Assessment of the socio-economic value of freshwater species for the northern African region Assessment of the socio-economic value of freshwater species for the northern African region Edited by Diego Juffe-Bignoli and William R.T. Darwall II ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION 2 1 3 4 6 5 Cover pictures: 1.- Collection of reed in the River Nile. Photo © Jon Savage. 2.- The Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), native to the Nile Basin, is a highly valuable species. Photo © W.A. Djatmiko. 3.- Fishermen in the river Nile, in Egypt. Photo © dingoup. 4.- Mint species trade in a local market in Marrakech, Morocco. Photo © besopha. 5.- Use of Juncus articulatus and Juncus maritimus in Saidia, a touristic resort in north-eastern Morocco. Photo © M. Melhaoui. 6.- The Oued Za Gorges in Morocco. Photo © Jean-Pierre Boudot. The designation of geographical entities in this book, and the presentation of the material, do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN or the Spanish Agency for International Cooperation and Development (AECID) concerning the legal status of any country, territory, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercial purposes is authorized without prior written permission from the copyright holder provided the source is fully acknowledged. Reproduction of this publication for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without prior written permission of the copyright holder. The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect those of IUCN or of the Spanish Agency for International Cooperation and Development (AECID) Citation: Juffe-Bignoli D. and Darwall W.R.T (eds.) (2012). Assessment of the socio-economic value of freshwater species for the northern African region. Gland, Switzerland and Málaga, Spain: IUCN. IV + 84 pages. This publication has been made possible by funding from the Spanish Agency for International Cooperation and Development (AECID). Published by: IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, and Málaga, Spain. Copyright: © 2012 International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Available from: IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation C/ Marie Curie 22 29590 Campanillas, Malaga, Spain Tel: +34 952 028430 Fax: +34 952 028145 www.iucn.org/mediterranean www.iucn.org/publications ISBN: 978-2-8317-1509-4 Layout: Simetrica S.L. Rereading and corrections: Chris Tribe Produced by: IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation Printed by: Solprint IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation This book has been printed on ecological chlorine-free paper. CONTENTS CONTENTS Acknowledgements ............................................. 1 3.2.1. Inland fisheries ........................... 22 Executive summary ............................................. 2 3.2.2. Ornamental fish .......................... 23 3.2.3. Aquaculture ................................ 24 1. Introduction ................................................... 5 1.1. Freshwater ecosystems: conservation status and socio-economic value ............. 6 1.2. Situation analysis for the northern African region ....................................................... 8 1.3. Objectives of the study .......................... 10 3.3. The importance of freshwater fishes to livelihoods in northern Africa .................. 25 3.3.1. Egypt ........................................... 26 3.3.2. Maghreb countries ...................... 28 3.3.3. Conclusion .................................. 30 3.4. Patterns of distribution ........................... 31 3.5. Threats to species 2. Methodology................................................. 11 2.1. Assessment of the conservation status of of socio-economic value ......................... 32 3.6. Ten conclusions and recommendations .. 34 northern African freshwater species ....... 12 2.2. Data compilation .................................... 12 Case study 3.1 The European Eel: a northern 2.3. Geographical scope ............................... 13 African perspective, by D. Juffe-Bignoli ............. 36 2.4. Spatial analysis ...................................... 14 Case study 3.2 The Nile Tilapia Oreochromis 2.5. Use and livelihood value ........................ 15 niloticus in Egypt, by M. Saleh .......................... 39 3. The socio-economic value of freshwater fish ....................................... 17 3.1. Conservation status of freshwater fish 4. The socio-economic value of aquatic plants ........................................ 41 4.1. Conservation status of aquatic species ................................................... 18 plant species .......................................... 43 3.2. Socio-economic value ............................ 19 4.2. Socio-economic value ............................ 44 IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation III IV ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION 4.2.1. Medicinal use .............................. 47 Case study 4.1 Uses and socio-economic value of 4.2.2. Food ............................................ 48 Mentha species in northern Africa, by L. Rhazi, P. Grillas and D. Juffe-Bignoli ............................ 61 4.2.3. Other uses .................................. 49 4.3. The importance of aquatic plants to livelihoods in northern Africa .................. 49 Case study 4.2 Socio-economic importance of Phragmites australis in northern Africa, by L. Rhazi, P. Grillas, B. Poulin and R. Mathevet ................ 63 4.3.1. Morocco ...................................... 50 4.3.2. Other northern African countries .. 52 5. Conclusions and recommendations ......... 66 4.4. Crop Wild Relatives—value for the future .......................................... 53 6. Appendices ................................................. 69 4.5. Patterns of distribution ........................... 54 4.6. Threats to species of socio-economic value ......................... 57 4.7. Ten conclusions and recommendations ................................... 59 IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation Appendix 1—List of freshwater fish species of socio-economic value ....................... 70 Appendix 2—List of aquatic plant species of socio-economic value .................................... 73 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank Jane Kloda from the UNEP– WCMC species programme and Dr Boye Gricar for sharing information on the ornamental fish trade, and Thomasina Olfield and Gemma Goodman from TRAFFIC for providing the Access database used to carry out this study. Special thanks go to Vicki Crook from TRAFFIC and Matthew Gollock from the Zoological Society of London for their advice on the European Eel case study. We also thank Imtinen Ben Haj Jilani and Amina Daoud-Bouattour from Faculté des Sciences de Tunis (Tunisia) for providing pictures and survey data, Florence Daubigney from Tour du Valat for sharing pictures and Professor Mohammed Melhaoui from Université d'Oujda (Morocco) for providing information on freshwater species use in the Moulouya Basin (Morocco). We are grateful to Danna Leaman and Uwe Schippmann from the IUCN–SSC Medicinal Plant Specialist Group and Nigel Maxted and Sam Lala from the IUCN–SSC Crop Wild Relative Specialist Group for checking all plant species included in this study against their databases and for providing bibliography. We also thank a number of individuals who provided advice, relevant bibliography and contacts: Nieves García and Annabelle Cuttelod from IUCN; Lori Curtis and Cherif Toueilib from FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department; Steve Davis and Shahina Ghazanfar from Royal Botanic Gardens Kew; Robert Holland; Kevin Smith, David Allen, Jacques Lemoalles; Christophe Béné; Edward H. Allison; Abebe Getahun and Serge Muller. Additionally, we are grateful to Christopher Tribe, who edited the document, Sonsoles San Román and Violeta Barrios for their comments. Finally we thank the IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation for coordinating the project and the Spanish Agency for International Development Cooperation (AECID) for the financial support that enabled us to carry out this study. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation Reservoir, Ouezzane, Morocco. Photo © Gilles Jacquemin. 2 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Every day of our lives we benefit from what nature provides for us. The food we eat, the water we drink, the clothes we wear, even our mobile phones and computers have been manufactured with natural resources extracted from species and ecosystems that have played a major role in our success as a civilization. In technologically advanced societies this link to nature may seem distant and probably irrelevant, but it is there through complex supply chains, and we still depend on it. In many parts of the world people rely on the resources nature provides by using them directly, selling them or working in activities that exploit them. Even so, despite the innumerable services that nature provides, for centuries we have consumed these resources as if they were infinite, destroying habitats, putting thousands of species at risk and causing the extinction of many others. Freshwater ecosystems contain a remarkable proportion of the world’s biodiversity: they hold 9.5% of all known species, including a third of all vertebrates, even though they occupy less than 1% of the earth’s surface. Despite the significance of freshwater biodiversity, it is one of the most threatened resources on earth. Nevertheless, people benefit from freshwater ecosystems all over the world. They use the water and plants, they gather fish, molluscs and crabs, they cultivate crops in their floodplains, or they use them for recreational activities. There is unanimous agreement in the scientific and conservation community that there is a need not only to protect freshwater ecosystems and their associated services, but to guarantee that people in barren rural areas have access to these resources in order to ensure their health and livelihoods without compromising the integrity of these supporting ecosystems. This project aims to assess the socioeconomic value of freshwater species across the northern African region within the context of the threats to those species as previously determined and documented by the IUCN Red List of Threatened SpeciesTM. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation Northern Africa is a place where the balance between the allocation of freshwater for human consumption and the protection of freshwater biodiversity is complex and at risk. Water resources in the region are already under great stress from the pressures exerted by a growing population, such as the increased demand for drinking water and water for agriculture. Water itself, however, is only one of many services that freshwater ecosystems provide. Freshwater ecosystems in northern Africa, like others throughout the world, also support species that are of direct socioeconomic importance to local communities, providing products such as food, construction and craft materials, and medicines. However, freshwater species in northern Africa also face some of the highest levels of threat in continental Africa, with 28% of all fishes, molluscs, crabs, dragonflies and damselflies, and aquatic plants threatened with extinction. IUCN has recognized the importance of integrating information on species conservation status with the socio-economic benefits they provide. The aim here is to link IUCN Red List data on the extinction risk for 877 species across northern Africa with information on these freshwater species’ socioeconomic value, and to evaluate levels of dependence on wetland services in conjunction with the known threats faced by the species underpinning these services. The results of this project have enabled us to identify species of high socio-economic importance and the threats to their long-term survival and sustainable use. Actions needed to ensure the future sustainable use of these resources are discussed. Such an integrated approach aims to greatly strengthen the body of evidence in support of the case for conserving wetland biodiversity. Nonetheless, species and ecosystems should not be protected just because they are useful to humans, but because biodiversity sustains all life on earth, including humankind. The information presented here was collated through a combination of literature survey and email correspondence alone. It was outside the EXECUTIVE SUMMARY scope of the project to draw directly upon the wealth of knowledge of individuals, such as would be possible through workshops. Therefore, when similar studies are attempted in future, we thoroughly recommend that regional workshops should be held to better access the wealth of additional information that could not be retrieved in this study. GENERAL OUTCOMES • Almost one-third (31.26%) of all the species included in this study provide direct socioeconomic benefits to people in the northern African region. • One in four (24.75%) of the utilized species are already at risk of extinction within the northern African region. FRESHWATER FISHES • Of the 128 freshwater fishes included in this study, at least 59 (46.09%) are of socio-economic value and utilized in northern Africa, and 99 (77.34%) are utilized in continental Africa. Twenty-two species of fish previously valued in fisheries are already Regionally Extinct. • More than one-third (35.59%) of the 59 utilized freshwater fish species in northern Africa are threatened with regional extinction, including one endemic species, which is hence also globally threatened. The main threats are habitat loss and degradation due to human activities, which affect more than 60% of freshwater fish species. • The most frequent uses of freshwater fish are for food (through inland fisheries or aquaculture), the ornamental fish trade and game fishing. • At least 378,000 people in Egypt depend directly on activities related to the harvesting and/or farming of freshwater fishes, an activity that generated around USD 355.7 million in 2009. • In the Maghreb countries, inland fisheries and aquaculture operate at a smaller scale than in Egypt but still provide an important input to the livelihoods of many thousands of people. Here, there are few freshwater fish species so there will potentially be fewer harvesting options if the species that are used are lost. A few species, such as the European Eel (Critically Endangered), are particularly important. • Fish families with the largest numbers of utilized species are the Cichlidae (Cichlids), Cyprinidae (Barbs and Barbels) and Mochokidae (Catfishes). Large Tilapia cages near Alexandria, Egypt. Photo © Graeme Macfadyen. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation 3 4 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION AQUATIC PLANTS RECOMMENDATIONS • Over a quarter (27.61%) of the freshwater plant • Given the important role that aquatic plants and species native to northern Africa are used directly freshwater fish play in the lives of people in by people in the region, and 70% of these northern Africa, the protection and sustainable species are collected from the wild. use of these resources must be taken into • One in five (20.28%) of the 143 aquatic plant species used in northern Africa are threatened with regional extinction. The Rif mountain range and Mediterranean coast of Morocco, the area from the Kroumiria region in Algeria to the Sejenane region in Tunisia, and the Nile Delta area hold large numbers of threatened plants of socio-economic value. • The five main uses of plants are: for medicines, as food for people, as ornamentals, for animal feed, and in the production of handicrafts and construction materials. • Plant families with the highest numbers of utilized species are the Cyperaceae (Sedges) and Poaceae (Grasses), and those providing the highest socio-economic value in terms of the numbers of people involved and income generated are the Poaceae (Grasses), Juncaceae (Rushes), Lamiaceae (Mints) and Typhaceae (Bulrushes). • Of the plants included in this study, 66% are Crop account in development plans through environmental impact assessments and integrated catchment management approaches. • Local communities whose livelihoods depend on these resources should be encouraged and empowered to participate in conservation planning, and to develop or participate in sustainable harvesting and/or farming programmes and ecotourism. • Priority areas for conservation identified through this project are those that hold a high proportion of threatened species of socio-economic value. These include the Lower Nile and Nile Delta, the Rif, Middle Atlas and High Atlas mountain ranges in Morocco, and the coastal mountain ranges of Algeria and Tunisia. • Species identified as both under threat and of high socio-economic value should be prioritized for conservation initiatives aimed at minimizing or mitigating impacts on their habitats through integrated management initiatives at catchment and/or sub-catchment scale. Wild Relatives (CWR); they are of clear value to people in that they provide the genetic base upon which many commercial crops depend. • Further studies are required to complete an overall economic assessment of the socioeconomic value of aquatic plants in northern Africa. Sparganium erectum is listed as Near Threatened in the northern Africa region. Photo © M. Menand. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation INTRODUCTION 1 INTRODUCTION Diego Juffe-Bignoli1 1.1. Freshwater ecosystems: conservation status and socio-economic value 1.2. Situation analysis for the northern African region 1.3. Objectives of the study River system in Morocco. Photo © Jean-Pierre Boudot. 1 Freshwater Biodiversity Unit, IUCN Global Species Programme, Cambridge, UK. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation 5 6 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION 1.1. FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS: CONSERVATION STATUS AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE Freshwater ecosystems contain a remarkable proportion of the world’s biodiversity: they hold 9.5% of all known species, including a third of all vertebrates (Strayer & Dudgeon, 2010), even though they occupy less than 1% of the earth’s surface. Despite the significance of freshwater biodiversity, it is one of the most threatened resources on earth (Dudgeon, 2010; Vörösmarty, et al., 2010). Based on those species groups that have been globally assessed, the IUCN Red List of Threatened SpeciesTM reveals that a high proportion of freshwater-dependent species are either threatened or extinct (Thieme, et al., 2010) including 35% of amphibians, 46% of freshwater mammals and 38% of freshwater turtles. In continental Africa, one in five freshwater species (21%) is at risk of global extinction (Darwall, et al., 2011). It is widely accepted that freshwater ecosystems, which include not only rivers, lakes, marshes and fens but also extensive rice fields and large deltas, provide a varied range of services to people, such as food, clean water, flood control and recreation opportunities, among many others (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). Furthermore, access to clean water and sanitation is considered a fundamental human right by the United Nations (UN) and yet a significant proportion of the world’s population (884 million) does not have access to improved sources of drinking water (WHO/UNICEF, 2010). This shortfall is predicted to become even greater because as global population, and therefore freshwater demand, rises the quantity and quality of freshwater remains limited and simply may not meet demand in the future. Drinking water is not the only service provided by freshwater ecosystems. The classical view of services provided by wetlands is well known among the conservation community (Figure 1.1) but it has been historically ignored by governments and decision makers, with the result that IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation exploitation of wetland habitats has led to irreversibly degraded conditions or conversion to alternative uses. Nevertheless, people benefit from freshwater ecosystems all over the world. They use the water and plants, and they gather fish, molluscs and crabs, to name just a few of the many wetland products. These are provisioning services and are the main focus of this report. Freshwater ecosystems may also provide other, less obviously quantifiable services such as climate regulation, water purification and detoxification of wastes, climate change mitigation and cultural services. For example, the cultural and spiritual values of wetlands are sometimes difficult to quantify but can play an important role in local livelihoods, especially in remote and pristine areas where tourism might take place. People in the United States are reported to spend USD 24–37 billion each year on tourism activities related to recreational fishing (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). Even if not tourism related, non-quantifiable religious or spiritual values of wetlands can be equally important, and this is not restricted to developing countries. For example, freshwater ecosystems in the Doñana National Figure 1.1. Ecosystem services provided by freshwater ecosystems (adapted from Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). INTRODUCTION Park in Spain play a key role in the Pilgrimages of the Virgen del Rocío. This is a centuries-old religious and cultural event of regional significance in Spain, which still involves hundreds of thousands of people and usually becomes a major media event each year (Papayannis, 2008). southern Africa (SADC, 2008). The study covered What is the role of species in the services that freshwater ecosystems provide? In addition to the evident provisioning services described above, freshwater species underpin all other services as ecosystem function depends upon the functional characteristics of these species and their distribution and abundance over space and time (Hooper, et al., 2005). Balvanera et al. (2006) aimed to quantify the effects of biodiversity on ecosystem functioning by carrying out a metaanalysis of studies over a 50-year period (1954– 2004). They concluded that biodiversity had positive effects on most of the ecosystem services studied but they stress that further research is necessary to confirm the nature of these relationships. This is particularly true for freshwater biodiversity where, even though the links between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning seem evident to scientists and practitioners, the way these links function and the effects of biodiversity loss on them is still unclear (Dudgeon, 2010). Nonetheless, the understanding of these links is a vital area of research for informing the sustainable management of natural resources, and most authors recommend taking a precautionary approach in which the importance of biodiversity to ecosystem service provision is assumed. showed that the contribution of wetlands was The social and economic benefits of freshwater systems and their species are also well known and there are many examples available in the literature. Economic valuation of freshwater ecosystems has been widely acknowledged as an essential step towards well-informed planning and decision making (De Groot, et al., 2006). A classic study is the economic valuation of wetlands in the Zambezi River basin (Turpie, et al., 1999), a vast and diverse hydrological system covering more than 1.38 million km2 in eight countries and sustaining the livelihoods of nearly 30 million people across al. (2010) established that 56 million people are IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation four large areas in the region (Barotse Floodplain, Caprivi–Chobe Wetlands, Lower Shire Wetlands and Zambezi Delta), and assessed the value of wetland resources by focusing on many aspects of the livelihoods of local communities. Results essential to people’s livelihoods, as all the wetland communities made use of fish, wild animals, palms, grasses, reeds, papyrus (Cyperus papyrus) and food plants. Plant use, including the value added through production of mats and baskets, had a total economic value of between USD 436,000 and 2.8 million. Fish provided between 13 and 43% of total income and in all areas this resource was more important than cattle or crops in terms of total and relative income. Inland fisheries are in fact an important component of the livelihoods of hundreds of thousands of people in Africa. Neiland and Béné (2003) carried out a review of fisheries valuation in the major river basins of West and Central Africa. They revealed that the total potential annual fisheries production for all the river basins in West and Central Africa is 1.34 million tonnes, with a potential annual value of USD 749 million and employing around 227,000 fishers. The contribution of freshwater ecosystems and species to local livelihoods in Africa and northern Africa will be explored in further chapters of this report. Freshwater ecosystems are highly significant in developing countries. Hundreds of thousands of people depend on freshwater species and ecosystems in rural and poor communities. Béné et directly involved in inland small-scale fisheries in the developing world, and that small-scale fisheries are a vital source of nutrition and income for a large part of the rural population living near freshwater bodies in sub-Saharan Africa. This does not include large-scale fisheries or the harvest of other wetland resources such as water, plants, crabs or molluscs, which are also important for many thousands of people across Africa. Local communities in Africa rely not just on natural resources but also on wetland agriculture and, as 7 8 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION the population in Africa is predicted to grow, pressures on these resources are very likely to increase (Darwall, et al., 2011). As agricultural development and direct resource use increase, the capacity of wetlands to sustain the wide range of ecosystem services they currently provide may be compromised (Rebelo, et al., 2009). It should not be ignored that in some cases the unsustainable use of freshwater resources may be implicated as a significant cause of species extinction. Such over-exploitation is generally associated with a number of more complex issues. For example, the real cause of the decline of the Critically Endangered European Eel, Anguilla anguilla, endemic to the Mediterranean and Europe, is not well understood. Threats to this species include over-harvesting but in combination with many other anthropogenic activities, such as water over-abstraction, water pollution and dam construction. These have simultaneously degraded and destroyed the habitat, increased species mortality levels, and rendered the Eel unable to complete its life cycle. The story of this species is dealt with in Chapter 3 (Case study 3.1: European Eel). Given the importance of freshwater ecosystems to people and the high level of threat to the species supporting these ecosystems, there is an urgent need to protect them and their associated services, and to guarantee that people in poor rural areas have continued access to these resources to ensure their health and livelihoods without compromising the integrity of the ecosystem. This is not an easy task. To achieve this goal the conservation status of freshwater biodiversity needs to be assessed, the ways in which these freshwater systems provide their services needs to be understood, the socio-economic value of freshwater systems needs to be determined, and finally resources need to be allocated in a sustainable manner. Red List status has already been assessed for 877 species across northern Africa (García, et al., 2010). This project now aims to integrate these assessments with newly collated information on the socio-economic value of these IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation freshwater species. We will subsequently be able to evaluate levels of dependence upon wetland services in conjunction with the known threats faced by the species underpinning these services. Actions needed to ensure the future sustainable use of these resources can then be developed. Such an integrated approach aims to greatly strengthen the body of evidence for the importance of conserving wetland biodiversity. 