Vermiculture in Egypt: - FAO - Regional Office for the Near East and

Vermiculture in Egypt: 

Current Development 

and 

Future Potential 

i

Vermiculture in Egypt: 

Current Development 


Future Potential 

Written by: 

Mahmoud Medany, Ph.D. 

Environment Consultant 

Egypt 

Edited by: 

Elhadi Yahia, Ph.D. 

Agro industry and infrastructure Officer 

Food and Agriculture Organizatioon 

(FAO/UN) 

Regional Office for North Africa 

and the Near East, Cairo, Egypt 

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 

Regional Office for the Near East 

Cairo, Egypt 

April, 2011 

ii

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© FAO 2011

Table of contents 

Table of contents ...................................................................................................................... iv 

List of Photos ............................................................................................................................ vi 

List of Figures .......................................................................................................................... vi 

List of tables ............................................................................................................................ vii 

Abbreviations ......................................................................................................................... viii 

Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1 

Executive Summary .................................................................................................................. 2 

1. Introduction to the use of compost worms in Egypt .............................................................. 3 

1.1. Historical background ...................................................................................... 3 

1.2. Geographic distribution of earth worms ........................................................ 4 

1.3. Types of earthworms ........................................................................................ 6 

1.4. Vermicomposting species ................................................................................. 6 

1.5. Native earthworm species in Egypt ................................................................. 7 

1.6. Vermiculture and vermicomposting ............................................................... 8 

2. Trial of vermiculture and vermicomposting implementation in Egypt ............................... 10 

2.1. Principle of vermiculture and vermicomposting ......................................... 10 

2.1.1. Bedding ..................................................................................................... 10 

2.1.2. Worm Food ............................................................................................... 11 

2.1.3. Moisture .................................................................................................... 14 

2.1.4. Aeration .................................................................................................... 14 

2.1.5. Temperature control ................................................................................ 15 

2.2. Methods of vermicomposting ......................................................................... 16 

2.2.1. Pits below the ground .............................................................................. 16 

2.2.2. Heaping above the ground ...................................................................... 17 

2.2.3. Tanks above the ground .......................................................................... 17 

2.2.4. Cement rings............................................................................................. 18 

2.2.5. Commercial model ................................................................................... 18 

2.3. The trial experience in Egypt ......................................................................... 20 

2.3. 1. Earthworm types used:........................................................................... 20 

2.3.2. Bedding ..................................................................................................... 20 

2.3.3. Food ........................................................................................................... 21 

2.3.4. Moisture .................................................................................................... 22 

2.3.5. Aeration .................................................................................................... 22 

2.3.6. Temperature ............................................................................................. 23 

2.3.7 Harvesting .................................................................................................. 23 

3. Use of compost worms globally in countries of similar climate ......................................... 26 

3.1 Vermicomposting in Philippines ....................................................................................... 26 

3.2 Vermicomposting in Cuba .............................................................................. 28 

3.3. Vermicomposting in India .............................................................................. 29 

3.4. Vermicompost „teas‟ in Ohio, USA ............................................................... 32 

3.5. Vermicomposting in United Kingdom .......................................................... 33 

4. Current on-farm and urban organic waste management practices in Egypt: gap analysis. . 34 

4.1. On-farm organic waste ................................................................................... 34 

4.1.1. Weak points in rice straw system in Egypt ................................................ 35 

4.2. Urban wastes ................................................................................................... 35 

4.2.1. Overview of solid waste management problem in Egypt .......................... 35 

4.2.2. Main factors contributing to soil waste management problem .................. 36 

4.2.3. Waste generation rates ............................................................................... 37 

4.2.4. Major conventional solid waste systems are .............................................. 39 

iv

4.3. Overview of organic waste recovery options ................................................ 40 

4.3.1. Feeding animals ........................................................................................ 40 

4.3.2. Compost .................................................................................................... 40 

4.3.3 Landfill disposal or incineration ................................................................. 40 

5. Potential of vermiculture as a means to produce fertilizers in Egypt. ................................. 45 

5.1. Fertilizer use in Egypt .................................................................................... 45 

5.2. Fertilizer statistics ............................................................................................. 46 

5.3. Vermicomposting as fertilizers in Egypt....................................................... 48 

5.3.1. Urban waste vermicomposting .................................................................. 49 

5.3.2. Vermicomposting of agricultural wastes ................................................... 50 

5.3.3. Vermicomposts effect on plant growth ...................................................... 50 

5.4. Potentiality of vermicompost as a source of fertilizer in Egypt .................. 51 

6. Current animal feed protein supplements production in Egypt and the potential to substitute 

desiccated compost worms as an animal feed supplement or use of live worms in 

aquaculture industries. ...................................................................................................... 53 

6.1. Animal and aquaculture feed ......................................................................... 53 

6.2. Worm meal ...................................................................................................... 54 

6.3. Earthworms, the sustainable aquaculture feed of the future ..................... 56 

7. Current on-farm and urban organic waste management practices and environmental effects 

of those practices, e.g. carbon and methane emissions. .................................................... 62 

7.1. Emissions from vermicompost ....................................................................... 62 

7.2 Total emissions from waste sector in Egypt .................................................. 64 

7.3. Emissions from agricultural wastes .............................................................. 66 

7.4. Vermifilters in domestic wastewater treatment ........................................... 69 

8. Survey of global vermiculture implementation projects focused on greenhouse gas 

emission reductions ........................................................................................................... 71 

8.1. Background ..................................................................................................... 71 

8.2. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) achievements in Egypt ................ 73 

8.3. Egypt National Strategy on the CDM ........................................................... 74 

8.4. The national regulatory framework .............................................................. 75 

9. Analysis of the Egyptian context and applicability of vermiculture as a means of 

greenhouse gas emission reduction. .................................................................................. 76 

9.1. Profile of wastes in Egypt ............................................................................... 76 

9.1.1. Municipal solid waste ................................................................................ 76 

9.1.2. Agricultural wastes .................................................................................. 77 

9.2. Mitigating greenhouse gas from the solid wastes ......................................... 77 

9.3. Mitigating greenhouse gas from the agriculture wastes .............................. 79 

References ............................................................................................................................... 80 

Annex 1 ................................................................................................................................... 85 

General information and FAQ ................................................................................................. 85 

v

List of Photos 

Photo 1.1 Rich fertile soil of the Nile Delta enables wide variety of crops 

to be grown. 

4 

Photo 2.1 Open pit vermicomposting - Kirungakottai. 16 

Photo 2.2 Open heap vermicomposting. 17 

Photo 2.3 Commercial vermicompost operation at KCDC Bangalore, India 18 

Photo 2.4 Cement ring vermicomposting 18 

Photo 2.5 Commercial vermicomposting unit 19 

Photo 2.6 Earthworms used in Egypt 20 

Photo 2.7 Trial vermicompost set up at Dokki. 21 

Photo 2.8 Mixture of food wastes and shredded plant material ready to be 

mixed in the rotating machine. 

21 

Photo 2.9 The locally manufactured shredding machine. 22 

Photo 2.10 The shaded growing beds. 23 

Photo 2.11 Harvesting of castings. 24 

Photo 2.12 Harvested adult worms from the growing beds. 24 

Photo 2.13 Couple of adult worms, with clear clitellum in both of them. 25 

Photo 2.14 Worm eggs. 25 

Photo 3.1 Earthworm plots showing plastic covers and support frame. 27 

Photo 3.2 Windrows vermicomposting method: in Havana, Cuba . 29 

Photo 3.3 Women self-help group involved in vermicomposting, to 

promote micro-enterprises and generate income. 

List of Figures 

Figure 2.1 Commercial model of vermicomposting developed by ICRISAT 19 

Figure 5.1 Trends of production, imports and exports (1000 tonnes of 

nutrients) of fertilizers in Egypt 

47 

Figure 5.2 Consumption of nitrogen, phosphate, potassium and total 

fertilizers in Egypt. 

48 

Figure 7.1 Egypt‟s GHG emissions by gas type for the year 2000 in mega 

tones of carbon dioxide equivalent. 

68 

Figure 7.2 Egypt‟s GHG emissions by sector for the year 2000, in mega 

tones of carbon dioxide equivalent. 

69 

Figure 7.3 Layout of the vermifilter. 70 

vi 

30

List of tables 

Table 1.1 Major families of Oligochaeta (order Opisthophora) and their 

regions of origin. 

5 

Table 2.1 Common bedding materials. 11 

Table 2.2 Advantages and disadvantages of different types of feed. 12 

Table 3.1 Summary for production of vermicompost at farm scale in 

Andaman and Nicobar (A&N) Islands, India. 

31 

Table 4.1 Municipal solid waste contents 2000-2005. 36 

Table 4.2 Distribution of waste according to the sources. 37 

Table 4.3 Distribution of wastes according to its sources and Governorates 38 

2007/2008 in tons. 

Table 4.4 Egypt‟s Integrated Solid Waste Management Plan for the period 

2007-2012. 

42 

Table 4.5 Solid waste accumulation in the Egyptian Governorates. 43 

Table 4.6 Solid waste amount produced by governorates and the organic 

materials percentages For the year 2008. 

44 

Table 5.1 Physical and chemical analysis of various soil types. 46 

Table 5.2 The main types of fertilizers used in Egypt. 47 

Table 5.3 Potential nutrients that could be obtained from urban and 

agriculture wastes in Egypt. 

52 

Table 6.1 Chemical composition % of various worm meal (in dry matter). 55 

Table 6.2 Essential amino acid profile of vermi meals (g/16 gN). 55 

Table 6.3 Macro and trace mineral contents of freeze dried vermi meal 

(Eudrilus eugeniae). 

55 

Table 6.4 Different nutrient concentration in manure and fertilizer applied 

(average value of triplicate sample analyzed). 

58 

Table 6.5 Average values (±SD) of physico-chemical parameters of water, 

primary productivity of phytoplankton and final body weights and 

fish production of Cyprinus carpio (Ham.) in various treatments. 

59 

Table 6.6 Composition (% dry matter) of tested proteins sources or 

supplements for fish feeds. 

60 

Table 6.7 Amino acid (g/100g protein) profiles of tested protein sources or 

supplement as compared to fish meal (FM). 

61 

Table 7.1 Summary of greenhouse gas emissions for Egypt, 2000. 65 

Table 7.2 Egypt‟s greenhouse gas emissions by gas type for the year 2000. 67 

Table 7.3 Egypt‟s greenhouse gas emissions by sector for the year 2000. 68 

Table 9.1 Summary of identified mitigation measures for solid wastes. 78 

vii

Abbreviations 

AF Africa 

ARC Agricultural Research Center of Egypt 

ARE Arab Republic of Egypt 

AS Asia 

CA Central America 

CDM Clean Development Mechanism 

CER Certified Emissions Reductions 

CH4 

Methane 

CO Carbon monoxide 

CO2 

Carbon dioxide 

CO2e Equivalent carbon dioxide 

COPx Conference of parties number x 

DAP Diammonium phosphate 

EEAA Egypt Environmental Affairs Agency 

EU Europe 

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization 

GHG Greenhouse gas 

GIS Geographic Information System 

GTZ German Technical Cooperation Agency 

GWP Global Warming Potential 

ha Hectare, 10 thousand square meters 

HFC Hydrofluorocarbon 

ICRISAT International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics 

IPCC Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change 

JA Japan 

MA Madagascar 

ME Mediteranean 

MSW Municipal Solid Waste 

MSW Municipal Solid Waste 

Mt Million tons 

N2O Nitrous oxide 

NA North America 

NH3 

Ammonia 

NOx Nitrogen oxides 

NSS National Strategy Studies 

OC Oceania 

PFC's Perfluorocarbons 

SA South America 

viii

SF6 

Sulphur hexafluoride 

SWM Solid Waste Management 

Tg Teragrams 

UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development 

UNDP United Nations Development Program 

UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 

USA The United States of America 

USA Unites States of America 

VF Vermifiltration: filtration utilizing earth worms 

VOC Volatile Organic Compound 

VSS Volatile suspendedsolids 

WWTP Wastewater treatment plant 

ix

Introduction 

The total amount of solid waste generated yearly in Egypt is about 17 million tons 

from municipal sources, 6 million tons from industrial sources and 30 million tons 

from agricultural sources. Approximately 8% of municipal solid waste is composted, 

2% recycled, 2% land-filled and 88% disposed of in uncontrolled dumpsites. 

Agricultural wastes either burned in the fields or used in the production of organic 

fertilizers, animal fodder and food or energy production. National efforts are being 

exerted to minimize burning the agricultural wastes. There is a great opportunity for 

maximizing the economical benefits of organic wastes by utilizing the earth worms as 

"biological machines" utilizing the waste for valuable commodities. 

Assessment of greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions for Egypt revealed that the total 

emissions in the year 2000 were about 193 MtCO2e, compared to about 117 MtCO2e 

in 1990, representing an average increase of 5.1% annually. Estimated total 

greenhouse gas emissions in 2008 are about 288 MtCO2e. Although waste sector 

produces the least quantity of greenhouse gases in Egypt, without the organic residues 

burned from the agriculture sector, which when added together can be in a higher 

rank. Converting organic wastes, whether municipal or agricultural, into 

vermicompost can substantially reduce the greenhouse gas emission that could be paid 

back through the clean development mechanism (CDM) of Kyoto Protocol. 

From another perspective, proper handling of wastes, especially organic, in mega 

cities such as Cairo, will reduce the environmental impact on both public and 

government. Any effort lead to cleaner streets is highly appreciated. The availability 

of organic compost from various sources will have a direct positive impact on 

agriculture in Egypt, as most soils of modern agriculture have poor organic matter 

contents. The benefits of converting organic wastes into compost to be added to the 

soil apply also to similar countries in the Middle East and North Africa. 

As general information regarding the utilization of earthworm in composting: 

- One thousand adult worms weigh approximately one kilogram. 

- One kilogram of adults can convert up to 5 kilograms of waste per day. 

- Approximately ten kilograms of adults can convert one ton waste per month. 

- Two thousand adults can be accommodated in one square meter. 

- One thousand earthworms and their descendants, under ideal conditions, could 

convert approximately one ton of organic waste into high yield fertilizer in one 

year. 

The purpose of this work is to investigating current development of vermiculture 

under the Egyptian conditions, and to discuss its potential as an effective means of 

converting the carbon and nitrogen in domestic and agricultural organic wastes into 

bio-available nutrients for food production, and the potential of vermiculture as means 

of reduction the greenhouse gas emissions that have negative impacts on the 

environment. 

1

Executive Summary 

Vermiculture in Egypt dates since Cleopatra. However, the Green Revolution, with its 

dependence on fossil fuelled large scale machinery and operations, together with the 

damming of the Nile, has in recent times all but removed the environment in which 

compost worms, most commonly Eisenia Foetida, can thrive. 

The total quantity of solid wastes generated in Egypt is 118.6 million tons/year in 

2007/2008, including municipal solid waste (garbage) and agricultural wastes. 

Household waste constitutes about 60% of the total municipal waste quantities, with 

the remaining 40% being generated by commercial establishments, service 

institutions, streets and gardens, hotels and other entertainment sector entities. Per 

capita generation rates in Egyptian cities, villages and towns vary from lower than 0.3 

kg for low socio-economic groups and rural areas, to more than 1 kg for higher living 

standards in urban centers. On a nationwide average, the composition is about 50-60% 

food wastes, 10-20% paper, and 1-7% each of metals, cloth, glass, and plastics, and 

the remainder is basically inorganic matter and others. 

Currently, solid waste quantities handled by waste management systems are estimated 

at about 40,000 tons per day, with 30,000 tons per day being produced in cities, and 

the rest generated from the pre-urban and rural areas. Final destinations of municipal 

solid waste entail about 8% of the waste being composted, 2% recycled, 2% 

landfilled, and 88% dumped in uncontrolled open dumps. 

The organic wastes in cities can be as large as 10-15 thousand tons per day. After the 

swine flu and the government decision to get rid of all swine used to live on the 

organic wastes in the garbage collection sites near the cities, earth worms could be the 

alternate biological machines that could handle the wastes with greater revenues and 

cleaner production. There is a great opportunity for all municipal waste systems to 

adapt the vermicompost in their operation. 

Egypt produces around 25 to 30 Mt of agriculture waste annually (around 66,000 tons 

per day). Some of this waste is used in the production of organic fertilizers, animal 

fodder, food production, energy production, or other useful purposes. Vermiculture is 

also a valuable system for converting most of the organic waste into vermicompost. 

With rural awareness and training, vermicompost could be produced in all villages. 

The target groups of this book are all growers, including organic agriculture growers, 

as well as all organic waste producers from as small scale as households to the large 

scale urban solid waste operations. The very rich and valuable organic vermicompost 

produce will assist in enriching the soil, especially sandy and newly reclaimed soil, 

with organic matter and fertilizers in the form of proteins, enzymes, hormones, humus 

substances, vitamins, sugars, and synergistic compounds, which makes it as 

productive as good soil. 

2

1. Introduction to the use of compost worms in Egypt 

1.1. Historical background 

The importance of earthworms is not a very modern phenomenon. Earthworms have 

been on the Earth for over 20 million years. In this time they have faithfully done their 

part to keep the cycle of life continuously moving. Their purpose is simple but very 

important. They are nature‟s way of recycling organic nutrients from dead tissues 

back to living organisms. Many have recognized the value of these worms. Ancient 

civilizations, including Greece and Egypt valued the role earthworms played in soil. 

The ancient Egyptians were the first to recognize the beneficial status of the 

earthworm. The Egyptian Pharaoh, Cleopatra (69 – 30 B.C.) said, “Earthworms are 

sacred.” She recognized the important role the worms played in fertilizing the Nile 

Valley croplands after annual floods. Removal of earthworms from Egypt was 

punishable by death. Egyptian farmers were not allowed to even touch an earthworm 

for fear of offending the God of fertility. The Ancient Greeks considered the 

earthworm to have an important role in improving the quality of the soil. The Greek 

philosopher Aristotle (384 – 322 B.C.) referred to worms as “the intestines of the 

earth”. 

Jerry Minnich, in The Earthworm Book (Rodale, 1977), provides a historical 

overview which indicates that at the end of the last Ice Age, some 10,000 years ago, 

earthworm populations had been decimated in many regions by glaciers and other 

adverse climatic conditions. Many surviving species were neither productive nor 

prolific. In places where active species and suitable environments were found, such as 

the Nile River Valley, earthworms played a significant role in agricultural 

sustainability. While the Nile‟s long-term fertility is well known and attributed to rich 

alluvial deposits brought by annual floods, these materials were mixed and stabilized 

by valley-dwelling earthworms. In 1949, the USDA estimated that earthworms 

contributed approximately 120 tons of their castings per year to each acre of the Nile 

floodplain (Tilth, 1982). 

Egypt has historically had some of the most productive and fertile land in the world. 

The Nile River not only provides water critical for agriculture, but in times past, the 

annual flooding of the Nile deposited nutrient-rich soil onto the land. In recent years, 

the Aswan High Dam has virtually eliminated the annual flood which has resulted in a 

loss of the beneficial soil deposits leading to a need for organic material on lands used 

for agricultural production in Egypt. 

Charles Darwin (1809 –1882) studied earthworms for more than forty years and 

devoted an entire book (The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of 

Worms) to the earthworm. Darwin said, “it may be doubted that there are many other 

animals which have played so important a part in the history of the world as have 

these lowly organized creatures”. 

3

For three millennia (3,000 years), the thriving civilization of ancient Egypt was 

strikingly successful for two reasons: 1) The Nile River, which brought abundant 

water to the otherwise parched lands of the region; and 2) the billions of earthworms 

that converted the annual deposit of silt and organic matter, brought down by the 

annual floods into the richest food-producing soil anywhere. Those Egyptian worms 

are thought to be the founding stock of the night crawlers that slowly spread 

throughout Europe and eventually came to the Western Hemisphere with the early 

settlers (Burton and Burton, 2002). 

1.2. Geographic distribution of earth worms 

4 

Photo 1.1. 

Rich fertile soil of 

the Nile Delta 

enables wide variety 

of crops to be 

grown. 

Source: Author 

The diversity of earthworm community is influenced by the characteristics of soil, 

climate and organic resources of the locality as well as history of land use. The 

species poor communities are characterized by extreme soil conditions such as low 

pH, poor fertility, low fertility litter or a high degree of soil disturbance. The most 

significant soil factors affecting the distribution of different species of earthworm are 

the C/N ratio, pH and contents of Al, Ca, Mg, organic matter, silt and coarse sand 

(Ghafoor et al., 2008). 

Europe is the original home of some of most common and productive earthworm 

species: Lumbricus rubellus (the red worm or red wiggler); Eisenia foetida (the 

brandling, manure worm or tiger worm); Lumbricus terrestris (the common night 

crawler); and Allolobophora ealignosa (the field worm). The first two species are the 

major „„earthworms of commerce, whose ideal living environments are manure or 

compost heaps. The night crawler and field worms, on the other hand, both prefer 

grasslands and woodland margins. The main types in Egypt are Alma nilotico and A. 

stuhlmannt. Details of distribution of types will be discussed later in this chapter. 

Over 3500 earthworm species have been described worldwide, and it is estimated that 

further surveys will reveal this number to be much larger. Distinct taxonomic groups 

of earthworms have arisen on every continent except Antarctica, and, through human 

transport, some groups have been distributed worldwide (Hendrix and Bohlen, 2002). 

Earthworms are classified within the phylum Annelida, class Clitellata, subclass 

Oligochaeta, order Opisthophora. There are 16 families worldwide (Table 1.1). Six of

these families (cohort Aquamegadrili plus suborder Alluroidina) comprise aquatic or 

semiaquatic worms, whereas the other 10 (cohort Terrimegadrili) consist of the 

terrestrial forms commonly known as earthworms. Two families (Lutodrilidae and 

Komarekionidae, both monospecific) and genera from three or four others 

(Sparganophilidae, Lumbricidae, Megascolecidae, and possibly Ocnerodrilidae) are 

Nearctic. 

No native earthworms have been reported from Canada east of the Pacific Northwest 

or from Alaska or Hawaii, although exotic species now occur in all of these regions. 

Native earthworms in the families Ocnerodrilidae, Glossoscolecidae, and 

Megascolecidae occur in Mexico and the Caribbean islands. 

Table 1.1. Major families of Oligochaeta (order Opisthophora) and their regions of 

origin. 

Family Region of origin 

Limicolous or aquatic 

Alluroididae 

Syngenodrilidae 

Sparganophilidae 

Biwadrilidae 

Almidae 

Lutodrilidae 

Terrestrial 

Ocnerodrilidae 

Eudrilidae 

Kynotidae 

Komarekionidae 

Ailoscolecidae 

Microchaetidae 

Hormogastridae 

Glossoscolecidae 

Lumbricidae 

Megascolecidae 

AF, SA 

AF 

NA, EU 

JA 

EU, AF, SA, AS 

NA 

SA, CA, AF, AS, MA 

AF 

MA 

NA 

EU 

AF 

ME 

SA, CA 

NA, EU 

NA, CA, SA, OC, AS, AF, MA 

Note: AF = Africa, AS = Asia, CA = Central America, 

EU = Europe, JA = Japan, MA = Madagascar, ME = Mediteranean, 

NA = North America, OC = Oceania, SA = South America 

Source: Hendrix and Bohlen (2002) 

5

1.3. Types of earthworms 

Earthworm is a common polyphagous annelid and plays an important role in the soil 

ecosystem. 

Although all species of earthworms contribute to the breakdown of plant-derived 

organic matter, they differ in the ways by which they degrade organic matter. 

According to their habitat types and ecological functions, earthworms can be divided 

into three types: the anecic, the endogeic, and the epigeic. 

