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Frontier Tanzania Environmental Research 

REPORT 107 

Mahenge Scarp Forest Reserve 

a biodiversity survey 

Frontier Tanzania 

2004

Frontier Tanzania Environmental Research 

REPORT 107 

Mahenge Scarp Forest Reserve 

a biodiversity survey 

Bracebridge, C., Beharrell, N. K., Fanning, E., & Howell, K.M. (eds) 

Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, 

Tanzania 

Forestry and Beekeeping Division 


University of Dar es Salaam 

Society for Environmental Exploration 

Dar es Salaam 

2004

Report citation 

Frontier Tanzania (2004) Bracebridge C., Beharrell, N.K., Fanning, E. & Howell, K.M. Mahenge Scarp 

Forest Reserve: a biodiversity survey. Frontier Tanzania Environmental Research Report 107. Society 

for Environmental Exploration UK, University of Dar es Salaam, Forestry and Beekeeping Division, Dar es 

Salaam, Tanzania. ISSN 1479-1161 

Section citation 

Bracebridge C. Sallu, A.N. (2004). Results of Flora. In Mahenge Scarp Forest Reserve: a biodiversity 

survey. Pp. 12-13. Frontier Tanzania Environmental Research Report 107. Society for Environmental 

Exploration UK, University of Dar es Salaam, Forestry and Beekeeping Division, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. 

ISSN 1479-1161 

Bracebridge C. (2004). Results of Fauna. In Mahenge Scarp Forest Reserve: a biodiversity survey. Pp. 13- 

16. Frontier Tanzania Environmental Research Report 107. Society for Environmental Exploration UK, 

University of Dar es Salaam, Forestry and Beekeeping Division, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. ISSN 1479- 

1161 

Bracebridge C. (2004). Results of Human resource-use survey. In Mahenge Scarp Forest Reserve: a 

biodiversity survey. Pp. 16-18. Frontier Tanzania Environmental Research Report 107. Society for 

Environmental Exploration UK, University of Dar es Salaam, Forestry and Beekeeping Division, Dar es 


Bracebridge C. (2004). Discussion and Recommendations: In Mahenge Scarp Forest Reserve: a 

biodiversity survey. Pp. 19-21. Frontier Tanzania Environmental Research Report 107. Society for 

Environmental Exploration UK, University of Dar es Salaam, Forestry and Beekeeping Division, Dar es 


The Frontier-Tanzania Environmental Research Report Series is published by: 

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ISSN 1479-1161 (Print) 

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© Frontier-Tanzania 2004, 2005

Forestry and Beekeeping Division (FBD) 

The Divison is part of the Government of Tanzania within the Ministry of Natural Resources and 

Toursim and is responsible for the management and implementation of the forest policy within 

Tanzania. 

The University of Dar es Salaam (UDSM) 

The University of Dar es Salaam was established in July 1970 as a centre for learning and research 

in the arts and the physical, natural, earth, marine, medical and human sciences. The University is 

surveying and mapping the flora and fauna of Tanzania and is conducting research into the 

maintenance and improvement of the environment and the sustainable exploitation of Tanzania’s 

natural resources. 

The Society for Environmental Exploration (SEE) 

The Society is a non-profit making company limited by guarantee and was formed in 1989. The 

Society’s objectives are to advance field research into environmental issues and implement practical 

projects contributing to the conservation of natural resources. Projects organised by The Society are 

joint initiatives developed in collaboration with national research agencies in co-operating countries. 

Frontier Tanzania Forest Research Programme (FT FRP) 

The Society for Environmental Exploration and the University of Dar es Salaam have been 

conducting collaborative research into environmental issues since July 1989 under the title of 

Frontier Tanzania, of which one component is the Frontier-Tanzania Forest Research Programme 

(FT FRP). Biological field surveys were conducted in the coastal forests from 1989 to 1994, in the 

East Usambara mountains in collaboration with EUCAMP, Tanga from 1995 to 2002, the 

Udzungwa mountains in collaboration with MEMA, Iringa 1999 to 2001, in the Mahenge mountains 

in 2003 and in Mpanga / Kipengere Game Reserve, in collaboration with WWF-TPO, Dar es 

Salaam, in 2003. 

FOR MORE INFORMATION: 

Department of Zoology & Marine Biology 

University of Dar es Salaam 

P.O. Box 35064, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania 

Tel: 255-22-2410462 

E-mail: zoology@udsm.ac.tz 



Tel: 255-22-2772077 

E-mail: frontier@raha.com 

Society for Environmental Exploration 

50-52 Rivington Street, London, U.K. 

Tel: +44 20 76 13 30 61 

Fax: +44 20 76 13 29 92 

E-mail: research@frontier.ac.uk 

Forestry and Beekeeping Division 


Tel: 255-22-2111 062/3/4 

Fax: 255-22-2114 659 

E-mail: cmms@tfs.go.tz

Mahenge Scarp Forest Reserve: a biodiversity survey 

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Table of Contents.......................................................................................................................................................................ii 

Executive Summary .................................................................................................................................................................iv 

Executive Summary .................................................................................................................................................................iv 

Acknowledgements...................................................................................................................................................................vi 

1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................1 

1.1 Frontier-Tanzania Forest Research Programme..................................................................................................1 

1.2 The Mahenge Mountains ........................................................................................................................................1 

1.3 Objectives of the Survey .........................................................................................................................................1 

1.4 Report structure ...............................................................................................................................................................3 

2. Study Site ........................................................................................................................................................................5 

2.1 Location......................................................................................................................................................................5 

2.2 Site Description........................................................................................................................................................5 

2.3 Topography ...............................................................................................................................................................5 

2.4 Climate .......................................................................................................................................................................5 

2.4 Land Use....................................................................................................................................................................5 

2.5 History and Status....................................................................................................................................................5 

3. Methodology ..................................................................................................................................................................7 

3.1 Flora ............................................................................................................................................................................7 

3.2 Fauna ..........................................................................................................................................................................9 

3.3 Human resource-use..............................................................................................................................................11 

4. Results ...........................................................................................................................................................................12 

4.1 Flora ..........................................................................................................................................................................12 

4.2 Fauna ........................................................................................................................................................................13 

4.3 Human resource-use..............................................................................................................................................17 

5. Discussion and Recommendations...........................................................................................................................19 

5.1 Flora .................................................................................................................................................................................19 

5.2 Fauna ...............................................................................................................................................................................20 

5.3 Human resource-use.....................................................................................................................................................20 

6. Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................................21 

7. Bibliography.................................................................................................................................................................22 

Appendix 1: Taxonomic verification....................................................................................................................................24 

Appendix 2: Summary of sampling effort of each survey technique employed ...........................................................25 

Appendix 3: Summary of weather conditions.....................................................................................................................26 

Appendix 4: GPS Co-ordinates for Mahenge Scarp FR....................................................................................................27 

4a Summary of basecamp and zoological worksites .....................................................................................................27 

4b Summary of transects line end points.........................................................................................................................27 

4c Summary of beacon points* and landmarks indicating the FR boundary ............................................................27 

4d Summary of vegetation plots .......................................................................................................................................28 

4e Summary of botanical opportunistic collection sites ...............................................................................................28 

Appendix 5: General Vegetation plot descriptions............................................................................................................29 

Appendix 6: Regeneration Plot Descriptions......................................................................................................................30 

Appendix 7: Vegeation Data.................................................................................................................................................31 

7a Plant species recorded in the vegetation polts in Mahenge Scarp FR, following Mabberley (1997) and 

Palgrave (1996)....................................................................................................................................................................31 

7b Opportunistic botanical collection within Mahenge Scarp FR...............................................................................35 

Appendix 8: Mammal Data ....................................................................................................................................................36 

8a Small mammal species recorded in Mahenge Scarp FR following Kingdom (1997).........................................36 

8b Large mammal species recorded in Mahenge Scarp FR following Kingdom (1997). .......................................37 

Appendix 9: Bird Data.............................................................................................................................................................38 

Appendix 10: Reptile Data .....................................................................................................................................................42 

Appendix 11: Amphibian Data ..............................................................................................................................................43 

Appendix 12: Butterfly Data ..................................................................................................................................................45 

Frontier Tanzania Environmental Research Report 107 

ii


TABLE OF FIGURES AND TABLES 

Table 1 Summary of biodiversity taxa surveyed .........................................................................................................................iv 

Table 2 A summary of fauna recorded inMahenge Scarp forest Reserve (Appendix 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12).......................13 

Table 3 Ten most common and uncommon birds seen within Mahenge Scarp FR..............................................................15 

Table 4 Summary results of a pole and timber cutting survey in Mahenge Scarp FR..........................................................17 

Table 5 A summary of floral diversity recorded throughout the Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve (including 

opportunistic collection)..........................................................................................................................................................19 

Table 6 A summary of faunal diversity and species of biological or conservation interest recorded throughout the 

Mahenge Scarp Forest Reserve. ............................................................................................................................................20 

Figure 1 Map of the Eastern Arc Mountains.................................................................................................................................2 

Figure 2 Topographical map of Mahenge Scarp FR. ...................................................................................................................6 

Figure 3 Map of work sites at Mahenge Scarp FR .......................................................................................................................7 

Figure 4 Diagram of systemmatic positioning of mollusc and millipede quadrats per bucket line..................................10 


iii


EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

Mahenge Scarp Forest Reserve (FR) is located within the Mahenge Mountains, the southern part of the 

Eastern Arc Mountains, on a latitude 8 0 37’ 00” and longitude 36 0 43’ 00”. It is situated in Ulanga District, 

8km north of Ifakara and was gazetted in 1954 for it’s water catchment value supplying two villages, 

Makanga and Chikuti. It is a small FR of 454ha, consisting of mainly lowland woodland and some 

submontane forest. It has an elevational range of 400m asl – 800m asl and an average rainfall of 1000 – 

2000mm per year from March to June, although in recent years rain has been unpredictable and low. 

The area is well documented in terms of its water catchment properties, but little is known of the exact 

biodiversity values. For five weeks from February to March 2003, Frontier-Tanzania Forest Research 

Programme (FT FRP) conducted a baseline biodiversity survey of Mahenge Scarp FR, which coincided 

with the wet season. Both zoological and vegetation work was conducted throughout the FR, including 

trapping, casual observations and collections, large mammal and disturbance transects and vegetation plots. 

This report serves to detail the findings of the FT FRP biodiversity survey of the Mahenge Scarp FR. It 

provides an inventory of flora and fauna, highlighting records of particular interest. An assessment of the 

level of human resource-use within the area was also made, giving the extent and potential threat of each 

form of ‘disturbance’ recorded. Table 1 summaries species richness and species of particular conservation 

and/or biological interest. 

Table 1 Summary of biodiversity taxa surveyed 

Taxa 

Number of 

species 

Species of 

biol./cons. 

interest * 

Trees / shrubs 99 7 

Herbs / grasses 8 0 

Climbers 4 0 

Mammals 27 5 

Birds 81 17 

Reptiles 16 3 

Amphibians 12 3 

Butterflies 77 14 

Total 324 49 

* This includes species listed as range restricted, of conservation concern, forest-dependent or for which the record in the reserve represents a 

distribution or altitudinal range extension, but does NOT include the number of forest dwelling species 

Mahenge Scarp Forest Reserve has significant conservation value on local, national and international 

levels. It is part of the Eastern Arc mountain range and has several floral and faunal endemics limited to 

this biodiveristy hotspot area. It serves as an important water catchment area to local communities. 

Scientifically the area remains unknown and needs further investigation as pressure increases for illegal 

resource use. This is difficult to control with low finances, low manpower and no joint forest management 

strategy, resulting in further habitat destruction. 

With regard to fauna surveyed, the reserve is home to 213 species of which 42 species hold particular 

interest for their conservation and biological value, such as the vulnerable Lesser Pouched rat (Beamys 

hindei), and the endangered Microtoad (Mertensophryne micranotis). 

It also has a rich diversity of flora with 111 species, of which 7 hold particular interest, such as the Eastern 

Arc endemics Dombeya shupangae and Grewia goetzeana. The habitats and species of Mahenge Scarp 

Forest Reserve are under threat from charcoal production, pitsawing, grazing, hunting, agriculture and fire. 

It is hoped the information will be useful in management planning by the Forestry and Beekeeping Division 

and NGOs. The survey results will also form a baseline for future monitoring work. 


iv


Animal specimens have been deposited at the Department of Zoology and Marine Biology, University of 

Dar es Salaam and sent on loan to: The British Museum of Natural History, London; California Academy 

of Sciences, California; Southern highlands Project, Mbeya; Chicago Field Museum, Chicago; Zoological 

Museum, Copenghagen. Appendix 1 provides contact details. 

Botanical specimens are held in the Herbarium at Dar es Salaam University, with specimens being sent to 

Missouri Botanical Gardens, USA. 


v


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

This report is the culmination of the advice, co-operation, hard work and expertise of many people. In 

particular we would like to acknowledge and thank the following people: 

FORESTRY AND BEEKEEPING DIVISON 

Director: 

Head of Catchment Forest Project: 

Prof. Iddi 

Mr. Evarist Nashanda 

ULANGA DISTRICT CATCHMENT FORESTRY OFFICE 

Catchment Forest Officer: 

Mr Octavian Nkawamba 

AMANI NATURE RESERVE 

Botanist: 

Mr Albert Ntemi Sallu 

SOCIETY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL EXPLORATION 

Managing Director: 

Research Programme Manager: 

Operations Programme Manager: 

Ms Eibleis Fanning 

Ms Nicola Beharrell 

Mr Matthew Willson 

UNIVERSITY OF DAR ES SALAAM 

Frontier-Tanzania Co-ordinators 

Dr. M.Muruke & Prof. K.M. Howell 

FRONTIER-TANZANIA 

Dar es Salaam Co-ordinator: 

Project Co-ordinator 

Research Co-ordinator: 

Assistant Research Co-ordinators: 

Research Assistants: 

Field Assistants 

Frontier-Tanzania Driver: 

Ms. Elizabeth Tapper 

Ms Jessica Ward 

Ms Claire Bracebridge 

Ms Claire Bedelian, Mr Peter Knamiller, Mr Steve Ryder 

Mr. Ian Aitken, Ms. Heidi Anderson, Mr. Andrew Bisset, Mr. Felix 

Clay, Mr. Kevin Doidge, Ms. Emily Draper, Ms. Laura Goodall, Ms. 

Martina Hagwet (SUA), Mr. James Horsfall, Ms. Elizabeth Hume, 

Mr. Lucjan Karpinski, Ms. Elena Kinchington, Mr. Pete Milmo, Ms. 

Susannah O’Riordan, Ms. Frances Penney, Mr. Neil Roxburgh, Ms. 

Elinor Stein, Ms. Amelia Stott, Mr. Stephen Tervit, Mr. Andrew 

Taylor and Mr. Cathal White 

Mr Ramathan Rajabu, Mr. Chris Nchimbi and Ms. Esther 

Mapondanga 

Mr. Rashid Limaga 

We are also grateful to all of the taxonomists listed in Appendix 1 for providing us with the identifications 

of the zoological specimens. 


vi


1. INTRODUCTION 

1.1 Frontier-Tanzania Forest Research Programme 

Frontier-Tanzania has been conducting baseline biodiversity surveys within biologically rich Eastern Arc 

and Coastal forest since 1989. Technical reports have been published from work in the Coastal forests, 

Eastern Arc mountains: East Usambara, Udzungwa mountains and Kipengere Game Reserve; refer to the 

Frontier Publications List www. frontier.ac.uk. Selected reports will be available for download on the 

website shortly. 