1.2. SITUATION ANALYSIS FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION The northern African region (NAR) is a place where the balance between the allocation of freshwater for human consumption and the protection of freshwater biodiversity is complex and at risk. Water resources in the region are already under great stress from the pressures exerted by a growing population, such as the increased demand for drinking water and water for agriculture. As pointed out above, drinking water itself is not the only service that freshwater ecosystems provide (see Figure 1.1). It is likely that freshwater ecosystems in northern Africa, like others throughout the world, also include species of socioeconomic importance to local communities and national economies, providing food, construction and craft materials, and medicines. Several studies in the region already confirm this (e.g. Benessaiah, 1998; Khattabi, 1997; Khattabi, 2006). The northern Africa Freshwater Biodiversity Assessment (García, et al., 2010) was carried out between 2007 and 2009 and involved several workshops and thorough data compilation in order to assess the conservation status and map the distributions of freshwater species in the region. The project assessed the conservation status of all fishes, crabs, odonates (dragonflies and damselflies) and molluscs and a selected number of plants, making a total of 877 species. The assessment was part of a larger six-year project that aimed to assess the status of freshwater biodiversity throughout continental Africa. This involved dividing the continent into six regions and INTRODUCTION conducting similar assessments in each one. The regional reports on western Africa (Smith, et al., 2009), eastern Africa (Darwall, et al., 2005), central Africa (Brooks, et al., 2011), southern Africa (Darwall, et al., 2009) and northern Africa (García, et al., 2010) are freely available online. The northeastern African assessment was completed but has not been published in report form. The main results of the five reports and of all the species assessments are also available through the IUCN Red List website (www.iucnredlist.org). A final collation of all data from these regional assessments resulted in the Pan Africa report (Darwall, et al., 2011), which summarizes the findings and assesses the conservation status of all species at the level of continental Africa. Overall, the Pan Africa biodiversity assessment involved the work of more than 200 scientists and Red List specialists, who assessed some 5,000 freshwater species. Freshwater species in northern Africa are among the most threatened in the world. The northern Africa Freshwater Biodiversity Assessment revealed that 28% of all species assessed are threatened with extinction, 9% are Near Threatened and 14% are Data Deficient. This means that half of the freshwater species in the NAR are either at risk of extinction (classified by IUCN as Threatened species), are very close to meeting the thresholds (Near Threatened species), or there is not enough information available to determine whether the species are at risk or not (Data Deficient species). Several freshwater ecoregions of northern Africa are of conservation concern and were identified as priorities for conservation by Thieme et al. (2005) (Figure 1.2). Both the Permanent Maghreb region and the Nile Delta were regarded as Critical (Table 1.1). The main threats identified in the Permanent Maghreb region, for example, were the sensitivity of freshwater habitats to the effects of invasive species, water over-abstraction, overgrazing, tourism, urbanization and infrastructure development, with overall water scarcity of primary concern. In the Nile Delta, wetlands have lost more than 50% of their original area in the past century due to land reclamation for agriculture, sedimentation and erosion. Table 1.1 Freshwater ecoregions in northern Africa—some relevant figures Freshwater ecoregion Conservation status Biological distinctiveness Permanent Maghreb1 Critical Globally outstanding I Nile Delta Critical Nationally important IV Vulnerable Nationally important V Vulnerable Bioregionally outstanding V Temporary Maghreb3 Relatively stable Continentally outstanding III Dry Sahel Relatively intact Nationally important V Lower Nile Red Sea Coastal 2 Source: Thieme, et al., 2005. The latest version of Freshwater Ecoregions is available in Abell, et al. (2008). 1 Recently divided into two ecoregions: Atlantic Northwest Africa and Mediterranean Northwest Africa. Recently renamed Western Red Sea Drainages. 3 Recently renamed Sahara. 2 IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation Priority class 9 10 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION Figure 1.2. Freshwater ecoregions in northern Africa (from Abell, et al., 2008). 1.3. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY In recognition of the value of integrating information on both the conservation status of species and their socio-economic benefits, IUCN is now collating information on their livelihood value in conjunction with existing data on their extinction risk held in the IUCN Red List. The extinction of species of socio-economic importance is a double loss: a loss of biological diversity and the loss of a natural resource on which humankind depends. As outlined above, freshwater species in northern Africa are among the most threatened on the continent and yet the importance of these species to the livelihoods of thousands of people is not fully understood. This project aims to fill in this information gap through a process of data compilation and expert consultation and the subsequent integration of the findings with existing IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation information on species conservation status as held in the IUCN Red List. This will enable us to identify those species that are both threatened and of high socio-economic importance. It will also allow us to determine and report on the overall socio-economic value of freshwater species throughout the region. The aim of this study is therefore to assess the socio-economic value of all the freshwater fish and plant species previously assessed for the northern Africa Freshwater Biodiversity Assessment and to associate this value with their regional and global conservation status. METHODOLOGY 2 METHODOLOGY Diego Juffe-Bignoli1 2.1. Assessment of the conservation status of northern African freshwater species 2.2. Data compilation 2.3. Geographical scope 2.4. Spatial analysis 2.5. Use and livelihood value The Siwa Oasis in Egypt. Photo © K evin Smith 1 Freshwater Biodiversity Unit, IUCN Global Species Programme, Cambridge, UK. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation 11 12 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION In this section we describe how data on the use of and trade in species were compiled, the geographical scope of the project, and methods for the assessment of socio-economic value. Further information on the species selection criteria and species assessment mapping methodologies is available in García, et al. (2010). Levels (IUCN, 2003). Species were listed within one of the 11 regional categories, ranging from species that are not at immediate risk of extinction, classed as Least Concern, to species that are Regionally or Globally Extinct (EX) (Figure 2.1). The raised index markRG is used to indicate regional categories of threat. For example, the species Alestes dentex VURG is globally listed as 2.1. ASSESSMENT OF THE CONSERVATION STATUS OF NORTHERN AFRICAN FRESHWATER SPECIES The conservation status of each species was assessed during the northern Africa Freshwater Biodiversity Assessment (García, et al., 2010). The assessments were carried out according to the 2001 IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria: Version 3.1 (IUCN, 2001) and followed the Guidelines for Application of IUCN Red List Criteria at Regional Least Concern (LC) but is considered Vulnerable across its range in northern Africa. For all regionally endemic species, such as the Critically Endangered Aphanius saourensis, regional and global conservation status are the same. 2.2. DATA COMPILATION During the northern Africa Freshwater Biodiversity Assessment, in addition to the information needed to Figure 2.1. IUCN Red List Categories at the regional level (IUCN, 2003). IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation METHODOLOGY assess species extinction risk (distribution, population and population trends, habitats, threats, etc.), data on the utilization of species across the region were also compiled. This was not done systematically as the primary aim of the workshops was to assess the conservation status of the species. Nevertheless, the information that was collected is valuable and provides an excellent starting point for the current study on the socio-economic importance of freshwater species in the region. First, the list of assessed species was revised to update any taxonomic changes and to include information on any new species. Freshwater fish and aquatic plant definitions were as given by García, et al. (2010). Information on the use and economic value of these species was then compiled from that obtained through the five regional assessments and the final Pan Africa assessment, all carried out between 2005 and 2010. In a third step, new data were gathered through desk-based literature research and consultation of regional experts via email. More than 40 experts on northern African freshwater plants and fishes and conservation professionals involved in the utilization of species were invited via email to contribute to the project by supplying published and in-press studies, unpublished surveys and local knowledge. The IUCN–SSC Medicinal Plant Specialist Group and the IUCN– SSC Crop Wild Relative Specialist Group were contacted to provide relevant information from their own databases. For each of these species information was gathered, where possible, on: • USE: types of use, where the species is used and by whom, and whether it is harvested from the wild and/or cultivated; • VALUE: whether the species is valued as a subsistence resource and/or is traded at local, national and/or international levels; information on the monetary value of species was also collected where available; • LIVELIHOOD IMPORTANCE: the importance of the species to the livelihoods of local IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation communities, including, for example, the numbers and identity of people depending on it; • LEVEL OF THREAT: the existing IUCN Red List status of the species. Information on the first three categories above was combined with existing data on the level of threat to each species. It was then possible to determine the number of species considered to be of socioeconomic value, the places where they are used, the spatial relationships between used species, and their conservation status, with a focus on those species identified as being both threatened and of high socio-economic importance. Finally, these results revealed the overall importance of freshwater ecosystems to the livelihoods of northern African people. Data were collected in a custom-designed Access database with the aim of later migrating these data into the Species Information Service database (SIS), which is used to manage the information contained in the IUCN Red List, thus bringing together information on species’ conservation status and socio-economic value. The project database holds information on the utilization, trade and livelihood importance of any species which has also had its conservation status assessed for the IUCN Red List. This information will be combined with that on species conservation status within SIS. Information within SIS is made freely and widely available to conservation decision makers, scientists and educators through the IUCN Red List website. The spatial data used in this project were extracted from the geodatabase generated during the northern Africa Freshwater Biodiversity Assessment (García, et al., 2010) and the aquatic plants of the Mediterranean basin regional biodiversity assessment (IUCN, 2010). 2.3. GEOGRAPHICAL SCOPE The countries included in this study are those that lie within the geographical area covered by the 13 14 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION Figure 2.2. Northern Africa assessment area (source: IUCN Freshwater Biodiversity Unit). northern Africa Freshwater Biodiversity Assessment (García, et al., 2010), focusing mainly on Algeria, Egypt (downstream of the Aswan Dam), Libya, Morocco and Tunisia (Figure 2.2). The area covered by Lake Nasser within Egypt and upstream of the Aswan dam has been excluded in order to be consistent with the geographical range over which these species were originally assessed. However, given the large amount of available data on fisheries within this immense reservoir, we occasionally refer to information for this area. Some species not known to be used in northern Africa may in fact be used in other African countries. Where this is the case, this information is also recorded and the species is recognized to be of potential socio-economic value within the project region. This is important as a species may: i) be used in northern Africa but its use has not been recorded, and/or ii) have potential value for IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation future use. Consequently, the use of sub-Saharan species is also mentioned in the results, where such information is available. 2.4. SPATIAL ANALYSIS Spatial analysis was carried out using ArcGiS software developed by ESRI. The minimum planning units used for mapping and analysing freshwater species distributions and use were modified HYDRO1K river catchments (Figure 2.3). The HYDRO1K Elevation Derivative Database at the highest level of resolution (Level 6) was developed by the United States Geological Survey’s EROS Center. This dataset aims to provide detailed global topographic information on streams, rivers and drainage basins for use in continental- and regional-scale modelling and analyses (USGS EROS, 2011). HYDRO1K METHODOLOGY Figure 2.3. HYDRO1K catchments in the northern African region. catchments were chosen as it is generally species. The picture is much broader than that. accepted that the river/lake basin or catchment is Barbier (1993) set out a methodological framework the most appropriate management unit for inland proposing a number of different methods for waters. It is recognized that a species may be not valuing wetland benefits, which then inspired other utilized in all parts of its river sub-catchment, but models all based on the same basic concepts that until finer-scale spatial detail becomes available can also be applied to species. Figure 2.4 shows a each species is assumed to be used throughout its schematic of the total economic value of wetlands, distribution range. For more information about the including information on how the various methodology followed for mapping species component values relate to ecosystem services. distributions, see García et al. (2010). Only the direct use value of species was recorded for this report. This is recognized to represent only 2.5. USE AND LIVELIHOOD VALUE a small, more readily quantified component of the When should a species be considered of socio- overall ecosystem services provided by wetlands economic value? The most obvious answer would (see Figure 2.4). Nonetheless, information on be: when it is exploited for some kind of economic, direct use values of species will help to social or cultural activity that benefits people in any demonstrate the great importance of wetland aspect of their daily lives. However, this only takes species to many people dependent on them. A account of the direct use and current value of the species was initially considered to have direct IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation 15 16 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION Figure 2.4. Total economic value of wetlands and ecosystem services involved (adapted from De Groot, et al., 2006). socio-economic value if the IUCN Red Listing process had recorded it as being used in some way. This initial information set was then further developed and expanded by means of the literature search and expert consultation conducted under this project. A species is therefore IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation considered to be of socio-economic value when it has been reported as being utilized in some way. This can be any kind of direct use, including as medicine, food, animal feed, handicraft or construction material, or for extraction of chemicals for industries, ornamental use, etc. THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER FISH 3 THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER FISH Diego Juffe-Bignoli1, Mohamed Reda Fishar2 and Magdy Saleh3 3.1. Conservation status of freshwater fish species 3.2. Socio-economic value 3.2.1. Inland fisheries 3.2.2. Ornamental fish 3.2.3. Aquaculture 3.3. The importance of freshwater fishes to livelihoods in northern Africa 3.3.1. Egypt 3.3.2. Maghreb countries 3.3.3. Conclusion 3.4. Patterns of distribution 3.5. Threats to species of socio-economic value 3.6. Ten conclusions and recommendations Case study 3.1: The European Eel: a northern African perspective, by D. Juffe-Bignoli Case study 3.2: The Nile Tilapia Oreochromis niloticus in Egypt, by M. Saleh European Eel in Venice Fish Market, November 2010. Photo © Mats Forslund, WWF-SE. 1 Freshwater Biodiversity Unit, IUCN Global Species Programme, Cambridge, UK. National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries (NIOF), 101 Kasr El-Aini St., Cairo, Egypt. 3 Fisheries and Aquaculture Independent Consultant, Cairo, Egypt. 2 IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation 17 18 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION In the following sections the socio-economic value Africa Freshwater Biodiversity Assessment (see of freshwater fish in the northern African region Section 1.2 for further details of this project). All (NAR) will be assessed. First, the conservation species were assessed to determine their regional status of freshwater fish in the region is outlined risk of extinction within northern Africa except for (Section 3.1). Then, the socio-economic (Section 3.2). Section 3.3 examines the importance Oreochromis niloticus, the Nile Tilapia, assessed as Least Concern (LC) in continental Africa. One species, Arius lasciatus, was excluded from the analysis as it is not considered to be a freshwater species. With the exception of the European Eel (Anguilla anguilla) all the species included in this study are endemic to continental Africa. of freshwater fishes in people’s livelihoods. Threatened species account for 27.6% of all Patterns of distribution of utilized and threatened species assessed at a regional level and 31.3% of species and the threats to those species are all freshwater fishes endemic to northern Africa (for described in Section 3.4. Section 3.5 deals with the latter group of species the assessment threats to species of socio-economic value. Lastly, represents their global status) (Table 3.1). This some final conclusions are presented (Section 3.6). level of threat is considered high as it is above the importance of freshwater fishes in the area is analysed, showing which species are used, how are they used and where they are collected, and focusing on the most common uses and the most important freshwater fish species and families proportion of threatened fish listed for continental Africa at both regional (21.8%) and global (22%) 3.1. CONSERVATION STATUS OF FRESHWATER FISH SPECIES scales (Darwall, et al., 2011). It is the highest level in all the regional assessments, the next highest A total of 128 freshwater fish species and threat levels being recorded in eastern Africa, subspecies were included in this study, accounting where 26.7% of the regionally assessed species for all those known to occur in northern Africa at and 27.7% of the endemics are threatened with the time of completion of the original northern extinction (Darwall, et al., 2005). Table 3.1 Number of freshwater fish in each regional Red List Category in the northern African region IUCN Red List Category All Fishes % Endemics % Extinct (EX) 1 0.8% 1 3.1% Regionally Extinct (RE) 23 18.1% 0 0% Critically Endangered (CR) 1 0.8% 1 3.1% Endangered (EN) 8 6.3% 2 6.3% Vulnerable (VU) 26 20.5% 7 21.9% Near Threatened (NT) 2 1.6% 2 6.3% Least Concern (LC) 26 20.3% 11 34.4% Data Deficient (DD) 41 31.5% 8 25.0% 100% 32 100% Total number assessed 127 1 1 Threatened categories This table does not include Oreochromis niloticus, the Nile Tilapia, as it has not been assessed at a regional level in northern Africa. This species has been listed as Least Concern in continental Africa. However, given the key socioeconomic value of this species, it is included in this study. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER FISH A total of 23 freshwater fish species were listed as Regionally Extinct (RE), one as Extinct (EX) and 41 as Data Deficient (DD), together accounting for 51.1% of all species assessed. Thus half of the species native to northern Africa are either already extinct in the region or there are insufficient data to assess their current risk of extinction. In view of these figures, freshwater fish in northern Africa are clearly not only among the most threatened on the African continent but have already suffered important losses in diversity. Threats to species of socio-economic value are discussed in Section 3.5. 3.2. SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE Ninety-nine species (77.3%) of freshwater fish native to the NAR are of socio-economic value to people across continental Africa, according to the definition in Section 2.5. Of these, 59 species are known to be used in the NAR, which represents 46% of the freshwater fish included in this study. The difference between the number of species used throughout Africa and the number used in northern Africa is accounted for by: i) the fact that 22 of the 23 Regionally Extinct species, which are therefore no longer available for harvesting within the NAR, are still harvested in sub-Saharan Africa, and ii) the selective use of some species in subSaharan Africa but not in northern Africa. The study also revealed that 11 (25%) of northern African endemic fishes are used by people in the region. The two main end uses of freshwater fish are for food and for the ornamental fish trade (Figure 3.1). Aquaculture and game fishing are the third and fourth most frequently recorded uses. Other reported uses are as fishing bait, for research and as ornamental species in public aquaria or ponds. The source of the fish (captured in the wild or bred in captivity) was recorded for each of four end use categories (Figure 3.2). To correctly interpret the data in Figures 3.1 and 3.2, it must be understood that a single species may be sourced both from the wild and from captive breeding and also used for several purposes. For example, many fishes from the Cichlidae family are both caught in the wild and raised in fish farms. Species such as Oreochromis niloticus (LC), Oreochromis aureus (LCRG) or Tilapia zillii (LCRG) are captured by local fishermen in the Nile River and certain lakes in northern Egypt and sold to the markets, and they are also raised in fish farms to be sold for food. Other species such as Barbus callensis may be caught Figure 3.1. Number of species used for each recorded purpose (source: IUCN Freshwater Biodiversity Unit). Note that a single species might have several recorded uses. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation 19 20 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION Figure 3.2. Origin of the resource for four major end uses of fish (source: IUCN Freshwater Biodiversity Unit). Note that a single species might be sourced from the wild or from captive breeding and also used for several purposes. by local fishermen in Tunisia and Algeria and are LCRG) and the African Bonytongue (Heterotis also raised in captivity for the international niloticus RERG). aquarium trade. The European Eel (Anguilla anguilla ENRG) is a threatened species that is of high commercial value. Both the elvers (juvenile eels) and adults are collected by local fishermen. As the captive breeding of Eels is still in its early stages (PRO-EEL, 2011), the industry relies on the harvest of elvers, which are either processed for food (considered a delicacy) or raised in captivity to be sold as adults for food (see Case study 3.1). This study also determined if a species is used primarily for subsistence, and whether it is traded locally, or is of national or international commercial value. A species may be valued locally and found in local markets but also traded internationally for the aquarium trade. Micralestes acutidens (RERG), for example, is found in the international aquarium trade and is also used in the Nile Basin as bait to catch the Tiger Fish (Hydrocynus vittatus DDRG). Most freshwater fish, in terms of the number of Results show that most utilized species have species used for food (consumed directly by local subsistence and local economic value (90% people and/or sold in the markets) are sourced from the wild. It is important to stress that, except in poor and remote areas of Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia, fish are normally harvested by professional fishermen and traded in local or national markets. The aim of these fisheries is to obtain money from and 86% respectively) and that 71% of species that are used are traded at a national level while one quarter (25%) are traded internationally, the latter being mostly ornamental species (see Section 2.2.2). a harvested crop but part of the catch may be Nearly all fish families have at least one species directly consumed in fishermen’s households. that is used in the region. Five families have a Species that are grown for food in fish farms higher number of utilized species and are (aquaculture), although fewer in number, are of considered of high socio-economic value (Figure high socio-economic value as will be discussed in 3.3). These are Cyprinidae (Cyprinids), Cichlidae Section 3.2.3—these include several species of (Cichlids), Mochokidae (Catfishes), Mormyridae Oreochromis and Catfish (e.g. Clarias gariepinus and Alestidae (Tetras). IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER FISH Cyprinidae is the family with the highest number of Least Concern. It is commonly present in species utilized in the NAR. It also comprises the reservoirs, small lakes and rivers in these greatest number of species. Of the 34 species of countries, where, although not a primary source of Cyprinids known in northern Africa, at least 16 are food, it represents one of several food options for used, including four species endemic to the people in rural communities. Maghreb countries (Barbus callensis LCRG, Barbus Cichlidae is probably the most important family figuiguensis LCRG, Barbus moulouyensis LCRG and from a socio-economic point of view. It includes Barbus nasus NTRG). These may not be highly globally important species used as a source of productive species but can be an important source food, for the ornamental trade or for aquaculture of protein for people in remote rural areas where production. There are only two species for which a livelihood strategies are based on several sources use has not been recorded (Tilapia ismailiaensis of food, of which these fish are one. One example and Oreochromis ismailiaensis); both are listed as is the Algerian Barb (Barbus callensis), which is Data Deficient mainly due to taxonomic endemic to the NAR and has been assessed as uncertainties and they possibly represent the same Figure 3.3. Number of species used in each freshwater fish family (source: IUCN Freshwater Biodiversity Unit). IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation 21 22 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION species. Most species in this family have two or three uses. For example, Astatotilapia bloyeti VURG, Hemichromis bimaculatus ENRG, Tilapia guineensis DDRG and Sarotherodon melanotheron melanotheron DDRG are all used as a source of food, for the aquarium trade and for aquaculture. The family includes the group known as Tilapias of which the Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), native to the Nile Basin, is a highly valuable species. It is extensively farmed in Egypt and throughout the world, but it is also considered an important food source in subsistence fisheries in Africa (See Case study 3.2). those in the other countries included in this study: Algeria, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia. Egypt contains a significant portion of one of the largest river basins in the world: the Nile, and it is here where inland fisheries are more developed and where many fishermen live on the money obtained from selling their catch or working for fishing companies. Egypt is ranked as the fourth largest inland fishery producer in Africa and the 11th in the world in 2008 (FAO, 2010). While inland fisheries do exist in the other countries, they are on a much smaller scale. For example, the inland freshwater fish catch in Egypt was 237,500 tonnes in 2009, while only 6,020 tonnes were landed in Morocco and 1,191 tonnes in Tunisia in the same year (FAO, 2009). However, FAO data do not account for artisanal and subsistence inland fisheries, which are generally not recorded, so these figures should be taken with caution. More detail on the fisheries and people involved in this activity is given in Section 3.3. 