Anecic (Greek for “out of the earth”) – these are burrowing worms that come to the 

surface at night to drag food down into their permanent burrows deep within the 

mineral layers of the soil. Example: the Canadian Night crawler (Munroe , 2007). 

These species are of primary importance in pedogenesis. 

Endogeic (Greek for “within the earth”) – these are also burrowing worms but their 

burrows are typically more shallow. Such species are limited mainly to the plant 

litter layer on the soil surface, composed of decaying organic matter or wood, and 

seldom penetrate soil more than superficially. The main role of these species 

seems to be shredding of the organic matter into fine particles, which facilitates 

increased microbial activity. 

Epigeic (Greek for “upon the earth”), they are limited to living in organic materials 

and cannot survive long in soil; these species are commonly used in vermiculture 

and vermicomposting. All earthworm species depend on consuming organic 

matter in some form, and they play an important role, mainly by promoting 

microbial activity in various stages of organic matter decomposition, which 

eventually includes humification into complex and stable amorphous colloids 

containing phenolic materials. An example is Eisenia fetida, commonly known as 

(partial list only): the “compost worm”, “manure worm”, “redworm”, and “red 

wiggler”. This extremely tough and adaptable worm is indigenous to most parts of 

the world. 

1.4. Vermicomposting species 

To consider a species to be suitable for use in vermicomposting, it should possess 

certain specific biological and ecological characteristics, i.e., an ability for colonizing 

organic wastes naturally; high rates of organic matter consumption, digestion and 

assimilation of organic matter, able to tolerate a wide range of environmental factors; 

have high reproduction rate, producing large numbers of cocoons that should not have 

a long hatching time, and their growth and maturation rates from hatchling to adult 

individual should be rapid. It should be strong, resistant and survive handling. Not too 

many species of earth worm have all these characteristics. 

Those species used in vermiculture around the world are mainly “litter” species that 

include, but are not limited to: Eisenia fetida “Tiger Worm”, as mentioned earlier, and 

its sibling species E. andrei “Red Tiger Worm”; Perionyx excavatus “Indian Blue”; 

Eudrilus eugeniae “African Nightcrawler”; Amynthas corticis) and A. gracilis 

“Pheretimas” (formerly known a P. hawayana); Eisenia hortensis and Eisenia veneta 

“European Nightcrawlers”; Lampito mauritii “Mauritius Worm”. 

6

Additional species used in Australia are Anisochaeta buckerfieldi, Anisochaeta spp. 

and Dichogaster spp. 

Other worm species involved in vermicomposting are of Family Enchytraeidae 

(enchytraeid or pot worms), microdriles (small „aquatic‟ worms), free-living 

nematodes (roundworms) (Blakemore , 2000). 

In recent years, interactions of earthworms with microorganisms in degrading organic 

matter have been used commercially in systems designed to dispose agricultural and 

urban organic wastes and convert these materials into valuable soil amendments for 

crop production. Commercial enterprises processing wastes in this way are expanding 

worldwide and diverting organic wastes from more expensive and environmentally 

harmful ways of disposal, such as incinerators and landfills (Padmavathiamma et al., 

2008). 

1.5. Native earthworm species in Egypt 

The Nile basin is subdivided into three Obligataete subregions: the main (Lower) 

Nile, from the Delta to Kartoum (Characterized by Alma nilotico and A. stuhlmannt), 

the Upper Nile from Kartoum to Centeral and East Africa (Characterized by A. emini), 

and the Ethiopian subregion (Characterized by Eudrilus). 

In Egypt Species and locations newly investigated include Allolboplora 

(Aporrectodea) caliginosa, associated with the aquatic Eiseniella tetraedra in spring 

near the St. Catherine monastery in South Sinai, and Allolboplora (Aporrectodea) 

rosea (Eisenia rosea) on the slops of the Mountain of Moses, and near Monastery. 

Allolobophoru jassyensis is found in the Delta and Eiseniella tetraedra in Sinai 

(Ghabbour, 2009). 

The scarcity of earthworm in Egyptian soils is mostly attributable to the aridity of the 

climate and to the fact that the majority of cultivated land is under the plough (arable). 

In an arid, almost rainless country like Egypt, earth worm, which are highly sensitive 

to water loss, cannot move easily from a less to a more favorable place in or on dry 

ground. Earthworms are scarce in Egypt because of acreage of favorable soils (e.g. 

orchards and forest) is very small. Moreover, in other places (e.g. arable land soils) 

the favorable conditions are transient. These favorable conditions are: 

1. An undisturbed soil. 

2. A regular and adequate water supply. 

3. A fine soil texture (to raise the availability of water). 

4. A regular and adequate supply of organic matter. 

There are several well known species in Egypt, such as Aporrectodea caliginoosa that 

can survive in sand dunes soils but numbers decreased with increased proportions of 

gravel and sand. 

Quantitative sampling for earthworms by hand-sorting was carried out in fourteen 

localities in Beheira Governorate and adjacent areas by El-Duweini and Ghabbour 

(1965). They collected five different species: 1- Gordiodrilus sp., 2- Pheretima 

califonica ; 3-Pheretima Elongate; 4- Allolbophora caliginoosa f. trapezoids and 5- 

Eisenia rosea f. Biomastoides. A number of juvenile lumbrivids found in cattle 

7

enclosure could not be ascribed with certainty to either of the latter two species and 

are therefore recorded separately. 

1.6. Vermiculture and vermicomposting 

Vermiculture is the process of breeding worms. Growers usually pay for their 

feedstock, and the worm castings are often considered a waste product. Vermiculture 

is the culture of earthworms. The goal is to continually increase the number of worms 

in order to obtain a sustainable harvest. The worms are either used to expand a 

vermicomposting operation or sold to customers who use them for the same or other 

purposes. 

Vermicomposting, is a simple biotechnological process of composting, "Vermi" is a 

Latin word meaning "worm" and thus, vermicomposting is composting with the aid of 

worms, in which certain species of earthworms are used to enhance the process of 

waste conversion and produce a better end product. Vermicomposting differs from 

composting in several ways. It is a mesophilic process, utilizing microorganisms and 

earthworms that are active at 10–32°C (not ambient temperature but temperature 

within the pile of moist organic material). The process is faster than composting; 

because the material passes through the earthworm gut, a significant but not yet fully 

understood transformation takes place, whereby the resulting earthworm castings 

(worm manure) are rich in microbial activity and plant growth regulators, and fortified 

with pest repellence attributes as well (Munroe, 2007). In short, earthworms, through 

a type of biological alchemy, are capable of transforming garbage into valuable 

material (Nagavallemma et al., 2004). The ultimate goal of vermicomposting is to 

produce vermicompost as quickly and efficiently as possible. If the goal is to produce 

vermicompost, maximum worm population density needs to be maintained all of the 

time. If the goal is to produce worms, population density needs to be kept low enough 

that reproductive rates are optimized. 

It is known that many extracellular enzymes can become bound to humic matter 

during a composting or a vermicomposting process, regardless of the type of organic 

matter used, but knowledge of the chemical and biochemical properties of such 

extracellular enzymes is very scanty (Benítez et al., 2000). 

Vermitechnology has been promoted as an eco-biotechnological tool to manage 

organic wastes generated from different sources (Suthar, 2010). 

Vermicast, similarly known as worm castings, worm humus or worm manure, is 

the end-product of the breakdown of organic matter by a species of earthworm. 

Vermicast is very important to the fertility of the soil. The castings contain high 

amounts of nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, calcium, and magnesium. Castings 

contain: 5 times the available nitrogen, 7 times the available potash, and 1½ times 

more calcium than found in good topsoil. It has excellent aeration, porosity, structure, 

drainage, and moisture-holding capacity. Vermicast can hold close to nine times their 

weight in water. It is a very good fertilizer, growth promoter and helps inducing 

flowering and fruit-bearing in higher plants. This can even help plants to get rid of 

pests and diseases (Venkatesh and Eevera, 2008 ). 

8

1.7. Compost vs. vermicompost 

Composting, generally defined as the biological aerobic transformation of an organic 

byproduct into a different organic product that can be added to the soil without 

detrimental effects on crop growth, has been indicated as the most adequate method 

for pre-treating and managing organic wastes. In the process of composting, organic 

wastes are recycled into stabilized products that can be applied to the soil as an 

odorless and relatively dry source of organic matter, which would respond more 

efficiently and safely than the fresh material to soil organic fertility requirements. The 

conventional and most traditional method of composting consists of an accelerated 

biooxydation of the organic matter as it passes through a thermophilic stage (45° to 

65°C) where microorganisms liberate heat, carbon dioxide and water. 

Vermicomposts contain nutrients in forms that are readily taken up by the plants such 

as nitrates, exchangeable phosphorus, and soluble potassium, calcium, and 

magnesium. Vermicomposts should have a great potential in the horticultural and 

agricultural industries as media for plant growth. Vermicomposts, whether used as 

soil additives or as components of horticultural media, improved seed germination 

and enhanced rates of seedling growth and development. 

However, composting and vermicomposting are quite distinct processes, particularly 

concerning the optimum temperatures for each process and the types of microbial 

communities that predominate during active processing (i.e. thermophilic bacteria in 

composting, mesophilic bacteria and fungi in vermicomposting). The wastes 

processed by the two systems are also quite different. Vermicomposts have a much 

finer structure than composts and contain nutrients in forms that are readily available 

for plant uptake. There have also been reports of production of plant growth 

regulators in the vermicomposts. Therefore, it was hypothesized that there should be 

considerable differences in the performances and effects of composts and 

vermicomposts on plant growth when used as soil amendments or as components of 

horticultural plant growth media (Atiyeh et al., 2000). 

9

2. Trial of vermiculture and vermicomposting 

implementation in Egypt 

The historical background, geographic distribution of earth worms, types of 

earthworms, native earthworm species, formal definitions of vermiculture and 

vermicomposting, and a comparison between compost and vermicompost were 

introduced in the previous chapter. This chapter deals with the physical requirements 

of vermiculture and vermicompost, and ends by the implementation trial of both 

vermiculture and vermicompost in Egypt, including all details of this trial. 

2.1. Principle of vermiculture and vermicomposting 

Compost worms need five basic principles: a hospitable living environment, usually 

called “bedding”, a food source, adequate moisture (greater than 50% water content 

by weight), adequate aeration, and protection from temperature extremes. These five 

essentials are discussed below in more details according to Munroe (2007). 

2.1.1. Bedding 

Bedding is any material that provides the worms with a relatively stable habitat. This 

habitat must have the following characteristics: 

- High absorbency. Worms breathe through their skins and therefore must have a 

moist environment in which to live. If a worm‟s skin dries out, it dies. The bedding 

must be able to absorb and retain water fairly well if the worms are to thrive. 

- Good bulking potential. If the material is too dense to begin with, or packs too 

tightly, then the flow of air is reduced or eliminated. Worms require oxygen to live, 

just as we do. Different materials affect the overall porosity of the bedding through 

a variety of factors, including the range of particle size and shape, the texture, and 

the strength and rigidity of its structure. 

- Low protein and/or nitrogen content (high carbon: nitrogen ratio). Although the 

worms do consume their bedding as it breaks down, it is very important that this be 

a slow process. High protein/nitrogen levels can result in rapid degradation and its 

associated heating, creating inhospitable, often fatal, conditions. Heating can occur 

safely in the food layers of the vermiculture or vermicomposting system, but not in 

the bedding. 

Some materials make good beddings all by themselves, while others lack one or more 

of the above characteristics and need to be used in various combinations. Table 2.1 

provides a list of some of the most commonly used beddings and provides some input 

regarding each material‟s absorbency, bulking potential, and carbon to nitrogen (C:N) 

ratios. 

10

Table 2.1. Common Bedding Materials: 

Bedding Material Absorbency Bulking Pot. C:N Ratio 

Horse Manure Medium-Good Good 22 - 56 

Peat Moss Good Medium 58 

Corn Silage Medium-Good Medium 38 - 43 

Hay – general Poor Medium 15 - 32 

Straw – general Poor Medium-Good 48 - 150 

Straw – oat Poor Medium 48 - 98 

Straw – wheat Poor Medium-Good 100 - 150 

Paper from municipal waste stream Medium-Good Medium 127 - 178 

Newspaper Good Medium 170 

Bark – hardwoods Poor Good 116 - 436 

Bark -- softwoods Poor Good 131 - 1285 

Corrugated cardboard Good Medium 563 

Lumber mill waste -- chipped Poor Good 170 

Paper fiber sludge Medium-Good Medium 250 

Paper mill sludge Good Medium 54 

Sawdust Poor-Medium Poor-Medium 142 - 750 

Shrub trimmings Poor Good 53 

Hardwood chips, shavings Poor Good 451 - 819 

Softwood chips, shavings Poor Good 212 - 1313 

Leaves (dry, loose) Poor-Medium Poor-Medium 40 - 80 

Corn stalks Poor Good 60 - 73 

Corn cobs Poor-Medium Good 56 - 123 

Source: Munroe (2007). 

Researchers in Canada made an experiment to determine the feasibility of mixing 

municipally generated fiber wastes (e.g., non-recyclable paper, corrugated cardboard, 

and boxboard) with farm wastes (animal manures) and processing the mixture with 

worms (large-scale vermiculture) to produce a commercially viable compost product 

for farms. The results show that the greatest worm population increases were in the 

pure shredded cardboard or in the high-fiber-content cow-manure mixes, but that 

biomass changes were more positive in the chicken-manure series (GEORG, 2004). 

2.1.2. Worm Food 

Compost worms are big eaters. Under ideal conditions, they are able to consume more 

than their body weight each day, although the general rule-of-thumb is ½ of their 

body weight per day. Table 2.2 summarizes the most important attributes of some 

worm food that could be used in an on-farm vermicomposting or vermiculture 

operation. 

11

Table 2.2. Advantages and disadvantages of different types of feed. 

Food Advantages Disadvantages Notes 

Good nutrition; natural Weed seeds make All manures are partially 

Cattle manure food, therefore little pre-composting decomposed and thus ready 

adaptation required. necessary. 

for consumption by worms. 

Poultry High N content results High protein levels 

manure in good nutrition and a can be dangerous to Some books suggest that 

high value product. worms, so must be poultry manure is not 

used in small suitable for worms because 

quantities; major it is so “hot”; however, 

adaptation required research in has shown that 

for worms not used to worms can adapt if initial 

this feedstock. May proportion of PM to 

be precomposted but bedding is 10% by volume 

not necessary if used 

cautiously. 

or less. 

Sheep/Goat Good nutrition. Require 

manure 

precomposting (weed 

seeds); small particle 

size can lead to 

packing, necessitating 

extra bulking 

material. 

With right additives to 

increase C:N ratio, these 

manures are also good 

beddings 

Rabbit manure N content second only 

to poultry manure, 

therefore good 

nutrition; contains 

very good mix of 

vitamins & minerals; 

ideal earthworm feed. 

Must be leached prior 

to use because of high 

urine content; can 

overheat if quantities 

too large; availability 

usually not good 

Many U.S. rabbit growers 

place earthworm beds 

under their rabbit hutches 

to catch the pellets as they 

drop through the wire mesh 

cage floors. 

Fresh food Excellent nutrition, Extremely variable Some food wastes are 

scraps (e.g., good moisture content, (depending on much better than others: 

peels, other possibility of revenues source); high N can coffee grounds are 

food prep from waste tipping result in heating; meat excellent, as they are high 

waste, fees. 

& high-fat wastes can in N, not greasy or smelly, 

leftovers, 

create anaerobic and are attractive to 

commercial 

conditions and odors, worms; alternatively, root 

food 

attract pests, so vegetables (e.g., potato 

processing 

should not be culls) resist degradation 

wastes) 

included without and require a long time to 

precomposting. be consumed. 

Precomposted 

food wastes 

Good nutrition; partial 

decomposition makes 

digestion by worms 

easier and faster; can 

include meat and other 

greasy wastes; less 

tendency to overheat. 

Nutrition less than 

with fresh food 

wastes. 

Vermicomposting can 

speed the curing process 

for conventional 

composting operations 

while increasing value of 

end product. 

12

Food Advantages Disadvantages Notes 

Bio-solids 

(human 

waste) 

Excellent nutrition 

and excellent product; 

can be activated or 

non-activated sludge, 

septic sludge; 

possibility of waste 

management revenues 

Seaweed Good nutrition; results 

in excellent product, 

high in micronutrients 

and beneficial 

microbes 

Legume hays Higher N content 

makes these good feed 

as well as reasonable 

Grains (e.g., 

feed mixtures 

for 

animals, such 

as chicken 

mash) 

Corrugated 

cardboard 

(including 

Waxed) 

Fish, poultry 

offal; blood 

wastes; animal 

mortalities 

bedding. 

Excellent, balanced 

nutrition, easy to 

handle, no odor, can 

use organic grains for 

certified organic 

product. 

Excellent nutrition 

(due to high protein 

glue used to hold 

layers together); 

worms like this 

material; possible 

revenue source from 

WM fees 

High N content 

provides good 

nutrition; opportunity 

to turn problematic 

wastes into highquality 

product 

Source: Munroe (2007). 

Heavy metal and/or 

chemical 

contamination (if 

from municipal 

sources); odor during 

application to beds 

(worms control fairly 

quickly); possibility 

of pathogen survival 

if process not 

complete 

Salt must be rinsed 

off, as it is 

detrimental to worms; 

availability 

varies by region 

Moisture levels not as 

high as other feeds, 

requires more input 

and monitoring 

Higher value than 

most feeds, therefore 

expensive to use; low 

moisture content; 

some larger seeds 

hard to digest and 

slow to break down 

Must be shredded 

(waxed variety) 

and/or soaked (nonwaxed) 

prior to 

feeding 

Must be 

precomposted until 

past Thermophillic 

stage 

13 

Vermitech Pty Ltd. in 

Australia has been very 

successful with this 

process, but they use 

automated systems; EPAfunded 

tests in Florida 

demonstrated that worms 

destroy human pathogens 

as well as does 

thermophillic composting 

(Eastman et al., 2001). 

Beef farmer in Antigonish, 

Nova Scotia, Canada, are 

producing certified organic 

vermicompost from cattle 

manure, bark, and seaweed 

Probably best to mix this 

feed with others, such as 

manures 

Danger: Worms consume 

grains but cannot digest 

larger, tougher kernels; 

these are passed in castings 

and build up in bedding, 

resulting in sudden 

overheating. 

Some worm growers claim 

that corrugated cardboard 

stimulates worm 

reproduction 

Composting of offal, blood 

wastes, etc. is difficult and 

produces strong odors. 

Should only be done with 

in- vessel systems; much 

bulking required.

2.1.3. Moisture 

The bedding used must be able to hold sufficient moisture if the worms are to have a 

livable environment. Earthworms do not have specialized breathing devices. They 

breathe through their skin, which needs to remain moist to facilitate respiration. Like 

their aquatic ancestors, earthworms can live for months completely submerged in 

water, and they will die if they dry out (Sherman, 2003). The ideal moisture-content 

range for materials in conventional composting systems is 45-60%. In contrast, the 

ideal moisture-content range for vermicomposting or vermiculture processes is 70- 

90%. Within this broad range, researchers have found slightly different optimums: 

Dominguez and Edwards (1997) found that there is a direct relationship between the 

moisture content and the growth rate of earthworms. E. andrei cultured in pig manure 

grew and matured between 65 and 90% moisture content, the optimum being 85%. 

Until 85% moisture, the higher moisture conditions clearly facilitated growth, as 

measured by the increase in biomass. Increased moisture up to 90% clearly 

accelerated the development of sexual maturity, whereas not all the worms at 65-75% 

developed a clitellum even after 44 days. Additionally, earthworms at sexual maturity 

had greater biomass at higher moisture contents compared to worms grown at lower 

moisture contents. Canadian researchers in Nova Scotia tested moisture contents with 

different bedding materials, i.e. organic materials included shredded corrugated 

cardboard, waxed corrugated cardboard, immature municipal solid waste compost, 

biosolids (sewage sludge), chicken manure and dairy cow manure in a variety of 

combinations. They found that 75-80% moisture contents produced the best growth 

and reproductive response (GEORG, 2004). 

The moisture content preferences of juvenile and clitellate cocoon-producing (adult) 

E. fetida in separated cow manure have been investigated. It ranged from 50% to 80% 

for adults, but juvenile earthworms had a narrower range of suitable moisture levels 

from 65% to 70%. Clitellum development occurred in earthworms at a moisture 

content from 60% to 70% but occurred later at a moisture content from 55% to 60%. 

The tolerance limit for low moisture conditions on the growth of E. fetida was 

reported to be below 50% for up to 1 month (Reinecke and Venter, 1987). While 

Gunadi et al. (2003) found that the earthworm growth rate was fastest in the separated 

cattle manure solids with a moisture content of 90% with a maximum mean weight of 

earthworms of 600 mg after 12 weeks. The slowest growth rate of E. fetida was in the 

separated cattle manure solids at a moisture content of 70%. 

2.1.4. Aeration 

Worms require oxygen and cannot survive anaerobic conditions (very low or absence 

of oxygen). When factors such as high levels of grease in the feedstock or excessive 

moisture combined with poor aeration conspire to cut off oxygen supplies, areas of 

the worm bed, or even the entire system, can become anaerobic. This will kill the 

worms very quickly. Not only are the worms deprived of oxygen, they are also killed 

by toxic substances (e.g., ammonia) created by different sets of microbes that bloom 

under these conditions. This is one of the main reasons for not including meat or other 

greasy wastes in worm feedstock unless they have been pre-composted to break down 

the oils and fats. 

14

2.1.5. Temperature control 

Controlling temperature to within the worms‟ tolerance is vital to both 

vermicomposting and vermiculture processes. 

2.1.5.1. Low temperatures 

Eisenia can survive in temperatures as low as 0 o C, but they don‟t reproduce at singledigit 

temperatures and they don‟t consume as much food. It is generally considered 

necessary to keep the temperatures above 10 o C (minimum) and preferably 15 o C for 

vermicomposting efficiency and above 15 o C (minimum) and preferably 20 o C for 

productive vermiculture operations. 

2.1.5.2. Effects of freezing 

Eisenia can survive having their bodies partially encased in frozen bedding and will 

only die when they are no longer able to consume food. Moreover, tests at the Nova 

Scotia Agricultural College (NSAC) have confirmed that their cocoons survive 

extended periods of deep freezing and remain viable (GEORG, 2004). 

2.1.5.3. High temperatures 

Compost worms can survive temperatures in the mid-30s but prefer a range in the 20s 

( o C). Above 35 o C will cause the worms to leave the area. If they cannot leave, they 

will quickly die. In general, warmer temperatures (above 20 o C) stimulate 

reproduction. 

Hou et al. (2005) studied the influence of some environmental parameters on the 

growth and survival of earthworms in municipal solid waste. Earthworms attained the 

highest growth rate of 0.0459g / g-day at a temperature of 19.7˚C. The shortest growth 

period was 52 days at 25˚C, with the largest growth rate 0.0138 g /g-day. At 15˚C, 

20˚C and 25˚C, the fastest growth rate appeared, respectively, in 53 days, 34 days and 

27 days, with the growth rate 0.0068, 0.0123 and 0.0138 g /g-day. 

Activities in all soil organisms follow a typical seasonal fluctuation. This cycle is 

related to optimal temperature and moisture, such that a peak in activity usually 

occurs in the spring as temperature and moisture become optimal after cold winter 

temperatures. In systems where snow accumulates on the soil surface, such that the 

soil does not actually freeze, fungal activity may continue at high levels throughout 

the winter in litter. Decomposition may continue at the highest rates through the 

winter under the snow in the litter. In systems where moisture becomes limiting in the 

summer, activity may reach levels even lower than in the winter. When temperatures 

remain warm in the fall and rain begins again after a summer drought, such as in 

Mediterranean climates, a second peak of activity may be observed in the fall. If these 

peaks are not observed, this suggests inadequate organic matter in the soil. 