During early work (1989-1994) in the Coastal and East Usambara forests Frontier-Tanzania Forest 

Research Programme (FT FRP) developed effective methodologies that allowed systematic baseline 

biodiversity surveys to be conducted in a cost-effective way. In conjunction with this, the impact of human 

resource use within Catchment Forest Reserves is assessed and feedback provided to the Catchment Forest 

Project of the Forest and Beekeeping Division as well as training in the techniques for future monitoring 

purposes. Environmental education within local communities is also conducted as an integral part of 

conservation work. These activities follow an environmental education Resource Pack dedicated to raising 

environmental awareness in the Eastern Arc, Oliver et al (2002). The long-term aim of this work is to 

provide baseline information about targeted areas, those understudied and unknown, within the Eastern Arc 

Mountains, thus helping to further scientific knowledge, identifying conservation values and needs, as well 

as to allow effective planning and implementation of sustainable management. 

1.2 The Mahenge Mountains 

The Mahenge Mountains form the southern part of the Eastern Arc Mountains (EAM), which sweep from 

southern Kenya to southern Tanzania (see Figure 1). The Eastern Arc Mountains are ancient crystalline 

block-faulted mountains and, due to millions of years of isolation, have diversified into a biologically rich 

area for both flora and fauna species. Many of these species are endemic to the EAM, contained in around 

5,000 sq. km of highly fragmented and isolated forests. Approximately 30% of vascular plants (approx. 650 

species) in the EAM are endemic. The EAM are recognised as a Biodiversity Hotspot by Conservation 

International and globally significant in terms of important ecoregions by WWF (USA) (Myers, 2000). 

The Mahenge Mountain range is located in Ulanga District, Morogoro Region. It is connected to the 

Kilombero Valley, the largest freshwater wetland at low altitude in East Africa and a recently designated 

RAMSAR site, and to the Selous Game Reserve. The Mahenge mountains are an important water 

catchment and natural resource area for surrounding local communities, yet the expanding human 

population signals increasing threats to and encroachment of the remaining forested areas. 

Ulanga District administers eight forest reserves – Mahenge scarp, Nawenge, Mselezi, Myoe, Muhulu, Sali, 

Ligamba and Nambiga (see Appendix 2 for details). The FRs approximate co-ordinates cover: Longitude S 

9º 10’ - 9º 47’ and Latitude E 36º 30’ 36° 45’. Six of the forest reserves (Mahenge scarp, Nawenge, 

Mselezi, Myoe, Muhulu and Sali) are on the main part of the Mahenge mountains, with Ligamba forest 

reserve (FR) covering a hilltop south of the main Mahenge range, and Nambiga FR, an area of groundwater 

forest located west, connecting the Kilombero valley with the mountain range. 

None of these forest reserves have had any form of systematic baseline biodiversity survey conducted 

within them, except for Nambiga forest reserve, which was surveyed by Frontier-Tanzania Savanna 

Research Programme (FT SRP) in Frontier-Tanzania Environmental Research report 65 (Frontier- 

Tanzania 1999). Lovett & Pocs (1993) conducted a botanical appraisal of catchment forest reserves, 

therefore limited information is available about floral species in the region and the Mahenge Mountains 

remain scientifically unknown. 

1.3 Objectives of the Survey 

The objectives for work in each Forest Reserve area are: 

Frontier Tanzania Environmental Research Report 107 1


• to conduct a biological survey to provide baseline information and against which future monitoring 

activities may be based in order to detect changes in biodiversity status; 

• to provide information on the biological value and importance of these forests in order to assist in the 

development of management plans and practices for these forests; 

• to provide information on human disturbance and levels of resource use; 

• to provide training in basic survey techniques to Catchment Forest Officers, local field assistants, 

Tanzanian personnel from UDSM and expatriate volunteers; 

• to provide a medium through which there is potential for project participants to gain the BTEC 

qualification Tropical Habitat Conservation (equivalent to a British A-level), funding dependent; 

• to raise awareness through environmental education activities within primary schools and local 

communities via village and environmental committees; 

• to contribute to global biodiversity assessment and conservation efforts through collaboration with 

specialists elsewhere, and the sharing of information, data and material collected during surveys. 

This report serves to detail the findings of the FT FRP biodiversity survey of the Mahenge Scarp Forest 

Reserve. It provides an inventory of flora and fauna compiled throughout the fieldwork, highlighting 

records of particular interest. An assessment of the level of human resource-use within the area is also 

made, giving the extent and potential threat of each form of ‘disturbance’ recorded. This report is aimed at 

managers, conservationists and scientists alike and it is hoped that it will help in some way to ensure the 

future protection of this extremely valuable and interesting site. 

Figure 1 Map of the eastern Tanzania and southern Kenya that support moist forest. Eastern Arc Forest shown in 

black. From Lovett (1993). 



1.4 Report structure 

This report provides an inventory of the flora and fauna recorded during 5 weeks biodiversity survey of 

Mahenge Scarp Forest Reserve. Each species is described in terms of its ecological requirements and its 

endemic status. The lists of species can be found in the appendices. 

Ecological type: (based on Iversen, 1991b) 

• F - Forest dependent species: Species previously recorded as restricted to primary or closed canopy 

forest only, e.g. wet evergreen forest, dry evergreen forest and/or riverine forest; 

• f - Forest dwelling but not forest dependent: Species previously recorded in primary or closed canopy 

forest as defined above and/or in forest edge, clearings, secondary forest, deciduous forest and 

woodland, and 

• O - Non-forest species: These are species that do not occur in primary or secondary forest or forest edge 

(e.g. species that have been recorded in bushland, heathland, thicket, secondary scrub, grassland, rocky 

outcrops, swamps, wastelands and cultivation. 

Habitat: (where possible based on Hamilton, 1989) 

• L - Lowland: Species occurring at altitudes less than 850m above sea level; 

• S - Submontane: Species occurring at altitudes greater than 850m above sea level. 

• M – Montane Species occurring at altitudes greater than 1,250m above sea level. 

If species occur in more than one habitat range, this has been recorded (e.g. L&S – this species has been 

recorded at altitudess between 0 and 850m above sea level). 

Endemic status : (based on Iversen, 1991b): 

• E - Endemic: Occurring only in the Mahenge Mountains 

• N - Near endemic: Species with limited ranges in the Eastern Arc mountains and/or the East African 

lowland forests; 

• W - Widespread distribution 

This refers to the habitat in which they are typically found in East Africa rather than to where they have 

been recorded in the reserve. 

These three criteria are used to analyse the uniqueness of the biodiversity of the reserve and its 

vulnerability to disturbance. 

The categories are based on information from various sources. For plants the ecological type and endemic 

status are primarily based on Iversen (1991a). Forest dependent species refers to those species listed as 

being exclusively associated with Iversen’s categories 1a (wet evergreen forest), 1b (dry evergreen forest) 

and / or 1c (riverine forest). Species defined as forest dwelling also occur in other habitats. 

Definitions of habitat type are based on Hamilton (1989). For those species not listed by Iversen or 

Hamilton, the information is taken from the Flora of Tropical East Africa (FTEA) for the species recorded 

from the systematic plots and from the List of East African Plants - LEAP (Knox 2000), for the 

opportunistic plant records. 

Endemic and near-endemic status for plants was taken from Iversen (1991a) and FTEA categories Tanzania 

T3, T6, T8 and Kenya K7. For animals, the endemic and near-endemic status was gleaned from the NBD 

(1997). 



The following references were also used (in order of priority): 

Mammals: Kingdon (1997), Kingdon (1989) and Kingdon (1974) 

Birds: Stevenson & Fanshawe (2002) 

Reptiles: Spawls et al (2002) Howell (1993) 

Amphibians: Channing (2001), Passmore and Carruthers, Howell (1993) 

Butterflies: Kielland (1990) and Larsen (1996) 

Plants: Palgrave (1983), Polhill (1988), Heywood (1993) 

The National Biodiversity Database (NBD) (UDSM 1997) is used to categorise threat status of the animals 

listed. The lists were compiled with regard to status and threat within Tanzania and East Africa. Listed 

species of amphibians and reptiles are solely based on the Tanzanian National Biodiversity Database 

(UDSM 1997). The status of these species are undergoing national and international evaluation. IUCN, 

categorises species in terms of global threat and produces Red data books, available from 1996 and earlier. 

However, a new IUCN 2000 CD-Rom has been released. Many Tanzanian species are not included in the 

2000 IUCN Red data CD-Rom. IUCN 2000 status is given for mammals in addition to NBD and is the 

main source of threat status for bird species. 



2. STUDY SITE 

2.1 Location 

Mahenge Scarp Forest Reserve (FR) is located on the main Mahenge Mountain range, Southern Tanzania. 

It covers an area of 4.54 km 2 (454 ha) and lies in the district of Ulanga, Morogoro Region, covering land 

approximately 8 km north of Mahenge town located on latitude 8 o 37-38’00” and longitude 36 o 42-44’00” 

and lies 75km south of Ifakara, Kilombero District. It is bordered by the Kilombero floodplain to the west, 

Selous Game Reserve to the north east and forms a continuous mountain block with the Mbarika to the 

south, lying close to the Udzungwas and Southern highland Mountain blocks. 

2.2 Site Description 

Name: Forest Reserve 

Area: 454 ha 

Status: Catchment Forest Reserve 

Established in 1954 as delineated and described on Forest and Bee Keeping Division Map No. Jb. 2076 

Gazettement notice GN 312 of 24/09/1954. Area extended in 1982. 

Maps: Ordnance Survey topographic maps 1:50,000, Series Y 742 251/1-4: Mahenge Mountains area. 

Forestry and Beekeeping Division Map No. Jb. 193, Jb. 2076. 

The GPS co-ordinates on the FR boundary map did not correspond to the co-ordinates that FT FRP 

recorded for the beacons when working within the FR. These readings recorded during the work were used 

to draw up the grid system with which to transect (see Appendix 4). 

2.3 Topography 

Mahenge Scarp FR’s southern boundary is the top of the escarpment, ‘Ondololo’, which runs north west – 

south east and the majority of the FR lies within the steep slopes and lowland woodland areas north of 

Ondololo. The escarpment reaches 800m asl with the lowland area to approximately 400m asl and is 

formed from Precambian crystalline limestone, from which many springs and streams form providing the 

lower villages with a water source. All the area is accessible by foot. 

2.4 Climate 

The dry season is June to October with the main rains falling between November and April. Yearly rainfall 

is between 1000-2000mm, with an average of 1445 mm. 

Daytime temperatures range from: 27°C max (Nov) and 18°C min (July) 

2.4 Land Use 

The latest survey of the area was carried out by Lovett and Pocs (1993), who did a botanical appraisal of all 

the catchment forest reserves in 1993. Seasonal lowland forest covers about 80% of the reserve, with 

woodland along the road and submontane forest on the plateau. 

2.5 History and Status 

Mahenge Scarp FR is located near to human populations, Makanga and Chikuti villages. Makanga is 

situated further south on the plateau, whereas Chikuti is found in the valley below and probably benefits 

more from the water catchment value. However, resource use is predominantly by Makanga village, such 

as charcoal production, cutting bamboo poles and sacred worship sites in the submontane forests where a 

spring is situated. It is possible that some of the charcoal burning is also a small-scale commercial activity 

(Chikuti village, per comms). 

Six hectares of the FR is cultivated (legally) and scattered cultivation surrounds the FR. Demarcation of 

borders is not clear, therefore encroachment is likely. Intentional burning within the FR also occurs, for 

example in October 2002 40ha was burnt starting from the plateau and burning a strip running down the 

slope to the woodland. 



In 1993-1994, a Yugoslavian-Tanzanian company came to mine graphite on the upper slopes of the FR just 

west of the road that bisects it. This lasted one month only before the government prohibited it because the 

company wanted to mine a depth of 60m, thus potentially creating landslides and lethal roads, as well as 

the obvious destruction to the forest itself. 

Figure 2 Topographical sketch map of Mahenge Scarp FR. 



3. METHODOLOGY 

Fieldwork was conducted in five weeks during the wet season. Survey work concentrated on investigations 

of the reserve’s flora, fauna and human resource-use, with methods based on those employed by FT FRP in 

the East Usambara Biodiversity Survey (SEE Methodology, 1998). Three zoological sites, four transect 

lines and 20 vegetation plots were carried out within the FR (Figure 3). 

Figure 3 Map of work sites at Mahenge Scarp FR 

3.1 Flora 

A species inventory was compiled of the trees and shrubs found within the Mahenge Scarp Forest Reserve 

(FR). Simple, quantitative and repeatable methods were employed and the results are comparable with 

other forest surveys undertaken by FT FRP. Human disturbance within the forest was also documented. 

The forest reserve was divided into a 900m x 450m grid of numbered squares marked in the field by tagged 

transect lines. This resulted in 3 transect lines. A fourth line was added in between lines one and two tp 



intensify to 450m. All methods are based on this grid system and are detailed in the FT FRP methodologies 

report (SEE, 1998). A brief description is presented below. The location of vegetation plots and disturbance 

transects were recorded using Global Positioning System (GPS). 

Three methods were used to analyse forest composition: 

(1) vegetation and regeneration plots; 

(2) opportunistic observations and 

(3) disturbance transects. 

Vegetation plots (VPs) 

The botanical survey was based on a 900m x 450m grid marked in the field using tagged transect lines. One 

plot 50m x 20m was sampled in each grid square, giving an approximate sampling intensity of 0.25%. The 

50m x 20m vegetation plots were located in the southeast corner of each of the 900m x 450m grid 

rectangles. Within each sample (vegetation) plot, every tree with a diameter at breast height (dbh) of 10cm 

and over was recorded (at 1.3m), marked with red paint, and identified. A botanist provided the field 

identification of plant species. Specimen collection was made of fertile individuals, and difficult to identify 

species. 

Regeneration plots 

The regeneration layer was sampled within 6m x 6m nested subplots at the centre of each vegetation plot. 

All trees and shrubs with a dbh below 10cm were counted and identified within these plots. The ground 

cover (of herbaceous vegetation, bare soil, leaf litter and rocks), and the dominance of other vegetation 

(such as grasses, forbs, mosses, lichens and ferns) were documented as percentages. Systematically 

sampled vegetation data is presented in the form of checklists and analytical calculations summarised in 

tables, graphs and maps. 

Opportunistic collections and observations 

Opportunistic collections and observations of ground, shrub and tree floras were made throughout the 

survey. Five sites were visited for collection representing the varying vegetation types. Fertile individuals 

were collected as specimens and dried in the field using a kerosene stove. Detailed field notes were made 

of each specimen and are stored with the specimens. All botanical specimens are held at the Herbarium, 

University of Dar es Salaam and Missouri Botanical Gardens, USA. Opportunistic data is presented as a 

checklist, with location information for specimens that were collected. 