3.2.1. Inland fisheries Globally the most important continents for inland capture fisheries in terms of tonnage are Asia, with 66.4% of all capture fisheries production, and Africa with 24.5% (FAO, 2010). Within northern Africa, in terms of quantity, there is an important distinction between inland fisheries in Egypt and Table 3.2 Prices of selected fish species Fish species/group EGP wholesale EGP Retail USD wholesale USD retail Eel (Anguilla) 39.36 62 6.56 10.3 African Catfish (Clarias spp.) 6.78 7.25 1.13 1.2 Labeo spp. 6.4 7.25 1.1 1.2 15.65 32 2.6 5.3 15.15 18 2.25 3 8.30 11 1.43 1.83 Alestes spp. 3 3.5 0.5 0.6 Barbus spp. 5.6 7 0.93 1.16 6.07–9.99 7.5–12 1–1.7 1.25–2 Nile Perch (Lates niloticus) Bayad (Bagrus bajad and B. docmak) 2 Synodontis spp. (mainly S. schall ) 1 Tilapias (Oreochromis spp., Sarotherodon spp. and Tilapia spp.) Extracted from the table of fish prices at Cairo (El Abour) wholesale market, as shown in the Arabic edition of the GAFRD statistical year book for 2009 (published July 2010). Exchange rate: Egyptian Pound (EGP) 1 = USD 0.166. 1 Price varies with size (three size classes: 1–5 fish/kg, 6–10 fish/kg and 11–15 fish/kg). 2 As listed in GAFRD 2010. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER FISH Table 3.2 shows market prices for some freshwater fish in Egypt. Several species listed as regionally threatened are found and sold in local markets. The most highly priced species is the European Eel Anguilla anguilla (CR and ENRG), which is also economically important in other NAR countries. In a recent study of the trade in European Eels, carried out by TRAFFIC, Norway, Tunisia, Morocco and Algeria were identified as the top non-EU exporters of live Eels (Crook, 2010). The socioeconomic importance of the European Eel in the NAR is presented in more detail in Case study 3.1. Lates niloticus, Tilapia species and Synodontis clarias (a catfish known as Shilane in northern Africa) are also among the most valued fishes. The last is listed as VURG due to pollution and river flow alteration caused by dam construction in the lower Nile. Alestes dentex has been globally assessed in continental Africa as Least Concern; however, it is at risk of extinction in northern Africa (VURG) due to its restricted range in the area following the construction of the Aswan Dam, which has also been identified as the one of the reasons for the regional extinction of a number of other fish species that used to be found downstream of the dam (see Table 3.7). 3.2.2. Ornamental fish Globally, more than 4,000 species of ornamental freshwater fish are traded internationally each year (Whittington & Chong, 2007). There are around 882 ornamental freshwater fish species native to Africa, 21.5% of which are threatened with extinction (Gricar and UNEP–WCMC, 2011). Half of these species belong to the family Cichlidae and 19% to the family Nothobranchiidae (Killifishes). Capture and sale of ornamental fish is not a welldeveloped activity in Africa, at least not at the scale seen in other parts of the world such as Asia, which is the major exporter of ornamental freshwater fish. However, some of the most valuable traded fish species are African, with an average wholesale value of up to USD 2.42 per fish (Brummet, 2005a). According to FAO (2011), exports of IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation ornamental fish from Africa amounted to 242 tonnes in 2008, with a value of USD 3,368,000. FAO data records document the trade in freshwater ornamental fish for some countries in northern Africa. For example, in 2008, five tonnes of ornamental fish were exported from Egypt and half a tonne from Tunisia—there are no recorded exports from other NAR countries (FAO, 2011). These data should be taken with caution as it has not been possible to test the accuracy of the quantities or whether these are all indeed freshwater fishes, and whether they are taken from the wild or are bred in captivity. As Figure 3.2 shows, most ornamental fish recorded are thought to be collected from the wild, although a small proportion might be captive bred. In contrast, globally, only 9–10% of freshwater ornamental fish are taken from the wild (Brummet, 2005b). Thirty-two species were identified as being used as ornamental species, accounting for one third of all utilized species. Of these, three species are used for display in large public aquaria and are not known to be traded internationally as ornamentals. In this study only eight species were confirmed to be bred in captivity and an unknown origin was recorded for three species. Hemichromis bimaculatus, known as the Jewelfish, is a common aquarium species of high economic value. It is considered rare in northern Africa, where it is assessed as Endangered due to habitat loss and degradation caused by water pollution, the construction of dams and water overabstraction. It is, however, regarded as Least Concern in sub-Saharan Africa, where it is more widespread. Aphanius saourensis is a Critically Endangered species endemic to Algeria that is also used for aquaria. It has been confirmed that both species (Hemichromis bimaculatus and Aphanius saourensis) are captive bred. In contrast, Auchenoglanis biscutatus, the Yellow Giraffe Catfish, is a threatened species that is collected from the wild. It is listed as Vulnerable in northern Africa, where it is affected by the same threats as the other two species, but no threats from overharvesting for the aquarium trade have been reported. 23 24 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION Eight of the 32 ornamental species in northern aquaculture producer in Africa and the 11th in the Africa have been assessed as regionally world, and produces 99% of the freshwater fish threatened. None of these has been identified as from aquaculture in the NAR (Table 3.3). The threatened or potentially threatened by the Egyptian General Authority for Fisheries Resources ornamental fish trade in the region, as explained Development (GAFRD) reported 693,815 tonnes of above. The picture is very different for sub-Saharan total aquaculture production in 2008 and 705,490 Africa, however, where 23.7% of the threatened tonnes in 2009. Freshwater fishes comprised and Near Threatened species are affected by the 69.5% and 68.5% of all aquaculture production in aquarium trade and nearly 30% are threatened by Egypt in 2008 and 2009 respectively. Although fishing activities such as subsistence and large- freshwater fish farming is not considered to be a scale fishing (Gricar and UNEP–WCMC, 2011). major activity in other countries of northern Africa, The ornamental fish trade in northern Africa needs FAO data from 2009 reveal that it had increased in further study in order to quantify its scale and to the previous five years in Morocco, Algeria and identify the source of all species traded Tunisia, with a slight decrease in 2009 (Table 3.3). internationally for use in aquaria. Ornamental fish FAO data, however, include introduced species can be an excellent option within livelihood that are also used for aquaculture production; an strategies in Africa if based on principles of important example is the Common Carp (Cyprinus sustainable harvesting. Brummet (2005b) carpio). describes a successful example of a locally The most important aquaculture species in managed ornamental fishery in the Brazilian state northern Africa, and probably one of the most of Amazonas. Here, during the years 2000 and important in the world, is Oreochromis niloticus 2001, 30–50 million ornamental fishes were traded (LC), the Nile Tilapia. Its socio-economic and local communities earned up to USD 250,000 significance in Egypt is discussed in some detail in per year, 60% of the total income for the region Case study 3.2. (Chao & Prang, 2002). Of the 11 species native to northern Africa known to be used for aquaculture six are Cichlids (Table 3.2.3. Aquaculture 3.4). One species (Heterotis niloticus) has been Aquaculture production of freshwater species listed as RE in northern Africa. It is important to accounts for 59.9% of world aquaculture by stress that this means this species is extinct in the quantity and 56.0% by value (FAO, 2010). In wild throughout its original range within the project northern Africa aquaculture is a key economic area, i.e. downstream from Lake Nasser. Grey activity in Egypt. Indeed, Egypt is the largest Mullet (Mugil cephalus LC) and Thin-lipped Grey Table 3.3 Aquaculture production (tonnes) of freshwater fish in the NAR from 2005 to 2009 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 % of total production in 2009 Egypt 370,983 362,177 380,835 473,348 482,310 99,17% Algeria 353 263 354 2,718 2,091 0.43% Morocco 737 820 1,145 1,085 1,105 0.23% Tunisia 710 725 705 752 816 0.17% Libya 10 10 10 10 10 <0.1% Total 372,793 363,995 383,049 477,913 486,332 100% Country Source: FAO, 2009 IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER FISH Mullet (Liza ramada LC) are also important native aquaculture species, but they were not included in this study as they have not yet had their extinction risk assessed at the regional level. Table 3.4 Farmed freshwater fishes in northern Africa and their Regional Red List Categories Red List Regional Category Family Species ARAPAIMIDAE Heterotis niloticus RE CICHLIDAE Hemichromis fasciatus DD CICHLIDAE Oreochromis aureus LC CICHLIDAE Oreochromis niloticus LC CICHLIDAE Sarotherodon melanotheron melanotheron LC CICHLIDAE Tilapia guineensis DD CICHLIDAE Tilapia zillii LC CLARIIDAE Clarias gariepinus LC CLARIIDAE Heterobranchus longifilis CLAROTEIDAE Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus LATIDAE Lates niloticus VU DD DD 3.3. THE IMPORTANCE OF FRESHWATER FISHES TO LIVELIHOODS IN NORTHERN AFRICA The diverse uses of freshwater fishes, the extent of trade and the economic importance of these uses have been presented above. This part of the study aims to answer the following questions: i) how important are these freshwater fishes in the livelihoods of local communities, and ii) what is the level of reliance on these resources? Across the developing world inland fisheries deliver nutritional security and income to hundreds of millions of people. Over 60 million people in developing countries are known to work in smallscale inland fisheries, an activity than can generate high monetary value for national economies (UNEP, 2010). For example, annual production in the Mekong river basin can amount to 2.1 million tonnes of freshwater fish, worth USD 2.1–3.8 billion, and it is the main source of income for 22 million people in Cambodia and Lao PDR (UNEP, IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation Fishing for Tilapia in the Northern Delta Lakes of Egypt. Photo © Magdy Saleh. 2010). In Africa the picture is similar. There are several African countries, such as Ghana, Sierra Leone, Gambia and Equatorial Guinea, where fish protein accounts for at least 50% of all animal protein consumed (FAO, 2008). In Sierra Leone for example, fish can contribute up to 75.7% of total animal protein consumption; in the Democratic Republic of Congo the figure is 42% and in Uganda 34% (Kawarazuka, 2010). In the Great Lakes of Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda, inland fisheries employ 226,000 people full time, 19,000 of whom are women (FAO & WFC, 2008). It is a diversified activity that can take complex forms within the livelihoods of rural communities, especially in the case of small-scale fisheries. Much of the catch from inland fisheries is unrecorded and in some countries information is lacking partly because of the diffuse nature of individual fisheries, but also because a proportion of the catch goes directly to domestic consumption and is never reported (Welcomme, et al., 2010). Subsistence food production is therefore likely to be more significant than official statistics suggest (IBRD, 2010). In 25 26 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION Nigeria, 19–33% of fish caught by household members was used for household consumption and 67–81% was sold for cash to purchase other food or for investment in farming activities (Neiland, et al., 2000). In northern Africa inland fisheries also represent an important economic activity. However, the scale and the structure of the sector are radically different between Egypt and the Maghreb countries (Algeria, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia). 3.3.1. Egypt Egypt has a well developed fisheries sector upon which hundreds of thousands of people rely, either through working as fishers, processors or fish sellers, or through direct consumption of part of the catch. Many others work in aquaculture production. Aquaculture is an extremely important economic activity in Egypt, which is the top producer in Africa and the 11th in the world. It produced 694,000 tonnes of fish in 2008 (FAO, 2010; GAFRD, 2010), 69.5% of which consisted of freshwater species. As Case study 3.2 reveals, more than 300,000 people depend on aquaculture production as their single Auchenoglanis occidentalis is listed as Vulnerable in northern Africa. Photo © L. de Vos. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation source of income in Egypt. As the majority of fish farming is of Nile Tilapia (as a basic product) associated with mullet and/or carp, almost all of these people can be said to depend on the production of a single species. If Nile Tilapia farming ceased, the livelihoods of many people would be seriously impacted. Moreover, this activity is highly reliant upon the conservation of wild stocks of Nile Tilapia as an essential source of genetic variability and therefore a requirement for the long-term functioning of the industry. Inland fisheries are also a key source of income and food for local livelihoods. Egypt is one of the largest inland fisheries producers in the world, occupying 11th place with 237,000 tonnes produced in 2008 (FAO, 2010). At least 78,000 fishers and 25,000 boats are known to be involved in inland fisheries in Egypt, including those in Lake Nasser (GAFRD, 2010). There are 49 fishery associations and six aquaculture associations registered representing a capital of USD 145,100 and 26,520, respectively (GAFRD, 2010). Cichlids are the most frequently targeted species, representing 47% of overall catches. There are, however, many species from other families that are harvested in Egyptian fresh waters to provide an income or food; these account for 117,000 tonnes annually (Table 3.5). Most fish listed in Table 3.5 are caught by traditional fishers and sold for cash, only a small proportion (not more than 10%, especially in very small-scale fisheries) is consumed directly by the fishers and their families (M. Saleh, unpublished data, 2011). As mentioned above, the sources of FAO data are known to be inaccurate in terms of recording small-scale and artisanal fisheries, so these figures are likely to be underestimates. Overall, including inland fisheries and aquaculture, at least 378,000 people in Egypt depend directly on activities related to the harvesting and farming of freshwater fishes. Based on the prices listed in Table 3.2 and the quantities harvested in Table 3.5 it can be estimated that inland fisheries in Egypt accounted for a total of USD 355.7 million in the year 2009. THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER FISH This is just the direct market value of the fisheries resource and does not account for associated industries and jobs such as processing, transport or aquaculture. The species that created the greatest revenue were the Tilapias (Oreochromis and Tilapia species), representing 47% of the overall value, Nile Perch (Lates niloticus: 23%), African catfishes from the genus Clarias (9.8%) and the European Eel (3.5%) (Table 3.6). Algerian Barb (Barbus callensis). Barbus species have been recorded as the second most fished species in inland waters in Morocco. Photo © A. Azeroual. Table 3.5 Catch of freshwater species (tonnes) in Egypt in 2009 Fish speciesgroup Estimated species composition and regional Red List Category Nile Lake Nasser Inland lakes Northern lakes TOTAL % Tilapias Oreochromis niloticus (LCRG), O. aureus (LCRG), Sarotherodon galilaeus (LCRG) and Tilapia zillii (LCRG) 26,101 1 22,854 5,787 48,972 103,714 46.98 African Catfishes Clarias anguillaris (DDRG) and Clarias gariepinus (LCRG) 15,345 NR1 NR 22,461 37,806 17.12 Grass Carp Ctenopharyngodon idella 19,235 5 NR 528 6,292 26,055 11.80 Nile Perch Lates niloticus (DDRG) 4,658 10,744 333 NR 15,735 7.13 Mullets Chelon labrosus, Liza aurata, L. ramada, L. salinus, Mugil cephalus and Valamugil seheli 49 NR 869 12,491 13,409 6.07 Bayad Bagrus baiad (LCRG) and B. docmak (LCRG) 7,202 NR 143 4,31 11,655 5.28 Atherina boyeri Atherina boyeri 4,176 NR NR 1,124 5,300 2.40 Other Catfishes Synodontis schall (LCRG), S. clarias (VURG), S. frontosus (DDRG), Shilbe mystus (LCRG), S. uranoscopus (VURG), Auchenoglanis biscutatus (VURG) and A. occidentalis (VURG) 2,297 NR NR NR 2,297 1.04 Labeo spp. Labeo coubie (ENRG) and L. niloticus (LCRG) 2,161 NR NR NR 2,161 0.98 European Eel Anguilla anguilla (ENRG) 442 NR NR 786 1,228 0.56 Barbus spp. Barbus bynni (LCRG), B. anema (RERG), B. neglectus (RERG), B. perince (VURG), B. stigmatopygus (DDRG) and B. yeiensis (DDRG) 719 NR NR NR 719 0.33 Alestes spp. Alestes baremoze (RERG), A. dentex (VURG) and Hydrocynus vittatus (DDRG) NR 698 NR NR 698 0.32 82,385 34,296 7,660 96,436 220,777 100.00 Total: Source: General Authority for Fish Resources Development (GAFRD), 2010 statistics yearbook. Species composition estimated by M.A. Saleh. Note that species listed as Regionally Extinct (RE) in the NAR may still be fished for in Egypt but outside the project area (i.e. upstream of the Aswan Dam). 1 NR: not reported. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation 27 28 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION Table 3.6 Estimated value of freshwater fishes in Egypt in 2009 Captures1 (t) Average wholesale price2 (USD/kg) Average retail price2 (USD/kg) Total price 2009 (wholesale) USD Total price 2009 (retail) USD 103,714 1.35 1.625 140,013,900 168,535,250 African Catfish (Clarias spp.) 40,103 1.13 1.2 45,316,390 48,123,600 Nile Perch (Lates niloticus) 15,735 2.6 5.3 40,911,000 83,395,500 Bayad (Bagrus bajad and B. docmak) 11,655 2.25 3 26,223,750 34,965,000 Other Catfishes (mainly Synodontis schall) 2,297 1.43 1.83 3,284,710 4,203,510 Labeo spp. 2,161 1.1 1.2 2,377,100 2,593,200 European Eel (Anguilla anguilla) 1,228 6.56 10.3 8,055,680 12,648,400 Barbus spp. 719 0.93 1.16 668,670 834,040 Alestes spp. 698 0.5 0.6 349,000 418,800 178,310 1 1.99 267,200,200 355,717,300 Species group1 Tilapias (Oreochromis spp., Sarotherodon spp. and Tilapia spp.) Total 1 From Table 3.5. From Table 3.2. Introduced or brackish-water fishes have been excluded. 2 Many important species caught in inland fisheries the northern Africa region. This means that 28% are already threatened or Data Deficient. For of species composing the fisheries of Egypt are example, the Catfishes (Mochokidae) in Egypt at risk of extinction. It is also important to note include species in the genera Bagrus and Clarias. that three species important to these fisheries have These generated an income of at least USD 56 been listed as Regionally Extinct (García, et al., million in 2009 (Table 3.6). Species such as 2010). Synodontis uranoscopus (VURG), Auchenoglanis biscutatus (VURG), Auchenoglanis occidentalis (VURG) and Synodontis clarias (VURG) are also threatened. The main threats to these species in northern Africa are very similar, as they are all affected by dams, water pollution (agricultural, domestic, and industrial), groundwater extraction and drought. The European Eel alone generated at least USD 12.6 million in Egypt in 2009. The main threats to this species in northern Africa are overfishing, estuary pollution and the construction of dams which block migration routes. This species is also economically important in the Maghreb countries (see Case study 3.1). 3.3.2. Maghreb countries Inland fisheries and farming of freshwater species occur on a much smaller scale in the Maghreb countries than in Egypt. The exact number of people involved in these activities and their economic importance, in terms of value and scale, are not well documented. Most fishery studies focus on the marine and offshore fisheries, which are of greater economic importance. There is precise information on the European Eel, however, mainly because of its global (CR) and regional (ENRG) threatened status and its listing in CITES, Of the 86 species of freshwater fishes known to requiring its international trade to be regulated occur in Egypt, 28 are of socio-economic (Crook, 2010). A few studies of the socio-economic importance and form the main components of importance of wetlands are also available Egypt’s fisheries. Eight of these are threatened in (Benessaiah, 1998; Khattabi, 1997; Khattabi, 2006) IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER FISH and, although they mainly focus on coastal wetlands and coastal lagoon systems, they provide useful insights into the importance of some freshwater fish species in the region for the lives of local communities. In Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia thousands of people rely on income provided by the catching and farming of the European Eel (Anguilla anguilla). This is an important species in terms of quantity and value in the NAR. The socio-economic importance of this species in the northern African countries is assessed in detail in Case study 3.1. Inland fisheries in Morocco have their place in local economies, and are sometimes the only source of income for local people. Fisheries can be of three types: small-scale, industrial large-scale and recreational or sport fishing, and take place in coastal lagoons (where some species included in this study are found), inland lakes, dam reservoirs, and rivers (Khattabi, 2006). For example, a study of the socio-economic value of the Atlantic coastal lagoon Merja Zerga revealed that around 15% of households practised fishing as a principal or secondary activity and that wetland products contributed 30% of overall household revenue, 38% of which came from fishes (Khattabi, 1997). The European Eel has been reported to compose 20% of the fisheries in Merja Zerga (Kraiem, et al., 2009). Fishing is common in reservoir dams and rivers. In 2003, 200 licences were issued for fishing in Morocco, 52% of which for reservoirs and 48% for rivers. It has, however, been recognized that the number of licences does not necessarily reflect the actual number of people involved in this activity, which remains unknown (Khattabi, 2006). In the Moulouya river basin in Morocco, several freshwater fishes have been identified as being important for the local economy (Melhaoui, 2011), although the specific value of these species and the number of people involved have not been quantified. They include some NAR endemic species such as Barbus callensis (LCRG), Barbus molouyensis (LCRG) and Salmo trutta macrostigma (DD), and the Critically Endangered European Eel, all of which are reported to be threatened by IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation habitat loss and degradation through human activities. In Tunisia, freshwater fishes represent 47% of total fish consumption (MEDD, 2010). Inland fishing takes place mainly in the many artificial reservoirs across the country, but the overall scale of fishing has not been systematically quantified. Aquaculture is also carried out in reservoirs, where species are introduced artificially. Figure 3.4 shows the freshwater fishes that are harvested and their relative importance in total catch (MEDD, 2010). Most of these species, such as Mullets, Zanders, Carps and Common Rudd, have been introduced in reservoirs and are not native to the NAR. The total production of freshwater fishes was 1,600 tonnes in 2009. There is very little fishery activity recorded from Algeria and Libya. Aquaculture production from Libya has been recorded by FAO (see Table 3.3) but there is no detail available on number of people involved in this activity and any estimate would be very imprecise. In Algeria, the European Eel is exploited at a small scale but there is no detailed information on the number of people involved on inland fisheries or the importance of this activity in local livelihoods. The only reliable data of people involved in fisheries for Algeria and Tunisia are provided by eel fisheries which are dealt with detail in Case study 3.1. Figure 3.4. Proportion of freshwater fish catches in Tunisia in 2009 (source: MEDD, 2010). 