15

The growth of E. fetida in organic matter substrates with different moisture 

contents and temperatures has been studied by various authors in the laboratory. This 

species gained weight maximally and survived best at temperatures between 20˚C 

and 29˚C and moisture contents between 70% and 85% in horse manure and activated 

sludge (Kaplan et al., 1980). Edwards (1988) reported that the optimum growth of E. 

fetida in different animal and vegetable wastes occurred at 25-30˚C and at a moisture 

content range of 75-90%, but these factors could vary in different substrates. 

2.1.5.4. Worms‟s response to temperature differentials. 

Compost worms will redistribute themselves within piles, beds or windrows 

according to temperature gradients. In outdoor composting windrows in wintertime, 

where internal heat from decomposition is in contrast to frigid external temperatures, 

the worms will be found in a relatively narrow band at a depth where the temperature 

is close to optimum. They will also be found in much greater numbers on the south 

facing side of windrows in the winter and on the opposite side in the summer. 

Edwards (1988) studied the life cycles and optimal conditions for survival and growth 

of E. fetida, D. veneta, E. eugeniae, and P. excavatus. Each of these four species 

differed considerably in terms of their responses and tolerance to different 

temperatures. The optimum temperature for E. fetida was 25 °C, and its temperature 

tolerance was between 0 and 35°C. Dendrobaena veneta had a rather low temperature 

optimum and rather less tolerance to extreme temperatures. The optimum 

temperatures for E. eugeniae and P. excavatus were around 25 °C, but they died at 

temperatures below 9°C and above 30°C. Optimal temperatures for cocoon 

production were much lower than those for growth for all these species. 

2.2. Methods of vermicomposting 

2.2.1. Pits below the ground 

Pit of any convenient dimension can be constructed in the backyard or garden or 

in a field. It may be single pit, two pits or tank of any sizes with brick and mortar with 

proper water outlets. The most convenient pit or chamber of easily manageable size is 

2m x 1m x 0.75m. The size of the pits and chambers should be determined according 

to the volume of biomass and agricultural waste. To combat the ants from attacking 

the worms, it is good to have a water column in the centre of the parapet wall of the 

vermin-pits. 

Photo 2.1. 

Open Pit Vermicomposting 

Source: Kirungakottai 

(http://www.icasaweb.google.com) 

16

2.2.2. Heaping above the ground 

The waste material is spread on a polythene sheet placed on the ground and then 

covered with cattle dung. Sunitha et al. (1997) compared the efficacy of pit and heap 

methods of preparing vermicompost under field conditions. Considering the 

biodegradation of wastes as the criterion, the heap method of preparing vermicompost 

was better than the pit method. Earthworm population was high in the heap method, 

with a 21-fold increase in Eudrilus eugenae as compared to 17-fold increase in the pit 

method. Biomass production was also higher in the heap method (46-fold increase) 

than in the pit method (31-fold). Consequent production of vermicompost was also 

higher in the heap method (51 kg) than in the pit method (40 kg). On the contrary, 

Saini (2008) compared the efficacy of pit and heap methods under field conditions 

over three seasons (winter, summer and rainy) using, Eisenia fetida. A pit size of 2 × 

0.5 × 0.6 m (length × width × depth); and heap of size 2 × 0.6 × 0.5 m (length × width 

× hight) were prepared with the same amount of mixture. The pits and heaps were 

made under shady trees, in open field having a temporary shed made of straw, raised 

on pillars, to prevent them from direct sunlight and rainfall. The pits had brick linings 

and plastered bottoms. The pits and heaps carrying the organic waste mixture were 

covered with gunny bags and were watered at 10 liter/pit or heap daily, except on 

rainy days, to maintain moisture. On the basis of the results of three seasons, it was 

concluded that summer and winter were better for the pit method, whereas the rainy 

season favored the heap method for vermicomposting, utilizing Eisenia fetida. 

However, if the annual performance of the two methods is compared, the pit method 

produced more worms and more biomass. Therefore, on the latter grounds, the pit 

method of vermicomposting is more suitable than the heap method in the semi-arid 

sub-tropical regions of North-West India. 

2.2.3. Tanks above the ground 

17 

Photo 2.2. 

Open heap vermicomposting 

Source: Department of Agriculture, 

Andaman & Nicobar: 

(http://agri.and.nic.in/vermi_culture.htm) 

Tanks made up of different materials such as normal bricks, hollow bricks, local 

stones, asbestos sheets and locally available rocks were evaluated for vermicompost 

preparation (Nagavallemma et al., 2004).

18 

Photo 2.3. 

Commercial vermicompost operation 

at KCDC Bangalore, India. 

Source: Basavaiah (2006) 

2.2.4. Cement rings 

Vermicompost can also be prepared above the ground by using cement rings. The size 

of the cement ring should be 90 cm in diameter and 30 cm in height (Nagavallemma et 

al., 2004). 

2.2.5. Commercial model 

Photo 2.4. 

Cement ring 

vermicomposting. 

Source: Nagavallemma et al. 

(2004) 

This model contains partition walls with small holes to facilitate easy movement 

of earthworms from one chamber to another (Figure 2.1). Providing an outlet at one 

corner of each chamber with a slight slope facilitates collection of excess water. The 

four components are filled with plant residues one after another. Once the first 

chamber is filled layer by layer along with cow dung, earthworms are released. Then 

the second chamber is started filling layer by layer. Once the contents in first chamber 

are decomposed the earthworms move to the chamber 2, which is already filled and 

ready for earthworms. This facilitates harvesting of decomposed material from the 

first chamber and also saves labor for harvesting and introducing earthworms. This 

technology reduces labor cost and saves water as well as time (Twomlow, 2004). 

Water is saved by reducing evaporation from the surface during handling from one 

room to another in limited distances with minimum exposure to drier air outside. 

Tanks can be constructed with the dimensions suitable for operations. with small 

holes to facilitate easy movement of earthworms from one tank to the other.

19 

Photo 2.5. 

Commercial vermicomposting unit 

Source: Ecoscience 

Research Foundation: 

(http://www.erfindia.org) 

Vermicomposting based on the use of worms results in high quality compost. The 

process does not require physical turning of the material. To maintain aerobic 

conditions and limit the temperature rise, the bed or pile of materials needs to be of 

limited size. Temperatures should be regulated so as to favour growth and activity of 

worms. Composting period is longer as compared to other rapid methods and varies 

between six to twelve weeks. 

Figure 2.1. 

Commercial model of 

vermicomposting 

developed by 

ICRISAT. 

Source: Twomlow, 

2004.

2.3. The trial experience in Egypt 

2.3. 1. Earthworm types used: 

Four types of earthworms were brought to Egypt from Australia. from Australia: 

Lumbriscus Rubellus (Red Worm), Eisenia Fetida (Tiger Worm), Perionyx Excavatus 

(Indian Blue), and Eudrilus Eugeniae (African Night Crawler). 

2.3.2. Bedding 

Two types of vermiculture were used. The first was aiming at increasing the 

population and known as breeding vermiculture. The other type is the growing system 

aiming at converting organic matter into vermicompost. 

Commercially available perforated plastic containers, generally used for harvesting 

fruits and vegetables, each has the dimensions of 30cm wide, 50cm long and 20cm 

height were used for the breeding system. The first 5cm from the bottom was lined by 

a mixture of 2/3 shredded cardboard and 1/3 shredded newspaper, as bedding 

material. The cardboard and newspaper were wetted in a bucket of water; and 

allowing the excess water to run out before using. The next layer was 5cm of pH 

neutral castings spread evenly, then 1-2kg/m² of adult worms was supplied. Every 1-2 

days, 1-2kg of old manure was added. The surface was covered by 5cm shredded 

newspaper to keep moisture. 

The growing system was made of brick, with the dimensions 1m width, 0.5m height, 

and 3m long, and 0.5m between beds. The bottom of the beds was insulated by 20cm 

cement layer with a slight slope in order to facilitate collection of leachate (Photo 

2.7). 

The sequence of layers for the growing beds was the same as the breeding system 

except that the base of the bed was 10cm of cardboard/newspaper moist mixture, and 

the worms spread over the surface were the juvenile worms only. 

20 

Photo 2.6. 

Earthworms used in 


Source: Auther

2.3.3. Food 

21 

Photo 2.7. 

Trial vermicompost set up at 

Dokki. 


For the feeding of the breeding boxes, a mixture of rabbit manure and fresh kitchen 

scraps (citrus not more than 1/3 of food scraps) were used. The feed was mixed well 

in the mixing unit until it resembles dairy slurry. This was added in one strip along 

lengthwise wall in a maximum 5cm thick and 10cm wide. The feed was supplied 

again only when first strip is finished, and the new feed is added along opposite wall. 

As for the growing beds, the feed varies over time. Potato wastes from the 

manufacturers as potato peels were brought into the site to be dried and used as 

needed. Plant wastes from the location were shredded and mixed with animal manure 

to be composted for 1-2 weeks. This semi-composted material was the base feed that 

goes to the mixing unit with available fruits and vegetable wastes were brought from 

the nearby shops. The feed mixture was spread evenly on the surface of the beds. 

Photo 2.8. 

Mixture of food wastes and shredded 

plant material ready to be mixed in the 

rotating machine. 


In order to facilitate the work, a shredding machine was manufactured locally (Photo 

2.9) to prepare large plant material before mixed with other fruit or vegetable wastes 

using a rotating mixing machine.

2.3.4. Moisture 

Photo 2.9. 

The locally manufactured shredding 

machine. 


The rule of thump is to check manually for moisture on a daily basis to ensure that is 

not too dry, and when watering it is important not to make it too wet. Only fresh water 

was used. The breeding boxes were rearranged to make the first on the top to become 

the first from the bottom in order to avoid moisture variations between the boxes. 

The instructions were: 

- Water little and often – only the newspaper on the surface should be wet. 

- Water after checking the bed surface – if already damp, skip one watering. 

- Water should be used to supplement existing humidity and replace evaporation. 

- Use a spray or mist, not jets of water. 

2.3.5. Aeration 

The aeration was maintained as the bottom of beds or boxes has sufficient bedding 

material, and the surface is only shredded newspaper. The aeration could be a 

problem mainly if watering is not done properly leading to too wet conditions. 

Only the newspaper on the surface should be wet, and as mentioned earlier, water 

should be used to supplement existing humidity and replace evaporation. Beds 

must be mixed if: 

- The bed smells bad. 

- The bed is too wet. 

- The bed is hot or lukewarm to touch. 

- The worms are not distributed evenly on the surface. 

- The section of bed turned only when there is no food on the surface of 

the bed, and to a depth of 10-15cm only. 

22

2.3.6. Temperature 

The location of the growing beds was selected in order to avoid strong winds. A 

shading roof made of reed mats was installed in order to prevent direct solar radiation 

over the beds in summer. The mats were removed during the winter. 

Narrower mats were used to cover the beds, as they shade the growing beds, and also 

protect from birds, cats or dogs. 

The breeding boxes were laid under grape vines grown in a shaded greenhouse. In 

winter, the vines were pruned allowing sun to penetrate, while in summer the shading 

screens and the shade of the green leaves of the vines were pleasant, not only 

temperature wise, but also moisture as well. No other temperature control measures 

were used and this made growing and breeding conditions maintained stable over both 

summer and winter without major reduction in worms‟ activities. Temperatures 

maintained by daily checking. The general practice was to turn the beds or boxes 

when conditions were not suitable. When a bed is hot or lukewarm to touch, it must 

be mixed gently in order to allow air flow between the layers. In such cases, 

precomposted food must be used to prevent over heating from organic matter 

decomposition. It should be remembered that earth worms move from one side to 

another horizontally, and from the bottom to be close to surface and close or far from 

the food according to the comfortable combination of moisture and humidity. In such 

dynamic situations, temperature varies over time of the day, season, type of organic 

material, the covering material, as well as uniformity of the beds. 

2.3.7 Harvesting 

23 

Photo 2.10. 

The shaded growing beds at Dokki 

greenhouse station. 


Harvesting is an important procedure for the success of vermiculture operations. 

Regardless of the harvesting target, it should be done quickly and simply. The target 

of harvest could be castings, adult worms or babies and eggs. 

a- Harvesting castings is performed according to the following steps: 

- Selecting a growing bed.

- Placing narrow strips of 1-2 day old manure along each side of bed. 

- Waiting 1-2 days 

- Scooping out from the centre of the bed some castings. 

- Checking for eggs and worms – these should be very limited. 

- Collecting castings from centre of bed. 

- Spreading castings to dry. 

- When castings clump and crumble, pack into plastic bags with pinprick 

holes 

24 

Photo 2. 11. Harvesting of 

castings. 

source: Basavaiah (2006) 

b- Harvesting adult worms is performed according to the following steps: 

- Selecting a growing bed. 

- Placing narrow strips of 1-2 day old manure inside 70% shade-cloth along 

centre of bed. 

- Waiting 1-2 days. 

- Collecting worms and castings from side walls. 

Photo 2. 12. 

Harvested adult worms from the 

growing beds. 

Source: Author

- Checking size of worm – should be approaching reproductive state and 

clitellum should be noticeable. 

- Placing adult worms in breeding beds. 

- Checking castings for eggs - replace in growing bed. 

25 

Photo 2. 13. 

A couple of adult worms, with clear 

clitellum in both of them. 


c- Harvesting babies is performed according to the following steps: 

- Selecting a breeding bed. 

- Placing narrow strips of 1-2 day old manure or thin fruit peels (not citrus) 

inside 90% shade-cloth along centre of bed. 

- Waiting1-2 days. 

- Emptying contents straight into growing bed, under newspaper cover. 

- Checking for babies that may be caught in shade-cloth. 

d- Harvesting eggs is performed according to the following steps: 

- Selecting a breeding bed. 

- Baiting one side of the bed. 

- Wait 1-2 days. 

- Scooping out the bed on the opposite side of the bait. 

- Checking for adult worms and replace in bed. 

- Placing contents directly in growing bed. 

- Placing new bedding and food on empty side of breeding bed. 

Photo 2.14. 

Worm eggs. 

Source: Author

3. Use of compost worms globally in countries of similar climate 

The previous two chapters covered the historical background as well as the trial The 

Philippines, Cuba and India are examples of countries with similar overall conditions 

to Egypt Their technologies are simple and could be easily adapted to the local 

conditions. The United States of America is the model example of advanced 

technologies in vermiculture. Such examples will broaden the readers choice with 

what could be done in the future. Unfortunately, vermicompost and vermiculture are 

very limited in MENA region, Most of the studies look at utilization of local species 

to produce vermicompost. For example, Aldadi et al. (2005), Nourbakhsh (2007) and 

Yousefi et al. (2009) had some studies in Iran aiming for waste water treatment. 

Therefore, the following examples were selected to broaden the picture of commercial 

production. One could adapt or modify any of them or even create a newer version. 

3.1 Vermicomposting in Philippines 

The worms used are Lumbricus rubellus and/or Perionyx excavator. The worms are 

reared and multiplied from a commercially-obtained breeder stock in shallow wooden 

boxes stored in a shed. The boxes are approximately 45 cm x 60 cm x 20 cm and have 

drainage holes; they are stored on shelves in rows and tiers. A bedding material is 

compounded from miscellaneous organic residues such as sawdust, cereal straw, rice 

husks, bagasse, cardboard and so on, and is moistened well with water. The wet 

mixture is stored for about one month, being covered with a damp sack to minimize 

evaporation, and is thoroughly mixed several times. When fermentation is complete, 

chicken manure and green matter such as water hyacinth is added. The material is 

placed in the boxes and should be sufficiently loose for the worms to burrow and 

should be able to retain moisture. The proportions of the different materials will vary 

according to the nature of the material but a final protein content of about 15% should 

be aimed at. A pH value as near neutral as possible is necessary and the boxes should 

be kept at temperatures between 20 o C and 27 o C. At higher temperatures, the worms 

will aestivate and, at lower temperatures, they hibernate. The excess worms that have 

been harvested from the pit can be used in other pits, sold to other farmers for the 

same purpose, used or sold for use as animal feed supplement, used or sold for use as 

fish food or, may even be used in certain human food preparations (Misra and Roy, 

2003). 

African night crawler was introduced in the Philippines in the 1970s for the 

production vermicastings as an organic fertilizer. Its use today remains focused for 

this purpose. Recently, with rising cost of imported fishmeal, a study explores on the 

commercial farming of the species, specifically on its production economics, and the 

technical challenges in husbandry and operation (Cruz, 2005). This project was 

funding assistance of the DOST-PCAMRD 1 . The site chosen was a flat but slightly 

inclining area (around 3%) of approximately 1,000 m 2 . It is partially shaded by 

mahogany trees in the morning and the afternoon. The soil is clay loam with nearly 

neutral pH. Water used for the experiment was provided from an adjacent deep well. 

1 Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Development, (Department of Science and 

Technology) 

26

A total of 8 units of 1 m x 5 m earthworm plots were constructed on bare 

ground utilizing roofing material as sidewalls. The sidewalls had a total height of 

around 40 cm, of which 3-4 cm was sunk on the ground. Wooden stakes supported 

these sidewalls. Each plot was sub-divided into two units of 1 m x 2.5 m beds for ease 

of management. The unit was provided with a hapa net lining, to prevent the worms 

from digging beneath the substrate and escaping. Plots were covered with a plastic 

sheet to protect it from direct sunlight and rain. A horizontal wooden beam stretching 

the length of plot and held by vertical poles provided the support for the plastic sheet 

cover. Earthworm plots were kept covered with a plastic canopy, and opened only 

during inspection or when watering was done. 

27 

Photo 3.1. 

Earthworm plots showing plastic 

covers and support frame 

Source: Wormsphilippines.com 

Several types of substrates were used in the study; these were sugarcane bagasse, 

mudpress, spent mushroom substrate, and cow manure. The plots were watered every 

3-6 days, depending on the weather. During the dry months, watering was routinely 

done every 3 days. 

Based on the data and experience gathered in this study, the cost and return 

projection for a larger scale earthworm farm are based on the following key 

assumptions: 

- 3 full-time workers with a salary of PhP150 (3.33$)/day 

- Crop cycle of 60 days (2 months), or 6 production cycles/yr 

- Total of 52 units of 2.5 m 2 area earthworm plots 

- Stocking of 1 bed a day (26 working days a month) 

- Harvesting of 1 bed a day (26 working days a month) 

- Earthworm stocking biomass of 3 kg/plot and harvest biomass of 9 kg/plot, 

fter 60 days (200% biomass gain) 

- Total substrate volume of 600 kg/plot/crop cycle based on two 300 kg 

loadings 

- 70% recovery of vermicastings from total substrate weight 

- 20% recovery of vermi-meal from total earthworm biomass 

The total operational cost for 52 plots for a 2 month crop cycle is estimated at 

PhP80,401.79 (1783.74$), including the cost of equipment depreciation (capital cost 

assumed at PhP5,000 per plot, depreciated in 6 crops or 1 year). The total volume of

vermicastings produced per crop is 21,840 kg based on a production of 420 kg/plot 

(from 600 kg x 70% recovery). The total gross production of earthworm biomass per 

crop is 468 kg, based on a yield of 9 kg/plot (from the 3 kg starter and 6 kg of biomass 

gain). At the selling price of 0.11$/kg of vermicastings and 0.22$/kg for the 

earthworms biomass, gross sales for one crop cycle is estimated at 2356.11$ and 

1035.62$, respectively. This would provide the venture a net profit of around 742.73$ 

every 2 months, and a rate of return of 249.83% annually. The study suggests a 

potential for developing the use of earthworms in farm-made moist feeds. Such type 

of feed is simple to produce and is proven to work well when properly formulated and 

processed. In as much as the production technology for earthworm farming can be 

readily adopted at the village level, where organic raw materials abound and where 

labor is cheap. 

3.2 Vermicomposting in Cuba 

In Cuba, different methods are used for worm propagation and vermicomposting. The 

first and most common is cement troughs, two feet wide and six feet long, much like 

livestock watering troughs, used to raise worms and create worm compost. Because of 

the climate, they are watered by hand every day. In these beds, the only feedstock for 

the worms is manure, which is aged for about one week before being added to the 

trough. 

First, a layer of three to four inches of manure is placed in the empty trough, then 

worms are added. As the worms consume the manure, more manure is layered on top, 

roughly every ten days, until the worm compost reaches within a couple inches of the 

top of the trough, about two months. Then the worms are separated from the compost 

and transferred to another trough. 

The second method of vermicomposting is windrows, where cow manure is piled 

about three feet across and three feet wide, and then it is seeded with worms. As the 

worms work their way through it, fresh manure is added to the end of the row, and the 

worms move forward. The rows are covered with fronds or palm leaves to keep them 

shaded and cool. Some of these rows have a drip system - a hose running alongside 

the row with holes in it. But mostly, the rows are watered by hand. Some of these 

rows are hundreds of feet long. The compost is gathered from the opposite end when 

the worms have moved forward. Then it is bagged and sold. Fresh manure, seeded 

with worms, begins the row and the process again. Some of the windrows have bricks 

running along their sides, but most are simply piles of manure without sides or 

protection. Manure is static composted for 30 days, then transferred to rows for 

worms to be added. After 90 days, the piles reach three feet high. It has been reported 

that worm populations can double in 60 to 90 days. 

28

3.3. Vermicomposting in India 

Photo 3.2. 

Windrows vermicomposting method: 

in Havana, Cuba . 

Source: newfarm.org 

A study on production and marketing of vermicompost was carried out during 2007- 

08 in Dharwad District of Karnataka (Shivakumar et al., 2009). The study made an 

attempt to analyze the economics of vermicompost production, marketing methods 

followed, financial feasibility of vermicomposting and the problems faced in 

vermicompost production and marketing in Dharwad District. The players involved in 

vermicompost production activities are the farming sector, government organizations, 

private organizations and other agencies. This has encouraged many government and 

nongovernment agencies to promote vermicompost production. The rough estimates 

indicate that Karnataka state produces around 40,000 to 50,000 metric tons annually. 

The study pertains to Dharwad district. Two locations of the district, namely Dharwad 

and Kalaghatagi were purposively selected and two villages each were randomly 

selected from each location. For the economics of production, 10 vermicompost 

producers, who followed traditional heap system of vermicomposting, were randomly 

selected from each village. Thus, the total sample size was 40 producers. The results 

revealed that 70 % of vermicompost producers were illiterate. With regard to family 

type of vermicompost producers, it can be seen that as many as 60 % of them had a 

family, while 40 percent had joint families. A majority of them (~70 %) had annual 

income in the range of $257 to 1070$ followed by around 18 per cent of them having 

income of more than $1070 per annum and the rest having annual income of less than 

$257. With respect to method of production, heap method of vermicomposting was 

followed by 70 % of the producers and trench method was followed by the remaining 

30 %. With respect to method of production, a majority of respondents were found to 

produce vermicompost using heap method because it costs considerably lower 

compared to the trench method of production. The production of Vermicompost 

provided part time employment for the family members and hence it generated 

additional revenue for the family. 

The total cost of production of vermicompost per ton was 28.6$. The total marketing 

cost amounted to $4.3 per ton in channel-I (the producer-seller sold the produce to 

29

users in Dharwad) and $3.2 per ton in channel-II (the producer-seller sold the produce 

through BAIF to the users in Kalghatagi). The net returns per ton of vermicompost 

were $26 in channel-I compared to $24.5 in channel-II. The net present value for the 

vermicompost production was $2136.89, the benefit cost ratio at 12% discount rate 

was 3.44, internal rate of return was 38% and payback period was 1.71 years. 