A botanist was employed to identify all individuals recorded in VPs and RPs and on the opportunistic basis. 

When necessary and if possible, up to six specimens of leaves and preferably flowers and fruits were taken 

to aid identification of an individual. All specimens were pressed and dried in the field and later identified 

in the University of Dar es Salaam herbarium, with specimens also being sent to Missouri Botanical 

Gardens. 



3.2 Fauna 

The fauna of Mahenge Scarp Forest Reserve (FR) was studied to assess diversity within specific taxonomic 

groups. Inventories were compiled of mammal, reptile, amphibian, butterfly, bird, mollusc and millipede 

species. Practicalities of capture methods, identification techniques and potential information that could be 

extracted from the data, influenced the taxonomic groups chosen for the study. The results of the 

inventories were analysed to assess the relative biodiversity value of the reserve’s fauna. 

Within Mahenge Scarp FR, target groups of fauna were surveyed using a combination of standardised, 

repeatable methods at ‘zoological trapsites’. Transect surveys of dung and other animal signs, and the 

opportunistic collection and observation of all animals were also implemented. Brief descriptions of the 

methods employed and trapsite locations follow. A more detailed methodology of survey techniques can be 

found in the FT FRP Methodology Report (SEE, 1998). 

Sherman traps 

Small rodents and insectivores were sampled using 100 Sherman traps (standard size) baited with toasted 

coconut and peanut butter. Traps were placed approximately 10m apart in a grid of 10m x 10m. These were 

positioned either at the end of the last bucket line or running through the bucket lines, as terrain and size of 

suitable habitat were occasionaly limiting factors. Where appropriate sherman traps were placed in 

branches to increase the chances of capturing arboreal species. 

Traps were baited each evening (16.00hr or later) for the duration of the trapsite and checked early the 

following morning (08.00hr or earlier). Traps were closed during each day of the trapsite. Data were 

recorded on standardised sheets regarding the identification, sex, breeding status and biometrics of each 

animal captured, as well as habitat notes. Specimens were retained when species level could not be 

ascertained and in cases where sexed specimens were required; these specimens were subsequently sent to 

international taxonomic experts (refer to Appendix 1). In the case of small rodents, individuals to be 

released were each given a distinct mark-code made by trimming small patches of fur in a given pattern. 

‘Recaptured’ individuals were then able to be identified. 

Bucket pitfall traps 

Small mammals, amphibians and reptiles were sampled using bucket pitfall traps. Three 50m linear 

transects were created at a zoological trapsite location whereby eleven 10 litre plastic buckets were sunk 

into the ground with their rims flush to ground level. Buckets contained small holes to allow rainwater to 

drain from them and each bucket was positioned 5m apart. A sheet of vertical plastic (approximately 0.5m 

high, and no less than 0.2m) was run along the bucket line crossing the centre of each bucket to form a 

‘drift fence’. A 10-15cm lip of plastic sheeting was left flat on the ground onto which soil and leaf litter 

was placed to prevent any gap in the drift fence at ground level. Animals moving into the area from either 

side would be channelled along the plastic towards the bucket traps. Each line was placed no more than 

50m apart, but was located to encompass a range of micro-habitats. Brief habitat notes were taken for each 

bucket position. Traps were checked early each morning for the duration of the trapsite period and data 

recorded on standardised data sheets regarding the identification of each animal captured. 

Bat mist netting 

Bats were sampled using varying combinations and configurations of mist-nets within the trapping sites. 

Up to three mist-nets of varying sizes (3m x 3.5m, 6m x 3.5m, 9m x 3.5m) were utilised at any one time. 

Nets were placed across assumed ‘flight corridors’ such as rivers and paths. Nets were opened at dusk 

(approximately 18.30hr) and checked every 10 to 15 minutes for the duration of the netting session. Data 

were recorded on standardised data sheets regarding the identification, sex, breeding status, weight and 

biometrics of each bat captured. Detailed habitat notes were taken for each mist-netting location and the 

number of net-metre hours calculated for each session. 

Butterfly sweep netting 

Low-flying butterflies were sampled using hand-held sweep-nets. Two man-hours were spent netting along 

the bucket pitfall lines each day for the duration of the trapsite. 



Butterfly Blendon canopy traps 

Five Blendon-style canopy traps were set up at the trapsites, one trap close to one bucket pitfall line, and 

two traps on each of the remaining two lines. Traps were baited with fermented banana in the mornings 

(usually around 08.00hr). Traps were checked morning and late afternoon. One individual of each species 

captured was taken; any ‘repeat species’ butterflies were identified, recorded and released. 

Mollusc and millipede quadrats 

Molluscs and millipedes were sampled in eight 0.25m x 0.25m quadrats per bucket pitfall line, thus 

totalling 24 quadrats per trapsite. Quadrats were established systematically along the lines (see figure 4). 

Ten centimetres of soil was removed and placed on a plastic sheet and sifted until completed. All molluscs 

and millipedes encountered were collected and preserved. 

1 

4 

6 

2 

LINE 1 

• ↔ ↔ • 

2m 

2m 

7 

3 5 

8 

Figure 4 Diagram of systemmatic positioning of mollusc and millipede quadrats per bucket line 

Timed bird counts 

Timed-bird species counts were used to assess the relative abundance of birds, based on the assumption 

that the birds seen first are the most common species. Suitable habitats were chosen within the forest 

reserve and a ‘circuit’ walk of an hour was established. A maximum of three people conducted the bird 

count at any one time to minimise disturbance in the area. Walks were optimally conducted at dawn and 

dusk, with some data collection at midday, accumulating to 16 hours of survey data. A species list was 

collected with a count made each time the species was first positively identified by sight or sound. A 

cumulative score was given for each species by counting the scores across all the walks, with a higher 

mean score indicating greater observation frequency. The 60 minute fixed time period was broken into 10 

minute bands with birds recorded in the first 10 minutes allocated a score of 6, and so on, with a score of 

zero for those birds not observed in that count. Data were recorded on standardised sheets. 

Animal sign transects 

Spoor and other signs of animal presence were assessed along every established transect line through the 

Forest Reserve (Figure 3). A 2m strip either side of each transect line was assessed for animal dung, tracks 

and paths, as well as other signs such as burrows, diggings, feathers etc. All animal signs were recorded 

along with brief geographical and habitat details. To determine identification of indirect evidences, the 

knowledge of experienced field assistants was utilised, in conjunction with a Reference Dung Collection 

and Walker (1996). 

Opportunistic collection and observations 

All taxa were also collected and observed on a casual basis throughout the survey period. 

Opportunistic collections of amphibians, reptiles, molluscs and millipedes were taken and direct and 

indirect observations of birds and larger mammals were recorded to determine the presence of species 

otherwise omitted in the standardised techniques. Given the right weather conditions and habitat types, 

night searches for tree frogs, chameleons, geckoes and bushbabies were conducted as well as attempting to 

record vocalisations of nocturnal fauna, such as bushbabies, hyrax and birds. 



3.3 Human resource-use 

Disturbance transects 

Disturbance transects were used to record the intensity of pole and timber cutting and incidence of other 

disturbance types in the forest reserve. The disturbance transects were based on the 900m x 450m grid 

prepared for the vegetation plots (Figure 3). Each transect running east-west was sampled from border to 

border where accessible. Disturbance was recorded per 50m section along each transect. Every selfstanding 

tree and sapling (not lianas or creepers) 5cm or above dbh (diameter at breast height) was 

measured within 5m either side of each transect line. Each plant was recorded under one of four categories: 

live, old cut, new cut or naturally dead. Within these categories a distinction was made between poles and 

timbers. Poles were classified as having a dbh between 5 and 15cm and a minimum of 2m relatively 

straight trunk. Timbers were classified as having a dbh of 15cm or above with a minimum 3m relatively 

straight trunk. These divisions are based on differences in use. New cut stems were determined by cream 

coloured slash and classified as freshly cut within recent months (approximately within the past 3 months). 

Old cut stems were determined by black coloured slash and classified as old cut (approximately more than 

3 months old). Timber and pole cutting data are presented as an average per hectare and summarised in 

graphs and maps. 

Opportunistic observations 

Observations of human resource-use were made in each vegetation plot and throughout the reserve. Again, 

it was hoped that this would complement the standard quantifiable methods employed and give a fuller 

picture of the state of the reserve with regards to human impact. 



4. RESULTS 

Survey work was conducted during the wet season between 10 th February and 18 th March 2003. Please 

refer to Appendix 2 for a detailed account of survey effort for each of the following research areas; flora, 

fauna and human resource-use. Appendices five to seven present vegetative data with appendices eight to 

12 presenting faunal data. 

4.1 Flora 

Vegetation types 

The vegetation of Mahenge Scarp FR is made up of patches of several different vegetation types: 

• Dry lowland forest - present at altitudes of around 500m. Found in the southern end of the FR. Canopy 

height greater than 10m, common tree genera include: Albizia, Sorindeia and Grewia (e.g. vegetation 

plot 11 and trapsite 3). 

• Scrub forest – intermediate in structure between lowland forest and bushland/thicket. Found in the 

southern part of the FR. Canopy height less than 10 metres, vines common. Common tree genera 

include: Makhamia lutea, Combretum exalatum, Grewia spp., Acalypha rosea, Magaritaria discoidea 

and Stereospernum kunthianum (e.g. vegetation plot 14). 

• Dry open woodland – at altitudes below 600m ground layer dominated by grasses. Found scattered in 

the FR. Dominant tree genera include Stereosperumum kunthianum, Diplorhynchus condylocarpon, 

Combretum molle, Terminalia sambesiaca and Sterculia appendiculata (e.g. vegetation plots 1 and 10). 

• Miombo woodland − open woodland found in the northern part of the FR. Dominated by Brachystegia 

spiciformis, Pterocarpus angolensis, Annona senegalensis, Combretum sp. and Milletia sp (e.g. 

vegetation plot 3 and trapsite 2). 

• Valley, swamp forest – found in the middle of the FR. Dominated by Bamboo species, Imperatum sp., 

Markhamia sp., Trichilia, Xeroderris sp. and Pterocarpus tinctoris. 

• Submontane forest – found at altitudes of 700m and above on the western part of the FR. Closed canopy 

at heights exceeding 30m. Dominant tree species include: Sorindeia madagascariensis, Trilepsium 

madagascariensis, Parkia filicoides, Albizia gummifera and Treculia africana. Herbs include: Dosternia 

holtzii, Justica sp., Maranthocloa leucantha and Impatiens sp. (e.g. vegetation plot 14 and trapsite 1). 

Intensive charcoal burning and timber extraction have been the major factors influencing vegetation 

physiognomy within Mahenge Scarp FR. 

Vegetation plots 

In total 20 vegetation plots were systematically placed throughout the reserve, sampling the six above 

vegetation types. The dominant vegetation type was woodland (45% of plots), with riverine forest, lowland 

forest and scrub thicket all found to be in 15% of the plots. Submontane forest and cultivation were 5% of 

the plots sampled. Forty percent of the vegetation had been affected by fire, with 15% by cutting and 5 % 

by cultivation, situated on the plateau of the escarpment. One vegetation plot had evidence of snare traps 

within it. 

Twenty five plant families and two unknown samples were recorded within the vegetation plots, with a 

total of 79 species within 63 genera. Most of the species found were common in woodland and forest 

habitats (see Appendix 7a), such as Combretum zehyeri, Brachystegia spiciformis, Stereospermum 

kunthianum and Piliostigma thonningii. 

Six forest dependent tree species were found within the higher submontane areas of the reserve. These 

were: Xylopia parviflora, Khaya anthotheca, Ficus vallis-chodae, Rytigynia digacantha, Aningeria adolfi- 



friedericii and Sterculia appendiculata. Two near endemic species were identified, those limited to the 

Eastern Arc mountains and/or East African lowland forests: Dombeya shupangae and Grewia goetzeana. 

Charcoal producing species were present within the vegetation plots, such as Stereospermum kunthianum, 

Piliostigma thonningii, Dombeya shupangae and Annona senegalensis. Timber and carving species present 

within the reserve were: Lannea sp, Afzelia quanzensis, Dalbergia melanoxylon, Pterocarpus angolensis 

and Sterculia quinqueloba. Charcoal production was identified as the main threat to the FR, threatening the 

already small patches of good quality lowland and submontane forest along the escarpment, as well as the 

woodland with species such as Brachystegia spiciformis and Combretum spp also useful timber species. 

Other valuable species, found in abundance, are Milicia excelsa and Khaya anthotheca (African 

Mahogany). Bamboo was abundant within the reserve and used as building material by locals. 

In the woodland area of the FR, several species of trees were recognised as having medicinal uses for local 

people, as identified by a local elder. These were: Diprorhynchus condylocarpon, Annona senegalensis, 

Pterocarpus angolensis and Zanha golungensis. A worship site was also identified within dense 

submontane forest, which indirectly may help to conserve the forest by controlling timber cutting and 

charcoal production through cultural taboos. 

Regeneration plots 

Twenty regeneration plots were established within the FR. The regeneration of trees and shrubs is very 

limited in the dry woodland areas. In the lowland parts, tree species Trelepsium madagascariensis, 

Newtonia buchanannii, Sorindeiya madagascariensis, Parkia filcoides and Albizia sp. were regenerating. 

Opportunistic collections 

Casual observations and collections recorded 40 species within 19 families and 32 genera. Of these, 31 had 

not been recorded within the vegetation plots and consist of various lifeforms; 13 trees, six shrubs, seven 

herbs, four climbers and one grass species (see Appendix 7b). Pavetta crassipes is a near endemic tree 

species of the Eastern Arc mountains. The herbs were found within submontane forest. 

4.2 Fauna 

Table 2 A summary of fauna recorded in Mahenge Scarp Forest Reserve (Appendix 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12) 

Taxa Number of families Number of species 

Mammals 14 27 

Birds 30 81 

Reptiles 7 16 



Total 60 212 

Mammals 

At least 27 species of native mammal representing 14 families were recorded in the reserve (Appendix 8). 

Although the identification of most species is certain, those of species that were captured remains tentative 

whilst awaiting taxonomic verifications (i.e. all small mammals, including bats) and some of the dung 

found could only be identified to genus. All taxonomy and nomenclature follows that of Kingdon (1997). 

Of the larger mammals recorded from the transects only eleven species were found, mostly in open 

woodland. These include browsers such as Bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus), Duiker and Dik dik 

(Madoqua kirkii), as well as Bushpig (Potamochoerus africanus), Aardvark (Orycteropus afer) and Banded 

Mongoose (Mungos mungo). Four primate species were recorded, three diurnal and common, the Vervet 

monkey (Cercopithecus aethiopicus pygerythrus), Yellow baboon (Papio cynocephalus) and the Blue 

monkey (Cercopithecus nictitans mitis). Vocalisations were recorded of the Mozambique or Grant’s galago 



(Galagoides granti), a forest dependent species that inhabits the East African coast between the Zambezi 

and Rufiji rivers. Also of interest were the vocalisations of a Hyrax within miombo woodland. It is unclear 

which type of hyrax, either Tree or Rock. The Eastern tree hyrax (Dendrohyrax validus) is IUCN status 

vulnerable , therefore the positive identification of the hyrax needs to be established. It is known that local 

communities eat the hyrax. 