29 30 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION region. At least 50% (21 species) are known to be of socio-economic value. Three of these species are already Regionally Extinct, although they used to be fished before disappearing (see Table 3.7). Another four of these utilized species (19%) are known to be threatened (Anguilla anguilla ENRG, Women washing their clothes in a river in the Atlas mountains in Morocco. Photo © Alan Bachellier. The Maghreb region is also home to an interesting species diversity of barbels (Barbus spp.), the most common genus in the region. Barbus species represent more than 20% of the total number of freshwater fish species, as well as 59% of the total endemics. Eleven of the 26 barbels assessed (42.3%) are known to be harvested in small quantities. Most of these species thrive in distant mountainous areas but are also common in small water bodies and reservoirs across the region. Although the exact scale of this activity is not known, Barbus species have been recorded as the second most fished species in inland waters in Morocco, accounting for 27% of total catches (Khattabi, 2006). The most heavily fished species (38%) is the Common Carp (Cyprinus carpio), which is not native to northern Africa. Among the barbels there are several threatened species, such as Barbus harterti (VU) (restricted to the Oum erRbia basin in central Morocco) and Barbus issenensis (VU) in the Souss and Massa basins in Morocco. These species are not known to be targeted for fishing, although similar species such as Barbus callensis (LC), Barbus moulouyensis (LC) and Barbus nasus (NT) are, and it is likely they are included in catches where they occur. Barbus nasus is restricted to Morocco; it has disappeared from the lower reaches of Wadi Tinsift and Oum er-Rbia, and is now very restricted in the upper catchments in the Atlas Mountains. The main threats to these species are intensive groundwater extraction and pollution from agricultural, industrial and domestic sources. Of the freshwater fishes included in this study, 42 occur in the Maghreb IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation Aphanius saourensis CR, Hemichromis bimaculatus ENRG and Salmo akairos VU). The major threats to these species are varied: they are mainly affected by habitat loss and degradation caused by water pollution (agricultural, domestic and industrial), groundwater extraction and droughts. 3.3.3. Conclusion The daily livelihoods of many thousands of people in northern Africa depend on freshwater fishes, either through involvement in the economic activities associated with their use (such as smalland large-scale inland fisheries, aquaculture, the ornamental fish trade, game fishing and tourism), or through use of part or all of the catch for household consumption. At least 380,000 people rely on freshwater species in the region, 99% of whom live in Egypt. These figures are likely to underestimate the actual scale of the activity especially for the Maghreb countries, where the number of people involved in inland fisheries is difficult to determine. It should also be noted that marine fisheries play a central role in the culture and livelihoods of people in the Maghreb countries and therefore most studies focus on this sector. Production of the European Eel is an important economic activity in Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia and it generates income and thousands of jobs in the region, as Case study 3.1 demonstrates. In northern Africa, and particularly in the Maghreb countries, the main livelihood of people in remote rural communities is based on crop and livestock farming, with occasionally reliance on freshwater fish from rivers and reservoirs as a secondary source of food. People in these areas may also benefit from the economic activity generated by recreational fishing in the Nile and in the principal THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER FISH Figure 3.5. Distribution of freshwater fishes of socio-economic value in northern Africa. Maghreb mountain ranges. Nevertheless, in The proportion of species of socio-economic value contrast to sub-Saharan Africa, there seems to be in each catchment (Figure 3.6) reveals high levels a lack of studies that focus on the role of of use in the Nile basin, but other interesting areas freshwater fish in the livelihoods of northern African where the proportion of utilized species is high are people. now highlighted. Tunisia and Libya, for example, are countries where there are few freshwater 3.4. PATTERNS OF DISTRIBUTION species but almost all are used. This is an important finding as these countries will have In order to identify areas where the largest potentially fewer harvest options should the numbers of utilized species are found the spatial few species that are used be lost. Species that distribution patterns of species were mapped. are used in these areas include the European Eel Figure 3.5 reveals that species of socio-economic and the Algerian Barb (Barbus callensis). The value are concentrated in the Nile basin. This is Moulouya River basin in eastern Morocco also consistent with species richness patterns in stands out as a place where a high proportion of northern Africa, where the most diverse system is species is used. The area of central-western also the Nile basin. It is notable, however, that Algeria towards the Moroccan border is highlighted freshwater fish used by people are also found because the single species present, Barbus throughout the Mediterranean and Atlantic coastal figuiguensis, is known to be used occasionally although it is of low economic importance. areas of northern Africa. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation 31 32 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION Figure 3.6. Proportion of utilized freshwater fish species in northern Africa. The use ratio was calculated by dividing the number of species used by the total number of species present, a maximum value of one indicating that all species in the catchment are used. The spatial relationship between utilized and Aswan Dam and Lake Nasser. The lower Nile threatened species was mapped in order to stands out as an area where many utilized species identify potential priority areas for conservation are threatened, but it is also the most diverse area (Figure 3.7). Conservation action is needed in the in terms of overall species richness. Here there are areas where utilized species are under threat in up to 20 species that are both threatened and of order to: i) save species from exctinction, and ii) socio-economic importance including key species protect a resource that is valued and used by in the Cichlidae family. Further south, outside the local people. Management strategies that include study region, up to 19 threatened and exploited habitat protection and sustainable harvesting species are found in Lake Nasser. Construction of programmes are esssential to protect the the Aswan dam in 1970, which created lake resource while still benefiting people’s Nasser, may be the main cause of decline of many livelihoods. of these species. The Critically Endangered European Eel (Anguilla anguilla) is confirmed as a priority species for conservation across most of the North African coastal region, where it is the only threatened utilized species in coastal Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria and Libya. The number of threatened utilized species increases southwards up the Nile to the IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation 3.5. THREATS TO SPECIES OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE More than a third (35.59%) of utilized fish in northern Africa are regionally threatened. Overharvesting has been identified as a major THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER FISH Figure 3.7. Distribution of threatened fishes that are of socio-economic value in northern Africa. threat for Anguilla anguilla (ENRG), Alestes dentex (VURG), Barbus bynni bynni (LCRG), Hydrocynus forskahlii (LCRG) and Lates niloticus (DDRE), representing 4.8% of all the fish species in the region. The European Eel is a good example of the complexity of the impact as it suffers from a number of interrelated threats (see Case study 3.1). Major threats to freshwater fish in northern Africa are habitat loss and degradation due to human activities, affecting more than 60% of freshwater fish species (García, et al., 2010). These activities include groundwater extraction, water pollution and dam construction. Drought and temperature extremes are also an important threat to fishes in northern Africa and affect almost two-thirds of freshwater fish species. Indications are that the main threat to freshwater fish is human activities that degrade and destroy IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation their habitats rather than consumption of the resource itself. Although harvest management needs to be planned and controlled to allow for sustainable exploitation, this measure needs to be part of an integrated management strategy addressing the many other threats at the catchment scale. As mentioned above, 23 freshwater fish species have already been listed as Regionally Extinct (RE). Almost all of them (22) are still caught in subSaharan Africa and at least 16 are known to have been fished for along the Nile before becoming locally extirpated (Table 3.7). Although Lake Nasser now provides several species that are caught, traded in markets and consumed by local people, the creation of the lake may have decreased species richness and fishery options for people living downstream if the 23 RE species are taken into account. 33 34 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION Table 3.7 Regionally extinct freshwater fish species that used to be harvested in northern Africa Family Species Family Species ALESTIIDAE Alestes baremoze 1 CYPRINIDAE Barbus anema 2 ALESTIIDAE Brycinus macrolepidotus 2 CYPRINIDAE Barbus neglectus 1 ALESTIIDAE Hydrocynus brevis 1 MOCHOKIDAE Synodontis batensoda 2 ALESTIIDAE Micralestes acutidens 1 MOCHOKIDAE Synodontis membranaceus MORMYRIDAE Hyperopisus bebe bebe 1 1 ARAPAIMIDAE Heterotis niloticus CLAROTEIDAE Clarotes laticeps 1 MORMYRIDAE Mormyrus hasselquistii 2 CITHARINIDAE Distichodus engycephalus 1 MORMYRIDAE Mormyrus niloticus 2 CITHARINIDAE Distichodus rostratus 1 MORMYRIDAE Petrocephalus bovei bovei 2 CITHARINIDAE Ichthyborus besse besse 1 POECILIIDAE Micropanchax loati 1 CLUPEIDAE Alosa alosa 3 POLYPTERIDAE Polypterus bichir bichir 2 CLUPEIDAE Alosa fallax 4 SCHILBEIDAE Siluranodon auritus 1 1 Formerly caught in Egypt—currently fished for south of the Aswan dam. Formerly found in the Nile Delta—currently fished for south of the Aswan dam. 3 Formerly caught in Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia. 4 Formerly caught in Algeria, Egypt, Morocco and Tunisia. 2 3.6. TEN CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Of the 128 freshwater fishes included in this 4. Inland fisheries and freshwater fish farming are of paramount importance to Egypt’s economic value and are utilized in northern economy, employing around 378,000 people. Africa, and 99 (77.34%) are utilized elsewhere Twenty-eight per cent of the species caught in in continental Africa. Twenty-three species of Egypt’s inland fisheries are already at risk of fish previously valued within fisheries are now extinction. 5. In the Maghreb countries, inland fisheries and Freshwater fish in Africa are mainly used for aquaculture operate at a smaller scale than in food, either directly or bought in markets, Egypt but still provide an important input to the whether sourced from the wild or from fish livelihoods of many thousands of people. farms. The ornamental fish trade is the second Here, there are few freshwater fish species so most common use of species, although it is there will be limited alternative options should not clear whether this trade is sourced from any of these species be lost. the wild or through captive breeding. 3. are threatened by overharvesting for food. study at least 59 (46.09%) are of socio- Regionally Extinct. 2. of dams. Five per cent of all freshwater fish 6. European Eel (Anguilla anguilla) are the most One third (35.59%) of utilized fish in northern economically valuable species in northern Africa are threatened. The main threats are Africa. habitat loss and degradation due to human activities, such as over-abstraction of groundwater, water pollution and construction IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and 7. Nile Tilapia is a very important species in Egypt’s economy, comprising most of the THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER FISH catch of inland fisheries and the main aquaculture species. 8. The European Eel is at serious risk of extinction due to a complex and interrelated number of threats. Limiting harvesting to minimum or even zero levels has been recommended as an important step in helping to stop this decline. This may however impact the livelihoods of thousands of people in the Maghreb countries. 9. 10. Conservation initiatives should be focused at the catchment and/or sub-catchment scale in order to address the high levels of connectivity and the consequent rapid and widespread impact of threats throughout catchments. Oued Za à Ain Beni Mathar, in Morocco. Photo © Jean-Pierre Boudot. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation Potential priority areas for conservation identified by this project are those that hold a high proportion of threatened species of socioeconomic value. They include the Lower Nile and Nile Delta. 35 36 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION Case study 3.1 The European Eel: a northern African perspective by Juffe-Bignoli1, D. The European Eel (Anguilla anguilla) has a complex life cycle that includes marine, brackish and freshwater environments. It is also a species of significant socio-economic value, directly linked to the livelihoods of thousands of people across Europe and the Mediterranean (Bevacqua, et al., 2007; Table 1). For example, European Eel artisanal fisheries accounted for 70% of total revenues of professional fishers along the Mediterranean coast of France in 2007 (Bevacqua, et al., 2007), although the eel fishing fleet has been diminishing annually in recent years. Global exports of all Anguilla species commodities generated an income of USD 11 billion between 1997 and 2007, with smoked eels (60% of the trade) and live eels being the most important (Crook, 2010). However, the species faces a number of threats and its recruitment levels have declined at an alarming rate over the past 30 years, leaving the eel facing an extremely high risk of extinction (Dekker, 2003a; FAO/ICES 2010; Freyhof & Kottelat, 2010; Bevacqua, et al., 2007). The European Eel is considered to be currently outside safe biological limits and its recovery could take several decades (Astrom & Dekker, 2007; FAO/ICES, 2010). IUCN have listed the species as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List based on a steep decline (up to 95 to 99% in some catchments in Europe) in the recruitment of glass eels since 1980 (Freyhof & Kottelat, 2010). Although the causes of this steep decline are not well understood, many threats to this species have been identified (Dekker, 2003b; Dekker, 2007). These include climatic changes potentially affecting the currents that bring eel larvae to European waters from the breeding grounds in the 1 Sargasso Sea (Miller, et al., 2009), a parasitic nematode (Anguillicoloides crassus) that was introduced to Europe when Japanese Eels (Anguilla japonica) were imported for aquaculture, dams blocking migratory routes, and overharvesting (Azeroual, 2010; Farrugio, 2010; Freyhof & Kottelat, 2010). As a result of its critical situation, the species was listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) in June 2007, and this listing came into force in March 2009. In December 2010, EU imports and exports of European Eel from all other countries were banned as the trade was considered to be having a harmful effect on the species’ conservation status (see Crook, 2011, for details of this ban), although internal trade within the EU is still allowed. A European Council Regulation establishing measures for the recovery of the stock of European Eels was published in September 2007 (Council of the European Union, 2007). The key objective is to achieve a 40% escapement to the sea of adult silver eel biomass from each river basin of the European Union (EU), based on historic levels. In northern Africa, where eel recruitment has declined by an estimated 50% in the past 10 years, and catches have declined by between 10 and 25% since 1980 (Azeroual, 2010), the species faces many additional threats including pollution of estuaries and rivers, water abstraction from surface and ground waters, drought and extraction of gravel (Azeroual, 2010). Harvesting of glass eels (juveniles usually found in coastal areas), yellow eels (yellow pigmentation, mainly found in rivers and lakes) and silver eels (the mature form that leaves freshwater systems for the sea) takes place across northern Africa in coastal areas, lagoons and inland waters. There is also farming of eels in the region (juveniles are harvested from the wild Freshwater Biodiversity Unit, IUCN Global Species Programme, Cambridge, UK. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER FISH and grown out in aquaculture facilities), though the precise amount that is produced is hard to determine. Fisheries and aquaculture are regulated by law in all northern African countries, restricting quantities to be captured and defining an eel fishing season. Data from FAO on aquaculture production and capture fisheries of this species exist for some northern African countries (Table 2), although these figures are known to be unreliable as they usually do not account for small-scale artisanal fisheries (Béné, et al., 2010; Welcomme, et al., 2010). For example, according to FAO there are no capture fishery data and just 14.2 tonnes of aquaculture production reported from Algeria in 2009. However, the average annual production in the past 10 years in the northern region of El Kala (north-eastern Algeria) was estimated to be 80 tonnes, all exported to Italy (GFCM, 2010). In Morocco, at least 200 boats catching around 40 tonnes of silver eels per year were known to operate in the Nador lagoon in 2010 (GFCM, 2010). Although there is little information about the scale of this activity in other areas, this is not the only place where the species is harvested in Morocco. The main sites of production and marketing of eels in Morocco are on the Atlantic (Oued Sebou, Oued Oum er-Rbia and Oued Loulous) and Mediterranean coasts (Moulouya river and Nador lagoon). According to FAO data, Egypt was the largest producer with 940 tonnes in 2009 (all from capture fisheries), three times more than the total production from the Maghreb countries (Table 2). However, Egypt’s General Authority for Fish Resources Development (GAFRD) reports a higher figure: 1,238 tonnes of European Eel harvested in 2009, which was made up of 765 tonnes from Lake Burullus, 21 from Table 1 Number of people involved in European Eel fisheries in northern Africa COUNTRY LOCATIONS BOATS/FISHERS ADDITIONAL NOTES Algeria Tonga and Oubeira lakes, the Mafragh estuary and the El Mellah lagoon Four aquaculture farms and 13 boats are known to be operating in these areas. From MPRH, 2010. Egypt Nile Delta 1,587 fishers Lake Manzala 9,723 fishers Lake Burullus 6,619 fishers Total number of eel fishers is unknown as eels are not the main target of fishers in either the Nile Delta or the lakes. Estimates are based on the number of licences plus the number of boats in Egypt in 2009 (GAFRD, 2010), taking each boat to hold a minimum of 3 fishers. Nador lagoon 200 boats, each with a minimum of 2 fishers (GFCM, 2010) Small-scale eel fishing occurs in inland waters as well as on the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts (GFCM, 2010). Merja Zerga Around 2,500 households obtain part of their income from the resources of is tidal lagoon (Benessaiah, 1998). The European Eel represents 21% of the catch in Merja Zerga (Kraiem, et al., 2009). 225 inland boats registered, with only 2 fishers per boat allowed. Plus 113 authorized fishers in coastal lagoons (MEDD, 2010). The coastal marine fleet consists of 10,000 boats. Although eels are not the main target of fishers, an average of 100 tonnes is captured from this source every year (MEDD, 2010). 448 fixed fishing units are reported. These include using gill nets, trammel nets, bottom longlines, traps and Charfias (MEDD, 2010). Morocco Tunisia IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation 37 38 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION Table 2 Main production figures for the European Eel in northern Africa in 2009 COUNTRY CAPTURES (USD) AqUACULTURE (t)2 AqUACULTURE (USD) TOTAL (t) TOTAL (USD) No data No data 14 26,000 14 26,000 Egypt 940 6,138,2003 No data No data 940 6,138,200 Morocco 40 129,2004 60 746,000 100 875,400 Tunisia 108 348,8404 67 67,000 175 415,540 1,088 6,616,240 141 839,000 1,229 7,455,140 Algeria Total CAPTURES (t)1 1 Captures of European Eel in marine, brackish and freshwater systems, from FAO Fishstat database (FAO, 2011). From FAO Fishstat database (FAO 2011). 3 Average price per kg at Cairo Wholesale Market (El Abour), EGP 39.36 = USD 6.53 (GAFRD, 2010). 4 Average price per kg at the Bir El Kassaa wholesale market in Tunisia, TND 4.8 = USD 3.2 (MEDD, 2010). This value was used for Morocco due to lack of reliable data for 2009. 2 Manzalla, 10 from Lake Qaroun and 442 tonnes from the Nile (GAFRD, 2010). In northern Africa the exploitation of eels has long been considered a profitable activity due to the fish’s economic value. The number of people involved in eel fisheries in the region is not known (see Table 1), but is likely to be in the thousands. For example, in Egypt the eel is often not the target species for fishers, so the number of people harvesting eels is unknown. However, in 2009 there were 1,587 licensed fishers in the Nile Delta, which is one of the major eel harvesting areas. In Merja Zerga on the Atlantic coast of Morocco the European Eel represents 21% of the fish harvest (Kraiem, et al., 2009), and a minimum of 2,500 households derive at least part of their income from this tidal lagoon (Benessaiah, 1998). Based on Table 2, capture fisheries and aquaculture production of European Eels generated a total income of at least USD 7.4 million in 2009 in northern Africa (Table 2). Before the current trade ban came into force, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia were the largest exporters of European Eel to the EU, after Norway (Crook, 2010). In Algeria and Tunisia 80–90% IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation of eel production is exported, as there is little tradition of eel consumption in these countries (MEDD, 2010; MPRH, 2010). Given the critical situation of the European Eel, it is vital to address all threats that are contributing to the steep decline in recruitment that has been observed (Astrom & Dekker, 2007; Bevacqua, et al., 2007; FAO/ICES, 2010). These include reducing harvesting to minimum levels and/or imposing more sustainable fishing practices, but also preventing habitat loss and degradation caused by anthropogenic activities. Saving the European Eel is important, not only to safeguard biodiversity but also because, as this case study shows, it plays an important role in the livelihoods of thousands of people across northern Africa. THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER FISH Case study 3.2 The Nile Tilapia Oreochromis niloticus in Egypt by Saleh2, M.A. Tilapias, a name that refers to species of the Cichlidae family belonging to the genus Oreochromis, Sarotherodon and Tilapia, are a very important group of fish in Egypt. The total production of these fish in 2009 was 495,300 tonnes, representing 45.3% of the total fish production of Egypt (GAFRD, 2010). This figure is the sum of both captures (inland fisheries) and farm production (aquaculture) of tilapia. The total market value of this production was USD 752.2 million in 2009. Most wild-caught tilapia comes from the Northern Delta lakes (78,900 tonnes), followed by the Nile river and the extensive irrigation canal system (26,100 tonnes). The Nile Tilapia Oreochromis niloticus, listed regionally as Least Concern in continental Africa, makes up most of the tilapia caught in the Nile system and, to some extent, in the Egyptian lakes (60– 70%, according to unpublished GAFRD catch records for different landing sites). This mainly diurnal, herbivorous fish occurs in a wide variety of freshwater habitats such as rivers, lakes, canals and irrigation channels. Although IUCN regional assessments have not identified any major widespread threats to this species, native populations may be affected locally by overfishing, habitat loss and hybridization, as are other Oreochromis species. The Red Belly Tilapia (Tilapia zillii LCRG) comes next in importance (15–20% of captures), especially in the lakes, while the percentage of Blue Tilapia (Oreochromis aureus LCRG) and Mango Tilapia (Sarotherodon galilaeus galilaeus LCRG) in the catch varies as one goes north. The Nile Tilapia is therefore of paramount importance for inland fisheries in Egypt, where thousands of people depend on the industry (see Section 3.2.1). Stocking fingerlings of Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) in earth pond in the Wilaya of Ouargla, Algeria. Photo © FAO Aquaculture photo library / V. Crespi. 2 Fisheries and Aquaculture Independent Consultant, Cairo, Egypt. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation 39 40 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION Tilapias, like this fish of the Oreochromis genus, are a very important group of fish in Egypt. Photo © Drriss. The Nile Tilapia also constitutes the bulk of the farmed tilapia produced in Egypt, where 390,400 tonnes were harvested in 2009. Most cultured Nile Tilapia are produced semiintensively in earthen ponds in the Northern Delta Region and in floating cages in the Nile. Most of the aquaculture facilities in the country get their seed requirements from fish hatcheries, where mono-sex Nile Tilapia is the only tilapia species produced (Saleh, 2007). It is estimated that more than 90% of cultured tilapia is Oreochromis niloticus, the rest being Blue Tilapia (5–7%) and a mixture of Red Belly Tilapia and Mango Tilapia. Brood stocks in all hatcheries are sourced originally from the wild (the Nile and lakes) and no interbreeding of species or hybridization is applied. A line of selected fish is usually kept back in the hatcheries to serve as future brood stock (brood stock from hatchery-bred tilapia is much easier to handle than wild fish). Additionally, most hatcheries from time to time introduce new blood into their system to improve the genetic pool by adding wild fish. Introduction of exotic tilapia (of whatever species) is strictly forbidden in order to preserve the local strains from the probable negative effects of genetic distortions. According to the figures given above, the production of Nile Tilapia alone in Egypt may IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation be in the region of 414,600–425,200 tonnes, representing about 38.6% of the total fish production of Egypt. The development of Nile Tilapia farming has facilitated the growth of important supportive industries, which may employ 20,000–30,000 people (M. Saleh, unpublished data, 2011). The number of feed mills specializing in producing tilapia feed has increased greatly to meet demand. More than 14 large feed mills and a large number of small processing units are presently operating in the country, producing about one million tonnes of feed each year. The activity also supports the large handling, processing, packing and marketing chain in the country. The Nile Tilapia Oreochromis niloticus can accordingly be considered of very important economic value to the country. Production of this species creates a large number of jobs, as more than 300,000 persons depend on the production of Nile Tilapia in aquaculture as their main source of income. This figure is estimated from the total number of people working in aquaculture, as reported in the 2009 GAFRD Year Book of Fishery Statistics, considering that most fish farming in Egypt produces Nile Tilapia (as its basic product) together with mullet and/or carp. If Nile Tilapia is not cultured, the activity will become inviable and disappear. THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF AQUATIC PLANTS 4 41 THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF AQUATIC PLANTS Diego Juffe-Bignoli1, Laila Rhazi2 and Patrick Grillas3 4.1. Conservation status of aquatic plant species 4.2. Socio-economic value 4.2.1. Medicinal use 4.2.2. Food 4.2.3. Other uses 4.3. The importance of aquatic plants to livelihoods in northern Africa 4.3.1. Morocco 4.3.2. Other northern African countries 4.4. Crop Wild Relatives—value for the future 4.5. Patterns of distribution 4.6. Threats to species of socio-economic value 4.7. Ten conclusions and recommendations Case study 4.1 Uses and socio-economic value of Mentha species in northern Africa, by L. Rhazi, P. Grillas and D. Juffe-Bignoli Case study 4.2 Socio-economic importance of Phragmites australis in northern Africa, by L. Rhazi, P. Grillas, B. Poulin and R. Mathevet Collection of reed in the River Nile. Photo © Jon Savage. 