Some islands in India such as Andaman and Nicobar islands are known for their wide 

variety of crops such as paddy, coconut, areca_nut, clove, black pepper, cinnamon, 

nutmeg and vegetables. About 2-3 kg of earthworms is required for 1000 kg of 

biomass, whereas about 1100 number earthworms are required for one square meter 

area. Non burrowing species are mostly used for compost making. Red earthworm 

species like Eisenia foetida and Eudrillus enginae are most efficient in compost 

making. Summary for Production of Vermicompost at Farm Scale is shown in Table 

3.1. 

Women self-help groupes (SHGs) in several watersheds in India have set up 

vermicomposting enterprises. By becoming an earning member of the family, they are 

involved in the decision-making process, which has raised their social status. One of 

the women managed to earn earned $36 per month from this activity. She has also 

inspired and trained 300 peers in 50 villages. (Nagavallemma et al., 2004). 

30 

Photo 3.3. 

Women self-help group involved 

in vermicomposting, to promote 

micro-enterprises and generate 

income 

Source: Nagavallemma et al. 

(2004)

Table 3.1. Summary for Production of Vermicompost at Farm Scale in Andaman and 

Nicobar (A&N) Islands, India: 

Parameters Low lying area Hilly area 

Low lying + 

Hilly area 

Area (ha) 0.08 5.08 5.08 

Cropping System 

Vermicompost requirement 

(kg/year) 

Crop residue requirement (kg) 

Paddy- 

vegetable 

2500 + 5000 

= 7500 

7750 Paddy 

system + 

homestead waste 

31 

1 Coconut/ 

2 Areca_nut 

spices 

Paddy-vegetable 

/ (1 ha) Coconut/ 

arecanut/spices (1 ha) 

2500 7500 + 2500 =10000 

1750 from 

coconut or 

areca_nut 

plantations 

3000 from paddy 

system + 6500 from 

plantations 

Gliricidia production from 

fence (kg) 

1250 1250 2500 

Cow dung required (kg) 6000 2000 Kg 8000 kg 

Number of animals required 

1 cow + 4 goats+ 

10 poultry birds 

1 cow 2cow 

Total waste for composting (kg) 15000 

5000 

20000 

Earth worms required (kg) 

7.5 

2.5 

10 

RCC rings required 

Number of units 

Capital Cost / year (A) 

6 rings 

2 (3 rings + 

3 rings) 

Expenditure/year 

2rings 

1 (2 rings) 

8 rings 

2 (4 rings+ 

4 rings) 

Cost of rings $ 191.8$ 191.8$ 255.8$ 

Cost of shed $ 53.3 53.3 74.6$ 

Running cost /year (B) 

Labour and Miscellaneous cost 127.9$ 127.9$ 159.86$ 

Packaging cost 79.93$ 79.93$ 106.6$ 

Total (A+B) 452.9$ 452.9$ 596.8$ 

Returns / year 

Vermicompost 

production (kg/year) 

Returns 

159.8 159.8 213.2 

1438. 8$ 1438. 8$ 1918.2$ 

Net returns $ /year 985.8$ 985.8$ 1321.6$ 

Source: MBM-CARI-XIV, Vermicompost Production, central agricultural research institute, andaman 

and nicobar islands,, Central Agricultural Research India.: http://cari.res.in/ 

1 Coconut and arecanut produces around 8100 and 6900 kg of wastes/year, respectively. Hence, 

on an average, 7500 kg of wastes will be available per year for composting. If all the available 

wastes are utilized for production, the requirement of cowdung will be 5500 kg/year which can be 

met from one cow. Including Gliricidia, the total waste availability will be 15000 kg/year which 

requires 7.5 kg of earth worms and 2 units comprising 3 rings + 3 rings for composting. The total 

production will be 7500 kg of vermicompost/year. The additional quantity of 5000 kg/year 

available can be sold. 

2 Areca nut is the seed of the Areca palm (Areca catechu), which grows in much of the tropical Pacific, 

Asia, and parts of east Africa

3.4. Vermicompost „teas‟ in Ohio, USA 

These aqueous vermicompost extracts or „teas‟ are much easier to transport and apply, 

than solid vermicomposts, and can duplicate most of the benefits of vermicomposts 

when applied to the same crops. Additionally, they can be applied to crops as foliar 

sprays. 

Work at The Ohio State University has shown that vermicompost „teas‟ increased the 

germination, growth, flowering, and yields of tomatoes, cucumbers, and other crops in 

similar ways to solid vermicomposts. The aerated, vermicompost „teas‟ suppressed 

the plant diseases Fusarium, Verticillium, Plectosporium, and Rhizoctonia to the same 

extent as the solid. 

Vermicompost „teas‟ also suppressed populations of spider mites (Tetranychus 

urticae) and aphids (Myzus persicae) significantly. 

Additionally, they had dramatic effects on the suppression of attacks by plant 

parasitic nematodes such as Meloidogyne on tomatoes both in terms of reducing the 

numbers of root cysts significantly and increasing root and shoot growth and Physicochemical 

characteristics of the feed and optimum worm density are important 

parameters for the efficient working of a vermicomposting system. The results 

showed that E. fetida growth rate was faster at higher stocking densities; however, 

biomass gain per worm was faster at lower stocking densities. Sexual maturity was 

attained earlier at higher stocking densities. Growth rate was highest in 100% cow 

dung at all the stocking densities when compared to textile mill wastewater sludge 

containing feed mixtures. A worm population of 27–53 worms per kg of feed was 

found to be the most favorable stocking density. Even when the physical conditions 

(temperature and moisture) and quality of waste (size, total organic carbon, total 

nitrogen, and total available phosphorus) are appropriate for vermicomposting, 

problems can develop due to overcrowding of earthworms. This study clearly showed 

that when E. fetida was allowed to grow at different stocking densities the worms 

grew slowly at higher stocking densities. The maximum body weight of earthworm 

was higher at lower stocking densities. Maturation rate was also affected by stocking 

rate. Worms attained sexual maturity earlier in crowded containers. Worms of same 

age developed clitellum at different times at different population densities. The results 

indicate that population of 27–53 worms per kg and 4–8 worms per 150 g/feed 

mixture is optimum (Garg et al., 2008). 

Most of the research on utilization of earthworms in waste management has focused 

on the final product, i.e. the vermicompost. There are only few literature references 

that have looked into the process, or examined the biochemical transformations that 

are brought about by the action of earthworms as they fragment the organic matter, 

resulting in the formation of a vermicompost with physicochemical and biological 

properties which seem to be superior for plant growth to those of the parent material. 

It has been reported that the storage of organic wastes over a period of time could 

alter the biochemistry of the organic matter and could eventually lead to the 

stabilization of the organic waste. Nevertheless, we hypothesize that adding 

earthworms to the organic wastes would accelerate the stabilization of these wastes in 

32

terms of decomposition and mineralization of the organic matter, leading to a more 

suitable medium for plant growth(Atiyeh et al., 2000). 

3.5. Vermicomposting in United Kingdom 

In the UK, although the number of indoor or enclosed systems appears to be 

increasing, most vermicomposting systems would appear to be based on either 

outdoor windrows or covered shallow beds. There is very little evidence of 

mechanisation and the use of labor saving equipment, such as earthworm harvesters, 

is rare. The bed is approximately 5m wide, 50m long and 0.5m deep. The beds 

typically comprise wooden sides covered in a woven semi-permeable fabric 

containing coir or shredded wood chip bedding placed directly on the soil surface. 

When installed, the bed would have been inoculated with starting culture of adult 

earthworms at a density of approximately 0.5kg earthworms per m3 of bed. Up until 

recently, most vermicomposting facilities were modest in size with bed areas around 

1,000 m 2 , but there is now a trend towards much larger units, as much as ten times 

this size. Very large units can process large amounts of waste, of the order of 

thousands of tonnes per year, making them comparable to many of the smaller 

municipal composting operations. 

There is very little information available on the nature of the vermicomposting 

industry in the UK and what little exists is considered to be commercially sensitive. 

There are at least four major suppliers of large-scale vermicomposting systems 

currently operating. In year 2000, there were around 90 individual operators with 

81,000 m 2 of beds. The total investment would have exceeded £1.25 million 

(Frederickson, 2003). 

33

4. Current on-farm and urban organic waste management practices 

in Egypt: gap analysis. 

The most important material for compost production is the organic material. There are 

two main sources of organic matter: farm wastes and urban wastes. In order to obtain 

such materials, one should understand waste management practices in the area. This 

chapter covers such an important subject. 

4.1. On-farm organic waste 

Agricultural wastes are defined according to the relevant legislation as “waste from 

agriculture that includes any substances or object which the holder discards or intends 

or is required to discard”. The disposal of biomass represents a problem for industries 

and society. It has been estimated that the off-farm disposed plant and animal wastes 

are 27 and 12 million tons annually, respectively. Burning of crop residues is a 

problem in Egypt, especially rice wastes. Egypt cultivates about 360.000 ha of rice 

according to 2008 statistics, with a production of 6 million tons of straw. 

It is up to the grower to decide the way of disposing his agriculture wastes. The most 

common practice for disposing is by dumping it at municipal waste sites, dumping it 

in the desert or by simply burning it. The failure of any management plan to tackle the 

agriculture waste, especially rice straw, is based on the assumption that this waste is 

free, and the grower has to give it away. In fact the grower realizes that the waste 

becomes valuable once collected and ready for transport. On the other hand, as long 

as the residues are in his property, no one could force him to hand it over. For him, 

burning the residue in site has some agricultural benefits, such as use of minerals of 

the ash, or getting rid of insects and diseases on above the ground as a result of 

burning. 

Even though the practice is well known, farmers in many parts of the world especially 

in developing countries find themselves at a disadvantage by not making the best use 

of organic recycling opportunities available to them, due to various constraints which 

among others include absence of efficient expeditious technology, long time span, 

intense labor, land and investment requirements, and economic aspects. 

In rural areas, in particular, the implementation of effective solid waste management 

systems is faced with a number of constraints. These constraints are related to 

environmental conditions, institutional/ administrative issues, financial matters, 

technical deficiencies and planning and legal limitations. 

As for agriculture waste, two options for treating rice straw are recommended. The 

first is to collaborate with the fresh universities graduates to collect such dispersed 

produced amount in order to be used in the compost making activities, the other 

option is to install small manufactures for fiber processing to produce packages for 

exported crops as rice straw could be used as a virgin material. 

34

4.1.1. Weak points in rice straw system in Egypt 

There is an extreme shortage of the combining, raking and baling machines, 

and no enough trucks to transport the ready straw bales (economical problem). 

In addition, the un-paved dirt roads that makes the transportation between 

farms and market (economical and managerial problems) almost impossible. 

On the other hands, agricultural co-operations have to work to provide a 

storage place for the ready bales, trucks and some mechanical equipment to 

overcome the previous obstacles. To facilitate such work, GIS maps should 

provide the farms sites in each governorate and a full study of the road status 

that will be used for the transportation. 

4.2. Urban wastes 

Main four systems were involved in solid waste management before the trend to 

privatization; The Governmental system including Cairo and Giza "Cleansing and 

Beautification Authorities". These central agencies were responsible for municipal 

solid waste activities including regulation of private service delivery. In spite of 

creating such powerful entities, they were not effective and faced lots of problems. 

The second system is the conventional Zabbaleen (informal waste collectors) system, 

which offers door-to-door service in return for the monthly fee. Thirdly, there is the 

formal private sector system, which has been introduced in larger cities and some 

provincial towns. Each private operator must have a collection license or a service 

contract for his assigned area from the local municipality. Finally, there is Non 

Governmental Organizations (NGOs), which perform some limited solid waste 

services, especially in rural areas and small cities. 

4.2.1. Overview of solid waste management problem in Egypt 

The problem of solid waste management in Egypt has been growing at an alarming 

rate. Its negative manifestations, as well as its direct and indirect harmful 

consequences on public health, environment and national economy (particularly as 

related to manpower productivity and tourism) are becoming quite apparent and acute. 

In large cities like Cairo and Alexandria the problem reached such serious proportions 

that they called for considerable government intervention and a series of judicious 

actions in the short, medium, and long term. 

In essence, the problem –as described in the National Waste Management Strategy 

2000- lies in the fact that: 

"The present systems could not satisfy the served community needs with its various 

strata for a reasonably accepted cleansing level, as well as in reducing the negative 

health and environmental impacts, or in improving the aesthetic appearance". 

35

The clearly evident symptoms of the problem are: 

- Various levels of waste accumulations at various places and locations that 

became liable to various vectors (rodents and insects) and environmental 

pollution, bad smells and appearance, aside from frequent uncontrolled open 

burning that all contribute to negative health and environmental impacts. 

- Ineffective and environmentally non-sound handling, treatment and recycling 

techniques that may pose health risks. 

- Prevalent open-dump type of random solid waste disposal as well as 

indiscriminate dumping leading to various associated health and environmental 

hazards. 

4.2.2. Main factors contributing to soil waste management problem 

Municipal solid waste contents for the years 2000-2008 and their distribution are 

illustrated in Table (4.1) and Table (4.2). The main factors contributing the solid 

waste problems in Egypt could be summarized as follows: 

- Actions taken in the past were not always sustainable, and the issues were not 

addressed in a comprehensive and integrated manner. 

- Accurate and reliable data concerning solid waste quantities, rates of 

generation, composition does not exist. Numerous attempts to quantify the 

problem have been made; however, these attempts are by no means 

comprehensive or rigorous. 

- Laws are not applicable with very weak mechanisms for enforcement. 

- The involvement of the private sector in SWM activities in Egypt has been 

minimal till the last decade when the private sector became more involved. 

- Ineffective recycling activities, especially with all kinds of waste mixed 

together without any plan to encourage sorting at source. Moreover, nonhazardous 

and hazardous wastes are mixed through the "waste cycle". 

- Low level of public awareness and improper behaviors and practices in 

relation to solid waste handling and disposal. 

Table 4.1. Municipal solid waste contents 2000, 2005 and 2008 

Waste % 2000 Waste % 2005 Waste % 2008 

Organic materials 45-55% 50-60% 50-60% 

Paper 10-20% 10-25% 10-25% 

Plastic 3-12% 3-12% 3-12% 

Glass 1-5% 1-5% 1-5% 

Metal 1.5- 7% 1.5- 7% 1.5- 7% 

Fabrics 1.2- 7% 1.2- 7% 1.2- 7% 

Others 11-30% 11-30% 11-30% 

Source: EEAA (2001) and (2006) and CAPMAS (2010) 

36

Table 4.2. Distribution of waste according to the sources in 2000 and 2005 

Source 

Estimated quantity 

2000 2005 

Municipal garbage 14-15 million ton 15-16 million ton 

Industrial 4-5 million ton 4.5 - 5 million ton 

Agricultural 23 million ton 25-30 million ton 

Sludge 1.5 -2 million ton 1.5 -2 million ton 

Clearing banks 

sewage outputs 


20 million ton 20 million ton 

Hospitals 100 -120 million ton 100 -120 million ton 

Construction 

demolition waste 


3-4 million ton 3-4 million ton 

Source: EEAA (2007) 

4.2.3. Waste generation rates 

The total quantity of solid wastes generated in Egypt is 118.6 million tons/year in 

2007/2008 as shown in Table (4-3) estimates, including municipal solid waste 

(garbage), industrial waste, agricultural waste, sludge resulting from sanitation 

treatment, hospital wastes, construction and demolition debris and wastes from the 

cleaning of canals and drains. Municipal solid wastes (garbage) include remains of 

households (about 60 %), shops and commercial markets, service institutions such as 

schools and educational institutes, utilities, hospitals, administrative buildings, streets, 

gardens, markets, hotels, and recreation areas, in addition to small factories and 

camps. 

Resource recovery reduces the quantity of raw materials needed in production 

processes. It may therefore reduce dependency on imports and save foreign currency. 

Reused rubber and plastics, for example, reduce the need for imported raw materials 

and the reuse of organic waste as compost reduces the dependence on imported 

chemical fertilizers. 

Resource recovery saves natural resources, particularly in the form of raw materials 

and energy. The recycling of aluminum, for example, results in energy savings 14 of 

up to 96%. An environmentally sound waste disposal system should therefore involve 

resource recovery as much as possible. 

However, waste recovery also creates employment opportunities that can conflict with 

environmental and health criteria. Although the reuse of organic waste helps to 

prevent environmental degradation and pollution, the recovery methods themselves 

are often not environmentally sound and may pose health hazards for workers. Within 

solid waste disposal systems environmental, socio-economic and health costs are 

rarely considered. The total costs of safe and environmentally acceptable solid waste 

disposal are poorly documented and are therefore underestimated. However, it is 

against this background that resource recovery needs to be valued and supported in 

order to use the potential of recovery to its full extent and to improve existing 

practices. 

For many people, working in the informal waste sector is the last resort in the daily 

struggle for survival. Incomes are usually minimal, and working conditions are often 

appalling. Nevertheless, some traders have managed to set up a feasible business that 

can earn reasonable profits. All these people provide a valuable service to society as a 

37

whole; in many cities the municipal refuse collection and disposal services are 

woefully inadequate, particularly in low-income areas, where waste accumulates in 

the streets. Improved recovery processes could therefore reduce the amounts of waste 

that need to be collected, and thus the costs of municipal waste disposal, and could 

help to reduce the risk to human health. 

For example, Cairo is renowned for its extensive informal waste recycling system. In 

the Cairo metropolitan area, 6000 tons of municipal solid waste is generated daily. 

The municipality collects about 2400 tons per day, while informal workers collect 

about 2700 tons of household waste per day using a fleet of some 700 donkey carts. 

The balance of 900 tons remains on the city streets, vacant lots and the peripheries of 

poorly serviced low-income areas of the city. 

Table 4.3. Distribution of wastes according to its sources and Governorates 2007/2008 

Governorate 

Source (ton/month) 

Municipal Industrial Agricultural Sludge 

m 3 

38 

Clearing 

banks & 

sewage 

Hospitals 

Construction 


demolition 

Cairo 1761668 149914 - - - 49860 811488 

Giza 139650 - - - - - 77100 

Qalyobia - - - - - - - 

Alexandria - 620500 1296506 - - - - 

Behira 27330 - 4099.5 5072500 - 1366.5 - 

Menofia 3281224 2749.42 20617.7 7168 169239 899.57 5035.83 

Gharbia 40860 32.5 10069.6 - - 0.5 - 

Kar ElSheih 65600 - 369619 - 3550 33 56 

Damitta 1124 337.2 - - - - - 

Daqhlia - - 456517 - - - - 

North Sinia 14.75 700 2083.3 8.3 - 31.7 283.3 

South Sinia 47 - - - - - - 

Port Said 18390.1 - - 2205 - 244.11 - 

Ismailia 17160 240 2918 369750 25000 35.9 17053 

Suis 118625 51666.7 - 18250 37083.3 243.33 760.417 

Sharqia 12000 - - - - 11.648 - 

Beni Suif 45420 178 - 335.3 - 32.88 975 

Minia 13406 53.4 45666.5 218 3186 33.08 2566 

Assuit 6120 - - - - - - 

New valley 2322 - 6166 416 666 14.7 583 

Sohag 2691 382 409 330 250 290 1919 

Qena 

2046 

480m3 

15 

90m 3 340 - 1500 9.5 

135 

12545m 3 

Asswan 76003.3 6360 64.1667 0.5833 0.833333 134.46 4080 

Red sea 

16650 

12750m 3 - - - - 2.55 

1500 

100m 3 

Luxor 550 50 250 120 150 8 360 

Total 

5649880.15 

13230 m 

833278 2215326 8587.88 203541.8 53255 924254.55 

3 90 m 3 - 5462713 m 3 37083.3 m 3 - 12645 m 3 

Source: EEAA (2007). 

The informal sector in Egypt plays a significant role in the solid waste services 

including waste recycling. This sector has been growing significantly over the last 

three decades. Therefore, it is essential to understand and recognize the complex role 

of this sector in solid waste services and to benefit from its existing infrastructure and 

expertise in any formal initiative (GTZ, 2004).

Over the last three decades, the informal garbage collectors have drastically 

developed the volume and scope of activities they perform. Solid waste operators in 

the informal sector generally perform five functions: collection, transportation, 

recovery, trade, and recycling. It is usually a family business where men do the 

transportation and trading and women do most of the sorting. 

The waste sorting and recovery is almost entirely done in the courtyard of garbage 

collector‟s houses. After waste collection and transportation to the Zabbaleen area, 

waste is sorted into: (i) organic waste that is fed to the animals, sold to others as 

animal feed, or sent for composting; and (ii) non-organic waste that is categorized 

into: paper, plastic, metal, glass, fabric, bones, and residual non-recyclable waste. 

Subsequently, another sorting process is then undertaken to sort different sub-types of 

each of the main categories while non-recyclable waste is transported to the municipal 

disposal site on a monthly basis. The recovered material is sold while the nonrecoverable 

materials are sent to the municipal dumps. Recyclable materials sorted 

into categories and sub-categories of paper, plastic, metal, glass, fabric, and bones are 

transferred to recycling workshops. 

In 2000, there were more than 220 recycling workshops in the Zabbaleen area of 

Cairo. About 90% own their workshop space (even if informally) while the remaining 

10% rent their workshop. A workshop employs six workers on average. The average 

area of the recycling workshop is 155 square meters but varies widely depending on 

the recycling activity performed. Generally plastic recycling and cloth grinders use up 

the most space and their workshops usually have an area more than 200 m 2 . Metal 

recycling industries need less space. 

4.2.4. Major conventional solid waste systems are 

- Governmental system: municipalities or cleaning authorities (Cairo and Giza) 

collect and transfer wastes from the streets, bins, public containers, and supervises 

public dumpsites and the operation of composting plants either directly or through 

the private sector. 

- Traditional “Zabbaleen” (garbage collectors) system: in this system, which date 

back to the early twentieth century, collectors collect garbage from household units 

and some commercial establishments, and transfer it to their communities 

(Zabbaleen villages) for sorting and recycling. Although working conditions and 

methods used, that are of minimal costs and do not comply with the requirements of 

health and the environment, yet they are considered by clients as a considerably 

good service. Further, this system achieves the highest recovery degree possible; 

sometimes reach 80% of the garbage collected by Zabbaleen, which is estimated by 

3000 tons per day in Cairo (about 30% of the total amount generated daily). Local 

private companies: these collect and transfer garbage in a number of Egyptian cities. 

They represent a developed model of the garbage collectors‟ system, working in 

limited areas under the supervision and control of municipalities or cleaning 

authorities. The final disposal of wastes takes place either at the garbage collectors 

communities or in public dumpsites. 

39

4.3. Overview of organic waste recovery options 

Since organic material forms all farm wastes and a large proportion of urban refuse, 

ways can be sought as to use this resource more effectively. Organic material can be 

reused in three ways: 

- to feed animals (fodder), 

- to improve the soil (compost), 

- to produce energy (biogas or briquettes). 

The first two options are already very common in economically less developed 

countries. In Lahore, Pakistan, for example, 40% of urban refuse is collected by 

farmers and used as animal feed and soil amendment. 

4.3.1. Feeding animals 

Raising animals is the easiest possibility; in most cases organic waste can be fed 

directly to domestic animals without pretreatment, but cooking or the addition of 

nutrients may sometimes be necessary. This strategy refers to diverting food not 

appropriate for human consumption to animal feed. While a potentially useful outlet 

for food scraps that otherwise would be disposed, this avenue tends to be limited 

primarily to food processors and beer industries and may not be feasible for urban 

institutions. In some cases, rural corrections facilities and land-grant colleges have the 

appropriate combination of circumstances that allows for the collection and feeding of 

certain food scraps to on-site animals. 