As a part of the Eastern Arc mountains and close to the Selous Game Reserve, it is highly likely that once 

there would have been large mammal activity, such as leopard, elephant, buffalo, present within the area.. 

However due to the close proximity to people, the general habitat destruction, no signs were recorded of 

these species. In the southern part of the Mahenge mountains, for example Sali FR, a more pristine habitat 

and isolation from human activity has enabled elephants to continue to live within these parts. 

No signs of domestic animals were recorded, possibly the steep terrain making it unsuitable for grazing 

with small patches of grassland only. 

Of the smaller mammals, zoological trapping resulted in captures of 16 species within seven families, 

including bats. Two species were found to be forest dependent, Lesser pouched rat (Beamy hindei) and 

Brush-furred mouse (Lophuromys flavopunctatus), of which the former is also an endemic to the Eastern 

Arc moutains and classified as Vulnerable by IUCN. Three small mammals were classed as forest dwellers, 

but not dependent upon it, Soft-furred rat (Praomys delectorum), Angolan fruit bat (Lissonycteris 

angolensis) and the Leaf nosed bat (Hipposideros ruber). Other species are found to live in a variety of 

habitats; Spiny mouse (Acomys spinossimus), Bush rat (Aethomys sp.), Multimammate rat (Mastomys sp.), 

Common mouse (Mus minutoides), Horseshoe bats (Rhinolophus clivosus, Rhinolophus hildebrandti and 

Rhinolophus landeri), Long-fingered bat (Miniopterus sp.) and the Evening bat (Scotoecus sp.). Rodent 

captures were highest in the miombo wododland trapsite, particularly Acomys,Mus and Mastomys. Most of 

the bats were captured at mist net site one in submontane forest or site three, lowland forest. It is possible 

that some species were leaving roosts located within the forest, whereas other, notably the fruit bats, would 

feed off fruiting trees, (e.g. Ficus spp.) within the forest itself. 

Twelve shrews were caught within the trapsites, all of which were identified to be of the genus Crocidura, 

White-toothed shrew. However without expert identification using dentition and the skull morphology, 

identification to species level was not possible but it is likely that they represent a variety of species. 

Birds 

At least 80 species of bird representing 29 families were recorded in the Mahenge Scarp FR (Appendix 9) 

during timed species counts. These were recorded in a variety of habitats, which included submontane 

forest, lowland forest, woodland and cultivation. All identifications are considered certain. All taxonomy 

and nomenclature follows that of Stevenson and Fanshawe (2002). 

Each bird was ranked after the scores were added cumulatively for all timed counts (see Table 3). The most 

common bird species are those that are able to live in a variety of habitats and are widespread throughout 

Tanzania. The ten least common are more likely to be found in more closed woodland or forest and are 

thus, perhaps, hard to see. 

In terms of distribution ranges, the Black saw-wing has been recorded previously further north and west. 

Likewise the Red-rumped swallow (hirundo daurica) shows a similar range distribution as the Black sawwing, 

thus both are recorded further south of their previous ranges. The Southern black flycatcher 

(Melaenornis pammekaina) is widespread in Tanzania, but distribution around the Mahenge mountain area 

is uncertain. The Eastern Nicator (Nicator gularis) is common but hard to see as it lives in forest, and 

denser woodland. It’s range is patchy in central and northern Tanzania, however it has also been recorded 

by the Frontier Tanzania Savanna Research Programme in the Kilombero Valley near the Mafinji river, 

therefore it is certainly present in this southern part of Tanzania. 

The Livingstone’s flycatcher (Erythrocercus livingstonei) and Bertram’s weaver (Ploceus bertrandi) are 

both restricted to Southern Tanzania, and the latter usually from 900-1800m, therefore it was encountered 



at the lower end of it’s altitudinal range. Four species of bird are forest dependent, being the Mountain 

yellow warbler (Chloropeta similis), Square-tailed drongo (Dicrurus ludwigii), Dark-backed weaver 

(Ploceus bicolor) and Peter’s twinspot (Hypargos niveoguttatus). The Mountain yellow warbler was seen at 

a much lower altitude than expected as it is normally common from 1800 - 3400m. 

Several migrant species were present in the area, being common visitors from Sept to March/April. These 

were: Eleanoras hobby (Falco eleonorae), Eurasian hobby (Falco subbuteo), European bee-eater (Merops 

apiaster), Barn sawllow (Hirundo rustica), Marsh warbler (Acrocephalus palustris), Willow warbler 

(Phylloscopus trochilus), Spotted flycatcher (Muscicapa caerulescens) and African golden oriole (Oriolus 

auratus). 

Table 3 Ten most common and uncommon birds seen within Mahenge Scarp FR 

Family Species Common Name Ecol. 

Type 

End. 

status 

Ran 

k 

Pycnonotidae Pycnonotus barbatus Common Bulbul O W 1 

Sylviidae Prinia subflava Tawny-flanked Prinia O W 2 

Fringillidae Serinus citrinelloides African Citril O W 3 

Sylviidae Cisticola cantans Singing Cisticola O W 4 

Columbidae Turtur afer Blue-Spotted Wood- f W 5 

Dove 

Ploceidae Euplectes capensis Yellow Bishop O W 6 

Bucerotidae Bycanistes brevis Silvery-cheeked 

f W 7 

Hornbill 

Laniidae Laniarius aethiopicus Tropical Boubou O W 7 

Hirundinidae Psalidoprocne holomelas Black Saw-wing f 9 

Ploceidae Euplectes ardens Red-collared 

O W 10 

Widowbird 

Phoeniculidae Phoeniculus purpureus Green Wood-hoopoe f W 69 

Alcedinidae Ispidina picta Pygmy Kingfisher f W 69 

Pycnonotidae Phyllastrephus sp Greenbull spp 

69 

(Cabanis) 

Muscicapidae Erythrocercus Livingstones Flycatcher f N 1 69 

livingstonei 

Muscicapidae Musicapa caerulescens Ashy Flycatcher f W 69 

Colunbidae Turtur tympanistria Tambourine Dove f W 69 

Sylviidae Apalis flavida Yellow-breasted Apalis f W 69 

Hirundinidae Hirundo fuigula Rock Martin O W 69 

Laniariidae Tchagra australis Brown-crowned 

O W 69 

Tchagra 

Muscicapidae Batis molitor Chin-spot Batis O W 69 

Vocalisations of the African wood Owl (Strix woodfordii) were recorded casually in miombo woodland. 

The distribution within the south of Tanzania is unknown, but it has also been heard in the Kilombero 

Valley near the Mafinji river. 

Reptiles 

Sixteen species of reptile representing seven families were recorded in Mahenge Scarp FR (Appendix 10). 

All identifications of species that were captured remain tentative whilst awaiting taxonomic verifications. 

All taxonomy and nomenclature follows that of Spawls et al. (2002). 

Several forest dependent reptiles were found within the reserve, two from zoological trapsites and one 

observed casually; Beardless pygmy chameleon (Rhampholeon brachyurus), Bearded pygmy chameleon 



(Rhampholeon brevicaudatus) and the Forest gecko (Cnemaspis cf udzungwae). Both the Bearded pygmy 

chameleon and Forest gecko have a conservation status of vulnerable (UDSM 1997), due to habitat 

fragmentation and destruction. The chameleon is an East African endemic and the Udzungwa forest gecko 

is endemic to the Udzungwas, Tong’omba FR and Kiwengoma Forest. Therefore, if the identification of 

this gecko is confirmed this is a range extension. 

A variety of snakes were either caught or observed. The Black-necked spitting cobra (Naja nigricollis) and 

Savanna twig snake (Thelotornis capensis) were both recorded casually, and together with the Forest cobra 

(Naja melanoleuca) are all dangerous to man. The house snake (Laporphis sp.), Cape file snake (Mehelya 

carpenis), Forest green snake (Philothamnus heterodermus)and the Snouted night adder (Causus defilipii) 

were also recorded. 

A Tree gecko (Hemidactylus playcephalus) and Dwarf geckoes (Lygodactylus angularis and Lygodactylus 

manni) were caught within the zoological trapsites. The Great plated lizard (Gerrhosaurus major) and two 

skinks (Mabuya megalura and Mabuya sp.) were also recorded. Most of these reptiles are adapted to a 

range of more open habitats and are common and widespread. 

Amphibians 

Twelve species of amphibian representing five families were recorded in the reserve (Appendix 11). All 

identifications remain tentative whilst awaiting taxonomic verifications. All taxonomy and nomenclature 

follows that of Channing (2001). 

Of particular interest was the presence of Kirk’s Caecilian (Scolecomorphus kirkii) caught at two 

zoological trapsites, submontane forest and lowland forest. This is a forest dependent species. Caecilians 

are leg-less worm-like amphibians of the order Gymnophoinia. Although widespread in distribution, they 

are are difficult to observe and capture. They are thought to feed on earthworms and other invertebrates – 

little else is known of their ecology. 

Two toads, Microtoad (Mertensophryne micronotis) and Loveridge’s toad (Stephopaedes loveridgei), 

caught within forest, are both endemic to the Coastal forest and Eastern Arc Mountains. The former is a 

forest dependent, whilst the latter generally lives in closed canopy but has been observed in more open 

areas. The Microtoad has a conservation status of endangered (UDSM 1997), whilst the Loveridge’s toad is 

near threatened. 

Of the Arthroleptidae family, the ‘Squeakers’, three species of frog were caught; the Common squeaker 

(Arthroleptis stenodactylus) a generalist species found in many habitats providing there is leaf litter, and 

the most numerous capture in the reserve; an unknown squeaker species (Arthroleptis sp.), and; the Dwarf 

squeaker (Schoutedenella xenodactyloides), a resident of both forest and grassland swamps. It’s only 

known predator is the vine snake, Thelotornis capensis, also recorded within the reserve. 

Within the microhyliidae family, the Mozambique rain frog (Breviceps mossambicus) and the Banded 

rubber frog (Phrynomantis bifasiatus) were both caught within miombo woodland. They are essentially 

savanna forms of the genus, miombo being a part of the savanna ecosystem complex. 

Three frogs were caught within the Ranidae family; Angola river frog (Afrana angolensis), Moss frog 

(Athroloptella sp.) and the Dainty frog (Cacosternum sp.). The Angola river frog is widespread and is 

found in most permanent water bodies within its range. 

Butterflies 

Seventy-seven species of butterfly representing five families were recorded in Mahenge Scarp FR 

(Appendix 12) with a total of 354 captures made. At least two species from the family Hesperidae, seven 

species of the family Lycaenidae, 54 species of Nymphalidae, five species of Papilionidae and nine species 

of Pieridae were recorded. Identifications remain tentative whilst awaiting taxonomic verifications. All 

taxonomy and nomenclature follows that of Larsen (1991). 



Both the Hesperidae and Lycaenidae families are under represented as they are small butterflies and often 

difficult to see and catch. Most species were widely distributed, occupying a variety of habitats, from 

forest, woodland and grassland to gardens and cultivation. 

Thirteen forest dependent butterflies were recorded with all but one from the Nymphalidae and the other 

from Papilionidae. These were: Coastal acraea (Acraea satis), Forest glade nymph (Aterica galene), Catuna 

sp., Silver barred charaxes (Charaxes druceanus), Flame bordered charaxes (Charaxes protoclea), Glider 

(Cymothoe sp. A and B), Gold banded forester (Euphaedra nephron), Euptera kinugnana, Forest queens 

(Euxanthe tiberius and Euxanthe wakefieldi), Banded evening brown (Gnophodes betsimena) and Dancing 

swordtail (Graphium polistratus). Of these, the forest Queen (Euxanthe tiberius) is an endemic of the 

Eastern Arc mountains and coastal forests, as is the Silver streaked charaxes (Charaxes lasti). 

Six specimens were unidentifiable to genus, one from the Hesperidae family, three from Lycaenidae and 

two from Nymphalidae. 

Molluscs and millipedes 

We await formal identification of 85 molluc and 73 millipede specimens collected at zoological trap sites 

and opportunistically throughout the survey. 

All specimens of small mammal, reptile, amphibian and butterfly are currently undergoing taxonomic 

verification. 


Survey work aimed at investigating the level of human resource-use within the reserve revealed one of the 

major uses of the forest habitat, and probably to a lesser extent woodland, is the production of charcoal. A 

large number of sites were found near to vegetation plot 11, running west within lowland forest. Three 

smaller charcoal burning sites were also seen at the northern end of the reserve, nearer to Chikuti village. A 

lady was seen walking through the forest on the escarpment slopes, carrying a sack of charcoal. When 

questioned she claimed she had bought it from Chikuti village, but is doubtful being more likely that she 

had taken it directly from the reserve. 

Species targeted for charcoal production include Stereospermum kunthianum, Piliostigma thonningii, 

Dombeya shupangae and Annona senegalensis. Other species, such as Brachystegia spiciformis and 

Pterocarpus angolensis are also useful for charcoal production and for timber extraction. Poles are also no 

doubt cut for local firewood. 

Large numbers of poles and timbers were found throughout the reserve, although data suggests that 

extraction is at low levels and not a significant threat (see Table 4). Also the bamboo natural resource 

within the reserve is utilised and likely results in lower usage of tree species for building. 

Table 4 Summary results of a pole and timber cutting survey in Mahenge Scarp FR 

Total 

transect 

length 

(m) 

Total 

area of 

transect 

(m 2 ) 

Total no. 

sampled 

Live (% 

of total) 

Average 

live per 

area 

hectare 

(ha 2 ) 

Dead (% 

of total) 

Average 

dead per 

area 

hectare 

(ha 2 ) 

Cut (% 

of total) 

Average 

cut per 

area 

hectare 

(ha 2 ) 

Poles 8,650 86,500 3355 2819 (84) 325.8 312 (9) 36.1 224 (7) 25.9 

Timbers 8,650 86,500 1658 1356 (82) 156.7 139 (8) 16.1 163 (10) 18.8 

A total of 3355 poles and 1658 timbers were surveyed along transect lines. An average of 25.9 poles were 

cut per hectare with timber cutting was observed at a lower frequency with an average of 18.8 per hectare. 

However with only 7% and 10% cut poles and timbers, extraction is reasonably low. Only one area was 



found whilst transecting with evidence of timber, poles and / or planks (this does not refer to pitsawing 

sites). Most cutting was old with only 2.7% and 3.7% of poles and timbers, respectively , being new cut, 

confirming that this activity at present is low scale. 

As well as recording levels of pole and timber cutting, the survey also revealed that 40 % of transects (69 

out of 173 50m sections) had been damaged to some degree by fire, with most naturally dead poles and 

timbers dying from this cause (an average of 36.1 and 16.1 per hectare). The fire damage was seen in the 

northern lower slopes (transect line 1) of the reserve within woodland and by proximity nearest to Chikuti 

village and it’s surrounding shambas (farms). Some fire damage was also seen along the southern boundary 

edges (west end of transect line 2 and transect line 3), near to the road and cultivation. Therefore, it is 

possible that these fires were uncontrolled, spreading from the shambas, although the local forest officer, 

Mr Octavian Nkawamba had stated that in October 2002 deliberate fires had been set. 