1 Freshwater Biodiversity Unit, IUCN Global Species Programme, Cambridge, UK. Laboratory of Aquatic Ecology and Environment, Hassan II Aïn Chock University, Faculty of Sciences, BP 5366, Maarif, Casablanca, Morocco. 3 Tour du Valat, Le Sambuc, 13200, Arles, France. 2 IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation 42 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION Loukkos marshes, Larache, Morocco. Photo © S.D. Muller. Ouzoud Waterfalls are located 150 km north-east of Marrakech, in Morocco. Photo © Jean-Pierre Boudot. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation Aquatic plants were commonly used in Ancient Egypt and were also culturally important. This picture shows men pulling tight knotted Papyrus (Cyperus papyrus) and Egyptian Lotus (Nympha spp.) around a windpipe. This symbolized the unified kingdom of ancient Egypt: the papyrus represents Lower Egypt and the lotus represents Upper Egypt. Photo © K.Green. THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF AQUATIC PLANTS This chapter presents information on the socioeconomic value of aquatic plants in the northern African region. In Section 4.1, the conservation status of aquatic plants is described and, in Section 4.2, their socio-economic value is evaluated to determine which species are utilized, how are they being used, which part of the plants are used and where they are collected. Those taxa identified as being of high importance are described in more detail in Section 4.3. The role of crop wild relatives in the plant conservation agenda and the socioeconomic significance of this group in the NAR are discussed in Section 4.4. Patterns of distribution of utilized and threatened species are presented in Section 4.5 and the nature of the threats is addressed in Section 4.6. Finally, some conclusions and recommendations are presented. 4.1. CONSERVATION STATUS OF AQUATIC PLANT SPECIES A total of 496 species and 22 subspecies of plants occurring in freshwater ecosystems are included in this study. All the species are native to northern Africa and have previously been assessed for their risk of extinction in the NAR (García, et al., 2010) or the Mediterranean basin (IUCN, 2010). Only species found in NAR countries were selected from the Mediterranean assessment. The 22 subspecies included in the dataset are unique to the region. Of the 518 species and subspecies included in this study, 24.5% are threatened with extinction in northern Africa (Table 4.1). Eighty-six of these aquatic plants are endemic to the region, 38 of which (44%) are threatened, and therefore globally threatened too. This level of threat is much higher than in other regional assessments carried out, such as the western African assessment, where the regional level of threat was 1.5% (Smith, et al., 2009) but it is closer to the 23% of threatened aquatic plants listed in the Central African assessment (Brooks, et al., 2011). At a continental level it is also higher than the average. Twenty per cent of aquatic plants in continental Africa are at risk of extinction and 25% of endemic plants are listed as threatened (Juffe-Bignoli, 2011). Levels of threat are therefore high in this region, which is regarded as a global conservation priority as it lies within the Mediterranean Basin Biodiversity Hotspot, which is well known for the high diversity and level of endemism of its flora (Mittermeier, et al., 2004). This highlights the need for action in the area from a species conservation perspective but, as this chapter will demonstrate, action will be positive not only for species but also for people who benefit directly from these resources. Table 4.1 Number of aquatic plants in each regional Red List Category in the northern African region IUCN Red List Category All Plants % Endemic Plants % Regionally Extinct (RE) 1 0.2% 0 0% Critically Endangered (CR) 30 5.8% 13 15% Endangered (EN) 27 5.2% 7 8% Vulnerable (VU) 70 13.5% 18 21% Near Threatened (NT) 73 14.1% 26 30% Least Concern (LC) 265 51.2% 17 20% Data Deficient (DD) 52 10.0% 5 6% Total number assessed 518 100% 86 100% IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation Threatened categories 43 44 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION 4.2. SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE Results of this study reveal that at least a quarter of all the aquatic plants in the NAR are known to be used (Table 4.2). However, if uses reported from around the world are taken into account, 42.7% of the species in northern Africa should be considered to be of economic value. The reason for this discrepancy is that in many cases it has been possible to confirm that a plant is used in a specific northern African country, whereas for other species it has only been possible to verify use in subSaharan Africa or non-African countries. Recorded uses per NAR country are shown in Table 4.2. Of the 86 species endemic to northern Africa that are included in this study, 11 (12.8%) are known to be used. The use of plants is diverse and complex as Figures 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3 reveal. Almost all parts of plants at different life stages are known to be utilized. Plants have a wide range of uses and for almost half of the plants more than one use has been recorded, as Figure 4.2 shows. For example, six different uses for Typha domingensis have been recorded. This species is used in Algeria, Egypt, Morocco and Tunisia and also in subSaharan Africa. Its flowers, stems, roots and pollen are edible and it has also been used as a medicinal plant, for handicrafts, fuel, fibre and animal feed, and as construction material. For example, ash made from its rhizomes is applied to wounds in Morocco. Its leaves are used for weaving and making string, chair seats, mats, etc., across Africa. Like other Typha species, the plant produces considerable biomass and can be used as fuel in cold winters. None of the species in this family (Typhaceae) are threatened, although one species, Sparganium erectum, has been listed as NTRG. This species, like aquatic plants in general in northern Africa, is suffering habitat decline due to wetland drainage for agricultural use, water pollution and development. The five main uses of aquatic plants are for medicines, food for humans, animal feed, ornamental or horticultural use, and as a source of non-medicinal chemicals (Figure 4.1). A significant number of plants have also been recorded as being used for making handicrafts and household goods, and as construction and structural materials. Although a third of these plants are cultivated, 70% of the species are collected from the wild, according to this study. Ornamental species are an exception as they are generally cultivated for sale in the aquarium trade or for use in gardens and ponds. Eleven species are known to be used in aquaria and most of them are cultivated. In many cases the harvesting of plants is nonlethal. The collection of leaves, young shoots, bark, flowers, pollen, fruits or seeds is common and generally does not harm the species or population if done seasonally and sustainably. Figure 4.3 reveals that, although for almost half of the species the whole plant is used, for the remainder only parts of the plant are used. In many cases several different parts of one single species are used. The Table 4.2 Number of aquatic plant species known to be of economic importance in the northern African region CouNTry oF uSE SPECIES uSED % ToTAL SPECIES Morocco 84 16,22% Egypt 46 8,88% Algeria 43 8,30% Libya 23 4,44% Tunisia 18 3,47% 143 27,61% Total NAr Note that the same species may be used in several different countries IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF AQUATIC PLANTS Figure 4.1. Recorded uses for aquatic plants and where are they sourced from (source: IUCN Freshwater Biodiversity Unit). Note that a single species may be both collected from the wild and cultivated for different uses. fully aquatic water Lily Nymphaea alba (VURG), which is utilized in Morocco, Algeria and Libya (and also in Europe and the Mediterranean basin, where it is listed as LCRG), has several parts of its plant used for different purposes: whole plant (ornamental), rhizome (black dye for wool, medicine and food), flowers (medicine and Figure 4.2. Proportions of aquatic plant species according to number of different uses (source: IUCN Freshwater Biodiversity Unit). IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation ornamental), seeds and fruits (food). In northern Africa, it is threatened by habitat loss due to agriculture, which has destroyed most of its wild range. A breakdown of utilized plants by families reveals that 47 of the 66 families included in this study contain at least one species of socio- Figure 4.3. Parts of plants used and percentage of plant species recorded to be used for each part (source: IUCN Freshwater Biodiversity Unit). Note that these figures do not refer to the parts of the plant harvested but to the parts actually used. 45 46 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION Figure 4.4. Number of species used in each plant family (source: IUCN Freshwater Biodiversity Unit). Families with only one species used have been excluded. Other commonly accepted names for some families are given in parentheses. *Only species of the genera Lemna, Landoltia, Wolffia and Wolfiella (in Lemnaceae in García, et al., 2010). ** Including Trapa natans (in Trapaceae in García, et al., 2010). IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF AQUATIC PLANTS economic importance (Figure 4.4). In terms of proportion of use (number of species used per number of species assessed), 30 families have at least 50% of their assessed species used. For 17 families, only one species is known to be used, and in eight families only one species was assessed. Nevertheless, whether the number of species or the proportion of species is analysed, these figures show the richness of uses of the region’s aquatic flora, with most families contributing to some kind of use across the region. needs such as food, medicine, structural materials The families with the largest number of species known to be utilized are Cyperaceae (Sedges) and Poaceae (Grasses), with 19 species (23% of the species in the family) and 26 species (44%) identified as being of socio-economic value, respectively. Compositae (Daisy family), Lamiacaeae (Mints), Polygonaceae (Knotweed family), Nymphaceae (Water Lilies) and Caryophyllaceae (Carnation family) have a significant number of species used. The Grasses and Sedges are extremely important groups with very varied uses (Figure 4.5), providing for all basic and at least 90 of these are used in northern Africa. and household goods, as well as goods from which people can obtain an income, such as handicrafts, essential oils, and ornamental and horticultural plants. 4.2.1. Medicinal use The most frequently recorded use for plants is medicinal. A total of 180 medicinal plants have been identified in this study (34% of the species) The disproportionate number of species of medicinal use among used plants (more than the species known to be used in northern Africa) has two reasons. Extensive research has been conducted on the medicinal properties of plants for centuries and, even today, plants are still being studied for their potential applications in medicine. Moreover, medicinal plant use is very common in developing countries, where in many cases there is no easy access to modern medical facilities. Medicinal plants are normally used to deal with Figure 4.5. Uses recorded for Grasses (Poaceae) and Sedges (Cyperaceae) in northern Africa (source: IUCN Freshwater Biodiversity Unit). Note that more than one use may be recorded for the same species. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation 47 48 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION symptoms of colds and minor diseases, and also for pain relief (for headaches, wounds or stomach cramps); as diuretics (most Mentha spp.), astringents, purgatives, tonics or sedatives; to soothe wounds; or to cure bronchitis, fevers, etc. Lythrum borysthenicum (LCRG) has been recorded to be used in Morocco to heal wounds, as has Persicaria senegalensis (LCRG) in Egypt. Apium graveolens (Wild Celery, LCRG) is a common medicinal plant used throughout the NAR for the treatment of rheumatism, arthritis and gout. This plant is also used as food and is widely cultivated. In the wild the species grows in coastal salt marshes and salt springs and on lake shores. The whole plant of Rumex crispus (LCRG) is used as a tonic, purgative and astringent in Libya. The range of medicinal uses and of plants used for medicine is wide and, although they do not focus on aquatic plants, there are books and publications that list and describe medicinal plants within countries and/or regions (i.e.: Boulos, 1983; Kotb, 1985; Mimoudi, 1988; Bellakhdar, 1997; Batanouny, 2005; IUCN, 2005; Batanouny, 2006). 4.2.2. Food Plants that are used as food, or eaten or drunk for other non-medicinal purposes form the second largest group of utilized plants. Several species are regularly used as food in northern Africa. Nasturtium officinale (Water Cress, DDRG but LCRG in the Mediterranean) is a species in the Cabbage family (Brassicaceae) which is often used in salads in Morocco, Libya and Egypt; it is also cultivated. Cyperus esculentus (LCRG), whose fruit is known as Tiger Nut in Africa, is consumed in Egypt and Libya and is also used as a milk substitute, sweetener, and for infusions. Its tubers are used as a stimulant and aphrodisiac, and are also used to make flour of high caloric value; roasted tubers are used as a substitute for coffee and cacao. Minced rhizomes of a common aquatic plant, the Yellow Iris (Iris pseudacorus, LCRG), are mixed with couscous in a popular dish in northern Africa. Trapa natans (ENRG) is threatened by habitat loss IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation Use of Juncus articulatus and Juncus maritimus in Saidia, a touristic resort in north-eastern Morocco. Photo © M. Melhaoui. and currently has a restricted range in NAR, but it produces a sweet and edible fruit that is taken from the wild in Africa and also planted in private gardens across Asia. Species in the genus Mentha (Lamiaceae) are very popular in northern Africa. They are used for seasoning, for making traditional mint tea and as medicinal plants; most species in the genus, including threatened and endemic species, are known to be of economic value in the area. This family is dealt with in detail in Case study 4.1. Species used as animal feed are also numerous and are economically important as pasture for feeding livestock, especially in rural areas close to rivers and wetlands. These are species belonging mainly to the Grasses (Poaceae) but also to other families such as Cyperaceae (Sedges), Rumex species (Docks and Sorrels), and Typhaceae (Bulrushes). Four species of the genus of aquatic grasses Glyceria are used to feed cattle in northern Africa. These include Glyceria fluitans (ENRG) and Glyceria declinata (VURG), both regionally threatened by drainage, small-scale agriculture and urbanization. Panicum coloratum (LCRG) is used in THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF AQUATIC PLANTS acutus LCRG, Juncus maritimus LCRG), among many other uses. Arundo donax (Giant Reed) is a widely used and economically important hydrophyte grass. It is considered naturalized in the Mediterranean basin as it was introduced before 1500 BC, and it is also cultivated in America and Asia. The plant grows long, hard canes that are used for many purposes in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya. It is used for making handicrafts, thatching, windbreaks in beach resorts and houses, and parasols. It is also valued as an ornamental species, can be planted in wet soils to reduce erosion, and its tubers are used for cases of chronic rheumatism. The aerial part of this species can also be used as fodder, although only young leaves are palatable. In the wetlands of north-western Morocco (Tangier and Tétouan), simple or braided panels of Arundo donax for use as ceilings or window curtains are sold at an average price of MAD 15.6 ± 9.9 /m² (USD 1.9 ± 1.2) (Ennabili, et al., 1996). Egypt to feed cattle. This species can be grazed by animals but also cut to make good-quality hay and silage (Cook, et al., 2005). Typha latifolia (LCRG) is a common species in northern Africa and has also been used to feed cattle in Egypt. Cyperus esculentus (LCRG), mentioned already in this chapter, is also used to feed cattle due to the high nutritional value of its tubers. 4.2.3. Other uses Other uses such as for construction materials, handicrafts and household goods are equally important to local livelihoods. Many species of the Cyperaceae (Sedges), Juncaceae (Rushes) and Typhaceae families are commonly used for thatching (Typha domingensis DDRG, Arundo donax LCRG, Juncus acutus LCRG); weaving (Typha spp., Juncus effusus LCRG, Cyperus longus LCRG); making mats (Cyperus articulatus LCRG, Schoenoplectus corymbosus LCRG, Sparganium erectum NTRG); forming windbreaks or parasols (Arundo donax LCRG, Phragmites australis LCRG, Juncus acutus LCRG); and making baskets (Juncus IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation 4.3. THE IMPORTANCE OF AQUATIC PLANTS TO LIVELIHOODS IN NORTHERN AFRICA One of the aims of this study was to collect data related to rural livelihoods in northern Africa in order to reveal what role aquatic plants play in local economies. Trade in wild plants is an important economic activity across the world. In terms of medicinal plants alone, global sales of herbal products totalled an estimated USD 60,000 million in 2002, with 80% of the population in developing countries relying largely on plant-based drugs for their health care needs. Bulk trading in these species still depends on wild harvesting. For example, in Bangladesh at least 90% of medicinal plants are taken from the wild (FAO, 2005). The same proportion (90%) of medicinal plants in Morocco is collected from the wild (Chemonics International, 2008; IUCN, 2011). Morocco was the eighth largest exporter of medicinal plants to the EU in terms of value, accounting for USD 13.5 million in 2002. In 49 50 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION the same year Egypt was the ninth main exporter to the EU at USD 9.8 million, and Tunisia was 32nd at USD 1.9 million (FAO, 2005). These exports were plants, parts of plants, seeds and fruit, used in perfumery or for medicines, insecticides, fungicides or similar purposes, fresh or dried, and whole or processed. The proportion of aquatic plants involved in this trade is, however, not known. 4.3.1. Morocco In northern Africa, wetland vegetation can provide local people with a source of income through the production of household items and various utensils and craft products for sale to customers including tourists (Batanouny, 2006). Wild aquatic plants are also valued locally as medicines, foodstuffs (such as tea, salads and spices) or construction materials for thatching and hedging. They are not always traded in local markets and usually never leave the household, as plants are used directly by local communities and are therefore an important resource to improve people’s daily lives. For example, a study of the socio-economic value of the Merja Zerga wetland in coastal Morocco examined the livelihoods of at least 2,500 households that lived on the resources provided by this wetland. The household income thus obtained was estimated at USD 803/year, 14% of which was obtained from the harvest of rushes (Juncus spp.) (Khattabi, 2006). The making of Juncus mats is a profitable business, especially for the poorest households. Mats measuring 3.5 x 1.75 m were sold for MAD 40 (USD 4.8) and provided a net annual income of MAD 1,014 (USD 121) per household in 1997 (Khattabi, 1997). Ennabili et al. (1996) carried out a socio-economic assessment of several wetlands in north-western Morocco, covering the provinces or prefectures of Tangier, Tétouan, Larache, Chefchaouen and parts of Kénitra and Al Hoceima. The authors carried out 469 surveys at 58 stations scattered over this area. Relevant results of this study are presented in Table 4.3. Employment rates directly linked to wetlands varied widely from one station to another, representing 19.8% ± 11.5% of seasonal workers IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation and 6.0% ± 4.0% of those with permanent jobs. Similarly, the authors mentioned that artisans have only a summer season of three to four months with a potential daily net income in the range of MAD 46.7 ± 32.2/day/person (USD 5.24 ± 3.86). Table 4.3 shows the importance of certain species to the local economy in terms of income generated for households and/or individuals in Morocco. These species are also used across the rest of the NAR, where they are expected to play a similar role in rural economies. Sparganium erectum (NTRG), Typha angustifolia (LCRG) and Arundo donax (LCRG) are aquatic plants harvested to make handicrafts and household goods and to feed livestock. Typha angustifolia, for example, can produce up to 217 tonnes of fresh biomass per hectare in the wetlands of north-western Morocco, which results in an annual gross income of around USD 9,000 per hectare. Portulaca oleracea (LCRG) is cultivated in rural areas near Rabat, where the annual harvest can bring in MAD 500 (USD 60) for an average household (Rhazi, unpublished data, 2011). Phragmites australis is a widely used and economically important species across the world (see Case study 4.2). Although these species are not at risk of extinction, they are known to be affected by habitat loss and degradation caused by agriculture, water abstraction, land reclamation and water pollution, all of which are anthropogenically derived threats. The significance of some of these species is patent when revenues are compared to the per capita agricultural GDP (Gross Domestic Product) in Morocco, which was USD 726 in 2004 (IFAD, 2007). Indeed, some of these plants can provide an annual income that is even higher than the per capita agricultural GDP in Morocco (see Table 4.3). Figure 4.6 summarizes information on who carries out harvesting, how plants are harvested, when they are harvested and whether they are traded. This information was extracted from the database created for this project by choosing the plants in Morocco for which the answer to the four questions was available. While this information should not be generalized to the whole region, it provides an THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF AQUATIC PLANTS Table 4.3. Monetary value of selected aquatic plant species in some wetland areas in Morocco SPECIES Arundo donax AREA oF STUDy VALUE Wetlands of north-western Morocco USD 3.97/person/day DESCRIPTIoN Potential revenue from harvest. Annual gross financial product of harvesting is estimated at USD 8,929/ha. Harvested for use as construction and craft material. Potential revenue from harvest. Wetlands of north-western Morocco USD 10.8/person/day Iris pseudacorus Morocco USD 7.95/person/day Net potential revenue from harvest. Harvested to be sold as an ornamental plant, and for medicinal use. Juncus spp. Merja Zerga USD 121.68/household/year Average net annual income from harvest. Cladium mariscus Harvested for basketry and thatching. Also used as a dye. Harvested for making handicrafts and thatching. Mentha pulegium Benslimane USD 120/household/year Household revenue in rural temporary wetland areas. Harvested for food, medicinal use, for its aromatic properties and extraction of essential oils. Phragmites australis Wetlands of north-western Morocco USD 6/person/day Net potential revenue from harvest. Harvested for making handicrafts and thatching. Portulaca oleracea Rural areas near Rabat USD 60/household/year Estimated revenue from harvest in rural areas near Rabat. Harvested for food. Sparganium erectum Typha angustifolia Wetlands of north-western Morocco Wetlands of north-western Morocco USD 7,674/ha/year Estimated annual gross financial product of local harvest is USD 7,674 /ha. USD 5.52/person/day Harvested for making handicrafts (mats, baskets) and to be used as fodder. USD 10.66/person/day Potential revenue from harvest. Estimated annual gross financial product of harvesting is USD 9,641/ha. Harvested for making handicrafts. Values in Moroccan dirham were converted to US dollars at the rate MAD 1 = USD 0.12 interesting livelihoods snapshot as these 58 reach local markets. All species are harvested species represent 40% of the aquatic plants known seasonally, mostly in spring and summer. to be utilized in northern Africa. Aquatic plants are mainly collected by women, either alone or In addition to their economic value derived from accompanied by men or children. This harvest is direct use, some wetland plants provide water carried out manually or with the aid of simple tools treatment, which is of great economic importance such as sickles and mattocks. Most species are in northern Africa. For example, according to the used for subsistence, although 33% of the species National Office of Drinking Water in Morocco IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation 51 52 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION Who harvests? How plants are harvested? When plants are harvested? Are plants traded? Figure 4.6. The harvest of 58 aquatic plants in Morocco (source: IUCN Freshwater Biodiversity Unit). (ONEP), the volume of wastewater discharged into the Restinga Smir wetland in north-western Morocco is estimated at 215,570 m3/year. The cost of cleaning the water by industrial processes is in the order of MAD 316,890/year (USD 38,027). Water purification provided by hygrophytes contributes up to 12% to the annual partial usage value of Restinga Smir, which amounts to MAD 2.6 million (USD 312,000) (Khattabi & Sefriti, 2005). 