (Cacatua alba), hematologic and biochemical values of 293–294t

University of Pennsylvania Computer Aided Learning 648–650t

Urate oxidase, for birds 275–283t

Urinalysis values

of birds 316t

of ferrets 551t


of rabbits 519t

of reptiles 139t

of rodents 483t


Urinary tract infection, antimicrobial therapy for 641–642t

Uromastyx species, environmental, dietary, and reproductive characteristics of 137–138t

Ursodeoxycholic acid, for birds 275–283t

Ursodiol, for ferrets 543–549t

U.S. Pharmacopeial Convention 663t

US Compounding Pharmacy 661–662t

USDA APHIS 648–650t

UVA/UVB, for reptiles, with metabolic bone diseases 144–145t

V

Vaccinations



for ferrets 552t


Valacyclovir, for reptiles 86–87t

1091

Valley Drug and Compounding Pharmacy 661–662t

Valley Prescription and Compounding Pharmacy 661–662t

Vancomycin




Vasopressin, for birds 272–274t

Vecuronium bromide, for birds 263–267t

Vecuronium/nitrous oxide/isoflurane, for birds 263–267t

Vegetable oil, for birds 275–283t

Veiled chameleon (Chameleo calyptratus)



Venipuncture sites

in hedgehogs 453–454t

in reptiles 141–142t

Verapamil



Vetark Professional Critical Care Formula (CCF) powder, for anorectic or debilitated

reptiles 139–140t

Veterinarians

exotic animal online resources for 648–650t

professional associations for 648t

Veterinary Feed Directive (VFD) Order Information 416t

Veterinary Information Network 648–650t

Veterinary Medical Diagnostic Lab College of Veterinary Medicine 643–647t

Veterinary Molecular Diagnostics, Inc. 643–647t

Veterinary Partner 648–650t

Vincristine

1092



Vincristine sulfate



Vinegar, for birds 189–195t, 275–283t

Virginiamycin, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 377–389t

Vitamin A









Vitamin B complex






for RGIS 522–523t




Vitamin B 1




1093

Vitamin B 12





Vitamin C









Vitamin D, for rodents 476–479t

Vitamin D 3







Vitamin E








1094

Vitamin E/γ-linolenic acid, for birds 258–263t

Vitamin K




Vitamin K 1


for birds 248–252t, 258–263t




Vocalizations, in hedgehogs 454t

Voriconazole



for birds 189–195t, 246–248t




Voriconazole/F10 super concentrate disinfectant, for reptiles 87–89t

W

Water

consumption rate, for backyard poultry and waterfowl 420t


Water dragon (Physignathus cocincinus), environmental, dietary, and reproductive


Water monitor (Varanus salvator), hematologic and serum biochemical values of 117–136t

Weasel Words, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

Wedgewood Pharmacy 661–662t

1095

Weight conversions 658t

Westlab Pharmacy 661–662t

Wild bird rehabilitation, selected nutritional recommendations for 416t

Wild rodents See Rodents

Wildlife 616–635

mammals in

analgesic and nonsteroidal antiinflammatory agents for 628–629t




chemical restraint/anesthetic agents for 627–628t

emergencies in, agents for 629–631t


meat withdrawal times and 623t

policy in private practice, considerations for 619–620t

safe restraint of, recommendations for 620–622t

sick, injured, or orphaned, checklist for care of 617–619t

venipuncture sites in, recommendations for 622t

Winstrol, for primates 594–601t

Winter savory extract (Satureja montana), for invertebrates 2–4t

Wisconsin Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory 643–647t

Wood turtle (Glyptemys insculpta), hematologic and serum biochemical values of 117–

136t

World Chelonian Trust, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) 648–650t

World Parrot Trust, websites for owners of exotic animals 650–653t

X

Xylazine


1096











Xylazine/butorphanol, for birds 218–236t

Xylazine/butorphanol/midazolam, for miniature pigs 561–565t

Y

Yakim’s Compounding Pharmacy 661–662t

Yeast, for ferrets 543–549t

Yeast cell derivatives, for birds 275–283t

Yohimbine









Yohimbine HCl



1097

Z

Zanamivir, for ferrets 543–549t

Zeolite

for fish 34–36t


Zinc, for primates 594–601t

Zolazepam





Zonisamide, for birds 253–257t

Zoo/Exotic Pathology Service 643–647t

Zoo Medicine Service 643–647t

Zoologix, Inc 643–647t

Zoonotic diseases

carried by hedgehogs 454t

in rodents 485–486t

Zuclopenthixol, for primates 586–601t

1098

Hints for Using This

Formulary

• The book is arranged phylogenically, beginning with Invertebrates (Chapter 1) and

ending with Primates (Chapter 14). Chapter 15 is “Select Topics for the Exotic Animal

Veterinarian.”

• The inside page opposite the front cover contains a “Rapid Reference to the Exotic

Animal Formulary, Fifth Edition,” which is a handy guide to each chapter (with page

numbers). The lines also point to the colored “thumb” tabs.

• The Table of Contents shows the chapter title as well as all the tables in that chapter.

• A number of abbreviations are used throughout the text and most are defined in Table

15-11. Other abbreviations used include:

○ d day

○ EpiCe epicoelomic

○ HR heartrate

○ ICe intracoelomic

○ IO intraosseous

○ IPPV intermittent positive pressure ventilation

○ U (IU) international units

○ L liter

○ LRS lactated Ringer’s solution

○ MIC minimum inhibitory concentration

○ min minute

○ mo month

○ PCR polymerase chain reaction

○ PD pharmacodynamics/pharmacologic data

○ PK pharmacokinetic data

○ prn as needed

○ RR respiratory rate

○ wk week

• Generic (nonproprietary) names of drugs are used in most instances.

• Dosages are generally listed in ascending order (hence, dosages for a particular species

1099

may not always be listed together). For reptiles and birds, dosages for drugs

administered in the drinking water, food, or are nebulized or administered via nasal

flush are listed last.

• Because most of the drugs mentioned in this text are not licensed for use in the species

described, in some cases owner consent should be granted before their use.

1100

1101

1102

Содержание

Title page 2

Table of Contents 3

Rapid Reference to the Exotic Animal Formulary, Fifth

Edition

5

Copyright 6

Dedication 9

Contributors 11

Foreword 14

Preface 17

Acknowledgments 18

Disclaimer 18

About the Editors 20

About the editor 20

About the assistant editor 20

Chapter 1: Invertebrates 22

Chapter 2: Fish 41

Chapter 3: Amphibians 91

Chapter 4: Reptiles 127

Chapter 5: Birds 247

Chapter 6: Backyard Poultry and Waterfowl 536

Chapter 7: Sugar Gliders 617

Chapter 8: Hedgehogs 634

Chapter 9: Rodents 657

Chapter 10: Rabbits 708

Chapter 11: Ferrets 761

Chapter 12: Miniature Pigs 799

Chapter 13: Primates 823

1103

Chapter 14: Wildlife 883

Chapter 15: Select Topics for the Exotic Animal

Veterinarian

911

Index 951

Hints for Using This Formulary 1099

1104

Exotic Animal Formulary5

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