Pitsawing sites were encountered within the lowland forest area, near to zoological trapsite 3. Five 

pitsawing sites were also seen along the transect lines, three within the lowland forest just below the 

southern plateau of the reserve, and two within riverine forest pockets surrounded by bamboo dominated 

woodland, further north. 

Snare traps mainly targeting the small quantity of larger mammals, most likely bushbuck, were found and 

the wires removed. The snare traps were located in between beacons 11 and 12 (Grid Ref: 0247536, 

9046579) and near to beacon 8. This suggests that snares are placed at the periphery of the reserve. 

However, near to one of the charcoal production areas within open woodland in the middle of the reserve 

an old cane rat trap was found. Additionally three snares traps were observed, one of which was new and 

all for medium sized animals. 

The small degree of shamba encroachment in the periperal reserve (e.g. in the south) areas are likely 

caused by poor demarcation of the reserve boundary since expansion and does not serve as a significant 

threat as long as further encroachment is restricted. It is not known the exact extent of encroachment and 

severity of threat on the far northern borders of the reserve, that area nearest to Chikuti village and their 

shambas. 



5. DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

5.1 Flora 

An interesting and varied flora was recorded within Mahenge Scarp Forest Reserve (Table 5). 

Table 5 A summary of floral diversity recorded throughout the Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve (including 

opportunistic collection). 

Taxa 

Number of 

families 

Number of 

species 

Trees and shrubs 27 99* 

Herbs and grasses 7 8 

Climbers 4 4 

Total 60 166 

* This excludes the two unknown trees that were recorded in the reserve. 

Of the six habitat types, woodland is the most abundant. However it is the smaller areas of lowland, 

riverine and submontane forest that are most important in terms of interesting species and threat, as 

witnessed by the large areas destroyed by charcoal production. Valuable tree species, used to make 

charcoal were, Stereospermum kunthianum, Piliostigma thonningii, Dombeya shupangae and Annona 

senegalensi, with useful timber and carving species being Lannea sp, Afzelia quanzensis, Dalbergia 

melanoxylon, Pterocarpus angolensis and Sterculia quinqueloba. 

Six forest dependent tree species were found within the higher submontane areas of the reserve, Xylopia 

parviflora, Khaya anthotheca, Ficus vallis-chodae, Rytigynia digacantha, Aningeria adolfi-friedericii and 

Sterculia appendiculata. Two endemic species of the Eastern Arc mountains and / or East African Lowland 

forests were Dombeya shupangae and Grewia goetzeana. Other valuable species identified were Milicia 

excelsa and Khaya anthotheca. Furthermore the reserve also had value for the local community in less 

invasive ways, such as plant extraction for medicinal use and for cultural practices, e. g. worshiping at 

scared sites. 

This is the most extensive study conducted within Mahenge Scarp, but more studies need to be carried out 

to ascertain other species, to list further the herbs, grasses and ferns within the habitats. However, it is clear 

that this is an important area for a variety of flora, some being unsustatinably utilised by the local 

communities and for some Eastern Arc endemics. Emphasis needs to be put on clamping the deforestation 

and concentrating on regeneration of native species. 



5.2 Fauna 

A diverse and interesting fauna was recorded within Mahenge Scarp Forest Reserve during the current 

study (Table 6). 

Table 6 A summary of faunal diversity and species of biological or conservation interest recorded throughout the 

Mahenge Scarp Forest Reserve. 

Total 

Number of 

species* 

Species of 

biol./cons. 

interest ** 

Mammals 27 5 

Birds 81 17 

Reptiles 16 3 



Total 213 37 

* This includes all opportunistic observations together with those from systemmatic survey work 

** This includes species listed as range restricted, of conservation concern (IUCN, CITES), forest-dependent or for which the record in the reserve 

represents a distribution or altitudinal range extension, but does NOT include the number of forest dwelling species 

Most of the forest dependent faunal species were also near endemic and of a high conservation status (e.g. 

Lesser pouched rat, Mountain yellow warbler, Livingstone’s flycatcher, Bearded pygmy chameleon, Forest 

gecko and the Microtoad). As with many forest patches throughout Tanzania, this reflects the habitat 

destruction by increasing pressure on rural communities, thereby threatening the fauna most dependent on 

these small isolated pockets of remaining quality forest. Of the eight forest reserves within Ulanga District, 

Mahenge Scarp is one of those close to human villages, increasing the chances of timber and non timber 

forest products being extracted at an unsustainable rate. The problem is also exacerbated by the small size 

of the reserve, surrounded by cultivation. The lack of large mammals also reflects the recent changes to the 

reserve due to man’s actions. Close proximity to the Selous Game Reserve would predict signs of large 

mammal use within the reserve, however nothing larger than a bushbuck or bushpig was recorded within 

this study. 

The near endemic species found within the reserve are those belonging to the rich and diverse fauna of the 

Eastern Arc mountains and Coastal forests, already reknowned for high endemism and recognised as a 

global biodiversity hotspot. Further research needs to be carried out to uncover more endemic species and 

unique habitats of the fauna within this southern part of the Eastern Arc mountains. Other studies have been 

conducted within the Mahenge mountains (Loader, Poynton and Mariaux, unpublished), primarily targeting 

herptofauna in Sali FR, which by contrast to Mahenge Scarp is remote and is still home to elephant and 

other larger mammals, as well as important small fauna. Biogeographical analyses between amphibian 

assemblages of the highland (>850m) Mahenge Mountains and lowland Kilombero Valley show a 

significant difference in patterns of spatial turnover in species with greater turnover at higher altitude. 

These results are likely to represent other small fauna too, highlighting the conservation importance of this 

little known part of the Eastern Arc Mountains. It is imperative that further investigatioin is conducted 

sooner rather than later. 


A wide variety of forms of human resource-use were recorded throughout the Mahenge Scarp Forest 

Reserve. The predominant threat to this area is charcoal production, with, to a lesser extent, timber 

extraction and some low levels of hunting, using snare traps, and extraction of plants for medicinal use. 

Cutting for pole and timbers was seen to be minimal and non-threatening. Fire damage was seen in the 

southern and northern edges of the reserve, therefore suggesting the fire either started from outside in 

neighbouring shamba or that it was deliberately started by outsiders. Fire management is not practised 

within this reserve. 



The small 6ha area of cultivation in the southern end of the reserve was allocated rather than being 

encroached upon illegally and has not increased in size since it was farmed. In the future there is a plan to 

plant trees on this land and move those families out of the reserve. This will depend on finances and as yet 

there has been no facilitation of this plan. Unfortunately low financial resources are highly influencial on 

the impact and management of the reserve and the lack of clear fire break and poorly demarcated borders 

probably contributed to incidences of fire damage and cultivation in the reserve. 

Ultimately the destruction of the habitat lies in inadequate management strategy and implementation due to 

lack of financial resources. There is no Joint Forest Management (JFM) plan or activity within Mahenge 

Scarp, there is no ownership or sense of responsibility for local commuities. Coupled with expanding 

human populations and increased pressure on natural resources, it is only a matter of time before 

irrepairable damage is done, if not already. Without JFM, attempts at halting illegal resource use extraction 

may be futile, especially when authorities cannot regulate the charcoal trade in Mahenge town and 

elsewhere, and licensed and unlicensed products are indistinguishable. The manual labour is available, due 

to higher unemployment rates, the market is there and there is no patrolling of the FRs. Catchment Forestry 

(CF) and the local communities need to co-ordinate their strengths and motivations to formulate some 

cohesion and set the JFM in place. 

There also remain questions as to the extent to which the aims of biodiversity conservation and maintaining 

water catchment value are mutually compatible, the latter being the reason for FR status designated to 

Mahenge Scarp. Given that funds are limited, one concern has to be that management initiatives designed 

to enhance catchment value will take precedence over those that are purely conservation-orientated (such as 

controlling poaching). However, the prevention of forest loss and fragmentation is a powerful tool for both; 

nevertheless the key theme of aforestation strategy should shift from plantation (e.g. Nawenge FR) to 

managing the regeneration of native species. 

Priorities cited by CF (boundary demarcation, environmental education in local communities, achieving 

JFM status for reserves such as Mahenge Scarp) are a testimony to insufficient and unpredictable patterns 

of funding. This needs rectifying. CF strategies need also to be sophisticated enough to manage reservespecific 

threats whilst providing a co-ordinated approach that prevents poachers, loggers etc taking 

advantage of holes in conservation’s defences. 

6. CONCLUSION 

The findings of this biodiversity survey of the Mahenge Scarp Forest Reserve are extremely interesting and 

reveal the area to be of great importance for a variety of Eastern Arc mountain endemics, which are forest 

dependent and threatened by increasing habitat destruction due to an expanding human population. The 

largest threat is charcoal production, which is decimating the small pocket of remaining lowland forest. 

Other non-timber forest products are being extracted at lower levels, but are a potential threat as nonprotected 

areas are destroyed and pressure mounts to exploit those that are protected by law. However, 

although officially a protected area, lack of financial resources means that the area is not well managed, 

such as unclear boundary demarcation, a lack of fire breaks, no patrols. Also, the reserve was originally 

gazetted for it’s importance as a water catchment area not for its conservation status and high biodiversity 

value. This must not be forgotten when funding is sourced and management plans are formulated. Both 

interests need to be accounted for and deforestation joins both viewpoints tightly. Joint Forest Management 

is imperative to try to curb the illegal activities occurring in small FRs, such as Mahenge Scarp. Funding is 

crucial so that local stakeholders can be involved in conserving their natural resources, so that there is 

something worth researching and conserving in the future. 



7. BIBLIOGRAPHY 

CITES listing, 2001: Copied from TRAFFIC office, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, March 2001. 

Channing, A., 2001. Amphibians of Central and Southern Africa. Cornell University Press, USA. 

Coates Palgrave, K., 1996. Trees of Southern Africa. Struik Publishers (Pty) Ltd, Cape Town. 

Frontier-Tanzania. 1998. Nambiga Forest Reserve: a biodiversity survey. Frontier-Tanzania 

Environmental Research report 65. Society for Environmental Exploration, UK; University of Dar es 

Salaam and the Forestry and Beekeeping Division, Tanzania. 

Hamilton, A. C. 1989. The place and the problem, a survey of forest types on the East Usambaras using 

variable-area tree plot method. In A.C. Hamilton & R. Bensted-Smith (eds). Forest conservation in the East 

Usambara Mountains, Tanzania. IUCN, Gland. Pp 213-226. 

Heywood, V. H., 1993. Flowering plants of the world. BT Batsford Ltd, London. 

Hilton-Taylor, C. (compiler) 2002. 2002 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland 

and Cambridge. 

Howell , K.M. 1993. Herpetofauna of the eastern African forests. In J.C. Lovett & S.K. Wasser (eds). 

Biogeography and ecology of the rain forests of eastern Africa. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 

Pp 173-201. 

Iverson, S.T. 1991a. The Usambara mountains. NE Tanzania: History, vegetation and conservation: 

Uppsala University, Uppsala. 

Iverson, S.T. 1991b. The Usambara mountains. NE Tanzania: Phytogeography of the vascular plant flora. 

Uppsala University, Uppsala. 

Kielland, J., 1990. Butterflies of Tanzania. Hill House Publishers (Melbourne & London). 

Kingdon, J., 1974. East African Mammals. An atlas of evolution in Africa. Vol. 2B: Hares and rodents. 

University Chicago Press, Chicago. 

Kingdon, J., 1989. East African mammals. An atlas of evolution in Africa. Vol. 2A: Insectivores and bats. 

University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 

Kingdon, J., 1997. The Kingdon field guide to East African Mammals. Academic Press, London, 464 pages. 

Knox, E.B., 2000. List of East African Plants (LEAP). Database compiled largely from the Flora of 

Tropical East Africa (Rotterdam: Balkema) and Beentje (1994). 

Larsen, T. B. 1996. The Butterflies of Kenya and their natural history. Oxford University Press, Oxford. 

Loader, S.P, Poynton, J. C and Mariaux, J. Herpetofauna of Mahenge Mountain, Tanznia: A window on 

African biogeography. In press. 

Lovett, J. C. 1993. Eastern Arc moist forest flora. In Lovett, J.C. & S.K. Wasser (eds) Biogeography and 

ecology of the rainforests of Eastern Africa. Cambridge University press pp33-55. 

Lovett, J.C. & Pócs, T., 1993. Assessment of the Condition of the Catchment Forest Reserves: a botanical 

appraisal. The Catchment Forestry Project, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. 



Mabberley, D.J., 1997. The Plant-book: a portable dictionary of the vascular plants. Cambridge Univeristy 

Press, Cambridge, UK. 

Myers, N et al, 2000. Biodiversity hotspots for conservation prioritie. Nature 403: 853-858. 

Passmore, N. I. And V. C. Carruthers. 1995. South African frogs: a complete guide. Southern book 

publishers, Johannesburg. 

Palgrave, K. C. (1983). Trees of Southern Africa. Second Edition. Struik Publishers, Cape Town. 

Polhill, D. ,1988. Flora of Tropical East Africa. Index of collecting localities. Royal Botanical Gardens, 

Kew. 

SEE, 1998. Methodology report (SEE, 1996. Frontier Tanzania Forest Research Programme: methodology 

report ‘Old and New’. L. Stubblefield & P. Cunneyworth eds. Technical paper of the Society for 

Environmental Exploration, London). 

Spawls S., Howell K., Drewes R & Ashe J., 2002. A Field Guide to the Reptiles of East Africa. Academic 

Press, Hong Kong. 

Stevenson T. & Fanshawe J., 2002. Field guide to the birds of East Africa. T. & A. D. Poyser, London. 

Stattersfield, A.J., Crosby, M.J., Long, A.J. and Wege, D.C., 1998. Endemic Bird Areas of the World. 

Priorities for Biodiversity Conservation.BirdLife Conservation Series No. 7, BirdLife International. 

Stuart, C. & Stuart, T., 1994. A field guide to the tracks & signs of Southern and East African wildlife. 

Southern Book Publishers (Pty) Ltd, Cape Town. 

UDSM, 1997. National Biodiversity Database 1997. Unpublished. Deaprtment of Zoology and Marine 

Biology, University of Dar es Salaam, Dar es Salaam. 

Van Wyk, B. & Van Wyk, P., 1997. Field guide to trees of Southern Africa. Struik Publishers (Pty) lTd, 

Cape Town. 

Walker, C. 1996. Signs of the Wild. Struik Publishers (Pty) Ltd, Cape Town. 