4.3.2. Other northern African countries In Tunisia, freshwater plants are also an important resource for poor rural communities. The Garâa Sejenane is a vast, complex plain with a system of temporary ponds in the Mogods region in northern Tunisia, which covers 2,500 hectares and is known for its high botanical value (Ferchichi-Ben Jamaa, et al., 2010). The inhabitants of this region live in relatively isolated small villages known as douars. Their livelihoods are based on subsistence agriculture, including crop rotation and livestock farming. According to an ethnobotanical survey conducted in the area in 2010 (Ben Haj Jilani, et IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation al., unpublished), all 518 households spread over eight douars used Juncus acutus (LCRG), Phragmites australis (LCRG) and Typha domingensis (DDRG) to thatch the roofs of their houses. Mentha pulegium (LCRG) was used as a medicinal plant to treat fevers and colds, or yielded pigments for painting. Threats to these species include habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture-related activities, water abstraction and pollution, and urbanization. Besides grasses, aquatic plants in the genera Isoetes (Quillworts) and Rumex (Docks) were recorded as being eaten by livestock. Rumex tunetanus (CR) is very rare and endemic to the Garâa Sejenane area in Tunisia; it was recorded as being grazed by cattle, along with other species of the same genus. Threats to this species are drainage, agricultural expansion, grazing and the development of road infrastructure. The data presented in this section provide evidence that aquatic plants play a significant role in rural economies and are used and traded by people across northern Africa. The number of people involved in these activities is not known, THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF AQUATIC PLANTS although some examples presented here demonstrate that aquatic plants contribute to annual household incomes and provide other products and services, such as structural materials for building homes, feed for livestock and medicines used by thousands of rural settlers across northern Africa. However, more detailed information, including specifically livelihoodtargeted field research, will be required in order to obtain firmer and more conclusive results. Such research was beyond the objectives of this current desktop study. 4.4. CROP WILD RELATIVES—VALUE FOR THE FUTURE Crop Wild Relatives (CWR) are wild species with a close genetic similarity to cultivated crops. The definition of CWR and the determination of different grades of CWR depending on the genetic proximity of the species are dealt with in detail by Maxted et al. (2006). Brehm et al. (2010) provide an example of CWR selection for a specific region. Interest in CWR has increased in recent years, as their value and growing use have been widely recognized by the global conservation community. CWR are now considered a critical component in the conservation of plant resources for food and agriculture (Maxted, et al., 2010). CWR provide genetic resources for the future, as they are a source of genes for crop improvement via both traditional breeding and biotechnology, which will allow agriculture to adapt to a changing world. There are many global initiatives and regional policy instruments that aim to conserve CWR. CWR are recognized in the CBD Global Strategy for Plant Conservation, the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, the European Plant Conservation Strategy, etc. (see Maxted, et al., 2010, for more information). From an economic perspective, global trade in CWR is worth an estimated USD 115 billion. Some studies aiming to identify how many CWR there are have come up with significant numbers of species. For example, Kell et al. (2008) reported IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation that 85% of the European Flora consists of crops and CWR species. Clearly, these numbers should lead to prioritization strategies in order to direct conservation efforts at the CWR that are most at risk of being lost and to identify the most relevant areas in terms of species richness and economic importance. CWR prioritization methods are being developed (Brehm, et al., 2010) and the identification of CWR around the world is under way. In this study it was decided whether a species is a CWR or not without entering into detail about its genetic proximity to the crop. The aim of this approach was to highlight another important socioeconomic value of wild plants: they are a genetic resource that enables future generations to ensure their food supply while providing the means to address agricultural issues that may arise (through resistance to disease, drought or climate change, for instance). In this respect, 342 species in this study were identified as CWR by the IUCN/SCC Crop Wild Relative Specialist Group (Lala & Maxted, 2011). If the number of aquatic plants of socio-economic value in northern Africa is recalculated once CWR have been included in the equation, the proportion is striking: 66% of aquatic plants in the region should be considered of socioeconomic value. While the global importance of CWR is irrefutable, these results are presented separately in order to differentiate between potential and actual uses of aquatic plants. However, it should be stressed that 44.1% (151 species) of CWR identified are already being used in northern Africa or sub-Saharan Africa. Given the difficulty of collecting and conserving all CWR, the preservation of CWR genetic reserves in situ is necessary and imperative. In this regard, Figure 4.7 maps the distribution of all wild relatives identified. This map reveals, not surprisingly, that the areas where CWR are most abundant coincide with patterns of species richness (Figure 4.8), i.e. the coastal plains and Rif mountain range of Morocco, the coastal mountain ranges of Algeria and Tunisia, and the Nile Delta and lower Nile in Egypt, all of which are important areas for CWR. 53 54 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION Figure 4.7. Distribution of Crop Wild Relatives in the northern African region. 4.5. PATTERNS OF DISTRIBUTION Three regional biodiversity hotspots for aquatic plants (Figure 4.8) have been identified in northern Africa. These are the Betico-Rifan arc stretching across Morocco and western Algeria (1), the Middle Atlas and High Atlas mountains in Morocco (2), and the Kabylias–Numidia–Kroumiria complex (3) running from north-eastern Algeria to the Kroumiria region in Tunisia. These areas were obtained by combining catchments where at least 104 species occur or where at least 10 species endemic to northern Africa occur (for further information see Rhazi & Grillas, 2010). Species richness patterns for all plants also reveal other important areas, such as the lower Nile basin, including the Nile Delta, and the Atlantic plains of Morocco (Figure 4.9). The pattern of richness for plants of socio-economic value is shown in Figure 4.10. At first glance, areas where there are larger numbers of utilized species cover the three biodiversity hotspots described IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation above, as well as the Nile Delta region. A closer look shows that the Rif and Middle Atlas mountain ranges are the main areas where a large number of species are utilized. Some of these plants are endemic to the region, such as Mentha suaveolens ssp. timija and Mentha gattefossei, which are strictly endemic to Morocco and globally listed as Near Threatened. In addition, the Atlantic plains of Morocco are not only significant areas in terms of species richness and endemism (Figures 4.8 and 4.9), but they also have a large number of species of socio-economic importance (Figure 4.10). Other important areas are northern Tunisia and eastern Algeria, between the eastern Tell Atlas and the coastal area north of the Aurès Mountains. These also hold important conservation sites, including El Kala National Park, which is a Ramsar site in Algeria, and the Garâa Sejenane in the Mogods area in Tunisia, both identified as Important Plant Areas (IPAs). THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF AQUATIC PLANTS 3 1 AP 2 Figure 4.8. Map of the three regional biodiversity hotspots for endemic aquatic plants in northern Africa: (1) the Betico-Rifan arc; (2) the Middle and High Atlas; (3) Kabylias–Numidia–Kroumiria (source: Rhazi and Grillas, 2010). AP: Atlantic Plains of northern Morocco. Figure 4.9. Distribution of species richness for aquatic plants in the northern African region. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation 55 56 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION Figure 4.10. Distribution of species of socio-economic value in northern Africa. Note that CWR are not included in this map unless they are currently being used. Important Plant Areas (IPAs) in the south and species and diversity (Radford, et al., 2011). east Mediterranean were recently identified in a Areas identified in this study as important and project involving PlantLife International, IUCN which also include IPAs are the Middle and High and WWF (Radford, et al., 2011). This project Atlas in Morocco, and the Nile Delta and lower identified 207 IPAs in the south and east Nile basin in Egypt. Mediterranean region. In northern Africa, 78 IPAs Figure 4.11 reveals the distribution of species that were identified overall in Morocco (19), Algeria are both threatened and of economic importance. (21), Tunisia (13), Libya (5) and Egypt (20). While These are places where conservation action is IPAs do not focus on aquatic plants, they do needed to: i) save species from exctinction, and ii) include some important freshwater systems and protect a resource that is valued and used by local provide an insight into where some of the most people. Two important areas emerge from this ecologically important sites are located from a study: the Rif mountain range and Mediterranean plant conservation perspective and, as discussed coast of Morocco, and the Kabylias–Numidia– above, they overlap with important areas for Kroumiria–Mogods complex, from north-eastern freshwater plant conservation. IPAs are also Algeria to the Mogods region in Tunisia, including considered critically important for the the Sejenane region, which has been mentioned Mediterranean region because they support the before as an area that includes several RAMSAR livelihoods of many people, provide ecosystem sites and IPAs. There is also a significant number services such as water and flood control, prevent of threatened species of socio-economic value in desertification and are a reservoir of genetic the Nile Delta area. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF AQUATIC PLANTS Figure 4.11. Distribution of threatened species that are of socio-economic value in northern Africa. 4.6. THREATS TO SPECIES OF SOCIOECONOMIC VALUE At least one in five (20.28%) utilized freshwater plants in northern Africa is threatened with extinction in the region. The main threats to such species in northern Africa are the same as those that affect all other aquatic plants in the region. Habitat loss and degradation are affecting 95% of the aquatic plants species in ancient Egypt and remains of this species were found in Tutankhamun’s tomb (Carvalho & Fernandes, 2003). Mentha cervina, which is found in Algeria, Morocco and other Mediterranean countries, is listed as CRRG in northern Africa. It is a species in the mint family that may be specifically or accidentally targeted for use but it has not been recorded as being as severely affected by in northern Africa (Rhazi & Grillas, 2010). The main harvesting as other Mentha species (see Table 4.4). causes of habitat loss are over-abstraction of Its main threats are the destruction of the habitat by ground water, agricultural development and anthropogenic activities such as hydrological intensification, infrastructure development and changes due to drainage or permanent flooding, pumping of polluted surface water into wetlands. For agriculture, land reclamation, and dams. The small example, the Blue Egyptian Water Lily (Nymphaea number of populations and their remoteness put nouchali caerulea, formerly known as Nymphaea caerulea) is an emblematic species in Egypt that is now listed as Critically Endangered (CRRG). The rhizome and fruit of this species are edible and have also been used since ancient times as a medicine and perfume. It was a very common and valued them at risk of extinction in the Maghreb countries. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation Cyperus papyrus (VURG) is another example of a threatened species that is utilized in Africa and was very common in Egypt. It is now very restricted in the region, where it is found in the wild at just a few sites, but it used to be a very valuable species 57 58 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION Figure 4.12. Recorded uses for threatened aquatic plant species of socio-economic value in northern Africa (source: IUCN Freshwater Biodiversity Unit). Note that a single species may be used for several purposes. extensively utilized as a paper-like material in ancient Egypt for centuries until it was outcompeted by more effective materials. Other recorded uses of the species in Africa include medicinal, food (rhizomes), materials for construction and handicrafts, and ornamental. In Egypt papyrus reeds are cultivated on a small scale for making papyrus scrolls, which are painted with scenes and figures copied from original paintings on tomb walls and are very popular among tourists. This is a profitable business for some companies established on the banks of the Nile in Giza, near Cairo, where this activity is currently carried out (Zahran & Willis, 2003). Seventeen threatened species are used as medicinal plants (Figure 4.12). Some of them, such as Butomus umbellatus (VURG) and Menyanthes trifoliata (VURG), have northern Africa as the southern limit of their range; they are rare in the region and are affected by agriculture, which has caused deterioration of the soils and ecosystems along freshwater systems. They are used in Egypt, Algeria and Morocco. Menyanthes trifoliata has been used to treat poor digestion, lack of appetite, anaemia and IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation intestinal parasites in Egypt and Morocco. Butomus umbellatus seeds and underground stems have been reported to be used in Algeria as an emollient with healing properties. Mentha cervina is listed as CRRG in northern Africa and NTRG in the Mediterranean. Like most species in this genus it has medicinal properties and is reported to be occasionally used at a local scale with other Mentha species. It is threatened by habitat degradation due to anthropogenic activities such as hydrological changes caused by drainage or permanent flooding, agriculture, land reclamation and dams. As mentioned throughout this chapter, utilization has not been identified as a major threat to aquatic plants in general. Harvesting of wild plants has been identified as a major threat to eight species (Table 4.4) or 5% of the utilized species in northern Africa. These include two regionally threatened species and three Near Threatened species. However, overall 32.3% (41 species) of all threatened plants are known to be used. This contrasts with the results of the IPA study mentioned above, which found that unsustainable plant exploitation affected 33% of the IPAs included in that study. These results should not THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF AQUATIC PLANTS be extrapolated to freshwater ecosystems, however, 2. At least a quarter of the freshwater plants as the IPA study did not focus on wetland plant use native to northern Africa are utilized directly by and its geographical scope was much larger, people in the region; 70% of these species are covering the south and east Mediterranean region. collected from the wild. Of the 49 sites affected by over-collecting, 12 lie within the northern African project area. 3. most predominant are as medicines and food. Nevertheless, the study emphasized that ‘The threat Other significant uses include use as of over collection may provide a conservation ornamentals, animal feed, production of opportunity in terms of using plant conservation to handicrafts and construction materials. secure livelihoods and assist development’ (Radford, et al., 2011). Indeed, although a complex issue in Uses of aquatic plants are diverse but the 4. One in five (20.28%) of the 143 utilized some groups, the sustainable collection and/or aquatic plant species in northern Africa are cultivation of valuable plants for trade can both help threatened with extinction. The Rif mountain to protect the species (since local communities will range and Mediterranean coast of Morocco, be interested in preserving their resources) and the Kabylias–Numidia–Kroumiria–Mogods provide new sources of income in rural areas. complex, from north-eastern Algeria to the Mogods region in Tunisia, and the Nile Delta area hold large numbers of threatened plants 4.7. TEN CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 1. of socio-economic value. 5. Main threats to freshwater species are The northern African flora includes a great habitat loss and degradation, which affects wealth of aquatic plants of socio-economic up to 95% of the species. This is caused by value. These play an important role in local underground water extraction, water economies where they are traded in markets pollution, and agricultural and industrial as medicinal plants, harvested for making development. At least 5% of utilized aquatic handicrafts and as construction materials, or plants are known to be threatened by cultivated for food. harvesting. Table 4.4. Aquatic plant species of socio-economic value threatened by harvesting in northern Africa SPECIES REgIoNAL RED LIST CATEgoRy ADDITIoNAL INFoRMATIoN Cyperus papyrus VU Listed globally as Least Concern genista ancistrocarpa EN Endemic to Morocco and the Iberian peninsula. Listed as EN in the Mediterranean basin. Limonium cymuliferum NT Endemic to Morocco and Algeria Mentha gattefossei NT Endemic to Morocco Mentha suaveolens ssp. timija NT Endemic to Morocco Menyanthes trifoliata EN Only found in Morocco in Africa. Listed as Least Concern in the Mediterranean basin Salix pedicellata LC Endemic to the Mediterranean Typha elephantina LC Listed globally as Least Concern IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation 59 60 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION 6. The plant families with the largest numbers of policymakers to take action for the conservation of freshwater ecosystems. utilized species are the Sedges (Cyperaceae) and Grasses (Poaceae), and those providing the highest socio-economic value in terms of the numbers of people involved and income generated are the Grasses (Poaceae), Rushes (Juncaceae), Mints (Lamiaceae) and Bulrushes (Typhaceae). 7. Of the plants included in this study, 66% are Crop Wild Relatives, with a clear value to people through providing the genetic base upon which many commercial crops depend. 8. The socio-economic value of aquatic plants should serve as a basis to encourage 9. Although there is qualitative evidence of the socio-economic value of aquatic plants in northern Africa, further studies are necessary to carry out an overall economic assessment. 10. It is recommended that the cultivation of medicinal and aromatic plants be developed in order to reduce pressure on wild plants—almost all the aromatic and medicinal plants (90%) harvested and marketed in Morocco are taken from the wild. The collecting of aquatic plants (helophytes) should be rationalized locally to ensure the sustainability of the operation and thereby boost an artisanal-scale economy. Woman explaining the ancient art of making papyrus to tourists in Egypt. Photo © golisoda. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF AQUATIC PLANTS Case study 4.1 Uses and socioeconomic value of Mentha species in northern Africa by Rhazi1, L., Grillas2, P. and Juffe-Bignoli3, D. In north Africa, the genus Mentha comprises about 11 species (with several subspecies, forms, varieties and sub varieties): two are cultivated (M. spicata L. = M. viridis L., and M. piperita (L.) Huds.), and nine are wild (Mentha aquatica L.; M. cervina L.; M. gattefossei Maire; M. longifolia (L.) Huds. = M. sylvestris L.; M. niliaca Jacq.; M. pulegium L.; M. rotundifolia L.; M. suaveolens Ehrh. and Mentha villosa Hudson). The possibilities of hybridization between species are numerous, making them particularly difficult to identify and/or individualize. They are all herbaceous perennials of the family Lamiaceae and two are strict Moroccan endemics (M. gattefossei Maire and M. suaveolens Ehrh. ssp. timija (Briq.) Harley). The various species of mint are found in moist habitats in plains and mountains (e.g. marshes, temporary ponds, edges of streams, wet meadows, bogs and irrigated land). In the northern Africa Freshwater Biodiversity Assessment (García, et al., 2010) seven species and one subspecies of Mentha were assessed. Only M. cervina was listed as threatened (CRRG), although two Moroccan endemics (M. gattefossei and M. suaveolens ssp. timija) were assessed as Near Threatened. Main threats to these species are habitat destruction due to anthropogenic activities that cause hydrological changes and temporary flooding, such as dam construction, water abstraction or land reclamation for agriculture. Livestock overgrazing and wild 61 harvesting have also been identified as threats to these endemics. Mentha species have been used since ancient times. Dried leaves dating from the first millennium BC have been discovered by archaeologists in the Egyptian pyramids. Hippocrates and Aristotle used mint as a sedative and anaesthetic. The various species of mint are widely used as food, medicinal and aromatic plants (for refreshing, antiseptic, tonic, anaesthetic, analgesic, anti-spasmodic, febrifuge, diuretic, and antibacterial uses). Similarly, they are applied externally to relieve insect bites and also planted around crops as a natural repellent of crop pests such as aphids. Figure 1. Mentha pulegium. Photo © Patrick Grillas, Tour du Valat. 1 Laboratory of Aquatic Ecology and Environment, Hassan II Aïn Chock University, Faculty of Sciences, BP 5366, Maarif, Casablanca, Morocco. 2 Tour du Valat, Le Sambuc, 13200, Arles, France. 3 Freshwater Biodiversity Unit, IUCN Global Species Programme, Cambridge, UK. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation 62 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION Mint is grown in Europe, Asia, North America and northern Africa. It is used in similar ways across the northern African region. For example, Spearmint (Mentha spicata) is mainly used to flavour tea in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya. Pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium) is widely used in all northern African countries for its medicinal properties against influenza, colds, coughs and lung diseases (Boukef, 1986; Chaieb, et al., 1999; Ould El Hadj, et al., 2003; Ouelmouhoub, 2005; Hseini & Kahouadji, 2007; Salhi, et al., 2010). It is regarded as a general treatment for winter diseases. Fresh or dried leaves of Pennyroyal are also used as a decoction against abdominal diseases (ulcers, gastritis and pain). The plant is also kneaded and then applied externally to the head to treat acute headaches (Ouelmouhoub, 2005). toothpastes, mouthwashes, chewing gum and soft drinks. In 1992, for example, about 16.5 tonnes of essential oil of Pennyroyal were exported from Morocco (MATEE, 2004). An environmentally friendly way of producing mint in Morocco was developed in 2006– 2007 in the region of El Borouj (Province of Settat). The organic Spearmint thus produced is used to flavour tea. Its selling price was MAD 12/kg (USD 1.4) in 2008, generating a gross income of USD 113,369/ha/year. Additionally, 3.70 tonnes of organic mint were exported in 2009–2010, worth MAD 85,120 (USD 10,096) (El Fadl & Chtaina, 2010). This is only the beginning (14 ha of organic crops were certified in 2009); combining local trade with exports of organic mint is a very promising business which is likely to contribute significantly to the national economy in the medium term. In Morocco, mint is collected mainly by women and children in the spring or early summer. A small part is kept for household use and the rest is sold in weekly markets (souks) or in the nearest urban centres. The selling price is MAD 1–2 per bale (USD 0.12–0.24) depending on the size of the bale. The sale of mint (wild or cultivated) generates income for local people living near wetlands or in rural suburban areas. For example, in the province of Benslimane, the sale of Pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium) taken from temporary pools generates about MAD 1,000/household/year (USD 120). A small part of the mint produced in Morocco is exported. Exports in 2009–2010 were around 5,200 tonnes (6.2% of the national mint harvest), worth USD 12.34 million (El Fadl & Chtaina, 2010). In addition to local sales and exports of fresh and dried mint, the production of essential oils from the mint is well established in various regions of Morocco. These oils are used in the pharmaceutical industry and in the manufacture of confectionery and liqueurs. They are used for flavouring creams, A typical mint tea as served in Casablanca, Morocco. Photo © David Darricau. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF AQUATIC PLANTS Case study 4.2 Socio-economic importance of Phragmites australis in northern Africa by Rhazi 1, L., Grillas 2, P., Poulin 2, B. and Mathevet 3, R. Phragmites australis (common names: Reed, Common Reed; Roseau commun in French; Carrizo in Spanish; Canetto in Italian; Kassab in Arabic) is a perennial (rhizomatous geophyte) clonal grass in the family Poaceae. Present on all continents except Antarctica, it is probably the most widely distributed flowering plant on earth. The Common Reed is found in a wide variety of permanent, semipermanent and temporary wetlands: deltas, marshes, lake shores, river and channel edges, roadsides and ditches. It is typically found in stagnant to slow-moving, fresh or brackish (0–22 g/l salt content), shallow (0– 1.5 m deep) waters. The main factors limiting the occurrence and spread of Common Reeds are water depth, currents or waves, and hypertrophic and hypersaline conditions. The species is globally listed as Least Concern and tends to form monospecific, productive stands under optimal conditions. Such sheltered, nutrient-rich reed stands are important refuges for invertebrates, fish and birds, with several vulnerable bird species depending on this habitat for breeding (Barbraud, et al., 2002; Poulin, et al., 2002; Poulin, et al., 2009) or migration (Poulin, et al., 2010). Phragmites australis has significant socioeconomic value for local people living near wetlands in northern Africa and in the Mediterranean basin. Many reedbeds have been preserved because of the products and services they provide, which include fibre, thatching material, food (waterfowl and fish) Figure 2. Phragmites australis is a widely used and economically important species across the world. Photo © M.Menand. 1 Laboratory of Aquatic Ecology and Environment, Hassan II Aïn Chock University, Faculty of Sciences, BP 5366, Maarif, Casablanca, Morocco. 2 Tour du Valat, Le Sambuc, 13200, Arles, France. 3 CNRS UMR 5175 CEFE, 1919 route de Mende, 34293 Montpellier, France. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation 63 64 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION and grazing, as well as water purification, shoreline stabilization, water retention and flood control. For centuries, reeds have been cut, dried and used locally for roofing houses, for windbreaks, hedging, fencing, shading and also for the manufacture of household items (such as tables, chairs and cupboards) or musical instruments (flutes). The sale of reed stems, either raw (in bundles) or processed (as handicrafts), generates significant income and contributes to improving the living standards of local people. Reed cutting generates seasonal jobs for the local workforce. There is, however, a difference in the way people exploit Reed in northern and southern Mediterranean countries. In northern Africa, in a wetland complex in Smir in northern Morocco for instance, the biomass produced by the reed is estimated at 22.95 tonnes/ha (Ennabili & Ater, 2005). It is harvested by men from rural settlements close to the reedbeds by traditional methods using sickles, generating an income of MAD 50/person/day (USD 5.9). This entire production is destined for the domestic market. However, in the Camargue (Mathevet & Sandoz, 1999) in southern France, 2,000 ha of reed are harvested mechanically, yielding 1 to 1.5 million bundles. The turnover of the sector was EUR 2 million in 1997 for four companies, mostly family business, generating about 26 Bundle of Phragmites australis being cut in the Camargue, France. Photo © Emilien Duborper, Tour du Valat. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF AQUATIC PLANTS full-time jobs and 40 seasonal jobs. Camargue reed is mainly sold in France, England and the Netherlands. In addition to the long-standing traditional use of dry reed, green reed was an important forage crop for cattle before the agricultural revolution. Summer harvesting has become rare, but extensive grazing is still a common practice in Mediterranean wetlands, with Phragmites australis being one of the most appetizing plants due to its high protein content (Mesléard & Perennou, 1996). Waterfowl hunting, commercial or sport fishing, and ecotourism are other economic activities not specific to, but frequently associated with reedbeds, especially those enclosing large open-water areas. The plastic morphology of reed stems and the ability of rhizomes to store reserves increase the plant’s resistance to stress and pollution. Bacterial activity around the rhizomes, through aerobic and anaerobic processes, give the plant good waterpurification properties (Chu, et al., 2006; Stamati, et al., 2010). This biological process occurs within natural ecosystems (deltas, lakes, and canals) and can be transferred to semi-natural or constructed beds (Figure 2) for the treatment of waste water from villages and hamlets. This phytopurification process is increasingly being used in southern France, but is only in its early stages in northern Africa (e.g. Smir in the M’diq region in northern Morocco and Ouargla wilayah in Algeria). Figure 3. Water treatment plant using Phragmites australis in southern France. Photo © Brigitte Poulin, Tour du Valat. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation 65 66 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION 5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Diego Juffe-Bignoli1 and William R. Darwall1 An herbalist and healer in Morocco. Usually acting as doctors and pharmacists in rural Morocco, they often use aquatic species for their treatments. Photo © M. Melhaoui. 1 Freshwater Biodiversity Unit, IUCN Global Species Programme, Cambridge, UK. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ONE IN THREE FRESHWATER SPECIES IN NORTHERN AFRICA IS OF SOCIOECONOMIC VALUE the only option available for local communities. For example, small-scale inland fisheries have been recognized to play a role as a ‘safety net’, in that This is the first time that a study has been conducted at the species level to collate and integrate information on the socio-economic value of freshwater species and the threats to those species. The findings are most revealing. The high socio-economic value of freshwater species is clearly demonstrated, with 46.06% of fish and 27.61% of plants utilized in some way by people (Table 5.1). These figures include only the direct uses of species; the total numbers are undoubtedly much greater once the many indirect benefits—not accounted for in this study— are included, such as the provision of drinking water, nutrient cycling, flood prevention or genetic materials (see Section 1.1). For example, if Crop Wild Relatives (CWR) were regarded as an indicator of value (see section 4.4), 66% of aquatic plants would be considered to be of socio-economic value. Of these CWR species, 24.92% are already threatened, largely through human exploitation of wetland ecosystems most often with little, if any, regard for the conservation or sustainable use of these ecosystems and their associated species. We therefore conclude that a valuable resource—the freshwater species making up wetland ecosystems—is rapidly being lost through human actions, since 24.75% of all utilized species are threatened (Table 5.1.), and that many people who rely directly on these species are likely to suffer as a consequence. This loss can be particularly critical when access to the resources that healthy ecosystems provide is fishing can provide an alternative or additional source of income or food to livelihoods that have been hit by periods of civil unrest or economic crisis (Welcomme, et al., 2010). INVOLVING LOCAL COMMUNITIES AND ENCOURAGING SUSTAINABLE EXPLOITATION Local communities whose livelihoods depend on natural resources should be considered and consulted in conservation planning activities as they are the first to be affected by habitat modification. Local stakeholders need to be encouraged to develop and/or participate in sustainable harvesting and/or farming programmes and in ecotourism initiatives that can help to protect these resources. It is also recommended that revenue-generating projects be developed for local people to reduce pressure on natural environments and to boost local economies. INTEGRATING SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE IN THE PLANNING PROCESS The value of freshwater species still fails to be appreciated and is rarely adequately considered in decision-making processes relating to the exploitation and development of wetlands. The total value of wetland ecosystems, supported by the many freshwater species studied here, must be factored into decision making. Ultimately this Table 5.1 Socio-economic value and level of threat for freshwater fishes and aquatic plants in the northern African region group All species Species utilized in northern Africa Threatened (all species) Threatened (utilized species) Freshwater fishes 128 59 (46.06%) 35 (27.34%) 21 (35.59%) Aquatic plants 518 143 (27.61%) 127 (24.51%) 29 (20.28%) All species 646 202 (31.26%) 162 (25.07%) 50 (24.75%) IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation 67 68 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION information could be linked to other geographical information associated with human development, such as rural poverty, agricultural intensification or water security. We recommend that Environmental Impact Assessments be conducted before any actions that impact on wetlands are approved and that they include a fully balanced cost/benefit analysis based on the inclusion of a total economic valuation of the wetland in question. Subsequent actions should, in appreciation of these values, ensure the adequate conservation and/or sustainable use of these wetland resources. If we continue to destroy and degrade inland wetlands and their associated species at the rate at which we are doing so today we will, often unwittingly, cause the loss of many species to the great detriment of the large numbers of people who depend upon them for many aspects of their daily lives. The conservation value of species has long been recognized by organizations such as IUCN but this study now also confirms the great socio-economic value these species bring to our society. Given the high level of threat to these species, as recorded by the IUCN Red List, the time has come to rethink our approach to the development and exploitation of wetlands. FURTHER RESEARCH Information on the socio-economic value of species is not easily accessible, as it is often scattered, kept in people’s heads, or published in the grey literature. The information presented here was collated through a combination of literature survey and email correspondence alone. It was outside the scope of the project to draw directly upon the wealth of knowledge of individuals, such as would be possible through workshops. It is therefore highly recommended that regional workshops be held to better access the wealth of additional information that could not be accessed through this study. This study of the socio-economic value of freshwater ecosystems in northern Africa raises important questions, such as what results would be obtained if the same kind of analyses were performed on the vast and renowned freshwater ecosystems of sub-Saharan Africa (i.e. the Congo basin, Zambezi basin and eastern Great Lakes). We therefore encourage scientists and organizations to carry out similar studies investigating socio-economic value at a species level, in order to reveal the true importance of species to local communities. Osmunda regalis in a small peat swamp in la Garâa Sejenane, Mogods, Tunisia. This fern is used across northern Africa as an ornamental plant. The roots are diuretic, astringent and tonic. Listed regionally as LC. Photo © Amina Daoud-Bouattour. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation APPENDICES 6 APPENDICES Appendix 1—List of freshwater fish species of socio-economic value Appendix 2—List of aquatic plant species of socio-economic value Use of rushes (Juncus spp.) for traditional basketry in a market in Marrakech, Morocco. Photo © M. Sheppard. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation 69 70 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION Appendix 1 — List of freshwater fish species of socio-economic value FAMILy SPECIES NAME CoMMoN NAME REgIoNAL RED LIST CATEgoRy ALESTIIDAE Alestes baremoze Meloha RE END USES Food AREAS WHERE HARVESTED Western Africa, Eastern Africa, Nile Basin ALESTIIDAE Alestes dentex Kawwara Baladi VU Food Nile Basin ALESTIIDAE Brycinus macrolepidotus True Big-scale Tetra RE Food Sub-Saharan Africa Africa ALESTIIDAE Brycinus nurse Nurse Tetra DD Food, Aquarium ALESTIIDAE Hydrocynus brevis Kalb El Bahr Brevis RE Food Africa ALESTIIDAE Hydrocynus forskahlii Elongate Tiger Fish LC Food, Gamefish Africa ALESTIIDAE Hydrocynus vittatus Tiger Fish DD Food, Gamefish Nile Basin, Africa ALESTIIDAE Micralestes acutidens Sharptooth Tetra RE Food, Aquarium, Bait Sub-Saharan Africa ANABANTIDAE Ctenopoma kingsleyae Tailspot Ctenopoma DD Food, Aquarium Sub-Saharan Africa ANGUILLIDAE Anguilla anguilla European Eel EN Food Europe, Mediterranean, Northern Africa ARAPAIMIDAE Heterotis niloticus Heterotis RE Food, Aquarium, Aquaculture Sub-Saharan Africa BAGRIDAE Bagrus bajad Bayad LC Food, Gamefish Nile Basin, Northern Africa, Western Africa, Eastern Africa BAGRIDAE Bagrus docmak Semutundu LC Food, Gamefish Nile Basin, Northern Africa, Western Africa, Eastern Africa BLENNIIDAE Salaria fluviatilis Freshwater Blenny LC Aquarium Europe, Mediterranean CICHLIDAE Astatotilapia bloyeti Bloyet's Haplo VU Food, Aquarium Western Africa, Eastern Africa CICHLIDAE Hemichromis bimaculatus Jewelfish EN Food, Aquarium Africa CICHLIDAE Hemichromis fasciatus Banded Jewelfish DD Food, Aquarium, Aquaculture Nile Basin, Western Africa, Eastern Africa CICHLIDAE Oreochromis aureus Blue Tilapia LC Food, Aquarium, Aquaculture Africa, Egypt CICHLIDAE Oreochromis niloticus Nile Tilapia LC (Global) Food, Aquaculture Africa, Egypt CICHLIDAE Pseudocrenilabrus multicolor multicolor Egyptian Mouthbrooder DD Aquarium Unknown CICHLIDAE Sarotherodon galilaeus galilaeus Mango Tilapia LC Food Africa, Egypt CICHLIDAE Sarotherodon melanotheron heudelotii Mango Fish DD Food Western Africa CICHLIDAE Sarotherodon melanotheron notheron Blackchin Tilapia DD Food, Aquarium, Aquaculture Western Africamela CICHLIDAE Thoracochromis wingatii DD Food Egypt, Sudan CICHLIDAE Tilapia guineensis Guinean Tilapia DD Food, Aquarium, Aquaculture Western Africa, Central Africa CICHLIDAE Tilapia rendalli Redbreast Tilapia DD Food Western Africa, Southern Africa CICHLIDAE Tilapia zillii Redbelly Tilapia LC Food, Aquarium, Aquaculture Northern Africa, Eastern Africa CITHARINIDAE Citharinus citharus citharus Moon Fish VU Food, Aquarium Egypt, Western Africa, Central Africa CITHARINIDAE Citharinus latus VU Food Lake Nasser, Eastern Africa, Western Africa, Central Africa CITHARINIDAE Distichodus engycephalus RE Food Central Africa, Western Africa CITHARINIDAE Distichodus rostratus RE Food Eastern Africa, Western Africa CITHARINIDAE Ichthyborus besse besse RE Food North-eastern Africa, Western Africa DD Food Egypt, Western Africa, North-eastern Africa CLARIIDAE Clarias anguillaris Mudfish IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation APPENDICES Appendix 1 — List of freshwater fish species of socio-economic value SPECIES NAME CoMMoN NAME REgIoNAL RED LIST CATEgoRy CLARIIDAE Clarias gariepinus North African Catfish LC Food, Gamefish, Aquaculture Nile Basin, Sub-Saharan Africa CLARIIDAE Heterobranchus bidorsalis Garmout VU Food Egypt, Chad, Sudan, Western Africa CLARIIDAE Heterobranchus longifilis Sampa, Vundu VU Food, Aquaculture, Gamefish Egypt, Chad, Sudan, Western Africa CLAROTEIDAE Auchenoglanis biscutatus Dokman VU Food, Aquarium Sub-Saharan Africa, Nile Basin CLAROTEIDAE Auchenoglanis occidentalis Bubu VU Food Nile Basin, Sub-Saharan Africa CLAROTEIDAE Chrysichthys auratus Abu Rial DD Food Northern Africa, Western Africa CLAROTEIDAE Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus Bagrid Catfish DD Food, Gamefish, Aquaculture Sub-Saharan Africa CLAROTEIDAE FAMILy END USES AREAS WHERE HARVESTED Clarotes laticeps Widehead Catfish RE Food Sub-Saharan Africa CLUPEIDAE Alosa alosa Allis Shad RE Food Europe, Morocco CLUPEIDAE Alosa fallax Twait Shad RE Food Europe, Morocco CYPRINIDAE Barbus anema Benni Anema RE Food, Aquarium Nile Basin, Western Africa, Central Africa CYPRINIDAE Barbus bynni bynni CYPRINIDAE Barbus callensis Algerian Barb LC Food Nile Basin LC Food, Aquarium Northern Africa CYPRINIDAE Barbus figuiguensis LC Food Morocco CYPRINIDAE Barbus moulouyensis LC Food Morocco CYPRINIDAE Barbus nasus NT Food Morocco CYPRINIDAE Barbus neglectus Benni Neglectis RE Food Ethiopia, Sudan, Lake Nasser Fahdah Nile Basin, Western Africa CYPRINIDAE Barbus perince VU Food CYPRINIDAE Barbus pobeguini DD Food Western Africa CYPRINIDAE Barbus stigmatopygus DD Food Eastern Africa, Western Africa CYPRINIDAE Barbus yeiensis DD Food Nile Basin, Chad, Sudan CYPRINIDAE Chelaethiops bibie EN Food Eastern Africa, Western Africa CYPRINIDAE Labeo coubie African Carp EN Food, Public Aquaria Sub-Saharan Africa CYPRINIDAE Labeo niloticus Nile Labeo LC Food Nile Basin CYPRINIDAE Leptocypris niloticus Nile Minnow EN Food Eastern Africa, Western Africa CYPRINIDAE Raiamas senegalensis Silver Fish EN Food Nile Basin, Sub-Saharan Africa DD Aquarium Unknown LC Aquarium Persian Gulf, Red Sea, Indian Ocean Mediterranean CYPRINODONTIDAE Aphanius apodus CYPRINODONTIDAE Aphanius dispar dispar CYPRINODONTIDAE Aphanius fasciatus LC Aquarium CYPRINODONTIDAE Aphanius saourensis Sahara Aphanius CR Aquarium Unknown GYMNARCHIDAE Gymnarchus niloticus Aba, Gefar DD Food Egypt, Western Africa, Central Africa Lates niloticus Nile Perch DD Food, Aquaculture Nile Basin, Western Africa, Central Africa, Eastern Africa Malapterurus electricus Electric Catfish VU Food, Public Aquaria, Gamefish Nile Basin, Western Africa, Eastern Africa, Zambia Mokawkas Nili Eastern Africa, Western Africa LATIDAE MALAPTERURIDAE MOCHOKIDAE Mochokus niloticus MOCHOKIDAE Synodontis batensoda MOCHOKIDAE Synodontis clarias MOCHOKIDAE Synodontis filamentosus VU Food RE Food, Aquarium Western Africa Mandi, Shilane VU Food Nile Basin, Northern Africa, Western Africa Mbakorobo DD Food Nile Basin, Central African Republic, Western Africa IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation 71 72 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION Appendix 1 — List of freshwater fish species of socio-economic value SPECIES NAME CoMMoN NAME REgIoNAL RED LIST CATEgoRy MOCHOKIDAE Synodontis frontosus Sudan Squeaker DD Food Nile Basin, Eastern Africa, Western Africa MOCHOKIDAE Synodontis membranaceus Galabaya RE Food North-eastern Africa MOCHOKIDAE Synodontis nigrita Kerkar Kabir DD Food Western Africa MOCHOKIDAE Synodontis schall Wahrindi LC Food, Gamefish Nile Basin, Western Africa MOCHOKIDAE Synodontis serratus Shaal VU Food Egypt, Ethiopia, Sudan MOCHOKIDAE Synodontis sorex Egungigi DD Food Egypt, Western Africa Silver Moony DD Food, Aquarium Red Sea, Egypt, Eastern Africa, Japan, Australia, Mekong Delta RE Food Western Africa Anoma VU Food Nile Basin, Nigeria, Chad FAMILy MONODACTYLIDAE Monodactylus argenteus MORMYRIDAE Hyperopisus bebe bebe MORMYRIDAE Marcusenius cyprinoides END USES AREAS WHERE HARVESTED MORMYRIDAE Mormyrus caschive Elephant Snout VU Food Egypt MORMYRIDAE Mormyrus hasselquistii Anomah Hasselquist RE Food Western Africa MORMYRIDAE Mormyrus kannume Bottlenose VU Food, Aquarium Nile Basin, Eastern Africa MORMYRIDAE Mormyrus niloticus Anomah Nilieh RE Food Eastern Africa Ros El Hagar Western Africa, Nile Basin MORMYRIDAE Petrocephalus bane bane MORMYRIDAE Petrocephalus bovei bovei MORMYRIDAE Pollimyrus isidori isidori OPHICHTHIDAE Elephant Fish Dalophis boulengeri VU Food, Aquarium RE Food Sub-Saharan Africa VU Food, Aquarium Nile Basin, Gambia Basin, Niger Basin, Volta Basin, Chad Basin DD Food Eastern Africa, Western Africa, Central Africa Egypt, Western Africa Micropanchax pfaffi Pfaff's Lampeye DD Aquarium Polypterus bichir bichir Emsir RE Food, Public Aquaria Africa Gray Bichir DD Food Egypt, Western Africa, Eastern Africa, Central Africa Protopterus aethiopicus aethiopicus Dabib Elhoot, Marbled Lungfish DD Food Eastern Africa, Zambia, Egypt SALMONIDAE Salmo akairos Truite Naine Du Lac Ifni VU Food Morocco POECILIIDAE POLYPTERIDAE POLYPTERIDAE Polypterus senegalus senegalus PROTOPTERIDAE SALMONIDAE Salmo macrostigma DD Gamefish Algeria, Morocco SCHILBEIDAE Parailia pellucida DD Food, Aquarium Central Africa, Western Africa SCHILBEIDAE Schilbe mystus LC Food, Aquarium, Gamefish Nile Basin, Northern Africa, Western Africa, Central Africa SCHILBEIDAE Schilbe uranoscopus VU Food Nile Basin, Western Africa SCHILBEIDAE Siluranodon auritus RE Food Western Africa TETRAODONTIDAE Tetraodon lineatus DD Aquarium Nile Basin, Western Africa, Eastern Africa Fahaka Assielah Catch of Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), Egypt. Photo © Sherif Sadek. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation APPENDICES Appendix 2 — List of aquatic plant species1 of socio-economic value. SPECIES NAME CoMMoN NAME REgIoNAL RED LIST CATEgoRy Adiantum capillus-veneris Maidenhair Fern LC FAMILy ADIANTACEAE ALISMATACEAE Alisma gramineum ALISMATACEAE Alisma plantago-aquatica Medicinal, Ornamental AREAS WHERE HARVESTED Morocco, Algeria, Egypt, Libya, China, Europe NT Medicinal Egypt Great Water Plantain LC Medicinal, Food, Ornamental Egypt, Morocco, Algeria ALISMATACEAE Baldellia ranunculoides NT Aquarium Unknown ALISMATACEAE Damasonium bourgaei Starfruit NT Food Mediterranean AMARANTHACEAE Alternanthera sessilis Sessile Joyweed, Sanchi LC Food, Animal feed, Medicinal, Aquarium India, Sub-Saharan Africa, Asia APIACEAE Apium graveolens LC Food, Medicinal Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt APIACEAE Apium nodiflorum LC Medicinal Morocco APIACEAE Berula erecta Cutleaf Waterparsnip LC Medicinal Mediterranean APIACEAE Hydrocotyle vulgaris Marsh Pennywort LC Ornamental Europe, Mediterranean Hemlock Water Dropwort LC Medicinal Europe LC Medicinal Morocco, Algeria APIACEAE Oenanthe crocata APIACEAE Oenanthe fistulosa ARACEAE Lemna aequinoctialis LC Food, Medicinal Namibia ARACEAE Lemna gibba Gibbous Duckweed LC Food Mediterranean, Africa ARACEAE Lemna minor Duckweed LC Medicinal, Food Mediterranean, Africa, South-East Asia Chain Fern Algeria, China BLECHNACEAE Woodwardia radicans VU Medicinal, Ornamental, Handicrafts BRASSICACEAE Cardamine pratensis atlantica VU Food, Medicinal Morocco BRASSICACEAE Nasturtium officinale DD Medicinal Morocco, Egypt Rorippa indica BRASSICACEAE Butomus umbellatus BUTOMACEAE Flowering Rush LC Food, Medicinal Unknown EN Food, Medicinal, Handicrafts Europe, Mediterranean, Egypt, Algeria Sphenoclea zeylanica DD Food Java CARYOPHYLLACEAE Spergularia media intermedia DD Medicinal Morocco CARYOPHYLLACEAE Spergularia media occidentalis NT Medicinal Morocco CERATOPHYLLACEAE Ceratophyllum demersum LC Aquarium Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Egypt CERATOPHYLLACEAE Ceratophyllum muricatum LC Aquarium Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Egypt China, Morocco CAMPANULACEAE CHARACEAE Chara vulgaris Common Stonewort LC Other chemicals COMPOSITAE Ambrosia maritima Sea Ambrosia LC Medicinal Egypt COMPOSITAE Ceruana pratensis Garawan LC Household Egypt COMPOSITAE Ethulia conyzoides Hashish El-Faras DD Medicinal, Food Sudan, Southern Africa COMPOSITAE Grangea maderaspatana DD Medicinal, Food Africa COMPOSITAE Lactuca virosa cornigera LC Medicinal Morocco COMPOSITAE Pluchea dioscoridis LC Medicinal Egypt COMPOSITAE Pluchea ovalis NT Medicinal, Animal feed Africa COMPOSITAE Pseudoconyza viscosa DD Medicinal South Africa, Angola COMPOSITAE Sonchus maritimus LC Animal feed Unknown Southern Africa CONVOLVULACEAE Cressa cretica LC Medicinal Morocco CONVOLVULACEAE Ipomoea carnea DD Medicinal, Ornamental South America, India Ipomoea sagittata EN Medicinal Algeria Bolboschoenus maritimus LC Medicinal Morocco CYPERACEAE Carex divisa LC Handicrafts Morocco CYPERACEAE Cladium mariscus LC Structural material, Household Morocco, Libya, Egypt CYPERACEAE Cyperus alopecuroides LC Animal feed, Handicrafts Africa CYPERACEAE Cyperus articulatus LC Handicrafts, Medicinal, Chemicals Egypt, Central Africa, Mozambique, Eastern Africa CONVOLVULACEAE CYPERACEAE 1 END USES Foxtail Flatsedge For a definition of aquatic plants see Chapter 1 of this report. 73 74 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION Appendix 2 — List of aquatic plant species1 of socio-economic value. SPECIES NAME CoMMoN NAME REgIoNAL RED LIST CATEgoRy CYPERACEAE Cyperus bulbosus Bush Onion LC CYPERACEAE Cyperus compressus CYPERACEAE Cyperus difformis FAMILy Animal feed, Food Australia, Kenya, Sudan, Tanzania, Burkina Faso, Somalia, Sri Lanka DD Animal feed, Food Kenya LC Animal feed, Medicinal Africa CYPERACEAE Cyperus digitatus LC Food, Medicinal, Fibre Zimbabwe, Angola, Namibia CYPERACEAE Cyperus esculentus LC Food, Animal feed, Medicinal Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Sub-Saharan Africa, Malaysia, Southern Europe, China CYPERACEAE Cyperus imbricatus LC Animal feed, Food Africa CYPERACEAE Cyperus laevigatus Smooth Flatsedge LC Food, Medicinal Africa CYPERACEAE Cyperus longus Galingale, Sweet Cyperus LC Food, Handicrafts, Ornamental, Medicinal Morocco, India, Pan Africa CYPERACEAE Cyperus maculatus LC Food Africa CYPERACEAE Cyperus papyrus VU Food, Medicinal, Structural Material, Animal feed, Handicrafts, Paper, Horticulture Morocco, Egypt, Sub Saharan Africa CYPERACEAE Cyperus rotundus LC Medicinal, Animal feed, Poison, Other chemicals, Food Algeria, Egypt, Morocco, India, Vietnam, Southern Africa CYPERACEAE Isolepis cernua LC Structural material, Ornamental Unknown CYPERACEAE Pycreus mundtii LC Household Africa CYPERACEAE Schoenoplectus corymbosus LC Household Eastern Africa, South Africa HALORAGACEAE Myriophyllum spicatum LC Ornamental Unknown HALORAGACEAE Myriophyllum verticillatum LC Ornamental, Food, Medicinal, Other Africa HYDROCHARITACEAE Hydrocharis morsus-ranae EN Ornamental Morocco, Algeria HYDROCHARITACEAE Najas horrida Shelbika VU Animal feed Mediterranean HYDROCHARITACEAE Najas marina Holly-leaved Naiad LC Aquarium, Food Vietnam, Egypt HYDROCHARITACEAE Ottelia alismoides Duck-Lettuce LC Medicinal, Aquarium India HYDROCHARITACEAE Vallisneria spiralis CR Aquarium Egypt ILLECEBRACEAE IRIDACEAE 1 Smallflower Umbrella Sedge AREAS WHERE HARVESTED END USES Illecebrum verticillatum Iris pseudacorus Yellow Iris LC Medicinal Morocco LC Ornamental Morocco, North Africa ISOETACEAE Isoetes histrix LC Animal feed Tunisia ISOETACEAE Isoetes velata LC Animal feed Tunisia, Europe, Asia JUNCACEAE Juncus acutus Sharp Rush LC Handicrafts, Medicinal Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt JUNCACEAE Juncus articulatus Jointed Rush LC Ornamental Europe JUNCACEAE Juncus effusus Soft Rush LC Food, Medicinal, Handicrafts, Household Europe, Africa JUNCACEAE Juncus inflexus Hard Rush LC Household, Handicrafts Africa JUNCACEAE Juncus maritimus Sea Rush LC Medicinal, Animal feed, Household Morocco, Libya, Iraq, Africa LAMIACEAE Genista ancistrocarpa EN Ornamental Mediterranean, Morocco LAMIACEAE Mentha aquatica Water Mint LC Food, Medicinal Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Mediterranean LAMIACEAE Mentha cervina Hart's Pennyroyal, Menthe des Cerfs CR Food, Medicinal, Aromatic Morocco, Mediterranean, Africa LAMIACEAE Mentha gattefossei Menthe de Perse NT Food, Medicinal, Essential oils Mediterranean LAMIACEAE Mentha longifolia Horsemint LC Food, Medicinal, Essential oils Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, Mediterranean LAMIACEAE Mentha pulegium Pennyroyal LC Food, Medicinal, Essential oils Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, Mediterranean, Europe For a definition of aquatic plants see Chapter 1 of this report. APPENDICES Appendix 2 — List of aquatic plant species1 of socio-economic value. FAMILy SPECIES NAME CoMMoN NAME REgIoNAL RED LIST CATEgoRy LAMIACEAE Mentha spicata Spearmint LC LAMIACEAE Mentha suaveolens Round-Leaved Mint LC Food, Medicinal, Essential oils Morocco, Mediterranean LAMIACEAE Mentha suaveolens timija Timija NT Food, Medicinal, Essential oils, Ornamental Morocco Morocco Food, Medicinal, Essential oils Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, Mediterranean, China Teucrium scordium LC Medicinal LENTIBULARIACEAE Pinguicula lusitanica EN Medicinal Algeria LENTIBULARIACEAE Utricularia gibba NT Aquarium Europe, United States LAMIACEAE Utriculaire Bossue LENTIBULARIACEAE Utricularia inflexa VU Medicinal Unknown LENTIBULARIACEAE Utricularia vulgaris Greater Bladderwort LC Medicinal Europe, Mediterranean LYTHRACEAE Ammannia baccifera Blistering Ammannia LC Medicinal Africa LYTHRACEAE Ammannia senegalensis Red Ammannia LC Aquarium Unknown LYTHRACEAE Lythrum borysthenicum LC Medicinal Morocco LYTHRACEAE Lythrum hyssopifolia LC Medicinal Morocco LYTHRACEAE Lythrum salicaria Purple Loosestrife LC Food, Medicinal, Ornamental Morocco, China, Europe LYTHRACEAE Trapa natans Water Chestnut EN Food, Animal feed, Medicinal Malaysia, India, China, Africa EN Medicinal Morocco, Egypt MENYANTHACEAE Menyanthes trifoliata MOLLUGINACEAE Glinus lotoides Lotus Sweetjuice LC Medicinal Africa, Asia NYMPHAEACEAE Nymphaea alba European Waterlily VU Food, Ornamental, Medicinal Morocco, Algeria, Libya, Mediterranean, Europe NYMPHAEACEAE Nymphaea lotus Egyptian Lotus CR Food, Ornamental, Medicinal Egypt, Africa, China, Indochina Bashneen Azraq CR Food, Ornamental Egypt, Africa Willowherb VU Food Mediterranean LC Food, Medicinal Egypt, Morocco, Libya, South Africa LC Medicinal Morocco, Algeria, Mediterranean NYMPHAEACEAE Nymphaea nouchali caerulea ONAGRACEAE Epilobium angustifolium ONAGRACEAE Epilobium hirsutum ONAGRACEAE Epilobium parviflorum Hoary Willowherb Square-stalked Willowherb ONAGRACEAE Epilobium tetragonum ONAGRACEAE Ludwigia palustris ORCHIDACEAE Anacamptis laxiflora ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE OSMUNDACEAE PLUMBAGINACEAE 1 AREAS WHERE HARVESTED END USES LC Medicinal, Ornamental Mediterranean NT Aquarium Europe, Asia Loose-flowered Orchid DD Medicinal, Food, Animal feed, Ornamental Europe, Mediterranean Anacamptis palustris Orchis Des Marais DD Ornamental Mediterranean Dactylorhiza elata Orchis Elevé NT Medicine, Food, Animal feed, Ornamental Europe, Mediterranean Osmunda regalis Royal Fern Limonium cymuliferum LC Medicinal, Ornamental Morocco, Europe NT Ornamental Morocco Global POACEAE Agrostis stolonifera Creeping Bent Grass LC Animal feed, Horticulture POACEAE Alopecurus aequalis Shortawn Foxtail VU Food, Medicinal China POACEAE Arundo donax Giant Reed LC Medicinal, Food, Structural material, Fuel, Handicrafts Morocco, Algeria, Libya POACEAE Brachiaria eruciformis Giavone sottile LC Animal feed India POACEAE Brachiaria mutica Herbe de Para LC Animal feed Mediterranean, Africa POACEAE Catabrosa aquatica Water Whirl Grass VU Medicinal United States POACEAE Echinochloa colona Jungle Rice LC Food, Animal feed India, China, Africa POACEAE Echinochloa pyramidalis Antelope Grass LC Animal feed, Food Africa, Mediterranean VU Animal feed Morocco, Algeria EN Animal feed Morocco, Algeria POACEAE Glyceria declinata POACEAE Glyceria fluitans POACEAE Glyceria notata LC Animal feed Morocco, Algeria POACEAE Glyceria spicata LC Animal feed Morocco, Algeria POACEAE Leersia hexandra LC Animal feed Africa, South America Floating Manna Grass Swamp Cut Grass For a definition of aquatic plants see Chapter 1 of this report. 