4.3.2. Compost 

Composting is the microbial decomposition of discarded organic materials under 

controlled conditions. The end product, compost, is used as an organic soil 

amendment. It promotes microbiological activity in soils necessary for plant growth, 

disease resistance, water retention and filtration, and erosion prevention. Compost can 

be used in various ways. As a soil amendment, compost enhances the physical, 

chemical, and biological properties of soil. The macro-nutrient value of compost is 

typically not high relative to fertilizers. Compost enriches the soil by increasing 

organic matter. Additionally, compost increases soil‟s capacity to hold water. By 

amending soil with compost, soil is better able to hold nutrients. Nutrients do not 

leach as easily; rather, they are released more slowly to plants, which can reduce the 

need for fertilizers. Compost can also suppress fungal diseases in soil, which can be 

particularly important to the golf and nursery industries. 

The utilization of earth worms, as discussed previously, could play a strong role in 

converting organic wastes, whether urban or rural, into a valuable vermicompost 

material. 

4.3.3 Landfill disposal or incineration 

This strategy refers sending organic materials to a disposal facility to be landfilled or 

incinerated. This is considered the least desirable strategy from a social, 

environmental, and sometimes economic perspective. 

40

The garbage from which the recyclable items have been removed is dumped by a 

mechanical front-end loader through a grid onto a conveyor belt, which transfers the 

garbage to a hopper and finally to a rotating, cylindrical drum, where the compost is 

sieved. At the end of the sieve, children anxiously wait for some useful remnants. The 

maturity of the compost is determined by measuring the temperature. 

Normally, the plant processes 30 tons (60 m 3 ) of compost per shift per day. During the 

season when land is prepared for cultivation (November to February) output is 

doubled by working two shifts per day. The plant provides jobs for 11 employees (1 

consultant, 1 plant manager, 1 technician, 1 electrician, 1 operation and maintenance 

manager, 3 security guards, 2 drivers, and 1 messenger). Mechanical parts for the 

plant can be bought in Egypt, although some electrical parts have to be imported. 

Although the quality of the compost appears to be good, it has been found to contain 

small pieces of glass and plastics, and large quantities of heavy metals. 

The major pressures on solid waste management in Egypt are exemplified in the 

increase in waste quantities generated due to the escalating population, on the one 

hand, and the change in consumption patterns in towns and villages alike, on the other 

hand, in addition to the lack of awareness and the wrong handling of solid wastes in 

general. Various studies on ducted during the last two decades in a number of 

Egyptian Governorates and cities point out to a significant decrease in municipal solid 

waste collection efficiency totally lacking in some rural areas. Consequently, large 

amounts of waste accumulations appeared in streets, vacant land between buildings 

and different areas in cities and populated areas throughout the past years. Such areas 

have become focal points of environmental pollution and represent significant 

pressures on human health as well as on the environment. 

41

Table 4.4. Egypt‟s Integrated Solid Waste Management Plan for the period 2007- 

2012. 

Governorate 

The cost of the program / million Egyptian pound 

Remove 

Accumula- 

tions 

Improve 

process of 

collections & 

transportation 

Establish 

intermediate 

station 

42 

Establish 

recycle 

centers 

Improve 

work in 

controlled 

Dumpsites 

Establish 

sanitary 

landfill 

Total with 

million 

Egyptian 

pound 

Cairo --- 13 13 30 40 30 126 

Alexandria 15 17 5 5 --- --- 42 

Giza --- 30 30 10 10 30 110 

Kalyobiya --- 19.5 19.5 10 10 30 89 

Dakahilya 60 56.5 16 10 --- 30 172.5 

Gharbeya 52 31.5 16 10 --- 30 139.5 

Monofiya 6 33 10 10 --- 30 89 

Beheira 8 47 13 10 --- 40 118 

Kafr-ELShiekh 6 27 10 15 --- 30 83 

Sharkia 10 48.5 10 10 --- 30 108.5 

Damietta 3 26 10 10 --- --- 64 

Fayoum 3 20.5 4 5 --- 15 62.5 

Bani Suif 3 22 5 5 --- 30 65 

Menia 10 28.5 6 10 --- 30 84.5 

Assiut 3 28.5 6 10 --- 30 72.5 

Sohag 4.5 35 7 5 --- 30 86.5 

Qena 4.5 30.5 7 5 --- 30 82 

Luxor 2 2 3 5 --- 15 27 

Aswan 6 17 3.5 5 --- 15 46.5 

Ismailia 7 17.5 3 5 --- 30 62.5 

Port Said 6 7 2.5 5 5 --- 25.5 

Suez 10 7.5 2.5 5 5 --- 30 

Red Sea 7.5 14 2 5 --- 30 58.5 

Matrouh --- 26 5 5 --- 15 51 

North Sinai --- 31 4 5 --- 30 70 

South 7.5 15 3 5 --- 30 60.5 

New Valley --- 15 2 5 --- 10 37 

total 234 666 218 220 70 655 2063 

Source: EEAA (2008) and (2009).

Table 4.5. Solid waste accumulation in the Egyptian Governorates. 

Governorate Accumulations in m 3 Governorate Accumulations in m 3 

Cairo 500000 Menoufia 280000 

Alexandria 344830 Kafr_El Sheikh 227000 

Giza 500000 Damietta 100000 

Behairah 600000 Gharbia 1500000 

Qalyubia 500000 Dakahlia 1300000 

Sharqia 510000 North Sinai 140000 

Matruh 146429 South Sinai 512000 

Port Said 359040 Suez 1168550 

Ismailia 350000 Red Sea 11885000 

Fayoum 292500 Beni Suef 150000 

Minya 951000 Assiut 250000 

Sohag 281845 Qena 258480 

Luxor 107022 Aswan 385240 

Total accumulation 23598936 

Source: EEAA (2008) and (2009). 

43

Table 4.6. Solid waste amount produced by governorates and the organic materials 

percentages for the year 2008. 

Governorate 

Cairo 

Alexandria 

Port Said 

Suez 

Damietta 

Behairah 

Kafr_El Sheikh 

Dakahlia 

Ismailia 

Menoufia 

Gharbia 

Sharqia 

Qalyubia 

Giza 

Fayoum 

Beni Suef 

Menia 

Assiut 

Suhag 

Qena 

Aswan 

Luxor 

Red Sea 

New Valley 

Matruh 

North Sinai 

South Sinai 

Total 

Source: CAPMAS (2010) 

Total waste 

(Ton/Day) 

44 

10000 

2700 

1014 

325 

1319 

911 

1361 

3718 

572 

897 

2960 

717 

1738 

9062 

706 

924 

785 

187 

98 

343 

364 

164 

395 

917 

260 

337 

287 

43061 

% of organic 

material 

50% 

65% 

34% 

50% 

70% 

60% 

80% 

70% 

75% 

65% 

65% 

70% 

70% 

60% 

60% 

65% 

50% 

75% 

80% 

90% 

8% 

50% 

20% 

25% 

40% 

20% 

75%

5. Potential of vermiculture as a means to produce 

fertilizers in Egypt. 

The concept of using earthworms to stabilize organic wastes (vermicomposting) is not 

new, and is in use on varying scales in a large number of both developed and 

underdeveloped countries. The capital cost of establishing systems has proven to be a 

barrier to the large scale use of vermicomposting, largely due to the high value placed 

on the worms themselves. 

Three factors contribute to the economic sustainability of the system. The first is the 

provision of a sustainable waste stabilization process, a service which can generate 

ongoing income but which, at the moment, is provided at minimal cost. The second is 

the creation of a saleable form of soil conditioner in the form of vermicast. The third 

is the production of protein in the form of worm-meal, a valuable source of amino 

acids, vitamins, long chain fatty acids and minerals for chicken and fish. 

Recycling of farm waste and composting is the other alternative to use mineral 

fertilizers. The increase in using compost in conventional agricultural will be coupled 

by a decrease in fertilizers usage and will result in higher quality production and less 

pollution hazards. 

Organic agriculture could be one of the important options that have a good 

opportunity in a wide zone of the newly reclaimed lands in Egypt. Wider production 

of organic material will increase the opportunities of more growers to join the organic 

farming. 

This chapter sheds the light on the fertilizer needs in Egypt and potentiality of using 

vermicompost as a fertilizer in Egypt, especially for organic farming. 

5.1. Fertilizer use in Egypt 

Application of fertilizers for growing crops is a routine operation in modern 

agriculture and one of the essential requirements for a high quantity and quality yield 

under extensive agricultural systems. Fertilizers are primary input in extensive 

agricultural systems, but they are considered as one of the important sources of air, 

water and soil pollution as well as greenhouse gases (greenhouse gases) of climate 

change. 

Egypt has a long history of using mineral fertilizers. On the other hand, excessive 

amounts of soluble salts in the soil can prevent or delay seed germination, kill or 

seriously retard plant growth, and possibly render soils and groundwater unusable. 

The degree of environmental impacts can depend on the fertilizer application method. 

The Egyptian fertilizers first production was from about 75 years ago. Now, Egypt is 

ranked as one of the countries that are highly consuming fertilizers in agricultural 

activities. The total production quantity of fertilizers is approximately reaches to 2 

million Mt, 32% of the total production is exported. Excessive use of such chemical 

components have a harmful effect on the Egyptian environment and human health, 

45

which needs to find other alternatives such as, organic agriculture that could be one of 

the important options that have a good opportunity in a wide zone of the newly 

reclaimed lands in Egypt. Moreover, recycling of farm waste and composting is 

another alternative for renewing soil fertility that has very low organic content 

(Table.5.1). Harvesting the fruits or grains, which is a small proportion of a whole 

plant system, and returning the remaining plant residues after composting back to the 

soil will result in a minimum need for additional minerals. Substituting any quantity 

of chemical fertilizers will result in a cleaner production and environment, as well as 

less emissions of greenhouse gases, and consequently the organic farming growers 

can get substituted through the clean development mechanism (CDM) of Kyoto 

protocol, which will be discussed in more details in a separate chapter later. 

Table 5.1. Physical and chemical analysis of various soil types. 

Item 

North 

Delta 

South 

Delta 

46 

Middle & 

Upper 


East Delta West Delta 

Soil texture Clayey Clayey Loamy clay Sandy Calcareous 

pH (1:2.5) 7.9-8.5 7.8-8.2 7.7-8.0 7.6-7.9 7.7-8.1 

Percent total soluble salts 0.2-0.5 0.2-0.4 0.1-0.5 0.1-0.6 0.2-0.6 

Percent calcium carbonate 2.6-4.4 2.0-3.1 2.6-5.3 1.0-5.1 11.0-30.0 

Percent organic matter 1.9-2.6 1.8-2.8 1.5-2.7 0.35-0.8 0.7-1.5 

Total soluble N (ppm) 25-50 30-60 15-40 10 – 20 10 -30 

ppm available P (Olsen) 5.4 -10 3.5-15.0 2.5-16 2-5.0 1.5-10.5 

ppm available K (ammonium 

acetate) 

250-500 300-550 280-700 105-350 100-300 

Available Zn (DTPA) (ppm) 0.5-4.0 0.6-6.0 0.5-3.9 0.6-1.2 0.5-1.2 

Available Fe (DTPA) (ppm) 20.8-63.4 19.0-27.4 12.4-40.8 6.7-16.4 12 - 18 

Available Mn (DTPA) (ppm) 13.1-45 11.2-37.2 8.2-51.6 3-16.7 10 - 20 

Source: FAO (2005). 

5.2. Fertilizer statistics 

The demand for food and other agricultural commodities is increasing in Egypt due to 

the increase in the population and improvements in living standards. Efforts continue 

to improve crop productivity and quality. Appropriate fertilization is one of the most 

important agricultural practices for achieving the agricultural improvement (FAO, 

2005). 

The main commercial types of fertilizers used in Egypt and the percentage of active 

ingredients are listed in Table 5.2.

Table 5.2. The main types of fertilizers used in Egypt 

Element Fertilizer 

Nitrogen - urea (46.5 percent N) 

- ammonium nitrate (33.5 percent N) 

- ammonium sulphate (20.6 percent N) 

- calcium nitrate (15.5 percent N) 

Phosphate - single superphosphate (15 percent P 2 O 5 ) 

- concentrated superphosphate (37 percent P 2 O 5 ) 

Potassium - potassium sulphate (48 to 50 percent K 2 O) 

Mixed and 

compound 

fertilizers 


- potassium chloride (50 to 60 percent K 2 O) 

-N, P, K, Fe, Mn, Zn and/or Cu in different formulations for 

either soil or foliar application. The micronutrient may be in 

either mineral or chelated form. 

The improvement in fertilizers production is achieved through the last decades. The 

total production quantity of fertilizers is approximately reaches to 2 million Mt, 32% 

of the total production is exported. The remaining quantity of production after 

exporting is less than the demand quantity by about 43%. Therefore, Egypt 

compensates the shortage in the demands by importing fertilizers by about 43% of the 

total consumption. Figure (5.1.) illustrates the increasing trend of fertilizers 

production and export. This increase is mainly due to the rapid agricultural horizontal 

and vertical expansion. 

1000 tonnes 

3500 

3000 

2500 

2000 

1500 

1000 

500 

0 

2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 

Production Import Export 

Figure 5.1.Production, imports and exports (1000 tonnes of nutrients) trends of 

fertilizers in Egypt 

Source: FAO ( 2010). 

47

The latest fertilizers consumption is shown in Figure (5.2) and illustrates that 

phosphorus and nitrogen fertilizers are the highest consumed type of fertilizers under 

Egyptian conditions. The most recent FAO statistics of 2010 indicated that there is an 

increase in nitrogen fertilizer consumption for 2008 (1721105 ton N) and phosphorus 

(229911 tons). This increase reached 60 and 61% in 2008 compared to 2002 for 

nitrogen and phosphorus, respectively. 

In addition, the continuous increase in fertilizers consumption is obvious and 

additional increase in fertilizer demand is expected in the next few years. 

1000 tonnes N 

2000 

1800 

1600 

1400 

1200 

1000 

800 

600 

400 

200 

0 

Consumption in nutrients (tonnes of nutrients) 

2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 

N P K 

Figure 5.2. Nitrogen, phosphate, potassium and total fertilizers consumption in Egypt. 


5.3. Vermicomposting as fertilizers in Egypt 

The production of consistently high-quality vermicompost is especially important to 

growers of high-value crops. The influence of production factors, such as the 

variability in the characteristics of the organic feedstocks, the length of time of 

vermicomposting, and the various parameters used as maturity indicators, are 

essential aspects to be considered in developing guidelines for assessing the quality of 

vermicompost. The vermicomposting industry anticipates a need for compost quality 

indicators as the production, utilization and marketing of vermicompost expands. 

Various organic wastes tested in past as feed material for different species of 

earthworms include sewage sludge, paper mill industry sludge, water hyacinth, paper 

waste, crop residues, cattle manure, etc. 

Many studies were conducted in order to evaluate vermicomposting from various 

waste sources as follows: 

48 

250 

200 

150 

100 

50 

0 

1000 tonnes P & K

5.3.1. Urban waste vermicomposting 

Home composting is a tradition in many countries, and is recommended as an 

important waste management option in the European Union policy. Advantages are 

that the waste does not have to be transported and that home gardens are provided 

with nutrients and humus. Furthermore, it has an educational importance in improving 

environmental awareness. Limiting conditions to its adoption are the availability of 

space for composting and compost application, and the lack of knowledge as to the 

correct composting procedure. This includes the selection of substrates that are 

suitable for home composting and the provision of suitable process conditions. 

In a city like Cairo, there is a possibility of producing vermicompost from individual 

houses. Having the suitable amount of earthworms in a double basket system with a 

perforated one inside, organic wastes could be vermicomposted without any odors or 

side annoyance. Although the system is not widely established, but with the proper 

awareness and public support could be implemented. This could both create an 

income to the poor families, and produce considerable amount of vermicompost that 

goes directly to agricultural activities. In addition, it has the following advantages: 

Saves money and the environment 

It reduces household garbage disposal costs; 

It produces less odor and attracts fewer pests than putting food wastes into a 

garbage container; 

It saves the water and electricity that kitchen sink garbage disposal units 

consume; 

It produces a free, high-quality soil amendment (compost); 

It requires little space, labor, or maintenance; 

It spawns free worms for fishing. 

Several options for integrating the Zabbaleen into the international companies‟ 

contracts were explored during interviews with staff members at CID, raising the 

issue of local-global confrontation and the possible contribution of a private–public 

partnership. The Zabbaleen could act as sub-contractors, as they implement a 

“segregation system”, separating organic from non-organic waste. They could 

continue to collect household waste while medical and industrial waste and landfill 

management could be handled by multinational companies. Transfer stations could be 

established where a major proportion of non-organic waste could be recovered and 

directed to existing traders. The Zabbaleen could receive inorganic waste from 

companies as input to their recycling businesses, as small communitybased 

composting facilities are established. In such ways the traditional informal Zabbaleen 

system could be integrated into the new privatized large-scale waste collection system 

to the mutual benefit of both sides. Despite such suggestions, recent developments 

have demonstrated the unlikelihood of fruitful local–global partnerships. Instead, 

international companies favour training the Zabbaleen as waged employees, while 

allowing them to search landfill sites for organic waste for their pig-rearing activities 

(Fahmi, 2005). 

49

5.3.2. Vermicomposting of agricultural wastes 

Vermicomposting of crop residues and cattle shed wastes can not only produce a 

value-added product (vermicomposting) but at the same time acts as best culture 

medium for large-scale production of earthworms. 

The composting ability and growth performance of E. eugeniae were evaluated by 

using a variety of combinations of crop residues and cattle dung, under laboratory 

conditions. The best results in terms of nutrient enhancement in the end product were 

recorded in vermicomposted beds as compared to experimental composting without 

worms. Moreover, vermicompost showed higher amounts of total nitrogen, available 

phosphorous, exchangeable potassium and calcium content. The ready end product 

showed relatively lower C:N ratio and comparatively was a more stabilized product. 

A considerable amount of worm biomass and cocoons were produced in different 

treatments. However, quality of the feed stuff, used in this study was of a primary 

importance, determining the earthworm‟s growth parameter, e.g. individual biomass, 

cocoon numbers, growth rate. The results suggest that crop residues can be used as an 

efficient culture media for large-scale production of E. eugeniae for sustainable land 

restoration practices at low-input basis (Suthar, 2008). 

5.3.3. Vermicomposts effect on plant growth 

It is well established that earthworms have beneficial physical, biological and 

chemical effects on soils and can increase plant growth and crop yields in both natural 

and managed ecosystems. These beneficial effects have been attributed to 

improvements in soil properties and structure, to greater availability of mineral 

nutrients to plants, and to biologically active metabolites acting as plant growth 

regulators. 

Earthworm (Eisenia foetida) compost strongly affects soil fertility by increasing 

availability of nutrients, improving soil structure and water holding capacity. It has 

been suggested that earthworms can increase the velocity of decomposition of organic 

residues and also produce several bioactive humic substances. These substances are 

endowed with hormone like activity that improves plant nutrition and growth. Humic 

acids (HAs) comprise one of the major fractions of humic substances. 

An experiment was conducted to pinpoint precisely a biological mechanism by which 

vermicomposts can influence plant growth positively and produce significant 

increases in overall plant productivity, independent of nutrient uptake. Mixing the 

container media with increasing concentrations of vermicompost-derived humic acids 

increased plant growth, and larger concentrations usually reduced growth, in a pattern 

similar to the plant growth responses observed after incorporation of vermicomposts 

into container media with all needed mineral nutrition. Plant growth was increased by 

treatments of the plants with 50–500 mg/kg humic acids, but decreased significantly 

when the concentrations of humic acids in the container medium exceeded 500–1000 

mg/kg. Although some of the growth enhancement by humic acids could have been 

partially due to increased rates of nitrogen uptake by the plants, most of the results 

reported exceed those that would result from such a mechanism, very considerably. 

However, this does not exclude the possibility of other contributory mechanisms by 

50

which humic acids could affect plant growth. There is a further alternative explanation 

for the hormone-like mode of action of humic acids in these experiments. In our 

laboratory, we have extracted plant growth regulators such as indole acetic acid, 

gibberellins and cytokinins from vermicomposts in aqueous solution and 

demonstrated that these can have significant effects on plant growth. Such substances 

may be relatively transient in soils. However, there seems a strong possibility that 

such plant growth regulators which are relatively transient may become adsorbed on 

to humates and act in conjunction with them to influence plant growth (Atiyeh et al., 

2002). 

Vermicompost has been promoted as a viable alternative container media component 

for the horticulture industry. The addition of vermicompost in media mixes of 10% 

and 20% volume had positive effects on plant growth. The greatest growth 

enhancement was on seedlings during the plug stage of the bedding plant crop cycle. 

Growth increases up to 40% were observed in dry shoot tissue and leaf area of 

marigold, tomato and green pepper. The increased vigor exhibited was also 

maintained when the seedling plugs were transplanted into larger containers with 

standard commercial potting substrates without vermicompost. Additionally, there 

were benefits apparently resulting from the nutritional content of the vermicompost. 

All of the plugs were produced without the input of additional fertilization. The 

potential exists for growers to use vermicompost-amended commercial potting 

substrates during the plug production stage without the use of additional fertilizer 

(Bachman and Metzger, 2008). 

5.4. Potentiality of vermicompost as a source of fertilizer in Egypt 

Considering urban wastes as mentioned in the previous chapter for the year 2005 

ranged from 15 to 16 million tons, compostable matter in the wastes as 50-60% and 

average collection efficiency as 70%. Egypt has an estimated potential of producing 

from urban wastes about 1.99 million tons of compost each year containing about 

21,000 ton N, 5,000 ton P, and 10,640 ton K (Table 5.2). Inappropriate solid waste 

management and production of poor quality of composts are main constraint in 

exploiting such large amount plant nutrients for increasing crop productivity. 

On the other hand, agricultural wastes in Egypt could produce almost four times 

compost material compared to urban wastes, assuming that 100% of it is organic 

material and all of it is accessible to the grower. There are other advantages of this 

waste, which are the availability of space and directly linked to the farm. This 

minimizes the need of collection and transportation. The amounts of N, P and K that 

could be produced from agricultural wastes are almost four folds of that of the urban 

wastes. 

From both sources, the total composted material is almost 10 million tons, containing 

about 10 thousand tons of nitrogen, 20 thousand tons of phosphorus, and 41 thousand 

tons of potassium. Nitrogen fertilizer obtained from organic wastes could save up to 

5.9% of that consumed in 2008; while more than 10% of phosphorus fertilizers 

consumed in 2008 could be saved. 

51

Table 5.3. Potential nutrients that could be obtained from urban and agriculture 

wastes in Egypt* 

Waste Ton/year 

Fraction 

organic 

Fraction 

efficiency 

collection 

Fraction 

of waste 

to be 

compost Quantity, Ton Type 

15500000 0.55 0.70 0.33 1,988,968 Compost 

20,815 N 

Urban 

5,088 P 

10,639 K 

23000000 1.00 1.00 0.33 7,665,900 Compost 

Agriculture 

80,225 

19,610 

N 

P 

41,004 K 

9,654,868 Compost 

Total 

101,039 

24,698 

N 

P 

51,642 K 

*Estimated as the assumptions of fractions and fixed percent of N, P and K in the 

compost. 

Source: CAPMAS (2010) 

52

6. Current animal feed protein supplements production 

in Egypt and the potential to substitute desiccated 

compost worms as an animal feed supplement or use 

of live worms in aquaculture industries. 