APPENDIX 1: TAXONOMIC VERIFICATION 

BOTANY 

Albert Ntemi Sallu Amani Nature Reserve P.O. Box 1, Amani Nature Reserve, Tanga 

ZOOLOGY 

Mammals: 

Prof. Kim Howell University of Dar es Salaam Department of Zoology 


khowell@twiga.com 

Dr. Bill Stanley Chicago Field Museum Mammal Section, Field Museum, Chicago, IL 

60605, USA 

stanley@fieldmuseum.org 

Amphibians: 

Prof. Kim Howell University of Dar es Salaam Department of Zoology 



Prof. J. Poynton 

Reptiles: 

Prof. Kim Howell 

Dr. R.C. Drewes 

British Natural History Museum Cromwell Road, South Kensington, 

London, UK 

University of Dar es SalaamDepartment of Zoology 



California Academy of Sciences Department of Herpetology, Golden Gate Park 

San Francisco, California 94118, USA 

bdrewes@calacademy.org 

Butterflies: 

Dr. Tim Davenport Wildlife Conservation Society Southern Highland Conservation Project, 

P.O. Box 1475, Mbeya, Tanzania 

trbd@twiga.com 

Molluscs and millipedes: 

Dr N. Scharff Zoological Museum University of Copenhagen 

Universitetsparken 15, DK-2100 

Copenhagen, Denmark 



APPENDIX 2: SUMMARY OF SAMPLING EFFORT OF EACH SURVEY 

TECHNIQUE EMPLOYED 

Survey technique Target taxa Total sampling effort 

(and sampling unit) 

Flora 

Vegetation plot Trees, shrubs, herbs 20 VPs 

Opportunistic obs./collection Trees, shrubs, herbs - 

Fauna 

Sherman traps (trap-nights) Small mammals 2400 trap-nights 

Bucket pitfall traps (trap-nights) Reptiles, amphibians, rodents 792 trap-nights 

Animal signs transects Larger mammals 19 transects 

Bat netting (mist-net hours) Bats 969 mist-net hours 

Bird surveys (survey hours) Birds 16 survey hours 

Sweep-netting (man-hours) Butterflies 48 man-hours 

Canopy traps (trap-days) Butterflies 24 trap-days 

Opportunistic obs./collection All animal taxa - 

Human resource-use 

Transects Human resource-use 19 transects 

Opportunistic observation Human resource-use - 



APPENDIX 3: SUMMARY OF WEATHER CONDITIONS 

50 

32 

45 

31 

40 

35 

30 

Rainfall (mm) 

30 

25 

20 

29 

28 

Temperature (deg C) 

Rainfall 

Mim temp 

Max temp 

15 

27 

10 

5 

26 

0 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 

Days 

25 



APPENDIX 4: GPS CO-ORDINATES FOR MAHENGE SCARP FR 

4a Summary of basecamp and zoological worksites 

Site Latitude Longitude Altitude Major habitat type 

(m asl) 

Basecamp 08º 37' 49.4" 036º 43' 06.7" 775 

Zoological trapsite 1 08º 37' 38.2" 036º 43' 07.7" 800 Riverine submontane forest 

Zoological trapsite 2 08º 37' 32.2" 036º 43' 20.4" 640 miombo woodland 

Zoological trapsite 3 08º 37' 52.2" 036º 43' 31.6" 610 Dry lowland forest 

4b Summary of transects line end points 

End point of transect Latitude (S) Longitude (E) Grid reference (E) Grid Reference (N) 

Transect line 1 - east 08° 37' 16.5" 036° 44' 08.2" 02 50792 90 46309 

Transect line 1 - west 08° 37' 12.5" 036° 42' 16.2" 02 47365 90 46474 







4c Summary of beacon points* and landmarks indicating the FR boundary 

Type of point Beacon 

number 

Latitude (S) Longitude (E) Grid reference 

(E) 

Grid Reference 

(N) 

Beacon B1 08° 37' 00.0" 036° 42' 39.4" 02 48072 90 46858 

Road B1A 08° 37' 00.2" 036° 43' 04.4" 02 48839 90 46860 












* These are the actual GPS co-ordinates FT FRP recorded from a walk around the FR boundary, as the co-ordinates on the FR 

boundary map were incorrect. These co-ordinates were used by the FT FRP team. 



4d Summary of vegetation plots 

Vegetation plot Latitude (S) Longitude (E) Grid reference (E) Grid Reference (N) 

1 08° 37' 16.5" 036° 44' 08.2" 02 50792 90 46369 

2 08° 37' 15.8" 036° 43' 53.2" 02 50332 90 46388 

3 08° 37' 15.7" 036° 43' 38.5" 02 49883 90 46387 

4 08° 37' 13.7" 036° 43' 24.8" 02 49464 90 46447 

5 08° 37' 13.9" 036° 43' 09.3" 02 48990 90 46437 

6 08° 37' 15.8" 036° 43' 53.2" 02 50332 90 46388 

7 08° 37' 24.0" 036° 42' 42.0" 02 48155 90 46124 

8 08° 37' 22.6" 036° 42' 26.6" 02 47682 90 46162 

9 08° 37' 48.9" 036° 44' 07.3" 02 50770 90 45372 

10 08° 37' 48.9" 036° 43' 52.6" 02 50320 90 45372 

11 08° 37' 51.8" 036° 43' 38.7" 02 49891 90 45280 

12 08° 37' 53.2" 036° 43' 24.1" 02 49449 90 45235 

13 08° 38' 18.4" 036° 43' 52.4" 02 50320 90 44464 

14 08° 38' 17.3" 036° 43' 37.9" 02 49876 90 44494 

15 08° 37' 34.3" 036° 44' 07.6" 02 50777 90 45821 

16 08° 37' 35.6" 036° 43' 52.5" 02 50315 90 45779 

17 08° 37' 36.7" 036° 43' 36.8" 02 49834 90 45742 

18 08° 37' 38.3" 036° 43' 23.9" 02 49440 90 45692 

19 08° 37' 38.9" 036° 43' 06.8" 02 48919 90 45671 

20 08° 37' 40.8" 036° 42' 54.5" 02 48542 90 45608 

4e Summary of botanical opportunistic collection sites 

Site Latitude (S) Longitude (E) Site description Altitude (m) 

1 08° 37' 16.5" 036° 44' 08.2" Woodland forest 506m 

2 08° 37' 48.9" 036° 44' 07.3" Woodland forest on steep slope 540m 

3 08° 37' 58.7" 036° 43' 20.7" Lowland forest, steep slope near waterfall 786m 

4 08° 37' 52.3" 036° 43' 36.1" Wooded grassland 660m 

5 08° 37' 38.3" 036° 43' 23.9" Thicket, scrub lowland forest 680m 


Mahenge Scarp Forest Reserve: a biodiversity Survey 

APPENDIX 5: GENERAL VEGETATION PLOT DESCRIPTIONS 

Plot 

no. 

Topography 

Altitude 

(m asl) 

Slope 

(degrees) 

Vegetation condition 

Canopy 

height (m) 

Disturbance 

Category 

Feature of interest 

No. 

species 

No. 

indivs 

Dominant sp. 

1 HT 506 16 Dry woodland 10-20 Fire / clearings none 10 17 Combretum zehyeri 

2 SLS 562 26 Miombo woodland 10-20 Fire none 8 28 Dalbergia nitidula 

3 SMS 540 26 Miombo woodland 10-20 Fire none 9 29 Brachystegia spiciformis 

4 GLS 578 10 Riverine 

20-30 Fire none 11 16 

forest/grassland 

5 SLS 529 31 Riverine forest / 20-30 Fire none 14 20 

bamboo 

6 GLS 580 15 Miombo woodland 20-30 Electricity pylons none 12 24 

7 SUS 640 25 Dry woodland 10-20 None road/track 5 8 

8 SUS 620 34 Miombo woodland 10-20 Cutting road/track 9 22 Stereospermum kunthianum 

9 GLS 540 15 Dry woodland 10-20 Cutting/fire none 10 33 Piliostigma thonningii 

10 GUS 580 10 Dry woodland 10-20 None none 12 24 

11 SMS 565 26 Lowland forest 10-20 Cutting / charcoal rock outcrops 16 20 

12 SUS 670 47 Riverine forest >30 None rock outcrops / waterfall 4 11 Treculia africana 

13 SUS 640 18 Lowland forest 10-20 None none 15 31 

14 UP 700 0 Scrub/thicket/bush


APPENDIX 6: REGENERATION PLOT DESCRIPTIONS 

Regen. 

plot 

Habitat Ground cover (%) Dominance (%) Soil Texture Soil colour No. of 

inds 

Herbs Bare Soil Litter Rocks Grasses Forbs Sages Ferns 

1 Open woodland 60 40 0 0 80 20 0 0 Clay Red brown 1 1 

2 Open woodland 40 20 40 0 80 20 0 0 Sandy-clay Dark brown 2 1 

3 Miombo woodland 40 20 10 30 70 30 0 0 Sandy-clay Brown 5 4 

4 Riverine forest/grassland 50 40 10 0 40 40 0 20 Sandy-loam Dark Brown 23 10 

5 Riverine forest / bamboo 50 30 20 0 80 20 0 0 Sandy-clay Red brown 7 4 

6 Open woodland 70 20 10 0 60 30 0 10 Sandy-loam Dark grey 10 6 

7 Open woodland 80 20 0 0 90 10 0 0 Rocky Yellowish 0 0 

8 Open woodland 70 10 20 0 90 10 0 0 Sandy-clay Dark grey 0 0 

9 Open woodland 60 25 5 10 50 50 0 0 Sandy-loam Light brown 13 5 

10 Open woodland 80 10 10 0 70 10 0 20 Sandy-loam Dark brown 4 3 

11 Lowland forest 70 0 30 0 20 80 0 0 Sandy-loam Dark brown 4 4 

12 Riverine forest 10 0 0 90 0 0 20 80 Rocky None 0 0 

13 Lowland forest 40 20 20 20 80 20 0 0 Loam Dark grey 11 8 

14 Scrub/thicket/bush 100 0 0 0 95 5 0 0 Loam Dark grey 0 0 

15 Scrub/thicket/bush 70 0 30 0 80 20 0 0 Sandy-loam Dark brown 5 7 

16 Open woodland 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Rocky None 0 0 

17 Submontane / bamboo 70 10 20 0 80 10 0 10 Sandy-clay Brown 3 3 

18 Scrub/thicket/bush 5 25 40 30 0 100 0 0 Sandy-loam Dark brown 0 0 

19 Lowland forest 5 10 85 0 5 95 0 0 Loamy-sand Dark brown 7 4 

20 Cultivation 50 20 30 0 20 80 0 0 Sandy-loam Dark grey 0 0 

MEAN 51 16 19 9 54.5 32.5 1 7 4.75 3 

No of 

species 



APPENDIX 7: VEGETATION DATA 

7a Plant species recorded in the vegetation plots in Mahenge Scarp FR, following Mabberley (1997) and Palgrave (1996) 

Family Species Kipogoro Lifeform Ecol. Habitat Endemic Notes 

name 

Type 

status 

ANACARDIACEAE Lannea sp. A. Rich Tree Timber species 

ANACARDIACEAE Mangifera indica Tree f L&S W Can be used for timber, fruits eaten 

ANACARDIACEAE Ozoroa insignis Delile Mbarika Shrub or small f L W 1 

tree 

ANACARDIACEAE Rhus natalensisBernh. Ex Krauss 1844 Shrub f L&S&M 2 W 

ANACARDIACEAE Sorindeia madagascariensis Thouars ex DC. 1825 Shurb or small f L&S W 1 

tree 

ANNONACEAE Annona senegalensisPers. 1806 Mtope Shurb or small 

tree 

f L&S W Can be used for charcoal production, 

medicine, edible fruits 

ANNONACEAE Lettowianthus stellatusDiels 

ANNONACEAE Xylopia parvifloraL. Tree F L&S W Can be used for timber and medicinal 

APOCYNACEAE Diplorhynchus condylocarpon Welw. Ex Ficalho & Mtogo Shurb or small f L W Used for medicine 

hiern 

tree 

APOCYNACEAE Holarrhena pubescensR. Br. Fever pod Tree O L W Used for cultural ornaments and 

medicine 

APOCYNACEAE Rauvolfia caffra L. Mtogi Tree f L&S W Used for medicine and dyes 

APOCYNACEAE Voacanga africana Thouars. Tree Used for medicine 

ARALIACEAE Cussonia arboreaHochst. Ex A. Rich. 1847 Tree f L&S&M W 

BIGNONIACEAE Markhamia lutea (Benth.) K. Schum. 1985 Tree f L&S&M W 

BIGNONIACEAE Markhamia obtusfolia Mputi Shrub f L W 

BIGNONIACEAE Stereospermum kunthianum Cham. 1832 Mnyegea Tree f L&S W Used for charcoal production 

BORAGINACEAE Cordia ovalis R. Br. Ex. DC. 1845 Tree f 1 L&S&M 1 W 1 

BURSERACEAE Commiphora africana (A. Rich) Engl. Nakabigiri Tree O L&S W 

BURSERACEAE Commiphora sp. 

CAESALPINACEAE Afzelia quanzensis Welw. 1858 Camel foot Tree f L&S&M W Timber species 

CAESALPINACEAE Brachystegia spiciformisBenth 1866 Miombo 

(kiswahili) 

Tree f L&S&M W Used for charcoal production 



Family Species Kipogoro Lifeform Ecol. Habitat Endemic Notes 

name 

Type 

status 

CAESALPINACEAE Piliostigma thonningii ( Schumach.) Milne-Redh. Msekese Tree f L&S&M W Used for charcoal production 

COMBRETACEAE Combretum molleR. Br.ex G. Don 1827 Mkangaro Tree O L W Used for charcoal production 

shenkozi 

COMBRETACEAE Combretum sp. Tree Used for charcoal production 

COMBRETACEAE Combretum zehyeri Sond. 1950 Tree O L W Used for charcoal production 

COMBRETACEAE Pteleopsis myrtifolia(Laws) Engl. & Diels Climber or f L W 

small tree 

COMBRETACEAE Terminalia sambesiaca Engl. & Diels 1900 Tree f L W Used for charcoal production 

EBENACEAE Diospyros sp. Nakatitu 

EUPHORBIACEAE Antidesma venosumL. Shrub f L&S W Can be used for timber 

EUPHORBIACEAE Bridelia micrantha (Hochst.) Baill 1862 Mwizia Tree f L&S&M W 

EUPHORBIACEAE Magaritaria discoidea (Baill.) Webster 1967 Tree O L&S&M W 

EUPHORBIACEAE Phyllanthus sp. 

EUPHORBIACEAE Ricinodendron rhodognophalon Muell. Arg. Tree 

EUPHORBIACEAE Sapium ellipticumJacq. Tree f L W 

EUPHORBIACEAE Spirostachys africana Sond. 1850 Tree O L W 

EUPHORBIACEAE Uapaca nitida Muell. Arg Tree f L W 

FLACOURTIACEAE Flacourtia indica (Burm. F.) Merrill Mtuvua Tree f L&S&M W 

MELIACEAE Khaya anthotheca A. Juss. Tree F African Mahogany 

MELIACEAE Trichilia emetica Vahl Papa Tree f L&S W 

MIMOSACEAE Acacia polyacanthaWilld. Mtarulo Tree f L&S W 

MIMOSACEAE Acacia sp. 

MIMOSACEAE Albizia tanganyikensis E.G. Baker Tree f L&S W 

MIMOSACEAE Feuillea versicolor(Welw. Ex Oliv.) Kuntze 1891 Albizia Tree O L&S&M W 

versicolor (Welw. Ex) Oliv. 1871 

MIMOSACEAE Inga glaberrima (Schumach. & thom. ) Roberty 1954 

(basionym. Albizia glaberrima(Scumach. & Thonn.) Benth. 

1844) 

Tree t L&S W 

MIMOSACEAE Parkia filicoidea Welw. Ex.Oliver 

MORACEAE Antiaris toxicaria Leschen. Can be used for timber 

MORACEAE Ficus exesaperata Vahl. Tree f L&S W Often a strangler 

MORACEAE Ficus lutea 

MORACEAE Ficus sp. 



Family Species Kipogoro 

name 

MORACEAE Ficus sur Mkuyudodi 

Lifeform 

Ecol. 

Type 

Habitat 

Endemic 

status 

Notes 

MORACEAE Ficus sycomorus Mkuyu Tree f L&S W Can be used for firewood, carvings, 

fruit, medicine 

MORACEAE Ficus vallis-choudae Delile Tree F L&S W 

MORACEAE Treculia africana Tree f L&S&M W Can be used for firewood, timber, 

food, soil conservation 

MYRSINACEAE 

Baeobotrys lanceolata (Forssk.) Vahl 1790 (basionym Maesa 

lanceolata Forssk 1775) 

Shrub or small 

tree 

f L&S&M W 

PAPALIONACEAE Dalbergia nitidulaWelw. Ex Baker Tree f L&S&M W Used for making walking sticks 

PAPILIONACEAE Dalbergia melanoxylonGuill & Perr Tree f 1 L&S&M 1 W Used for carving 

PAPILIONACEAE Lonchocarpus busseiHarms 1902 Tree O L&S&M W 

PAPILIONACEAE Milletia duraDunn Mswati Tree f S&M W 

PAPILIONACEAE Pterocarpus angolensisDC Mdumbati 

or Mninga 

Tree f L&S&M W Used for timber, medicine and dyes 

PAPILIONACEAE Xeroderris stuhlmannii(Taub.) Mendonca & E.P. Sousa Tree f L&S&M W 

RHAMNACEAE Ziziphus mucronataWilld. 1809 Shrub f L&S&M 2 W 

RUBIACEAE Catunaregan obovata Wolf. Kibenantembo 

RUBIACEAE Gardenia ternifolia Ellis shrub or tree 

RUBIACEAE Leptactina sp. 

RUBIACEAE Psychotria lauracea(K. Schum) E. Petit 1964 Shrub f L W 

RUBIACEAE Rytigynia digacanthaBlume Shrub or small F L 

tree 

RUBIACEAE Vangueria infausta Burch Mviru Shrub O L&S W Used for medicine 

SAPINDACEAE Allophylus africanusP. Beauv. Shrub f L&S&M W 

SAPINDACEAE Blighia unijugata C.Koenig Tree f L&S W 

SAPINDACEAE Lecaniodiscus fraxinifoliusBaker Tree f L&S&M W 

SAPOTACEAE Aningeria adolfi-friedericii (Engl.) Robyns & Gilbert Tree F L&S W 

SIMAROBACEAE Harrisonia abyssinicaOliver f L W 

STERCULIACEAE Dombeya shupangaeK. Schum. 1900 Tree O L 2 N Charcoal 



Family Species Kipogoro 

name 

Lifeform 

Ecol. 

Type 

Habitat 

Endemic 

status 

STERCULIACEAE Sterculia appendiculata K. Schum Tree F L W 

STERCULIACEAE Sterculia quinqueloba (Gurke) K. Schum Tree f L&S W timber for furniture 

TILIACEAE Grewia goetzeanaK. Schum Tree f L&S 1 N 

UNKNOWN 

UNKNOWN 

Mwanga 

VERBENACEAE Vitex doniana Sweet. Mfuru Tree f L&S W 

Notes 

KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS FOR TABLE 7A 

Ecological type: (based on Iversen, 1991b) 

• F - Forest dependent species: Species previously recorded as restricted to primary or closed canopy forest only, e.g. wet evergreen forest, dry evergreen forest and/or riverine forest; 

• f - Forest dwelling but not forest dependent: Species previously recorded in primary or closed canopy forest as defined above and/or in forest edge, clearings, secondary forest, deciduous forest and woodland, and 

• O - Non-forest species: These are species that do not occur in primary or secondary forest or forest edge (e.g. species that have been recorded in bushland, heathland, thicket, secondary scrub, grassland, rocky 

outcrops, swamps, wastelands and cultivation. 

Habitat: (where possible based on Hamilton, 1989) 

• L - Lowland: Species occurring at altitudes less than 850m above sea level; 

• S - Submontane: Species occurring at altitudes greater than 850m above sea level. 

• M – Montane Species occurring at altitudes greater than 1,250m above sea level. 

If species occur in more than one habitat range, this has been recorded (e.g. L&S – this species has been recorded at altitudess between 0 and 850m above sea level). 

Endemic status: (based on Iversen, 1991b): 

• E - Endemic: Occurring only in the Mahenge Mountains 

• N - Near endemic: Species with limited ranges in the Eastern Arc mountains and/or the East African lowland forests; 

• W - Widespread distribution. 



7b Opportunistic botanical collection within Mahenge Scarp FR 

Family Genus Species Author Lifeform 

ANACARDIACEAE Sorindeia madagascariensis DC Tree 

BALSAMINACEAE Impatiens nana Herb 

BEGONIACEA Begonia oxyloba Hook.f Herb 

BORAGINACEAE Cordia ovalis R.Br Shrub 

CAESALPINIACEA Tamarindus indica Tree 

CUCURBITATAECEA Luffa cylindrica (L)M.J.Roen Climber 

EUPHORBIACEAE Bridellia canthatica Shrub 

FLACOURTIACEAE Flacourtia indica (Burm)K.Merrill Tree 

GRAMIANAE Olyra latifolia Grass 

GUTTIFERAE Psorospermum februfugum Spach Shrub 

MEMISPERMACEAE Stephania abyssinica Climber 

MORACEAE Dorstenia holstii Herb 

MORACEAE Ficus bussei Tree 

MORACEAE Ficus cordata salicifolia Thunb. Tree 

MORACEAE Ficus cycomorus Tree 

MORACEAE Ficus exasperta Vahl. Tree 

MORACEAE Ficus ingens (Miq.) Miq. Tree 

MORACEAE Ficus lutea Tree 

MORACEAE Ficus scassellatii Tree 

MORACEAE Ficus sur Tree 

MORACEAE Ficus vallis-choudae Delile Tree 

MORACEAE Melicia excelsa Tree 

MORACEAE Trilepsium madagascariense DC Tree 

RUBIACEAE Chazaliella abrupta (Hiern) petit& Verdc Shrub 

RUBIACEAE Fadogia triphylla Baker Shrub 

RUBIACEAE Pavetta crassipes K. Schum Tree 

RUBIACEAE Polysphaeria braunnii Krause Tree 

RUBIACEAE Psychotria lauracea (K.Schum)Petit Shrub 

RUBIACEAE Rytigynia oligacantha Robyns Shrub 

SAPINDACEAE Zanha golungensis Hiern.R&H Tree 

SMILACACEAE Smilax anceps Climber 

TILIACEAE Grewia goetzeana K. Schum Shrub 

TILIACEAE Triumfeta rhomboidea Herb 

ULMACEAE Celtis africana Burm.f Tree 

ULMACEAE Trema orientali Tree 

VERBENACEAE Clerodendron myricoides R.Br Shrub 

VITACEAE Cissus quadrangularis L Herb 

VITACEAE Rhoicissus revoilii Climber 

ZINGIBERACEAE Afromomum angustifolium (Sonnerat)K.Schum Herb 

ZINGIBERACEAE Costus sarmentosus Bojer Herb


APPENDIX 8: MAMMAL DATA 

8a Small mammal species recorded in Mahenge Scarp FR following Kingdom (1997). Voucher specimens are currently under going formal 

taxonomic verification (Appendix 1). 

Family Common name Ecol. 

Type 

End. 

status 

Threat status 

No. of individuals 

captured (recaptures) 

KMH no.s 

IUCN 

2002 

Cricetomyninae 

Beamys hindei Lesser pouched rat F N Vu 9 (6) 0 9 

Hipposideridae 

Hipposideros ruber Leaf nosed bat f W 3 0 3 

Muridae 

Acomys spinossimus Spiny mouse O W 33 0 33 25747, 25771 

Aethomys sp. Bush rat O W 3 0 3 26004 

Lophuromys flavopunctatus Brush-furred mouse F W 5 0 5 

Mastomys sp. Multi-mammate rat O W 15 0 15 26006, 23996 

Mus minutoides Common mouse O W 14 0 14 25772 

Praomys delectorum Soft-furred rat f W 17 (6) 0 17 26009 

Pteropodidae 

Lissonycteris angolensis Angolan fruit bat f W 6 0 6 23971 

Rousettus aegyptiacus Rousette fruit bat O W 1 0 1 

Rhinolophidae 

Rhinolophus clivosus Horshoe bat O W 4 0 4 23964 

Rhinolophus hildebrandti Horshoe bat O W 4 0 4 23969, 23972 

Rhinolophus landeri Horshoe bat O W 1 0 1 23966 

Soricidae 

Crocidura sp. White-toothed shrew 12 0 12 25746, 25748, 25773-76, 26002- 

03, 26005, 26007-08 

USDM 

1997 

Vespertilionidae 

Miniopterus sp. Long-fingered bat O W 1 0 1 23967, 23970 

Scotoecus sp. Evening bat O W 17 0 17 23965, 23968 

CITES 

2001 

Trap 

sites 

Casual 

Total


8b Large mammal species recorded in Mahenge Scarp FR following Kingdom (1997). Voucher specimens are currently under going formal 

taxonomic verification (Appendix 1). 

Species Common name Local name Evidence Habitat recorded Ecol. End. Threat status 

from 

Type status IUCN 

2002 

USDM 

1997 

Bovidae 

Sylvicapra grimmia Duiker, common Funo Tracks SMF. WO/BA O W 

Madoqua kirkii Dik Dik Digi digi Dung, tracks BU f W 

Tragelaphus scriptus Bushbuck Pongo Dung WO/PC f W 

Cercopithecidae 

Cercopithecus aethipicus Vervet Monkey Tumbili Sighting LF,RF O W II 

pygerythrus 

Cercopitheucs nictitans mitis Blue monkey Kima Sighting RF,SMF f W II 

Papio cynocephalus Yellow baboon Nyani Sighting, 

WO O W 

dung, track 

Galagonidae 

Galagoides granti Mozambique Galago Komba Vocalisation LF,MI F W 

Herpestidae 

Mungos mungo Banded Mongoose Nguchiro Dung, sighting WOBA O W 

Orycteropodidae 

Orycteropus afer Aardvark Muhanga Burrow RF O W 

Procavidae 

Hyrax Pimbe or Perere Vocalisation MI/WO 

Suidae 

Potamochoerus africanus Bushpig Nguruwe Tracks WO/PC f W 

KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS FOR APPENDIX 8 

IUCN status: 

Ecological (Ecol.) type: EN - Endangered 

F – Forest dependent species: Species confined to primary forest only ; not including forest edge or secondary forest. VU – Vulnerable 

f – Forest dwelling but not forest dependent species: Species occurring in primary forest, forest edge or secondary forest. LR/NT – Lower Risk/Near Threatened 

O – Non-forest species: Species that do not occur in primary or secondary forest or forest edge. 

CITES listings: I – Appendix One listed species 

Endemic (End.) status: II – Appendix Two listed species 

E – Endemic: Species only found in the Mahenge Mountains. (Appendix Three species not included in Table) 

W – Widely distributed species. 

N – Near endemic: Species with limited ranges usually only including coastal forest and/or East African lowland forests. 

Vegetation type: LF = Lowland forest SMF = submontane forest RF = Riverine forest BA = bamboo WO = Woodland MI = Miombo woodland 

BU = scrub / thicket / bush PC = prevoius cultivation 

CITES 

2001 



APPENDIX 9: BIRD DATA 

Birds species recorded in Mahenge Scarp FR, following Stevenson & Fanshawe (2002) 

Species Common Name Ecol. 

Type 

End. 

status 

IUCN CITES Rank Notes 

Accipitridae 

Stephanoaetus coronatus African Crowned Eagle f W II 47 

Terathopius ecaudatus Bateleur Eagle O W II 56 

Falconidae 

Falco cuvieri African Hobby O W II 47 Uncommon residents and local wanderers of FE and WO 

Falco eleonorae Eleanoras Falcon O W II 64 Uncommon but regular passage migrants in east, some wintering in Southern 

Tanzania 

Falco sp Hobby Spp 34 

Falco subbuteo Eurasian Hobby O W II 62 Common passage migrants and winter visitors from Paleartic, Sep-may 

Phasianidae 

Francolinussp Francolin Spp 29 

Columbidae 

Streptopelia semitorquata Red-Eyed Dove f W 35 

Turtur afer Blue-Spotted Wood-Dove f W 5 

Treron calva African Green Pigeon O W 44 But can be FE 

Turtur tympanistria Tambourine Dove f W 69 In moister habitat than Emerald spooted wood-dove, incl FE 

Musophagidae 

Turaco livingstonii Livingstones Turaco f W II 15 mature WO and RF 

Cuculidae 

Centropus superciliosis White-browed Coucal O W 11 

Chrysococcyx klaas Klaas's Cuckoo O W 37 FE, WO, BU, GDN 

Apodidae 

Apus affinis Little Swift O W 31 

Apus caffer White-rumped Swift O W 37 

Colliidae 

Colius striatus Speckled Mousebird O W 18



Type 

End. 

status 


Alcedinidae 

Halcyon albiventris Brown-Hooded Kingfisher O W 64 

Ispidina picta Pygmy Kingfisher f W 69 

Meropidae 

Merops apiaster European Bee-Eater O W 56 Paleartic migrant, south Sep-nov, north Mar-may 

Merops pusillus Little Bee-eater O W 45 

Phoeniculidae 

Phoeniculus purpureus Green Wood-hoopoe f W 69 

Bucerotidae 

Bycanistes brevis Silvery-cheeked Hornbill f W 7 

Bycanistes bucinator Trumpeter Hornbill f W 39 

Tockus alboterminatus Crowned Hornbill f W 21 WO, FE 

Capitonidae 

Pogoniulus bilineatus Yellow-rumped Tinkerbird f W 12 

Stactolaema olivacea Green Barbet f W 47 F), WO 

Picidae 

Campethera scriptoricauda Speckle-throated woodpecker O W 56 Locally common in miombo and other open WO 

Hirundinidae 

Hirundo daurica Red-rumped Swallow O 17 Distribution shows west and north Tz, out of range for Mahenge 

Hirundo fuigula Rock Martin O W 69 Most numerous in highlands 

Hirundo rustica Barn (European) Swallow O W 47 V common paleartic visitor from Aug-apr 

Hirundo senegalensis Mosque Swallow O W 31 

Psalidoprocne holomelas Black Saw-wing f 9 More highland. Out of range for South Tanzania, west and north recordings 

previously 

Pycnonotidae 

Pycnonotus barbatus Common Bulbul O W 1 

Nicator gularis Eastern Nicator f W 31 Common but hard to see, in FO, WO and dense cover. Range is patchy in central 

and northern Tanzania, but also seen by Frontier Tanzania Savanna Research 

Programme (FT SRP) in Kilombero Valley 

Phyllastrephus sp Greenbull spp (Cabanis) 69 

Turdidae 

Cossypha heuglini White-browed Robin Chat O W 45 Incl. FE 

Sylviidae 

Acrocephalus palustris (European) Marsh Warbler O W 64 V common Palaertic migrant from Oct-apr east of Great Rift Valley 

Apalis flavida Yellow-breasted Apalis f W 69 




Type 

End. 

status 


Sylviidae cont. 