Production of vermicompost and vermiculture is covered in previous chapters. In 

order to utilize the products and byproducts of the industry, clear end-users should be 

defined in order to facilitate the development of the industry. One important possible 

consumption chain is the utilization in animal and fish feed protein supplement. This 

chapter handles such possibilities. 

6.1. Animal and aquaculture feed 

The basic reason for the poor performance of livestock in developing countries is the 

seasonal inadequacy of feed, both in quantity and quality (Makkar, 2002). These 

deficiencies have rarely been corrected by conservation and, or, supplementation, 

often for lack of infrastructure, technical know-how, poor management, etc. In 

addition, many feed resources that could have a major impact on livestock production 

continue to be unused, undeveloped or poorly utilized. A critical factor in this regard 

has been the lack of proper understanding of the nutritional principles underlying their 

utilization. 

Poultry waste has been successfully used in ruminant rations in Egypt. The total 

bacterial count was considerably lower in sun dried poultry waste compared to the 

oven dried waste. Aflatoxins were not detectable in the concentrate mixtures 

containing poultry litter. Both feed intake and milk production in ewes was not 

affected by the inclusion of 14% poultry waste as a dietary supplement, suggesting 

that cottonseed meal and other high protein feed ingredients could be, at least partially 

replaced, by poultry waste without any loss in productivity. The weight and age at 

puberty of lambs fed a ration containing 17% poultry waste was similar to those given 

a ration without any poultry waste. Similarly, poultry waste up to 20% in the diet had 

no detrimental effect on growth in cattle and buffaloes and on the reproductive 

performance in buffalo heifers evaluated. The inclusion of 15% poultry waste in 

mixed concentrate feed decreased the cost of feed by about 10% (Makkar, 2002). 

It is an ancient practice in China to feed earthworms to livestock and poultry, i.e. to 

dig earthworms from fields to feed chickens and ducks or to graze chicken and ducks 

to feed on earthworms at ease. Earthworms are rich in nutrients with high protein. 

According to measurements, the crude protein in dry earthworms reaches about 70%, 

while in wet earthworms about 10-20%. The amino acids of earthworm protein are 

complete, especially the contents of Glutamic acid, Leucine and Lysine, among which 

Arginine is higher than fish meal, and Tryptophan is 4 times higher than in blood 

powder, and 7 times higher than in cow liver. Earthworms are rich in Vitamin A and 

Vitamin B. There is 0.25mg of Vitamin B1 and 2.3mg of Vitamin B2 in each 100 g of 

earthworms. Vitamin D accounts for 0.04%-0.073% of earthworms‟ wet weight. In 

view of the great effects of El Niño, fish meal from Peru can not meet the market 

53

demand in the world. Thus earthworms are the best substitute with the functions of 

supplements, anti-diseases and allurement. Earthworms are used as additive to 

produce pellet feeds in the USA, Canada and Japan, which account for 50% of the 

pellet feed market. However, when earthworms are used as feeds, one must note that 

earthworms degrade quickly and should be processed within several hours by hot 

wind or freeze drying. In general earthworms contain more pollutants than fish meal 

because it is hard to clean residues from the epidermis and seta of earthworms. Some 

people realize that it is better to feed earthworms in wet. For fowls, the earthworm 

amount could reach 50% and for swamp eel 100% (Kangmin, 2005). 

6.2. Worm meal 

Worm meal or vermin-meal is an excellent source of protein and nutrients. 

Earthworms typically contain over 80% moisture and can be fed directly to animals. 

To preserve the worms and process them into to a more convenient food they can be 

dried and ground up into worm meal. 

In addition to the protein, worms are a valuable source of essential amino acids and 

vitamins. The fats in worms are highly unsaturated and no additional antioxidants 

need to be added to the worm meal to preserve it. 

Worm meal may replace fish meal and meat and bone meal. Broilers fed with 

earthworm meal consumed 13% less feed for the same weight gain than those fed 

with ordinary broiler diet, but given live in earthworms matured 15 days earlier than 

the control group without earthworms (Hertrampf and Piedad-Pascual, 2000). 

Earthworms are the best bait for anglers. Pay attention to the palatability of various 

species of earthworms. It is said that Eisenia foetida can produce a substance fish do 

not like. In Australia they culture 3-4 species of earthworms: red wiggler Lumbricus 

rubellus, Indian blue Perionyx excavatus, African earthworm Eudrilus eugeniae, and 

Eisenia foetida. Table (6.1) shows the different composition of several earth worms. 

Different fish prefer different species of earthworms as bait, the palatability of 

earthworms is out of question. Table (6.2) shows the richness of vermin meal with 

essential amino acids, while Table (6.3) demonstrate the macro and trace mineral 

contents of freeze dried vermi meal (Eudrilus eugeniae). 

The protein content of earthworms is complete, containing 8-9 essential amino acids 

for human beings, including 9-10% tasty glutamic acid. Compared with other meat, 

the protein of earthworms is higher than meat and the lipid, 2% lower than meat. 

From the view point of health, earthworms might be one of ideal food with high 

protein and low lipid for human beings. In southern China and Taiwan people used to 

eat earthworms. There are many dishes of earthworms: mince meat of earthworm as 

stuffing for dumplings to increase delicacy and prevent it from going bad. It is said 

that spiced sauce from ROK has a big market in SEA. For human consumption a 

worm farm should use beer spent grains or mushroom spent substrate to feed 

earthworms. The Edible Fungi Scientific Center in Qingyuan as well as Shanghai 

Academy of Agriculture has developed artificial logs which do not require pure 

hardwood chips. Each year Qingyuan produces some 50,000 tons of used logs. This 

substrate of shiitake Lentinus edodes could also generate as much as 5,000 tons of 

54

earthworms and in turn can be processed to quality human food. It is said that there 

are 200 kinds of food from earthworms in the U.S.A (Kangmin, 2005). Earthworms 

are the future of seafood. Not yet, but they will be (Shiner , 2009). 

Table 6.1. Chemical composition % of various worm meal (in dry matters) 

Eisenia Lumbricus 

foetida terrestils 

Moisture 

83.3 81.1 

Crude protine 57.4 56.1 

Crude fat 13.2 2.1 

Ash 

10.8 28.7 

Crude fiber 0.7 - 

N-free extract 18.2 13.1 

Source: Hertrampf and Piedad-Pascua l(2000). 

55 

Allolobophora 

longa 

78.3 

50.4 

1.4 

35.2 

- 

12.9 

Table 6.2. Essential amino acid profile of vermi meals (g/16 gN) 

Eisenia Lumbricus 

foetida terrestils 

Arginine 

3.67 3.17 

Histidine 

1.39 1.38 

Isoleucine 2.85 2.20 

Leucine 

4.90 4.11 

Lysine 

4.16 3.52 

Methionine 0.83 1.11 

Phenylalanine 2.65 2.02 

Theronine 3.07 2.48 

Tryptophan 0.67 0.44 

Valine 

3.11 2.30 

Source: Hertrampf and Piedad-Pascua l( 2000). 

Allolobophora 

longa 

3.15 

1.01 

2.24 

3.57 

3.43 

0.5 

2.65 

2.11 

- 

2.46 

Neries sp. Eudrilus 

eugeniae 

- 

85.3 

47.0 56.4 

25.2 7.9 

6.6 13.1 

-0.6 5.9 

20.6 17.8 

Eudrilus 

eugeniae 

4.95 

1.58 

2.82 

5.22 

4.50 

1.04 

2.47 

3.22 

0.63 

3.39 

Table 6.3. Macro and trace mineral contents of freeze dried vermi meal (Eudrilus 

eugeniae) 

Calcium 

Phosphorus 

Sodium 

Iron 

Zinc 

Copper 

Cadmium 

% 

% 

% 

mg/kg 

mg/kg 

mg/kg 

mg/kg 

Source: Hertrampf and Piedad-Pascual (2000). 

1.5 

0.9 

0.2 

100.0 

122.5 

7.8 

21.0 

The key to the multi-pronged success of earthworms as aquaculture fodder is their diet 

of organic wastes. Land-based pollution, such as festering animal manure, is an 

enormous problem for coastal fisheries impacted by runoff. Britain alone produces 84 

megatons of cow manure, 9 megatons of pig waste and 5 megatons of chicken waste 

each year, much of which flows to the coast as runoff. This pollution is a significant 

contributor to the declining productivity of wild fish stocks, as fish struggle to cope 

with their heavily contaminated environment. Earthworms solve this problem by 

converting land animal wastes into high-protein aquaculture feed. Earthworms 

convert cow manure into dry matter at a remarkable 10 percent clip, such that 

Britain‟s 84 megatons of cow manure could produce 8.4 megatons of dehydrated

earthworms, delivering a protein punch of 5.9 million tons. The recipe is 

uncomplicated: find crap, add worms, wait, then harvest, dry and grind. 

The rock-solid implications of earthworms for aquaculture have already been verified. 

Two species of worms were fed to a group of trout, a classic intensive aquaculture 

species, while another group was fed commercial trout pellets made from fishmeal. 

The results were splendid: the earthworm-fed fish grew as well or better than their 

fishmeal-fed counterparts. Another study indicated the effectiveness of earthworm 

feed on tilapia aquaculture, finding that tilapia actually grew better with earthworm 

supplements than with fishmeal. 

Using earthworms as fish feed presents a truly novel method for reducing the impact 

of aquaculture on marine ecosystems. The benefits are threefold. Earthworms eat 

polluting manure, improving water quality of coastal fisheries and aiding in recovery 

from over-fishing. Eliminating fishmeal from aquaculture diets will also significantly 

reduce overall stress on wild fisheries as well as allow for production cost control 

independent of the price of wild fish. Thirdly, and not insignificantly, earthworms can 

be used in place of fishmeal to feed land animals such as cows, pigs and chickens. At 

present, land animal consumption accounts for a great deal of fishmeal intake, and 

transitioning livestock to an earthworm diet will take huge pressure off wild fisheries. 

Earthworms are a triple-win solution to intensive aquacultures‟ appetite for fishmeal. 

The worms are by no means a silver bullet as they cannot solve all of aquaculture‟s 

problems immediately. Pollution from intensive crustacean aquaculture will remain a 

serious threat to coastal habitats until the lagoons are either moved inland or farmed 

less intensively. This is to say nothing of mollusk aquaculture, a genuine champion of 

sustainable protein production. 

Earthworms, with an important high protein component, are used to feed chickens, 

pigs, rabbits, and as a dietary supplement for ornamental fish or other fish species 

difficult to raise and Some authors claim that in breeding of aquarium fish it is 

essential to use a variety of food. 

Vermicompost produced in ecological boxes can be used for feeding plants and the 

created biomass can be a highly nutritious food for animals, because it consists of 58– 

71% protein, 2.3–9.0% fat depending on earthworm species and the way earthworms 

are fed with organic waste. 

6.3. Earthworms, the sustainable aquaculture feed of the future 

Aquaculture is a booming global industry: from 2002 to 2006, world aquaculture 

production increased from 40.4 million metric tons to 51.7 million metric tons. Over a 

three-decade span from 1975 to 2005, aquaculture production grew tenfold. During 

this same span of time, however, wild capture fell from 93.2 to 92.0 million metric 

tons. The inherent exhaustibility of the oceans necessitates that economically efficient 

and environmentally responsible aquaculture fill the gap between supply and demand 

for finfish and shellfish worldwide. 

56

Genetic contamination and pollution, both chemical and biological, are serious 

blemishes on the face of responsible aquaculture; however, the solution is simple. 

Floating or land-based solid-wall tanks, such as those already in use in British 

Columbia, eliminate escapes altogether. Wastes and uneaten feed, all collected within 

the tank, are pumped through a filter, eliminating their respective eutrophying and 

polluting effects. The real problem with status quo aquaculture isn‟t genetic 

contamination or pollution, but rather the inefficiency and un-sustainability of 

fishmeal as used for fish feed. 

Carnivorous finfish aquaculture, the type employed in salmon and tuna farming, 

typically depends on fishmeal, an oily paste made from ground fishes such as 

mackerel and sardines, for feed. Each pound of farmed fish for human consumption 

demands many pounds of fishmeal throughout the farming process, presenting a 

serious barrier to the expansion of responsible aquaculture. Tilapia, a onetime dining 

hall staple, is only 25 percent calorie efficient, meaning that it takes four tons of 

fishmeal to grow only one ton of tilapia. Sardines and mackerel serve as important 

sources of protein worldwide and as the diet of larger, commercially valuable stocks. 

New sources of feed must be developed in order to facilitate industrial expansion and 

ease aquaculture‟s strain on the world‟s over-fished oceans. 

Organic manures if not decomposed completely before application in aquaculture 

pond may deteriorate the water quality as they utilize oxygen during decomposition. 

Therefore, the amount of any organic manure to be added in the pond mainly depends 

upon its biological oxygen demand (BOD), as their excessive use may cause severe 

dissolved oxygen depletion in the pond and results in production of toxic gases like 

CO2, H2S, NH3, etc., and can spread parasitic diseases. 

A study suggests higher potential of utilizing vermicompost as compared to cow dung 

and hence can be used more effectively for manuring semi-intensive carp culture 

ponds without affecting the hydro biological parameters. In developing country like 

India, agriculture and livestock work in integration, where livestock waste (mainly 

cow dung) is the most commonly used organic manure in agriculture and aquaculture. 

Hence, the small scale on farm integration of vermicomposting of livestock and 

agriculture waste with the rural aquaculture (extensive/semi-intensive) holds ample 

scope for developing economically and ecologically sustainable farming system for 

the socio-economic upliftment of rural population in developing countries (Kaur and 

Ansal, 2010). 

The research on Carassius auratus, showed that a 10% supplement of E. fetida 

earthworms in food, given to those fish, caused a doubling of their biomass. The 

research on P. reticulata, fed on earthworms only, also showed benefits. Compared to 

the group fed with Bio-vit, the fish were characterized by a larger number of broods 

and larger numbers of surviving fry. From this research it can be seen that E. fetida is 

a highly nutritious food that is eagerly eaten by all age groups of the examined species 

of fish. For the advocates of the ecological box, it means another possible use of one 

of its products. That is because in addition to using the vermicompost, it gives another 

possibility of feeding selected aquarium fish with the produced biomass of 

earthworms. The results of the research not only indicate the possibility of reducing 

57

the cost of fish-keeping, but also better results of that culture (Kostecka and Paczka, 

2006). 

Three meals were formulated from the earthworm (Endrilus eugineae) and maggot 

(Musca domestica) and fish (Engraulis encrosicolus). These meals were evaluated as 

a potential replacement for fishmeal. This is because fishmeal could be very 

expensive at times. The three meals were used in feeding the catfish (Heterobranchus 

isopterus) for 30 days. On the basis of weight increment, the best growth performance 

was produced by maggot meal. It was followed by earthworm and fish meals, 

respectively. Based on food conversion ratio maggot meal was again the best, 

followed by earthworm and fish meals respectively. The importance of supplementary 

feeding was evidenced in the higher weight increment in fish that were fed than those 

that were not fed. Maggot and earthworm meals could therefore be a whole or partial 

replacement for fishmeal. The difficulty in the harvesting or rearing maggots and 

earthworms may however reduce this potential (Yaqub, 1991). 

The use of vermicompost in pisci-culture is gaining its increased recognition for the 

conservation of energy and optimum but economical utilization of available resources 

with simultaneous pollution control. Vermicompost is hazard free organic manure, 

which improves quality of pond base and overlying water as well as provides 

organically produced aqua crops. The additions of manures affect the relative 

abundance of the plankton and their community structure in aquatic system. Proper 

combinations of inorganic nutrients (NPK) are the major factors that influence the 

growth and production of plankton in a pond. Vermicompost contains all the major 

organic nutrient components of N, P and K along with some necessary micronutrients 

for plankton growth (Table 6.4). 

In aquaculture industry, capital investment apart, there are also operating expenses, 

mainly for seed, fertilizer, feed and labors. Among those, the cost of feed and 

fertilizer constitute about 70% of the total expenses. For this reason there is need for 

searching out chapter sources for feed and fertilizer. So, this is particularly significant 

in developing nations, where fish farmers are unable to buy costly fish feed and 

chemical fertilizer vermicompost forms an abundant alternative natural resource for 

less expensive manure and fish feed for higher fish yield. However, the amount of 

available nitrogen and phosphorus from vermicompost is less when compared with 

conventional fertilizers and research should be oriented to increase its nitrogen and 

phosphorus concentration through alteration of substrate composition. 

Table 6.4. Different nutrient concentration in manure and fertilizer applied (average 

value of triplicate sample analyzed) 

Parameters 

Available N 

(mg·g -1 ) 

Available P 

(mg·g -1 ) 

Available K 

(mg·g -1 ) 

Dry weight of fertilizer 

and manure used (g) 

Diammonium phosphate (DAP) 18 ± 0.07 46 ± 0.05 Nil 3.04 

Vermicompost 1.5 ± 0.05 1.4 ± 0.08 1.0 ± 0.05 99.0 

Compost 

Souce: Chakrabarty et al, (2009). 

1.0 ± 0.08 0.55 ± 0.09 1.0 ± 0.05 252.0 

Sample of soil, compost, vermicompost and DAP were analyzed for available P, N 

content as well as for organic carbon. The dry weights of the fertilizer and manure 

58

were ranged from 3.04 to 252.0 g in different treatments (50 kg P2O5 content basis) 

(Table 6.5). 

Table 6.5. Average values* (±SD) of physio-chemical parameters of water, primary 

productivity of phytoplankton and final body weights and fish production of 

Cyprinus carpio in various treatments. 

Parameters Control (T-1) Compost 

(T-2) 

59 

Diammonium 

phosphate 

(T-3) 

Vermicompost 

(T-4) 

Temperature (˚C) 30.0 ± 4.3 30.0 ± 5.1 30.0 ± 4.9 30.00 ± 5.5 

pH 7.06 ± 0.4 7.26 ± 0.6 7.14 ± 0.1 7.43 ± 0.6 

Dissolved oxygen (mg l -1 ) 6.01 ± 0.9 6.21 ± 1.1 7.74 ± 1.0 7.02 ± 1.2 

Ortho phosphate (mg l -1 ) 0.09 ± 0.09 0.19 ± 0.06 0.52 ± 0.10 0.30 ± 0.14 

Organic phosphate (mg l -1 ) 0.08 ± 0.19 0.27 ± 0.15 0.20 ± 0.14 0.35 ± 0.21 

Total phosphate (mg l -1 ) 0.10 ± 0.10 0.66 ± 0.16 0.88 ± 0.25 0.68 ± 0.21 

NO3–N (mg l -1 ) 0.06 ± 0.08 0.12 ± 0.06 0.28 ± 0.03 0.16 ± 0.04 

Total inorganic N (mg l -1 ) 0.06 ± 0.005 0.40 ± 0.02 0.80 ± 0.04 0.62 ± 0.03 

Total inorganic nitrogen (N)/total 1.6 0.61 0.90 0.91 

phosphate (P) 

Community respiration (mg C m -2 h - 

1 

) 

20.13 ±±9.3 28.13 ± 12.5 35.79 ± 18.2 38.58 ± 13.1 

Final mean body weight (g) 18.24 ± 2.3 22.25 ± 3.6 39.50 ± 4.3 45.77 ± 3.9 

Fertilizer/manure added (g) 0 252 3.04 99 

Stocking density 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 

Initial average individual length 1.40 ± 0.02 1.40 ± 0.02 1.40 ± 0.02 1.40 ± 0.02 

(cm) 

Initial average individual weight (g) 2.40 ± 0.01 2.40 ± 0.03 2.40 ± 0.04 2.40 ± 0.02 

Final average individual length (cm) 4.20 ± 0.03 6.80 ± 0.06 7.60 ± 0.04 8.80 ± 0.07 

Final average individual weight (g) 3.76 ± 0.01 8.29 ± 0.05 12.92 ± 0.03 16.76 ± 0.07 

Growth increment (g fish -1 day -1 ) 0.0151 0.0654 0.1169 0.1595 

Production of fish (kg ha -1 90 day-1) 385.92 1,952.64 3080.45 3,970.56 

Total weight gain (TWG) (g fish -1 ) 0.57 2.45 4.38 5.98 

Survival (%) 85 88 87 90 

*Each average value applies to 90 days samples. 

Source: Chakrabarty et al. (2009). 

Where: 

Absolute growth (AG) = final body weight - initial body weight 

Growth increment (GI) = final body weight - initial body weight / 

number of culture days after fish introduction 

Total weight gain (TWG) = final body weight - initial body weight / 

initial body weight 

The demand for organically cultured food for human consumption is increasing across 

the globe and for this reason organic aquaculture is the need of the present time. Wide 

variety of organic manures such as grass, leaves, sewage water, livestock manure, 

domestic wastes, night soil and dried blood meal have been used. 

6.4. Possibilities of worms as animal feed in Egypt: 

For a long time, extensive fish farming was the type practiced in Egypt, where only 

chemical and/or organic fertilizers were applied for promoting the natural productivity 

of ponds. Agricultural by-products such as wheat bran and rice bran were used for 

supplementation in some farms. As the technology of fish farming has developed,

aquaculture started to exert some significant demand on fish feed. In 2001, there are 

twelve feed mills that produced about 68 500 tons of specialized feeds. Most of feeds 

are produced for self-sufficiency to support the needs of Governmental fish farms, but 

some quantities are available for sale to private sector. Because of the cost, such mills 

produce fish feeds of 18-32% protein of sinking type pellets, however, higher protein 

floating feeds could be produced upon request. High quality fish meal provide the 

major component in the commercial fish feeds and may constitute up to 60% of the 

total diet for marine species, with higher levels being used in starter and fingerling 

rations. Generally, a good range of raw materials is available for fish manufacture in 

Egypt. However, price and competition from the human food and animal feed 

industries limits the choice. High quality feed materials are in short supply and are 

expensive. Apart from fish meal (imported and indigenous), the main available 

protein sources are: soybean meal (hexane-extracted), cottonseed meal (expeller), 

meat meal, poultry offal meal and feather meal. Other possibilities for new feed 

materials may be the wide spread marine macroalgae or fresh water weed hyacinth. 

On local basis, there is a scope for their incorporation into fish feeds particularly for 

tilapia and mullets. Tables 6.6 and 6.7 show the proximate composition of the tested 

feed ingredients, namely: acid fish silage (AFS), fermented fish silage (FFS), soybean 

meal (SBM), a mixture of FFS and SBM (MIX), green macroalga Ulva meal (UM) 

and red macro-algae Pterocladia meal (PM) compared to fish meal (FM) from 

different sources and their amino acid profiles, respectively. 

Table 6.6. Composition (%dry matter) of tested proteins sources or supplements for 

fish feeds 

Ingredient Protein Lipid Ash Moisture NFE Fiber DE 

AFS1 72.90 13.12 12.76 73.28 1.22 - 164 

AFS2 73.40 17.10 8.30 - 1.20 - 178 

AFS3 63.00 22.10 9.68 75.00 - - 177 

FFS 56.67 12.7 20.04 0.98 - - 135 

SBMG 44.80 20.60 5.40 5.50 29.20 - 161 

SBMB 44.00 1.80 8.00 8.94 37.26 - 103 

SBMD 44.00 4.00 6.53 11.00 38.17 7.30 110 

UM 17.44 2.5 32.85 3.69 41.47 5.47 64 

PM 22.61 2.18 37.3 3.05 28.29 9.62 35 

FM1 72.05 10.94 7.00 5.00 8.98 1.02 160 

FMD 61.00 8.95 20.72 6.20 9.73 - 136 

FMD 61.00 5.00 16.60 5.00 16.70 0.70 127 

Source: Wassef (2005). 