Camaroptera brachyura Grey-Backed Camaroptera f W 13 

Chloropeta similis Mountain Yellow Warbler F W 69 Common in forest and bambo at higher altitudes from 1800-3400m 

Cisticola brachypterus Siffling Cisticola O W 28 Open FE and BU GR 

Cisticola cantans Singing Cisticola O W 4 FE and other dense vegetation 

Melocichla mentalis African Moustached Warbler f W 23 Seen along water 

Phylloscopus trochilus Willow Warbler O W 42 Common Paleartic visitor from Sep-may 

Prinia subflava Tawny-flanked Prinia O W 2 

Muscicapidae 

Batis molitor Chin-spot Batis O W 69 

Erythrocercus livingstonei Livingstones Flycatcher f N 69 Riverine and moist thicket, found in South Tanzania only 

Melaenornis pammelaina Southern Black Flycatcher O W 59 Widespread in Tanzania, but question mark for Mahenge area 

Muscicapa striata Spotted Flycatcher O W 25 Common Paleartic passage visitor from Sep-apr 

Musicapa caerulescens Ashy Flycatcher f W 69 Commonly in middle levels of FE and along well-wooded rivers 

Terpsiphone viridis Paradise Flycatcher f W 36 Common in variety of habitats incl. FO 

Nectariniidae 

Chalcomitra senegalensis Scarlet-chested Sunbird f W 29 

Cinnyris venusta Variable Sunbird O W 42 

Hedydipna collaris Collared Sunbird f W 20 

Nectarinia kilimensis Bronze Sunbird O W 64 Comon in FO or open WO 1200-1800m, usually above 1500m 

Zosteropidae 

Zosterops senegalensis Yellow White-eye f W 54 

Laniidae 

Laniarius aethiopicus Tropical Boubou O W 7 

Malaconotidae 

Dryoscopus cubla Black-backed Puffback O W 40 Incl. FE 

Tchagra australis Brown-crowned Tchagra O W 69 

Dricuridae 

Dicrurus ludwigii Square-tailed Drongo F W 24 Inhabit forest interior and edge 

Oriolidae 

Oriolus auratus African Golden Oriole f W 47 Seasonally common in Tanzania Mar-sep coastally, less commonly widespread 

throughout rest of year 




Type 

End. 

status 


Ploceidae 

Euplectes ardens Red-collared Widowbird O W 10 

Euplectes capensis Yellow Bishop O W 6 

Ploceus bertrandi Bertrams Weaver O N 64 Restricted to mountains of SE Tz in wooded country by streams from 900-1800m 

Ploceus bicolor Dark-backed Weaver F W 47 

Ploceus ocularis Spectacled Weaver O W 62 Incl. FE 

Ploceus velatus Vitelline masked Weaver O W 59 

Ploceus xanthops Holubs Golden Weaver O W 25 Found 900-2300m 

Emberizidae 

Emberiza cabanisi Cabanis's Bunting O W 40 Incl. FE, uncommon 

Estrilda astrild Common Waxbill O W 27 

Estrilda perreini Black-tailed Grey Waxbill O W 54 Prefer reedy, marshy areas 

Hypargos niveoguttatus Peters Twinspot F W 47 Forest undergrowth, thicket 

Lagonosticta rubricata African Firefinch O W 18 

Lonchura bicolor Black-and-White Mannikin O W 14 Incl. FE 

Lonchura cucullata Bronze Mannikin O W 22 Incl. FE 

Vidua macroura Pin-tailed Whydah O W 59 

Estrilda quartinia Yellow-bellied Waxbill O W 69 Incl. FE, 900-3000m 

Fringillidae 

Serinus citrinelloides African Citril O W 3 Incl. FE 

Serinus mozambicus Yellow-fronted Canary O W 15 

KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS FOR APPENDIX 9 

IUCN status: 

Ecological (Ecol.) type: EN – Endangered 

F – Forest dependent species: Species confined to primary forest only ; not including forest edge or secondary forest. VU – Vulnerable 

f – Forest dwelling but not forest dependent species: Species occurring in primary forest, forest edge or secondary forest. LR/NT – Lower risk / Near threatened 


Endemic (End.) status: CITES listings: I – Appendix One listed species 

E – Endemic: Species only found in the Mahenge Mountains. II – Appendix Two listed species 

N – Near endemic: Species with limited ranges in Southern Tanzania (Appendix Three species not included in Table) 


Abbreviations used in Notes: 

BU - bush FO - Forest GR - Grassland WO - woodland 

FE - Forest edge GDN - garden RF - Riveirne forest 



APPENDIX 10: REPTILE DATA 

Reptiles species recorded in Mahenge Scarp FR following Spawls, et al. (2002). Voucher specimens are currently undergoing taxonomic 

verification (Appendix 1) 


Type 

Chameleonidae 

Rhampholeon cf brachyurus Beardless pygmy 

chameleon 

Rhampholeon cf brevicaudatus* Bearded pygmy 

chameleon 

End. 

status 

Threat status 

IUCN UDSM 

2002 1997 

No. of individuals captured 

Trap sites Casual Total 

Frontier Tanzania Environmental Research Report 107 42 

CITES 

2001 

KMH no.s 

F W LR 0 1 1 23895 

F N VU 0 1 1 

Colubridae 

Lamprophis sp. House snake O W 2 0 2 23894, 23896 

Mehelya carpenis Cape file snake O W 1 0 1 23877 

Philothamnus heterodermus Forest green snake f W 1 0 1 23898 

Thelotornis capensis* Savanna twig snake O W 0 1 1 

Elapidae 

Naja melanoleuca Forest cobra f W 0 1 1 

Naja nigricollis* 

Black-necked spitting 

cobra 

O W 0 1 1 

Gekkonidae 

Cnemaspis cf uzungwae Forest gecko F N VU 3 0 3 23891, 23895, 23897 

Hemidactylus platycephalus Tree gecko f W 0 1 1 

Lygodactylus cf angularis Angolan dwarf gecko O W 1 0 1 23892 

Lygodactylus cf manni Dwarf gecko O W 0 1 1 

Gerrhosauridae 

Gerrhosaurus major Great plated lizard O W 1 0 1 23875 

Skinkidae 

Mabuya cf megalura Long-tailed skink O W 1 0 1 23878 

Mabuya sp. Skink 2 0 2 23879 

Viperidae 

Causus defilipii Snouted night adder O W 3 0 3 23876 

* Casual observations not at zoo site - Probable identification


APPENDIX 11: AMPHIBIAN DATA 

Amphibians species recorded in Mahenge Scarp FR following Channing (2001) and Passmore & Carruthers (1995) . Voucher specimens are 

currently undergoing taxonomic verification (Appendix 1). 


Type 

End. 

status 

Threat status 

IUCN 

2002 

USDM 

1997 

CITES 

2001 

No. of individuals captured 

(recaptures) 

Trap Casual Total 

sites 

KMH no.s 

Arthroleptidae 

Arthroleptis Common squeaker f W 30 0 30 23990, 23995 

stenodactylus 

Arthroleptis sp. Squeaker 8 0 8 23986, 23989, 23992, 

23803, 23804 

Schoutedenella Dwarf squeaker 

O W 6 0 6 

xenodactyloides 

Bufonidae 

Bufo sp. Toad 2 0 2 23991, 23993 

Mertensophryne Microtoad F N EN 1 0 1 23987 

micranotis 

Stephopaedes 

loveridgei 

Loveridge’s Toad f N NT 2 0 2 

Microhylidae 

Breviceps 

mossambicus 

Phrynomantis 

bifasciatus 

Mossambique rain frog O W 7 0 7 

Rubber frog O W 8 0 8 

Ranidae 

Afrana angolensis Angola river frog f W 0 2 2 23801, 23997 

Athroleptella sp. Moss frog 1 0 1 

Cacosternum sp. Dainty frog 4 0 4 23994, 23802 

Scolecomorphidae 

Scolecomorphus 

kirkii 

Kirk's caecilian F W 4 0 4 23348 



KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS FOR APPENDIX 10 and 11 

Ecological (Ecol.) type: 

F – Forest dependent species: Species confined to primary forest only ; not including forest edge or secondary forest. 

f – Forest dwelling but not forest dependent species: Species occurring in primary forest, forest edge or secondary forest. 


Endemic (End.) status: 

E – Endemic: Species only found in the Mahenge Mountains. 

N – Near endemic: Species with limited ranges usually only including coastal forest and/or East African lowland forests. 


IUCN status: 

CITES listings: 

EN – Endangered I – Appendix One listed species 

VU – Vulnerable II – Appendix Two listed species 

LR/NT – Lower Risk/Near Threatened 

(Appendix Three species not included in Table) 



APPENDIX 12: BUTTERFLY DATA 

Butterfly species caught in Mahenge Scarp FR following Larsen (1996), voucher specimens are currently 

undergoing taxonomic verification (Appendix 1). 

Genus Common Name Ecol. 

Type 

End. 

status 

Individual numbers caught at 

trapsites 

Hesperidae 

1 2 3 Casual Total 

1 0 0 0 1 

Astictopterus stellatus Spotted fairy f W 0 0 0 1 1 

Lycaenidae 

1 0 0 0 1 

0 0 0 1 1 

Anthene schoutedeni Schouteden's ciliate blue f W 0 0 0 1 1 

Azanus sp. Babul blue 0 1 0 0 1 

Baliochila hilegarde Hildegard's buff f W 0 0 0 1 1 

Euchrysops malathana Smoky bean cupid O W 1 0 0 0 1 

Pentila pauli Spotted pentila O W 0 0 2 0 2 

Nymphalidae 

Acraea aganice Wanderer O W 0 0 1 0 1 

Acraea natalica Natal acraea O W 1 2 0 0 3 

Acraea satis Coast acraea F W 0 0 1 0 1 

Amauris niavius Friar f W 3 0 1 0 4 

Aterica galene Forest glade nymph F W 6 0 1 0 7 

Bicyclus angulosis O W 1 0 1 0 2 

Bicyclus anynana Squinting bush brown O W 0 3 0 0 3 

Bicyclus campinus O W 7 0 9 0 16 

Bicyclus campus Hill bush brown f W 2 0 0 0 2 

Bicyclus ena Grizzled bush brown O W 1 1 1 0 3 

Bicyclus cf pavonis O W 0 0 1 0 1 

Bicyclus safitza Common bush brown O W 9 2 2 3 16 

Byblia anvatara African joker O W 0 1 0 1 2 

Byblia iliythia Joker O W 1 2 0 4 7 

Catuna sp. F W 1 1 0 0 2 

Charaxes achaemenes Bush charaxes O W 1 3 0 0 4 

Charaxes baumanni Baumann's charaxes f W 0 0 6 0 6 

Charaxes brutus White barred charaxes f W 0 0 6 0 6 

Charaxes cithaeron Blue spotted charaxes O W 5 0 3 0 8 

Charaxes contarius Contrary charaxes O W 1 1 0 0 2 

Charaxes druceanus Silver barred charaxes F W 0 0 0 0 0 

Charaxes lasti Silver streaked charaxes f N 1 3 1 0 5 

Charaxes macclouni Red coast charaxes f W 5 4 0 0 9 

Charaxes protoclea Flame bordered charaxes F W 1 0 1 0 2 

Charaxes sp. Charaxes 1 0 0 0 1 

Charaxes varanes Pearl charaxes O W 2 0 0 0 2 

Charaxes violetta Violet spotted charaxes f W 1 0 15 0 16 

Charaxes zoolina Club-tailed charaxes 0 0 1 0 1 

Cymothoe sp. A Glider F W 1 0 0 0 1 

Cymothoe sp. B Glider F W 1 0 0 0 1 

Danaus chrysippus African queen O W 0 1 0 3 4 

Euphaedra nephron Gold banded forester F W 4 0 3 0 7 

Euphaedra orientalis Orange forester f W 1 0 0 0 1


Genus Common Name Ecol. 

Type 

End. 

status 

Individual numbers caught at 

trapsites 

1 2 3 Casual Total 

Nymphalidae cont. 

Euptera kinugnana F W 7 0 19 0 26 

Eurytela dryope Golden piper f W 0 0 2 0 2 

Euxanthe tiberius F N 1 0 0 0 1 

Euxanthe wakefieldi Forest queen F W 2 0 0 0 2 

Gnophodes betsimena Banded evening brown F W 1 0 2 0 3 

Hypolimnus anthedon Variable eggfly f W 2 1 1 0 4 

Junonia natalica Natal pansy f W 1 0 1 0 2 

Junonia terea Soldier commodore O W 4 0 2 4 10 

Melanitis leda Common evening brown O W 0 3 0 0 3 

Melanitis libya O W 1 3 0 0 4 

Neptodopsis ophione Scalloped sailor f W 1 5 0 1 7 

Physcaeneura leda f W 7 0 0 3 10 

Precis archesia Garden inspector O W 0 0 0 2 2 

Pseudacraea lucretia False chief f W 0 4 1 0 5 

Pseudagynnis hegemone False fritillary O W 0 0 0 1 1 

Salamis parhassus Forest mother-of-pearl f W 0 0 1 0 1 

Salamis temora Blue mother-of-pearl f W 1 0 1 1 3 

Sallya boisduvali Brown tree nymph O W 22 18 8 0 48 

Sallya garega O W 2 0 0 2 4 

Sallya morantii Obscure tree nymph f W 0 0 2 0 2 

Sallya sp. Tree nymph 2 0 0 0 2 

Papilionidae 

Graphium angolanus Angolan white lady O W 1 1 0 0 2 

Graphium leonidas Veined swordtail O W 0 0 0 1 1 

Graphium polistratus Dancing swordtail F W 0 0 1 1 2 

Papilio dardanus Mocker swordtail O W 0 1 0 0 1 

Papilio demodocus Citrus swordtail O W 0 0 0 1 1 

Pieridae 

Belenois subeida f W 1 0 0 0 1 

Catopsilia florella African emigrant O W 0 1 0 1 2 

Dixeia pigea Antheap white f W 2 0 0 3 5 

Dixeia spilleri Spiller's yellow f W 1 0 0 0 1 

Eurema floricola Malagasy grass yellow O W 0 1 2 0 3 

Eurema hecabe Common grass yellow O W 1 1 0 1 3 

Eurema senegalensis Forest green yellow f W 13 1 13 5 32 

Leptosia alcesta African wood white f W 1 0 0 0 1 

Leptosia sp. Wood white f W 1 0 0 0 1 

Total 135 65 112 42 354

Mahenge Scarp Forest Reserve - Frontier-publications.co.uk

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