NFE: Nitrogen free extract, by difference; DE: Digestible energy (MJ/Kg); AFS: acid fish silage; 

FFS: fermented fish silage; SBM: boiled full fat soy meal (G: germinated; B: boilled fullfat; D: 

defatted); MIX: mixture of FFS and SBM; UM: Ulva meal; PM: Pterocladia meal; FM: fish meal (D: 

domestic product; I: imported Manhaden). 

60

Table 6.7. Amino acid (g/100g protein) profiles of tested protein sources or 

supplement as compared to fish meal (FM) 

Amino acid (AA) AFS FFS SBM MIX UM PM FM 

Indispensable (IAA) 

Arginine (ARG) 

Histidine (HIS) 

Isoleucine (ILE) 

Leucine (LEU) 

Lysine (LYS) 

Methionine (MET) 

Phenyl-alanine (PHE) 

Threonine (THR) 

Valine (VAL) 

Tryptophan (TRP) 

Total IAA 

Dispensable (DAA) 

Aspartic Acid (ASP) 

Serine (SER) 

Glutamic Acid 

(GLU) 

Glycine (GLY) 

Alanine (ALA) 

Tyrosine (TYR) 

Proline (PRO) 

Cysteine (CYS) 

Total (DAA) 

Total amino acids 

03.62 

02.36 

02.66 

04.43 

05.27 

01.81 

02.36 

02.60 

03.01 

00.63 

28.75 

05.97 

02.62 

08.81 

03.50 

03.74 

02.04 

02.60 

00.73 

30.01 

58.76 

02.86 

01.33 

01.87 

03.73 

03.95 

01.35 

02.30 

01.41 

02.41 

00.36 

21.57 

61 

05.59 

04.30 

03.64 

06.09 

04.49 

01.25 

04.30 

02.97 

03.86 

36.94 

15.20 

04.15 

13.03 

03.14 

03.54 

04.03 

04.46 

01.13 

48.68 

85.62 

06.20 

02.48 

03.27 

00.51 

05.44 

02.22 

03.06 

03.74 

03.94 

00.72 

31.58 

05.85 

02.80 

03.47 

05.21 

05.62 

04.40 

04.45 

03.94 

07.46 

43.20 

11.54 

04.48 

09.35 

05.53 

07.19 

03.31 

05.15 

01.27 

47.82 

91.02 

04.46 

02.70 

04.53 

05.92 

06.90 

03.26 

04.78 

04.23 

06.69 

43.47 

10.59 

04.08 

10.22 

07.49 

07.23 

03.65 

04.64 

01.51 

49.41 

92.88 

05.88 

02.48 

04.41 

05.71 

04.42 

02.50 

03.87 

03.76 

04.75 

00.80 

38.58 

02.04 

00.66 

03.30 

04.13 

01.47 

01.47 

00.97 

12.57 

51.15 

Source: Wassef (2005). 

AFS: acid fish silage; FFS: fermented fish silage; SBM: boiled full fat soy meal; MIX: mixture of FFS 

and SBM; UM: Ulva meal; PM: Pterocladia meal; FM: fish meal. 

There is still a great opportunity for Egypt to use the tremendous amount of organic 

wastes to be used as meal not only for poultry, rabbits, ducks, and geese, but also for 

aquaculture and large animals. The only missing part is to create awareness and to 

develop capacity building programs in a well established demonstrated sites 

representing different geographic regions of the country.

7. Current on-farm and urban organic waste management practices 

and environmental effects of those practices, e.g. carbon and methane 

emissions. 

The main beneficiaries of this work are the agriculture producers in general and 

organic farming producers specifically. Previous chapters covered all aspects of 

production of vermicompost and vermiculture. As an organic grower interest, the 

environmental positive impacts of utilizing such methods of production, it is 

important to understand how vermicompost contribute to improve reducing the 

production of greenhouse gases, and consequently help mitigating the global 

warming. This chapter aims at highlighting on-farm and urban organic waste 

management practices and the environmental effects of those practices. 

7.1. Emissions from vermicompost 

Composting has been identified as an important source of CH4 and N2O. With 

increasing divergence of biodegradable waste from landfill into the composting 

sector, it is important to quantify emissions of CH4 and N2O from all forms of 

composting and from all stages. The study focused on the final phase of a two stage 

composting process and compared the generation and emission of CH4 and N2O 

associated with two differing composting methods: mechanically turned windrow and 

vermicomposting. The mechanically turned windrow system was characterized by 

emissions of CH4 and to a much lesser extent N2O. However, the vermicomposting 

system emitted significant fluxes of N2O and only traces amounts of CH4. High N2O 

emission rates from vermicomposting were ascribed to strongly nitrifying conditions 

in the processing beds combined with the presence of de-nitrifying bacteria within the 

worm gut (Hobson et al., 2005). 

Different other reports from several countries stated that any possible emissions of 

greenhouse gases by earthworms from soil or vermicomposting systems is extremely 

small when compared with the well-documented emissions of nitrous oxide, methane 

and carbon dioxide from inorganic fertilizer manufacture, landfills, manure heaps, 

lagoons, crop residues in soils and manure from pigs and cattle in housed systems. 

While there will be N2O emissions from all these sources, there is no justification for 

suggesting that environmentally-friendly and energy-efficient systems for producing 

vermicomposts and composts should be restricted because of their potential to 

produce greenhouse gases. The global production of nitrogenous greenhouse gases in 

agriculture should be compared from all sources before vermicomposting is publicly 

condemned in such a sensational way (Edwards, 2008). 

Recent research has shown that certain types of vermicomposting can generate 

significant amounts of N2O. These initial findings indicate a need for more research to 

be conducted before any sound recommendations on vermicomposting can be given. 

Since the amount of emissions from composting depends on the specific composting 

method used and on how well the process is managed, it is not possible to give a 

62

definitive answer to the question of how much composting contributes to climate 

change. Most studies on emissions from composting have been carried out in 

developed countries where conditions differ from the target countries of this study. 

Nevertheless, several environmental agencies have concluded that when composting 

is done properly, it generates very small amounts of greenhouse gases (IGES, 2008). 

Chan et al. (2010) investigated greenhouse gas emissions from three different home 

waste treatment methods in Brisbane, Australia. Gas samples were taken monthly 

from 34 backyard composting bins from January to April 2009. Averaged over the 

study period, the aerobic composting bins released lower amounts of CH4 (2.2 mg·m - 

2 ·h -1 ) than the anaerobic digestion bins (9.5 mg·m -2 ·h -1 ) and the vermicomposting bins 

(4.8 mg . m -2. h -1 ). The vermicomposting bins had lower N2O emission rates (1.2 mg m -2 

h -1 ) than the others (1.5–1.6 mg·m -2 ·h -1 ). Total greenhouse gas emissions including 

both N2O and CH4 were 463, 504 and 694 mg CO2e m -2 ·h -1 for vermicomposting, 

aerobic composting and anaerobic digestion, respectively, with N2O contributing 

>80% in the total budget. The greenhouse gas emissions varied substantially with 

time and were regulated by temperature, moisture content and the waste properties, 

indicating the potential to mitigate greenhouse gas emission through proper 

management of the composting systems. The results suggest that home composting 

provides an effective and feasible supplementary waste management method to a 

centralized facility in particular for cities with lower population density such as the 

Australian cities. 

In terms of greenhouse gas emissions during the maturation process, the windrow 

composting process was characterized by emission of CH4. Emission of greenhouse 

gases from vermicomposting was predominantly N2O with comparatively little CH4 

emitted, demonstrating that sufficiently aerobic conditions were maintained in the 

vermicomposting beds to inhibit CH4 production. The global warming potential of the 

vermicomposting maturation system was estimated to be approximately 30 times 

greater than that for the windrow composting system. The emission of greenhouse 

gases from these types of composting systems requires further investigation. 

Vermicomposting by worms decreases the proportion of 'anaerobic to aerobic 

decomposition', resulting in a significant decrease in methane (CH4) and volatile 

sulfur compounds which are readily emitted from the conventional (microbial) 

composting process. Vermi-composting of waste organics using earthworms therefore 

has a distinct advantage over the conventional aerobic composting as it does not allow 

the greenhouse gas methane (CH4) to be formed. Molecule to molecule, methane is a 

20-25 times more powerful greenhouse gas than CO2. Earthworms can play a good 

part in the strategy of greenhouse gas reduction and mitigation in the disposal of 

global organic wastes as landfills also emit methane resulting from the slow anaerobic 

decomposition of waste organics over several years. However, recent research done in 

Germany has found that earthworms produce a third of nitrous oxide (N20) gases 

when used for vermicomposting. Molecule to molecule N:0 is a 296 times more 

powerful greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide (CO2). This needs further study (Daven 

and Klein, 2008). 

63

7.2 Total emissions from waste sector in Egypt 

Total emissions for 2000 amounted to about 193 megaton of carbon dioxide 

equivalent 1 . With the total emissions for 1990 amounting to about 117 megaton of 

carbon dioxide equivalent., The average greenhouse gases emissions increase is about 

5% annually. In this respect, the estimated total greenhouse gases emissions for 2008 

are about 288 megaton of carbon dioxide equivalent. Egypt‟s specific greenhouse 

gases emissions for 2000 amounted to 2.99 megaton of carbon dioxide per capita, 

while direct CO2 emissions per capita in 2000 amounted to 1.98 ton per capita. 

The total greenhouse gas emissions in 1990 of carbon dioxide, methane, nittrogen 

oxide, Perfluorocarbons, haloflorocarbons, sulpher hexafloride (excluding emissions 

from land use change), for the world amounted to 29,910 megaton of carbon dioxide.. 

The total 1990 emissions of Egypt amounted to about 117 megaton of carbon dioxide, 

based on emissions of dioxide, methane, nittrogen oxide (EEAA, 1999). These figures 

denote that the share of Egypt in the total World emissions in 1990 was 0.4%. 

Egypt‟s total emissions are about 193 dioxide, methane, nittrogen oxide, including 

emissions of manure management, agriculture soil, and field burning of agricultural 

residues, and emissions from some sources of sub-categories, such as methane 

emissions from aerobic waste water treatment plants, nitrogen oxide emissions from 

domestic wastewater and emissions from incineration, all of which were not included 

in the 1990 figures. Moreover, more updated figures for activity data were used for 

solid waste generation and wastewater generation for the year 2000. Based on this and 

taking into account the world total emissions for the year 2000, amounting to 33,017 

megaton of carbon dioxide equivalen, Egypt‟s share in the total world emissions for 

2000 was 0.58% (EEAA, 2010). 

1 Each of the greenhouse gases has a global warming potential (GWP) value compared to CO2, which has global 

warming potential=1. All quantities of green house gases are converted to CO 2 equivalent quantities by 

multiplying the weight of such gas by its GWP to obtain the CO 2 equivalent weight. 

64

Table 7.1. Summary of greenhouse gases emissions for Egypt, 2000, as of its Second 

National Communications 1 submitted in July 2010. 

Greenhouse gases 

Source & Sink 

Categories 

Total National 

Emissions & Removals 

ALL ENERGY 

(Fuel Combustion & 

Fugitive) 

CO2 

(Kt) 

CH4 

(Kt) 

65 

N2O 

(Kt) 

128,227 1,877 79 

106,629 447 

Fuel combustion 105,161 3 

Petroleum & energy 

transformation industries 

41,436 

Industry 26,987 

930 

(tons) 

680 

(tons) 

Transport 27,120 1 

Small combustion 9,389 

Agriculture 229 

Fugitive emissions from 

fuels 

188 

(tons) 

10 

(tons) 

1,469 444 

Oil & Natural Gas 1,469 444 

INDUSTRIAL 

PROCESSES 

581 

(tons) 

559 

(tons) 

130 

(tons) 

180 

(tons) 

222 

(tons) 

25 

(tons) 

2 

(tons) 

22 

(tons) 

22 

(tons) 

21,594 -- 16 

PFCs 

(Kt) 

160 

(tons) 

-- 

-- 

-- 

SF6 

(Kt) 

5 

(tons) 

5 

(tons) 

5 

(tons) 

5 

(tons) 

HFCs 

(Kt) 

28 

(tons) 

Total 

(Mt 

CO2e) 

193.3 

-- 116.3 

-- 105.5 

-- 

-- -- -- 

-- -- -- 

-- -- -- 

-- -- -- 

-- -- -- 10.8 

-- -- -- 

160 

(tons) 

-- 

28 

(tons) 

Cement production 17,251 -- -- -- -- -- -- 

Lime production 31 -- -- -- -- -- -- 

Iron and steel industry 1,576 -- -- -- -- -- -- 

Nitric acid production -- -- 16 -- -- -- -- 

Aluminum production -- -- -- 

160 

(tons) 

Ozone Depleting Substitutes -- -- -- -- -- 

27.8 

-- -- -- 

28 

(tons) 

Ammonia production 2,736 -- -- -- -- -- -- 

1 As per Kyoto Protocol, Egypt submitted it's Second National Communication for Climate Change to 

the United Nations Framework Convention for Climate Change (UNFCCC) in June 2010. 

--

Greenhouse gases 

Source & Sink 

Categories 

CO2 

(Kt) 

CH4 

(Kt) 

66 

N2O 

(Kt) 

PFCs 

(Kt) 

SF6 

(Kt) 

HFCs 

(Kt) 

Total 

(Mt 

CO2e) 

AGRICULTURE -- 599 62 31.7 

Agriculture soils -- -- 33 -- -- -- -- 

Enteric fermentation -- 385 -- -- -- -- -- 

Manure management -- 28 28 -- -- -- -- 

Rice cultivation -- 

Field burning of 

agricultural residues 

118 

WASTE 3 832 

-- -- -- -- -- 

-- 68 1 -- -- -- -- 

10 

(tons) 

-- -- -- 17.5 

Solid waste disposal on land -- 557 -- -- -- -- -- 

Wastewater treatment -- 275 

10 

(tons) 

-- -- -- -- 

Waste incineration 3 -- -- -- -- -- -- 


7.3. Emissions from agricultural wastes 

The global N2O emission from crop residue has been estimated at 0.4 tera gram 

nitrogen per year, using the IPCC default emission factor of 1.25% of applied residue 

N emitted as N2O. However, this default emission factor is based on relatively few 

experimental studies. Recent experiments showed that the emission factor for crop 

residues can vary considerably with residue quality, particularly the carbon/nitrogen 

(C/N) ratio and the amount of mineralizable N. Generally, higher emissions follow 

incorporation of residue with lower C/N ratios. It could be concluded that earthworm 

activity has the potential to increase N2O emissions from crop residues up to 18-fold; 

that the earthworm effect is largely independent of bulk density; and that earthworm 

species, specifically, impact N2O emissions and residue stabilization in soil organic 

matter. However, earthworm-mediated emissions of N2O mostly resulted from residue 

incorporation into the soil, and disappeared when plowing of residue into the soil was 

simulated. Our results suggest that, irrespective of earthworm activity, farmers may 

decrease direct N2O emissions from crop residues with a relatively low C/N ratio by 

leaving it on top for a few weeks before plowing it into the soil. However, field 

studies should confirm this effect, and possible trade-offs to other (indirect) emissions 

of N2O should be taken into consideration before this can be recommended (Rizhiya 

et al., 2007).

Over the past three years, a comprehensive research program on vermicomposting has 

been developed at the Ohio State University. This has included experiments 

investigating the effects of vermicomposts on the germination, growth, flowering, and 

fruiting of vegetable plants such as bell peppers and tomatoes, as well as on a wide 

range of flowering plants including petunias, marigolds, bachelor‟s button, 

chrysanthemums, impatiens, sunflowers, and poinsettias. A consistent trend in all 

these growth trials has been that the best plant growth responses, with all needed 

nutrients supplied, occurred when vermicomposts constituted a relatively small 

proportion (10% to 20%) of the total volume of the container medium mixture, with 

greater proportions of vermicomposts in the plant growth medium not always 

improving plant growth. Some of the plant growth responses in horticultural container 

media, substituted with a range of dilutions of vermicomposts, were similar to those 

reported when composts were used instead (Atiyeh et al., 2000). 

Table (7.2) and Figure (7.1) present Egypt‟s total greenhouse gas emissions by gas 

type, for the year 2000, while Table (7.2) and figure (7.2) present Egypt‟s total 

greenhouse gas emissions by sector for the year 2000. 

Table 7.2. Egypt‟s greenhouse gas emissions by gas type for the year 2000. 

Gas 

Emissions 

(mega ton CO2 

equivalent) 

67 

Emissions 

(%) 

Carbon Dioxide, CO2 128.2 66.3 

Methane, CH4 39.4 20.4 

Nittrogen oxide, N2O 24.4 12.6 

Perfluorocarbons, PFC 1.1 0.6 

Sulpher hexafluoride, SF6 0.1 0.1 

Haloflorocarbons, HFC's 

blend 

0.1 

0.1 

TOTAL 


193.3 100

CH4 

; 

Figure 7.1. Egypt‟s greenhouse gases emissions by gas type for the year 2000 in 

mega ton CO2 equivalent. 


Table 7.3. Egypt‟s greenhouse gases emissions by sector for the year 2000 

Sector 

N2 

O; 

39.44 ; 20% 

PFC; 

24.36 ; 13% 

1.04 ; 1% 

Emissions 

(mega ton CO2 

equivalent) 

68 

SF6; 0.11; 0% 

HFC's blend; 0.05; 0% 

CO2; 

128.22; 

66% 

Emissions 

(%) 

Fuel Combustion 105.5 55 

Fugitive Fuel Emissions 10.8 6 

Agriculture 31.7 16 

Industrial Processes 27.8 14 

Waste 17.5 9 

TOTAL 193.3 100 

Source: EEAA (2010).

Agriculture; 

31.72; 

16% 

Industrial Processes; 

; 

27.77; 14% 

Fuel Combustion 

Waste; 

17.49; 

9% 

Fugitive fuel; 

10.81; 6% 

Fugitive fuel emissions 

Figure 7.2. Egypt‟s greenhouse gases emissions by sector for the year 2000, in mega 

ton CO2 equivalent. 

Source: EEAA(2010). 

Table (7.3) and figure (7.2) show the change of sectors‟ contribution to Egypt‟s total 

inventory. It is clear that the total greenhouse gas emissions of Egypt increased in 

2000 to be 165% of that in 1990. During this period Egypt‟s population increased by 

123% with an increase in the GDP of 277% (Ministry of Economic Development, 

2007). The ratio of GDP, at the 1981/82 fixed prices, for the year 2000 to that for 

1990 is 151%, denoting that the increase in greenhouse gas emissions seems to be 

correlated to the GDP increase rather than the population growth. It is clear that 

emissions from agriculture are the second after fuel combustion and before industrial 

processes. 

7.4. Vermifilters in domestic wastewater treatment 

There is another important use that helps the environment which is the use of 

vermiculture as a biological filter for domestic waste water. use of earthworms in 

filtration systems, which has been termed vermifiltration (VF) (Xing et al., 2010). 

Since then, several studies have been conducted to evaluate the use of vermifilters in 

domestic wastewater treatment, municipal wastewater treatment, and swine 

wastewater treatment processes, as well as in simultaneous sludge reduction 

processes. However, less attention has been given to the use of vermifilters to dispose 

of excess sludge directly. Moreover, most studies conducted to evaluate VFs have 

only focused on the contamination purification efficiencies, but the interactions 

between earthworms and microorganisms, which are very important for understanding 

the sludge stabilization mechanisms involved in VFs, have not been fully investigated. 

A study was conducted to explore the feasibility of using a VF to stabilize sewage 

sludge while focusing on elucidating the earthworm–microorganism interactions 

responsible for the decomposition of organic matter in the vermifilter. Additionally, 

this investigation sought to identify the primary mechanism by which sewage sludge 

stabilization in the vermifilter occurs based on the chemical and spectroscopic 

69 

Industrial Processes 

Fuel Combustion; 

105.51; 

55% 

Agriculture 

Waste

properties of the treated sludge, the microbial community in the biofilm, and the 

earthworm–microorganism interactions in the vermifilter reactor. The results of this 

study provide useful information regarding the use of a vermifilter for the optimal 

sewage sludge treatment. A cylinder shaped vermifilter (30 cm in diameter and 60 cm 

in depth) that was naturally ventilated was equipped with a 0.5-inch polypropylene 

pipe with holes to ensure uniform distribution of the influent (Figure 7.3). The 

vermifilter contained a 0.5 m filter bed of ceramic pellets (6–9 mm in diameter). A 

layer of plastic fiber was placed on the top of the filter bed to avoid direct hydraulic 

impact on the earthworms and to ensure an even influent distribution. The influent 

sludge was introduced to the vermifilter via a peristaltic pump. After passing through 

the filter bed, the treated sludge entered into a sedimentation tank below the 

vermifilter and the supernatant in the sedimentation tank was recycled. 

Figure 7.3. Layout of the Vermifilter 

Source: Zhaoa et al. (2010). 

The vermifilter may be an efficient technology for stabilization of excess sludge from 

domestic Waste Water Treatment Plants. The volatile suspended solids (VSS) 

reduction in the VF reached 56.2–66.6%, which met the criteria for aerobic and 

anaerobic sludge stabilization (>40%). The presence of the earthworms in the VF 

induced an additional 25.1% reduction in volatile suspended solids. On average, the 

earthworm–microorganism interactions were responsible for approximately 46% of 

the improvement in the VSS reduction. Moreover, a detailed characterization of 

sludge and earthworm cast samples revealed that earthworms in the VF improved the 

microbial activity by transforming insoluble organic materials into a soluble form and 

selectively digesting the sludge particles of 10–200 μm to finer particles of 0–2 μm, 

while enhancing the bacterial diversity in the biofilm. Additionally, improved sludge 

settleability with a compact structure and low SVI values (33–45 mL/g) were 

achieved in the presence of earthworms, which was favorable for further sludge 

processing (Zhaoa et al., 2010). 

70

8. Survey of global vermiculture implementation projects focused on 

greenhouse gas emission reductions 

Vermicompost is one of the activities that could mitigate the greenhouse gases 

(GHGs) that cause global warming. Both urbane wastes and agricultural residues 

produce considerable amounts of greenhouse gases as described in the previous 

chapter. According to the environmental regulations, the reduction of greenhouse 

gases could be a source of financial benefits for vermicompost producers. Therefore, 

this chapter deals with examples of reducing the emissions through vermicomposting, 

which may assist the firms working in this business to sell their carbon reduction in 

what is called "carbon market". Every ton of CO2e reduced could be sold with around 

10 Euros according to pre-signed contract. The mechanism that regulates such activity 

is the clean development mechanism (CDM) of the Kyoto prorocol. Under the CDM 

industrialized countries can purchase greenhouse gas emission reductions from 

developing countries to help meet their obligations under the Kyoto Protocol. 

8.1. Background 

The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) proposed under article 12 of the Kyoto 

Protocol is an important potential instrument to promote foreign investment in 

greenhouse gas emission reduction options while simultaneously addressing the issue 

of sustainable development. 

The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is one of the Kyoto Protocol programs 

for the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emission. Under the CDM, an 

industrialized country with a greenhouse gas reduction target can invest in a project in 

a developing country without a target and claim credit for the emissions that the 

project achieves. German companies, for instance, invested in a wind power project in 

Egypt, thus replacing electricity that would otherwise have been produced from coal. 

Egypt then sold the credit for the emissions that have been avoided to Germany 

which, in turn, used them to meet its own greenhouse gas reduction target. 

Both sides benefit from CDM projects. For industrialized countries, the CDM greatly 

reduces the cost of meeting the reduction commitments that they agreed to under the 

Kyoto Protocol. Developing countries receive financial and technical assistance in 

upgrading their energy infrastructure and can sell certified emission reductions for 

profit. This diversification of external earnings will reduce oil-exporting countries' 

dependence on the highly volatile world oil price. 

Egypt is striving to develop efficient, transparent and strong criteria and institutions 

for the marketing, approval and control of CDM projects, thus making the country 

attractive for international CDM investors and ensuring the efficient implementation 

of CDM projects. The private sector will play an important role in this process, be it 

as project hosts, in project design and implementation, or in the verification of 

emission reductions. Donors and governmental authorities are the potential facilitators 

of CDM projects. Environment 2007 therefore intends to increase awareness and 

bring together businesses and the various financing institutions in order to ensure their 

full participation in the CDM process. 

71

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change – UNFCCC was 

agreed at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development 

(UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, 1992. This agreement aims at the stabilization of 

greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, at a level that would prevent dangerous changes 

to the climate. 

The UNFCCC adopted Kyoto Protocol at the third conference of parties (COP3) in 

Kyoto, Japan in 1997. The Protocol sets binding commitments by 39 developed 

countries and economies in transition, listed in Annex B, to reduce their greenhouse 

gas emissions by an average of 5.2 per cent on 1990 levels (the first commitment 

period, 2008 - 2012). 

The UNFCCC divides countries in two main groups: Annex I parties that include the 

industrialized countries and countries with “economies in transition” /EITs (the 

Russian Federation, the Baltic States and several other Central and Eastern European 

countries). All the others are called non-Annex I countries. 

Annex I countries that have ratified the Kyoto Protocol can invest in projects that both 

reduce greenhouse gases and contribute to sustainable development in non-Annex I 

countries. A CDM project provides certified emissions reductions (CERs) to Annex I 

countries, which they can use to meet their greenhouse gas reduction commitments 

under the Kyoto Protocol. Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol sets out three goals for the 

CDM: i) To help mitigate climate change; ii) To assist Annex I countries attain their 

emission reduction commitments, and iii) To assist developing countries in achieving 

sustainable development. 

In addition to contribute towards sustainable development, CDM project candidates 

looking for approval under the CDM must lead to real, measurable reductions in 

greenhouse gas emissions, or lead to the measurable absorption (or “sequestration”) of 

greenhouse gases in a developing country. The six greenhouse gases and gas classes 

coming from varied sources of the economy are: carbon dioxide "CO2" (source: fossil 

fuel combustion; deforestation; agriculture); methane "CH4" (source: agriculture; land 

use change; biomass burning; landfills); nitrous oxide "N2O" (source: fossil fuel 

combustion; industrial; agriculture); hydrofluorocarbons "HFCs" (source: industrial 

/manufacturing); perfluorocarbons "PFCs" (source: industrial/manufacturing); sulphur 

hexafluoride "SF6" (source: electricity transmission; manufacturing(. 

The baseline for a CDM project is the scenario used to show the trend of 

anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions that would occur in the absence of the 

proposed CDM project. The baseline basically shows what would be the future 

greenhouse gas emissions without the CDM project intervention. Each CDM project 

has to develop its own baseline. Once a baseline methodology has been approved by 

the Executive Board, other projects can use it too. For small-scale projects, guidance 

is provided on standard baselines. 

Greenhouse gas emissions from a CDM project activity must be reduced below those 

that would have occurred in the absence of the project. It must be shown that the 

project would not have been implemented without the CDM. Without this 

“additionality” requirement, there is no guarantee that CDM projects will create 

72

incremental greenhouse gas emissions reductions equivalent to those that would have 

been made in Annex I countries, or play a role in the ultimate objective of stabilizing 

atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations. 

CERs generated by CDM projects that are used by Annex 1 countries to meet their 

Kyoto targets allow emissions in these countries to rise. Therefore if CERs are 

awarded to activities that would happen without the CDM project, i.e. for reductions 

that would occur anyway, Annex 1 emissions are allowed to rise without a 

corresponding cut elsewhere, thereby raising global emissions. The only winners are 

the buyers of cheap credits, because host countries do not receive new investment and 

climate change is not being mitigated. 

CDM projects assist developing countries to achieve sustainable development. 

Industrialized countries have developed domestic policies to comply with the Kyoto 

Protocol. This has led to a growing demand for carbon credits. Developing countries 

may supply such carbon credits. While many factors influence the size and stability of 

the global market, facts indicate that this market would move billions of dollars a 

year, increasing foreign investment capital flow in developing countries. 

According to the Kyoto Protocol, investments in various sectors of non-Annex I 

countries may qualify for CDM credits in 1) energy fuel combustion: energy 

industries; manufacturing industries and construction; transport; other sectors; 2) 

Fugitive emissions from fuels: solid fuels; oil and natural gas; 3) industrial processes: 

mineral products; chemical industry; metal production; other production; production 

and consumption of halocarbons and sulphur hexaflouride; 4) solvent; 5) agriculture: 

enteric fermentation; manure management; rice cultivation; agricultural soils; 

prescribed burning of savannas; filed burning of agricultural residues; 6) solid waste 

disposal on land; wastewater handling; waste incineration; 7) land-use, land-use 

change, and forestry: afforestation; reforestation; avoided deforestation for thermal 

energy in small-scale projects. 

8.2. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) achievements in Egypt 

Clean Development Mechanism is one of Kyoto Protocol three mechanisms which 

include Joint Implementation and Emissions Trading. The aim from applying CDM is 

the implementation of projects reducing greenhouse gas emissions from different 

sectors such as industry, waste recycling, transport, switching to usage of natural gas 

as a fuel, and afforestation to absorb greenhouse gas. These projects contribute to 

achieving sustainable development goals, create job opportunities, produce additional 

financial return from selling carbon reduction certificates as a result. 

During 2007, NCCC held 6 meetings (3 for the Egyptian Bureau for CDM (EB-CDM) 

and the Egyptian Council for CDM (EC-CDM)). Seventeen CDM projects have been 

approved and Letters of No-Objection (LoN) have been issued (first phase of project 

approval). Such projects include: 

1. Abatement of nitrous oxide from the acid factory, Delta Fertilizers and Chemical 

Industries. 

73

2. Abatement of nitrous oxide from the acid factory, KIMA Chemical Industries. 

3. Abatement of nitrous oxide from the acid factory, Nasr Fertilizers and Chemical 

Industries. 

4. Fuel switching and reduction of clinker, National Cement Company. 

5. Fuel switching in industrial processes, El-Delta Steel Company. 

6. Equipment replacement and fuel switching, El-Max Salinas Company, 

Alexandria. 

7. Land filling, treatment, and recycling, Southern Region, Cairo Governorate. 

8. Installation of cogeneration unit operating by gas recovered from the industrial 

processes, Alexandria Carbon Black Company. 

9. Replacement of fuel oil by natural gas, Dakahlia Spinning and Weaving 

Company. 

10. Replacement of light oil and coke gas by natural gas as a fuel for furnaces, Nasr 

Forging Company. 

11. Fuel Switching from Light Oil to Natural Gas in Spring and Transport Needs 

Manufacturing Co. 

12. Methane Reduction by Composting of Municipal Waste from Cairo North and 

West. 

13. Capture and flaring of biologically-generated methane from Abu Zaabal 

landfills,Qalyubia. 

14. Replacement of light oil by natural gas, Damietta Spinning and Weaving 

Company. 

15. Reduction of sodium carbonate, Nile Oils and Detergents Company. 

16. Reduction of CO2 emissions, Egypt for Oils and Soap Company. 

17. Switching fuel from heavy oil to natural gas, El-Nasr Wool and Selected Textile 

Company (STIA). 

8.3. Egypt National Strategy on the CDM 

Egypt has participated to the National Strategy Studies (NSS) Program, launched by 

the Government of Switzerland and the World Bank in 1997. 

This program has assisted Egypt in the development of the CDM Strategy which was 

undertaken in collaboration with the Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs and 

Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA). 

The Egypt‟s NSS on the CDM aims at mainstreaming environment into the relevant 

sectors and minimizing the environmental impacts of development, through 

identification of priority policies and planning for their implementation. 

1- Ratification on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate 

Change, the issuance of Law 4/1994 for the Protection of the Environment, 

and the participation in various international workshops and conferences 

related to climate change to avoid having any international obligations on 

developing countries, including Egypt . 

2- Ratification of Kyoto's Protocol, and the establishment of the Egyptian 

Designated National Authority for Clean Development Mechanism (DNA); 

74

consisting of the Egyptian Bureau and the Egyptian Council for Clean 

Development Mechanism. 

3- Ministry of Electricity and Energy: establishment several projects in the field 

of New and Renewable Energy (Wind - Solar - Hydro - Bio), and encouraging 

Energy Efficiency Projects . 

4- Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs: establishing guiding schemes for 

private sector to encourage investments in the field of clean energy projects, 

waste recycling, and afforestation . 

5- Maximizing the benefit from Kyoto Protocol Mechanisms through 

implementing Clean Development Mechanism Projects . 

In addition to the State's concern in maximizing the benefit from Kyoto Protocol 

Mechanisms, especially Clean Development Mechanism, it established the 

Egyptian Designated National Authority for Clean Development Mechanism 

(DNA-CDM), instantly after ratifying the protocol and its entrance into force in 

2005. The DNA has achieved tangible progress in several sectors, 36 projects 

have been approved within the framework of the Mechanism. This is including the 

sectors of: New and Renewable Energy, Industry, Waste Recycling, Afforestation, 

Energy Efficiency, and Fuel Switching to Natural Gas. This is for an estimated 

total cost of 1200 Million US Dollar. These projects are considered as a source for 

attracting foreign investments, providing employment opportunities, and 

contributing in the implementation of Sustainable Development plans in Egypt. 

8.4. The national regulatory framework 

The law number 4 of 1994 and its executive regulation contain the national policy and 

regulatory framework governing the growth and competitiveness of the agro residue 

based biomass sector. In the protection of air environment from pollution section 

article (36) said that in carrying out their activities, establishments subject to the 

provisions of this law are held to ensure that emissions or leakages of air pollutants do 

not exceed the maximum limits permitted and Article (38) Concern about dump, treat 

or burn garbage and solid waste, while Article (42) talk about the consideration which 

should be given by the competent bodies, according to their activities, when burning 

any type of fuel or other substance, and the Precautions, Permissible limits, and 

Specification of Chimneys While Article (45)Talk about the necessary precautions 

and procedures laid down by the Ministry of Manpower and Employment to prevent 

the leakage or emission of air pollutants inside the work. Annex I contain the 

executive regulation of law number 4 of 1994 which governing the growth and 

competitiveness of the agro residue based biomass sector. 

75

9. Analysis of the Egyptian context and applicability of vermiculture 

as a means of greenhouse gas emission reduction. 

In the waste sector, the Egyptian relevant ministries, in collaboration with concerned 

governorates, have developed several plans and programs over the past ten years to 

improve the process of collection, reuse and recycling of waste, yet there are several 

barriers to achieving the goals of these programs. These include financial constraints 

for the mitigation of greenhouse gass emissions from the waste sector; the significant 

dependence on external financial support, as grants and concessionary loans, 

complicating the planning process and slowing down implementation; limited public 

awareness about the economic benefits of reuse and recycling of waste leads, leading 

to the hesitation of funding institutions to consider waste management activity as a 

viable option; the need of technology transfer and high investments for some waste 

treatment options, such as anaerobic digestion; the weak enforcement of existing laws 

and regulations for violations in handling waste. 

9.1. Profile of wastes in Egypt 

9.1.1. Municipal solid waste 

Waste in Egypt can be considered as constituted of solid waste and wastewater. The 

total annual amount of solid waste produced in Egypt is about 17 Mt according to the 

year 2000 estimates. The amount of accumulated solid waste (i.e. waste not collected 

and dumped in disposal sites but rather dumped on roads and empty lands) was 

estimated to be about 9.7 Mt for the year 2000, with a total volume of 36,098,936 m 3 

(EEAA 2007). This solid waste can be categorized into municipal waste, industrial 

waste, agriculture waste, waste from cleaning waterways and healthcare waste. 

Household waste constitutes about 60% of the total municipal waste quantities, with 

the remaining 40% being generated by commercial establishments, service 

institutions, streets and gardens, hotels and other entertainment sector entities. Per 

capita generation rates in Egyptian cities, villages and towns vary from lower than 0.3 

kg for low socio-economic groups and rural areas, to more than 1 kg for higher living 

standards in urban centers. On a nationwide average, the composition is about 50-60% 

food wastes, 10-20% paper, and 1-7% each of metals, cloth, glass, and plastics, and 

the remainder is basically inorganic matter and others. 

Currently, solid waste quantities handled by waste management systems are estimated 

at about 40,000 tons per day, with 30,000 tons per day being produced in cities, and 

the rest generated from the pre-urban and rural areas. Various studies indicate low 

waste collection efficiencies, varying between less than 35% in small provincial 

towns to 77% in large cities. 

Final destinations of municipal solid waste entail about 8% of the waste being 

composted, 2% recycled, 2% landfilled, and 88% dumped in uncontrolled open 

dumps. In this respect, 16 landfills exist in Egypt: 7 in the Greater Cairo Region, 5 in 

the Delta governorates and 4 in Upper Egypt. Their capacities range between 0.5 and 

76

12 Mt per day. They are usually operated by private entities. Recently, 53 sites have 

been identified for new landfills, and the construction of 56 composting plants 

throughout the country is underway. 

9.1.2. Agricultural wastes 

Egypt produces around 25 to 30 Mt of agriculture waste annually (around 66,000 tons 

per day). Some of this waste is used in the production of organic fertilizers, animal 

fodder, food production, energy production, or other useful purposes. 

9.2. Mitigating greenhouse gas from the solid wastes 

As a non-annex I country, Egypt is not required to meet any specific emission 

reduction or limitation targets in terms of commitments under the UNFCCC, or the 

Kyoto protocol. However, mitigation measures are already in progress. Egypt is fully 

aware that greenhouse gas emissions reduction, particularly by major producers, is the 

only measure that could ensure the mitigation of global warming and climate change. 

The mitigation measures in this section are based on those described in national plans 

and country studies documents (Table 9.1). 

Six main criteria have been selected for prioritization of mitigation measures in the 

waste sector according to Egypt's Second National Communication. These entail 

investment costs; payback periods; greenhouse gases emission reductions potentials; 

duration of implementation; priority in national strategies/programs; and contribution 

to sustainable development. Mitigation options, concluded from a multi-criteria 

analysis, were combined for each sub-sector in order to generate a number of 

scenarios for solid waste and wastewater. The lowest greenhouse gas emitting 

scenario was selected for implementation during the period 2009 to 2025. 

Mitigation measures under one or more of appropriate treatment categories, the 

associated emission reduction potential, and investment costs calculated for 25 years 

lifetime in simple linear amortization cost, are summarized in tables (III.6) and (III.7) 

for solid waste and wastewater, respectively (EEAA, 2007). 

77

Table 9.1. Summary of identified mitigation measures for solid wastes. 

Mitigation Measure 

78 

Emission 

reduction 

potential 

(ton CO2e per 

ton MSW) 

Investment cost 

(US$/ton MSW) 

Composting and recycling facilities 0.38 0.92 

Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF) with 

electricity generation only, 

composting, and recycling 

Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF) with 

substitution in cement kiln, 

composting, and recycling facilities 

Anaerobic digestion with recycling 

(flaring biogas) 

Anaerobic digestion with recycling 

facilities (with electricity 

generation) 


< 0.3 

< 0.3 

2.07 

1.97 

0.342 12.16 

0.547 

16.16 

The Egyptian relevant ministries, in close collaboration with concerned governorates, 

have developed several plans and programs over the past ten years to improve the 

process of dealing with waste reduction, reuse, recycling and/or proper disposal. 

These plans and programs lead to the reduction in emissions from the waste sector. 

Yet there are several barriers to achieving the goals of these programs. These 

comprise the following: 

Although financial support for mitigation of greenhouse gases emissions from 

the waste sector in Egypt has increased significantly over the last years, it still 

represents a clear constraint in the implementation of the intended programs. 

The significant dependence on external financial support, as grants and 

concessionary loans, complicates the planning process, and slows down 

implementation. 

The limited public awareness about the economic benefits of mitigation options 

in the waste sector leads to the hesitation of funding institutions to consider 

waste management activity as an economically viable option. 

Technology transfer represents another barrier mainly in anaerobic digestion 

technologies as it needs high capital investment and skills to operate correctly. 

Some technologies are designed on site-specific bases, which are not optimal for 

other regions. Highly local skilled experts and extensive studies are needed for 

proving the suitability and applicability of the technology according to different 

varying local conditions in Egypt. 

All parties in the waste sector are relatively of limited environmental 

management experience and the mechanisms for coordination with EEAA are 

not well established. Furthermore, privatization of the waste sector lacks clear

modalities for partnership, particularly with regards to private-public 

partnership. 

Weak enforcement of existing laws and regulations for violations in handling 

waste reduces the opportunity for achieving the goals of the planned programs. 

9.3. Mitigating greenhouse gas from the agriculture wastes 

As the activities of agriculture are too complicated and the share of emission from all 

agriculture activities is almost 16%, it was not mentioned in the mitigation options for 

the National Communication of Egypt. Although no studies have been reported on the 

mitigation from the agricultural wastes, vermicompost could save considerable 

amounts of greenhouse gases from reducing the amount of crop residues burned. 

Further studies are still required to elaborate on this subject. 

79

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84

General information and FAQ 

WORM FACTS 

Annex 1 

SMALLEST: Less than an inch 

LARGEST: 22 Foot found in South Africa 

An earthworm has a brain, five hearts, and “ breathes” through its skin 

An earthworm produces its own weight in casts everyday 

There are over 1 million earthworms in one acre of soil 

Earthworms can burrow as deep as fifteen feet 

Earthworms are 82% protein and are a food source for many people around the 

world 

Eating earthworms can reduce cholesterol, as the basic essential oil of 

earthworms is Omega 3 

Benefits of Earthworms 

Increased moisture absorption 

Improved soil aeration and drainage 

Leaching counteracted by nutrient-rich castingsbrought to the surface 

Nutrients are pre-digested, making them readily available to microorganisms 

and plants 

Worm castings form aggregates which improve soil structure 

Castings neutralize soil by buffering acid and alkaline conditions 

Worm tunnels create fertile channels for the growth of plant roots 

The bottom line: Earthworms increase crop yields while building soil fertility 

reserves. 

FAQ Compost Worm - 

Do compost worms also eat normal earth or only rotting organic material? 

Although the compost worms Eisenia foetida and Eisenia andrei are not commonly 

found in mineral grounds, scientific investigations show that they also eat mineral 

earth. However, they select an organic enriched fraction from the bulk soil 

(approximately by a factor 2), which is also typical for soil dwelling worms. 

Therefore, compost worms can also be used to clean contaminated mineral grounds. 

Can compost worms be used for decontamination of mineral soils? 

Yes, because they eat mineral soils too. Experiments were done with the harbour 

sludge of Rotterdam. 

Eisenia andrei is commonly used in standard toxcicity tests and in bioassays for 

contaminated soils (Cortet et al., 1999). 

85

How long will the material ingested by the compost worm be in his gut? 

In adult compost worms (Eisenia andrei) appr. 3 to 4 hours, in juvenile worms appr. 

11 to 13 hours. The scientists expected the opposite (a longer retention time for adult 

worms). 

For Eisenia foetida 2.5 h were measured at 25°C, independent from the weight or the 

length of the worm. At 18°C the retention time was about 3.5 hours. 

Lumbricus terrestris shows a retention time of 20 hours. Other worm species 11 to 13 

hours (Lumbricus festivus, Lumbricus rubellus, Allolobophora caliginosa). 

How do compost worms multiply? 

Like all earthworms, compost worms have female and male gender organs 

(hermaphrodite). If they pair off, the genitals come mutually to narrow contact. These 

are localized in the wide rings (clitellum) of adult worms. This ring walks in the 

course of the next days on and on to the back and is shored up, in the end, so that a 

yellowish cocoon originates which has the form a lemon. After a certain time, out of 

this small mites are slipping. 

How often does a conception take place with the mating of compost worms? 

It comes to 61% of the matings to the transfer of sperm. Of it a mutual transfer of 

sperm takes place in 88.2% of the cases, in 9.8% the transfer occurred only in one 

direction. Merely in one case a self conception occurred. 

Is a self-fertilization also possible with compost worms? 

Although reported very often with earthworms, a self-sperm transfer could be clearly 

documented in 2003 for the first time. This occurs very seldom and was observed with 

Eisenia foetida. Self conception is an extreme form of inbreeding. The genetic 

diversity is lowered what normally leads to a reduction in fitness of the species. For 

this reason mechanisms of self-incompatibility have been developed in many species. 

Which compost worm multiplies faster? Eisenia foetida or Eisenia andrei? 

Scientific investigations from the year 2003 showed that Eisenia andrei multiplies 

much faster under the elective conditions of the study. The percentage of the worms, 

that produced cocoons was substantially higher (33% compared with 3.5%). Also the 

number of the produced cocoons was higher with Eisenia andrei, likewise the slip rate 

of the mites from the cocoons. The life ability of the cocoons was possibly equally 

high with both species. 

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What do eat compost worms? 

Fungi are probably a primary source of food for many earthworm species. Rotting 

material from plants, which is richly colonized with it, is the most popular "meal" for 

the worms. 

Slows the composting process down because the fungi in the compost are eaten 

by the worms? 

On the contrary, in the general, it is even accelerated. More diverse fungal 

communities inhabited earthworm-processed substrates than were found in fresh 

substrates. This, although it is generally believed that fungal hyphae are destroyed and 

may be a preferred food source for earthworms. Worms probably accelerate the 

composting process by both grazing and dispersal, and indirectly by their effects on 

the substrate (burrowing and casting). 

Can earthworms nibble at living roots? 

No! The earthworms to which also the compost worms belong, attack no living roots. 

They live on the dead plant material colonized richly with micro-organisms. In 

addition, they have no tools (teeth, grater plates or other things) by which they could 

nibble at roots. The earthworm in the flowerpot or plant patch does not harm the 

plants. 

Are certain fungi preferred by earthworms as food? 

Earthworms can make a good distinction between the different kinds of fungi. 

Lumbricus terrestris prefers Fusarium oxysporum and Mucor hiemalis, other tested 

mushrooms are only sometimes eaten or are avoided even completely. In case of the 

compost worm Eisenia foetida it was shown, that the black melanine containing 

fungus C. cladosporioides was the most attractive in contrast to Aspergillus niger 

which was the least attractive. For Eisenia andrei still no investigations were done. 

Does a quicker worm composting take place if the plant leftovers are inoculated 

with certain fungi before? 

This is possible, however, for the normal leisure gardener too exaggeratedly and also 

not necessary. Investigations proved that a previous addition of A. flavus accelerates 

the growth of Eisenia andrei. Mucor sp. should accelerate the growth with five other 

earthworms. Nevertheless, with Eisenia andrei M. circinelloides shows the opposite 

effect. 

What role do composting worms play besides the use as humus producer, fish 

bait and animal food? 

The compost worms Eisenia fetida and Eisenia andrei play an important role in the 

ecotoxicological assessment of compounds in soil and are the recommended OECD 

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earthworm test species. This species has been used to examine the relative toxicity 

and predict the short and long-term effects of toxic substances on earthworm 

populations in field soil. The composting worm (Eisenia fetida) is representative of 

three other species of earthworms (Allolobophora tuberculata, Eudrilus eugenia, and 

Perionyx excavus). For Eisenia fetida a very large toxicological literature database is 

existing. 

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ISBN 978-92-5-106859-5 

9 7 8 9 2 5 1 0 6 8 5 9 5 

I2196E/1/04.11

Vermiculture in Egypt: - FAO - Regional Office for the Near East and

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