75 76 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION Appendix 2 — List of aquatic plant species1 of socio-economic value. 1 REgIoNAL RED LIST CATEgoRy END USES AREAS WHERE HARVESTED FAMILy SPECIES NAME CoMMoN NAME POACEAE Leptochloa panicea Mucronate Sprangletop LC Animal feed India POACEAE Molinia caerulea VU Household Morocco POACEAE Panicum coloratum LC Animal feed Egypt POACEAE Panicum repens LC Animal feed, Medicinal Morocco, Algeria, Libya, Tunisia POACEAE Paspalidium geminatum Nseila LC Animal feed Mediterranean POACEAE Phalaris arundinacea Reed Canary-grass LC Animal feed, Structural material, Horticulture Morocco, Algeria, Egypt, Sub Saharan Africa POACEAE Phalaris paradoxa Awned Canary-grass LC Animal feed Mediterranean POACEAE Phragmites australis Common Reed LC Food, Animal feed, Structural material, Medicinal, Household Global POACEAE Phragmites mauritianus Reed Grass LC Handicrafts Mediterranean, Southern Africa, Eastern Africa North America POACEAE Polypogon monspeliensis Annual Beard-grass LC Animal feed POACEAE Saccharum spontaneum Canne Sauvage LC Handicrafts, Animal feed India POACEAE Sorghum halepense Aleppo Grass, Johnson Grass LC Animal feed Egypt, Libya POACEAE Sphenopus divaricatus Sphénope LC Animal feed Mediterranean Mediterranean POLYGONACEAE Persicaria bistorta bistorta VU Medicinal POLYGONACEAE Persicaria hydropiper LC Medicinal, Food Morocco POLYGONACEAE Persicaria lapathifolia LC Medicinal Unknown Egypt, Eastern Africa Curlytop Knotweed POLYGONACEAE Persicaria senegalensis LC Medicinal, Food POLYGONACEAE Polygonum amphibium VU Medicinal, Food Morocco, Algeria POLYGONACEAE Rumex crispus LC Medicinal, Other chemicals Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya POLYGONACEAE Rumex dentatus NT Medicinal Mediterranean POLYGONACEAE Rumex pulcher LC Medicinal, Other chemicals Morocco, Algeria, Egypt, Tunisia Toothed Dock, Patience Dentée POLYGONACEAE Rumex tunetanus CR Animal feed Tunisia PORTULACACEAE Montia fontana LC Food Algeria, Morocco PORTULACACEAE Portulaca oleracea LC Food, Medicinal Morocco, Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Australia, Europe Common Purslane, Green Purslane POTAMOGETONACEAE Groenlandia densa LC Ornamental Morocco POTAMOGETONACEAE Potamogeton crispus LC Ornamental Morocco POTAMOGETONACEAE Potamogeton lucens LC Ornamental Morocco POTAMOGETONACEAE Potamogeton natans LC Food, Medicinal, Ornamental China, Africa POTAMOGETONACEAE Potamogeton nodosus LC Ornamental Morocco, Egypt POTAMOGETONACEAE Potamogeton trichoides LC Research Morocco POTAMOGETONACEAE Ruppia cirrhosa NT Medicinal Egypt POTAMOGETONACEAE Ruppia maritima LC Medicinal, Fertilizer India Broad-leaved Pondweed Beaked Tasselweed PRIMULACEAE Lysimachia vulgaris CR Medicinal, Other chemicals Algeria PRIMULACEAE Samolus valerandi LC Medicinal, Food Morocco PTERIDACEAE Thelypteris interrupta PTERIDACEAE Thelypteris palustris Marsh Fern EN Ornamental, Horticulture Morocco VU Ornamental, Horticulture, Food Morocco, Algeria RANUNCULACEAE Aquilegia vulgaris ballii LC Medicinal Algeria, Morocco RANUNCULACEAE Ranunculus ficaria LC Food Morocco For a definition of aquatic plants see Chapter 1 of this report. APPENDICES Appendix 2 — List of aquatic plant species1 of socio-economic value. FAMILy AREAS WHERE HARVESTED SPECIES NAME CoMMoN NAME Ranunculus sceleratus Celery-Leaved Buttercup LC Medicinal India, Europe Frangula alnus Frangola Commune VU Ornamental, Fuel, Medicinal Algeria, Mediterranean, Europe ROSACEAE Potentilla supina Potentille Couchée LC Medicinal, Other Chemicals India, China SALICACEAE Salix atrocinerea LC Medicinal, Fuel Morocco DD Fuel Egypt, Libya LC Fuel Mediterranean RANUNCULACEAE RHAMNACEAE SALICACEAE Salix mucronata SALICACEAE Salix pedicellata SALVINIACEAE Saule Pédicellé Salvinia natans END USES DD Ornamental Africa EN Medicinal, Aquarium India, Mediterranean VU Medicinal, Ornamental Mediterranean, Morocco DD Food India LC Medicinal Algeria, Morocco Veronica anagallis-aquatica LC Medicinal Morocco Selaginella denticulata LC Medicinal Morocco SCROPHULARIACEAE Bacopa monnieri Water Hyssop SCROPHULARIACEAE Gratiola officinalis Hedge Hyssop SCROPHULARIACEAE Peplidium maritimum SCROPHULARIACEAE Scrophularia auriculata SCROPHULARIACEAE SELAGINELLACEAE 1 REgIoNAL RED LIST CATEgoRy TYPHACEAE Sparganium erectum Branched Bur-reed NT Food, Household Europe, North America TYPHACEAE Typha angustifolia Lesser Bulrush LC Food, Medicinal, Construction, Household, Handicrafts Egypt, North America, China, Africa TYPHACEAE Typha domingensis Massette Australe, Southern Cattail DD Food, Animal feed, Handicrafts, Fibre, Medicinal, Construction Egypt, Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, Africa, Asia TYPHACEAE Typha elephantina LC Structural Material, Medicinal Africa, India TYPHACEAE Typha latifolia Reedmace, Broadleaf Cattail LC Food, Medicinal, Handicrafts, Ornamental, Horticulture Egypt, Mediterranean, China, Europe VERBENACEAE Phyla nodiflora Frogfruit LC Medicinal India VERBENACEAE Verbena officinalis LC Medicinal Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt VERBENACEAE Verbena supina LC Medicinal, Aromatic Morocco For a definition of aquatic plants see Chapter 1 of this report. In northern Africa, Nymphaea alba, listed as Vulnerable, is mainly threatened by habitat loss due to agriculture. Photo © DerHexer. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation 77 78 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION REFERENCES Abell, R., Thieme, M.L., Revenga, C., Bryer, M., Kottelat, M., Bogutskaya, N., Coad, B., Mandrak, N., Balderas, S.C., Bussing, W., Stiassny, M.L.J., Skelton, P., Allen, G.R., Unmack, P., Naseka, A., Ng, R., Sindorf, N., Robertson, J., Armijo, E., Higgins, J.V., Heibel, T.J., Wikramanayake, E., Olson, D., López, H.L., Reis, R.E., Lundberg, J.G., Sabaj Pérez, M.H. and Petry, P. (2008). ‘Freshwater Ecoregions of the World: A new map of biogeographic units for freshwater biodiversity conservation’. BioScience 58:403–414. Astrom, M. and Dekker, W. (2007). ‘When will the eel recover? A full life-cycle model’. ICES Journal of Marine Science 64:1491–1498. Azeroual, A. (2010). ‘Anguilla anguilla’. In: IUCN IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 21 December 2011. Balvanera, P., Pfisterer A.B., Buchmann, N., He, J., Nakashizuka, T., Raffaelli, D. and Schmid, B. (2006). ‘Quantifying the evidence for biodiversity effects on ecosystem functioning and services’. Ecology Letters 9:1146–1156. Barbier, E.B. (1993). ‘Sustainable use of wetlands valuing tropical wetland benefits: economic methodologies and applications’. The Geographical Journal 159 (1):22–32. Barbraud, C., Lepley, M., Mathevet, R. and Mauchamp, A. (2002). ‘Reedbed selection and colony size of breeding purple herons Ardea purpurea in southern France’. Ibis 144:227–235. Batanouny, K.H. (ed.) (2005). Encyclopaedia of wild medicinal plants in Egypt. Volume 1. Cairo, Egypt: Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs, Project for the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Medicinal Plants in Arid and Semi-arid Ecosystems in Egypt. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation Batanouny, K.H. (ed.) (2006). Encyclopaedia of wild medicinal plants in Egypt. Volume 2. Cairo, Egypt: Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs, Project for the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Medicinal Plants in Arid and Semi-arid Ecosystems in Egypt. Bellakhdar, J. (1997). La pharmacopée marocaine, traditionnelle. Médecine arabe ancienne et savoir populaire. Casablanca, Morocco: Ed. le Fennec. Ben Haj Jilani, I., Daoud-Bouattour, A., Ferchichi Ben Jamaa, H., Ben Saad-Limam, S., Muller, S.D. and Ghrabi-Gammar, Z. (unpublished). ‘Results of a non published ethnobotanical survey carried out in Garâa Sejenane wetlands (2010), Tunisia’. Financial support: project Egide-CMCU (PHCUtique 07G0908) and Research Unit of Biogeography, Applied Climatology and Dynamics of Erosion. Faculty of Letters, Arts and Humanities of Manouba, Tunisia. Béné, C., Lawton, R. and Allison, E.H. (2010). ‘Trade matters in the fight against poverty: narratives, perceptions, and (lack of) evidence in the case of fish trade in Africa’. World Development 38 (7):933–954. Benessaiah, N. (1998). Mediterranean Wetlands, Socio-economic aspects. Gland, Switzerland: Ramsar Convention Bureau. Bevacqua, D., Melia, P., Crivelli, A.J., Gatto, M., and De Leo, G.A. (2007). ‘Multi-objective assessment of conservation measures for the European eel (Anguilla anguilla): an application to the Carmargue lagoons’. ICES Journal of Marine Science 64:1483–1490. Boukef, M.K. (1986). Les plantes dans la médecine traditionnelle tunisienne, médecine traditionnelle et pharmacopée. Paris, France: Agence de Coopération Culturelle et Technique. APPENDICES Boulos, L. (1983). Medicinal plants of North Africa. Algonac, Michigan, USA: Reference Publications. Brehm, J.M., Maxted, N., Martins-Loução, M.A. and Froyd-Lloyd, B.V. (2010). ‘New approaches for establishing conservation priorities for socioeconomically important plant species’. Biodiversity Conservation 19:2715–2740. Brooks, E.G.E., Allen, D.J. and Darwall, W.R.T. (2011). The status and distribution of freshwater biodiversity in central Africa. Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK: IUCN. Brummet, R.E. (2005a). ‘Ornamental fishes: a sustainable livelihoods option for rainforest communities’. FAO Aquaculture Newsletter 33:29–34. Brummett, R.E. (2005b). ‘Freshwater ornamental fishes: a rural livelihood option for Africa? ‘In: M.L. Thieme, R. Abell, M.L.J. Stiassny, P. Skelton, B. Lehner, G.G. Teugels, E. Dinerstein, A. Kamdem Toham, N. Burgess and D. Olson (eds) Freshwater ecoregions of Africa and Madagascar: a conservation assessment, pp.132–135. Washington, DC, USA: Island Press. Carvalho, L.M. and Fernandes, F.M. (2003). The gift of the Nile or the use of plants in ancient Egypt. Beja, Portugal: Instituto Politécnico de Beja, Museu Botânico. Council of the European Union (2007). ‘Council Regulation (EC) No 1100/2007 of 18 September 2007 establishing measures for the recovery of the stock of European eel’. Official Journal of the European Union L 248 (22/9/2007):17–23. Chaieb, I., Harzallh-Skhiri, F. and Chemli R. (1999). ‘Contribution à une étude ethnobotanique de la flore en Tunisie (cas de la région de Sfax)’. Sfax, Tunisia: Travaux de fin d'études ESHE, Université de Sfax. Chao, N.L. and Prang, G. (2002). ‘Decade of Project Piaba: Reflections and Prospects’. Ornamental Fisheries International Journal 39. Available at: http://www.ornamental-fish-int.org/dataarea/conservation/untitled2/decade-of-projectpiaba-reflections-and-prospects [Accessed 10/12/2011] Chemonics International, Inc. (2008). ‘Stratégie Nationale de développement du secteur des plantes aromatiques et médicinales’. Report prepared in July 2008 for the US Agency for International Development (USAID). Chu, W.K., Wong, M.H. and Zhang, J. (2006). ‘Accumulation, distribution and transformation of DDT and PCBs by Phragmites australis and Oryza sativa L.: I. Whole plant study’. Environmental Geochemistry and Health 28:159–168. Cook, B.G., Pengelly, B.C., Brown, S.D., Donnelly, J.L., Eagles, D.A., Franco, M.A., Hanson, J., Mullen, B.F., Partridge, I.J., Peters, M. and Schultze-Kraft, R. (2005). Tropical Forages: an interactive selection tool. [CD-ROM]. Brisbane, Australia: CSIRO, DPI&F(Qld), CIAT and ILRI. Crook, V. (2010). ‘Trade in Anguilla species, with a focus on recent trade in European Eel A. anguilla’. TRAFFIC report prepared for the European Commission. Crook, V. (2011). ‘Trade in European Eel: Recent Developments under CITES and the EU Wildlife Trade Regulations’. TRAFFIC Bulletin 23 (2):71–74. Darwall, W.R.T., Smith, K.G., Allen, D.J., Holland, R.A, Harrison, I.J. and Brooks, E.G.E. (eds) (2011). The Diversity of Life in African Freshwaters: Under Water, Under Threat. An analysis of the status and distribution of freshwater species throughout mainland Africa. Cambridge, UK and Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. Darwall, W.R.T., Smith, K.G., Lowe, T. and Vié, J.-C. (2005). The status and distribution of freshwater biodiversity in Eastern Africa. Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK: IUCN. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation 79 80 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION Darwall, W.R.T., Smith, K.G., Tweddle, D. and Skelton, P. (2009). The status and distribution of freshwater biodiversity in Southern Africa. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN and Grahamstown, South Africa: SAIAB. Ennabili, A., Nabil, L., Ater, M. (1996). Importance socio-économique des hygrophytes au Nordouest du Maroc. Al Biruniya, revue marocaine de pharmacognosie, d'études ethnomédicales et de botanique appliquée 12 (2): 95–120. De Groot, R.S., Stuip, M.A.M., Finlayson, C.M. and Davidson, N. (2006). ‘Valuing wetlands: guidance for valuing the benefits derived from wetland ecosystem services’. Ramsar Technical Report No. 3/CBD Technical Series No. 27. Gland, Switzerland: Ramsar Convention Secretariat, and Montreal, Canada: Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity. Farrugio, H. (2010). ‘Elements of biology of the European Eel and factors affecting its population in the Mediterranean and Eastern Atlantic’, meeting document for the Transversal workshop on European Eel in the GFCM area, Salammbô, Tunisia, 23–24 September 2010. GFCM Scientific Advisory Committee. Dekker, W. (2003a). ‘On the distribution of the European eel (Anguilla anguilla) and its fisheries’. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 60:787–799. FAO (2005). Trade in Medicinal plants. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Raw Materials, Tropical and Horticultural Products Service. Dekker, W. (2003b). ‘Did lack of spawners cause the collapse of the European eel, Anguilla Anguilla?’. Fisheries Management and Ecology 10:365–376. FAO (2008). The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2007. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Fisheries and Aquaculture Department. Dekker, W. (2007). ‘Coming to grips with the eel stock slip-sliding away’. In: M.G. Schechter, W.W. Taylor and N.J. Leonard (eds). International governance of fisheries ecosystems: learning from the past, finding solutions for the future, American Fisheries Society Symposium 62, pp.335–355. Bethesda, Maryland, USA: American Fisheries Society. Dudgeon, D. (2010). ‘Prospects for sustaining freshwater biodiversity in the 21st century: linking ecosystem structure and function’. Current opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2:422–430. El Fadl, A. and Chtaina, N. (2010). ‘Etude de base sur la culture de la menthe au Maroc’. Programme Régional de lutte intégrée contre les organismes nuisibles au Proche Orient (Projet GTFS/REM/070/ITA). Rabat, Morocco: ONSSA/FAO. Ennabili, A. and Ater, M. (2005). Diversité floristique et production de biomasse des macrophytes des marais de Smir. Travaux de l'Institut Scientifique, Rabat, série générale 4:17–25. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation FAO (2009). FAOSTAT Database on Agriculture. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Online resource: http://faostat.fao.org. [Accessed August 2011]. FAO (2010). The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2009. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Fisheries and Aquaculture Department. FAO (2011). FishStat Plus—Universal software for fishery statistical time series. http://www.fao.org/fishery/statistics/software/fishs tat/en FAO and WFC (2008). Small-scale capture fisheries: a global overview with emphasis on developing countries. A preliminary report of the Big Numbers Project. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO); Bayan Lepas, Penang, Malaysia: WorldFish Center; and Washington, DC, USA: World Bank. APPENDICES FAO/ICES (2010). Report of the 2010 Session of the Joint EIFAC/ICES Working Group on Eels, Hamburg (Germany), 9–14 September 2010. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and Copenhagen, Denmark: International Council for the Exploration of the Sea. Ferchichi-Ben Jamaa, H., Muller, S.D., DaoudBouattour, A., Ghrabi-Gammar, Z., Rhazi, L., Soulié-Märsche, I., Ouali, M., Saad-Limam, S.B. (2010). ‘Structures de végétation et conservation des zones humides temporaires méditerranéennes : la région des Mogods (Tunisie septentrionale)’ [‘Vegetation structures and conservation of Mediterranean temporary wetlands: Mogods region (northern Tunisia)’]. Comptes rendus biologies 333(3):265–279. Freyhof, J. and Kottelat, M. (2010). ‘Anguilla anguilla’. In: IUCN IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 21 December 2011. Hseini, S. and Kahouadji, A. (2007). Étude ethnobotanique de la flore médicinale dans la région de Rabat (Maroc occidental). Lazaroa 28:79–93. IBRD (2010). The Hidden Harvests: the global contribution of capture fisheries. Conference edition. Washington, DC, USA: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank. IFAD (2007). The status of rural poverty in the Near East and North Africa. Rome, Italy: International Fund for Agricultural Development. IUCN (2001). IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria: Version 3.1. IUCN Species Survival Commission. Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK: IUCN. IUCN. (2003). Guidelines for Application of IUCN Red List Criteria at Regional Levels: Version 3.0. IUCN Species Survival Commission. Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK: IUCN. GAFRD (2010). Year Book of Fishery Statistics. Cairo, Egypt: The General Authority for Fish Resources Development. IUCN (2005). A Guide to Medicinal Plants in North Africa. Available at: http://data.iucn.org/places/medoffice/nabp/data base/ García, N., Cuttelod, A. and Abdul Malak, D. (eds) (2010). The Status and Distribution of Freshwater Biodiversity in Northern Africa. Gland, Switzerland, Cambridge, UK and Malaga, Spain: IUCN. IUCN (2010). ‘Mediterranean Red List/Aquatic plants’ [web page]. Available at: http://www.iucnredlist.org/initiatives/mediterranea n/mediterraneanaquaticplants. GFCM (2010). ‘Rapport de l’atelier transversal sur l’anguille européenne’, Salammbô, Tunisia, 23– 25 September 2010. Rome, Italy: General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean, Scientific Advisory Committee. IUCN (2011). Parque Nacional de Alhucemas—Guía para la producción sostenible de plantas forestales, aromáticas y medicinales. Gland, Switzerland and Malaga, Spain: IUCN. Gricar, B. and UNEP–WCMC (2011). ‘Identification of African ornamental fish species and factors in their conservation status’. UNEP–WCMC Species Programme. Unpublished data. Hooper, D.U., Chapin, F.S., III, Ewel, J.J., Hector, A., Inchausti, P., Lavorel, S., Lawton, J.H., Lodge, D.M., Loreau, M., Naeem, S., Schmid, B., Setälä, H., Symstad, A.J., Vandemeer, J. and Wardle, D.A. (2005). ‘Effects of biodiversity on ecosystem functioning: a consensus of current knowledge’. Ecological Monographs 75:3–35. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation Juffe-Bignoli, D. (2011). ‘Aquatic plants of Africa: diversity, distribution and conservation’. In: W.R.T. Darwall, K.G, Smith, D.J, Allen, R.A. Holland, I.J. Harrison and E.G.E. Brooks (eds) The Diversity of Life in African Freshwaters: Under Water, Under Threat. An analysis of the status and distribution of freshwater species throughout mainland Africa pp.200–227. Cambridge, UK and Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. 81 82 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION Kawarazuka, N. (2010). The contribution of fish intake, aquaculture, and small-scale fisheries to improving nutrition: A literature review. The WorldFish Center Working Paper No 2106. Bayan Lepas, Penang, Malaysia: The WorldFish Center. Kell, S.P., Knüpffer, H., Jury, S.L., Ford-Lloyd, B.V. and Maxted, N. (2008). ‘Crops and wild relatives of the Euro-Mediterranean region: making and using a conservation catalogue’. In: N. Maxted, B.V. Ford-Lloyd, S.P. Kell, J.M. Iriondo, M.E. Dulloo and J. Turok (eds) Crop Wild Relative Conservation and Use, pp. 69–109. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. Khattabi, A. (1997). Etude socio-économique de Merja Zerga: évaluation économique et impacts des activités humaines. MedWet 2 Project. European Commission LIFE Programme and Administration des Eaux et Forêts et de la Conservation des Sols, Morocco. Khattabi, A. (2006). Aspects socio-économiques des zones humides marocaines—Éléments de réflexion pour l’élaboration de la Stratégie Nationale des zones humides. Ministère de l'Aménagement du Territoire, de l'Eau et de l'Environnement (MATEE), Département de l’Environnement, Morocco. Khattabi, A. and Sefriti, A. (2005). ‘Aspects socioéconomiques de la zone humide de RestingaSmir’. In: A. Bayed and F. Scapini (eds). Ecosystèmes côtiers sensibles de la Méditerranée: cas du littoral de Smir. Scientifique, Rabat 4: 87–95. Kotb, F.T. (1985). Medicinal plants in Libya. Beirut, Lebanon: Arab Encyclopedia House. Kraïem, M.M., Chouba, L., Ramdani, M., Ahmed, M.H., Thompson, J.R. and Flower, R.J. (2009). ‘The fish fauna of three North African lagoons: specific inventories, ecological status and production’. Hydrobiologia 622:133–146. Lala, S. and Maxted, N. (2011). Checklist of priority crop wild relatives for North Africa. Unpublished database. Birmingham, UK: University of Birmingham. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation MATEE (2004). Stratégie nationale pour la conservation et l’utilisation durable de la Diversité Biologique. Ministère de l'Aménagement du Territoire, de l'Eau et de l'Environnement, Morocco. Mathevet, R. and Sandoz, A. (1999). ‘L’exploitation du roseau et les mesures agrienvironnementales dans le delta du Rhône’. Revue d’économie méridionale 47:101–122. Maxted, N., Ford-Lloyd, B.V., Jury, S., Kell, S. and Scholten, M. (2006). ‘Towards a definition of a crop wild relative’. Biodiversity and Conservation 15 (8):2673–2685. Maxted, N., Kell, S., Toledo, A., Dulloo, E., Heywood, V., Hodgkin, T., Hunter, D., Guarino, L., Jarvis, A. and Ford-Lloyd, B. (2010). ‘A global approach to crop wild relative conservation: securing the gene pool for food and agriculture’. Kew Bulletin 65:561–576. MEDD (2010). Projet de Plan de Gestion Anguille de Tunisie. Direction Générale de la Pêche et de l’Aquaculture. Ministère de l’agriculture, des ressources hydrauliques et de la pêche, Tunisia. Melhaoui, M. (2011). Evaluation des valeurs socioéconomiques des espèces d'eau douce pour le Bassin de la Moulouya (Maroc) Afrique du Nord. Agence du Bassin Hydraulique de Moulouya (ABHM), Internal Document, unpublished. Mesléard, F. and Perennou, C. (1996). Aquatic emergent vegetation, ecology and management. No 6, Conservation of Mediterranean wetlands. Arles, France: Station Biologique de la Tour du Valat. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Wetlands and Water Synthesis. Washington, DC, USA: World Resources Institute. Miller, M.J., Kimura, S., Friedland, K.D., Knights, B., Kim, H., Jellyman, D. and Tsukamoto, K. (2009). ‘Review of Ocean-Atmospheric Factors in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans Influencing Spawning and Recruitment of Anguillid Eels’. American Fisheries Society Symposium 69:231–249. APPENDICES Mimoudi, B. (1988). La médecine par les plantes. Casablanca, Morocco: Société d'édition et diffusion al Madariss. Mittermeier, R.A., Robles Gil, P., Hoffmann, M., Pilgrim, J., Brooks. T., Mittermeier, C.G., Lamoreux, J. and da Fonseca, G.A.B. (2004). Hotspots: Revisited. Mexico City, Mexico: CEMEX. MPRH (2010). Situation de l’exploitation de l’anguille en Algérie. Ministère de la Pêche et des Ressources Halieutiques, Algeria. Neiland, A. and Béné, C. (2003). ‘Review of River Fisheries Valuation in West and Central Africa’. A contribution to the Water, Ecosystems and Fisheries Review Workshop, WorldFish Center, Phnom Penh, 15–17 February 2003. Neiland, A.E., Jaffry, S., Ladu, B.M.B., Sarch, M.T. and Madakan, S. P. (2000). ‘Inland fisheries of North East Nigeria including the Upper River Benue, Lake Chad and the Nguru-Gashua wetlands I. Characterization and analysis of planning suppositions’. Fisheries Research 48:229–243. Poulin, B., Lefebvre, G., Allard, S. and Mathevet, R. (2009). ‘Reed harvest and summer drawdown enhance bittern habitat in the Camargue’. Biological Conservation 142:689–695. Poulin, B., Lefebvre, G. and Mauchamp, A. (2002). ‘Habitat requirements of passerines and reedbed management in southern France’. Biological Conservation 107: 315–325. PRO-EEL (2011). ‘Reproduction of European Eel— Towards a Self-sustained Aquaculture’. [web page] http://www. pro-eel.eu/. Accessed 10 February 2012. Radford, E.A., Catullo, G. and de Montmollin, B. (eds) (2011). Important Plant Areas of the south and east Mediterranean region: priority sites for conservation. Gland, Switzerland and Malaga, Spain: IUCN. Rebelo, L.-M., McCartney, M.P. and Finlayson, C.M. (2009). ‘Wetlands of sub-Saharan Africa: distribution and contribution of agriculture to livelihoods’. Wetlands Ecology and Management 18(5):557–572. Ouelmouhoub, S. (2005). ‘Gestion multi-usage et conservation du patrimoine forestier: cas des subéraies du Parc National d’El Kala (Algérie)’. Série Master of Sciences 78. Montpellier, France: Institut Agronomique Méditerranéen de Montpellier. Rhazi, L. and Grillas, P. (2010). ‘Status and distribution of aquatic plants’. In: N. García, A. Cuttelod, and D. Abdul Malak (eds) (2010). The Status and Distribution of Freshwater Biodiversity in Northern Africa pp.81–102. Gland, Switzerland, Cambridge, UK and Malaga, Spain: IUCN. Ould El Hadj, M. D., Hadj-Mahammed, M. and Zabeirou, H. (2003). ‘Place des plantes spontanées dans la médecine traditionnelle de la région de Ouargla (Sahara Septentrional Est)’. Courrier du Savoir 3:47–51. Biskra, Algeria: Université Mohamed Khider. SADC (2008). Integrated Water Resources Management Strategy and Implementation Plan for the Zambezi River Basin: Summary. Gaborone, Botswana: SADC-WD and Lusaka, Zambia: Zambezi River Authority, SIDA/ DANIDA, Norwegian Embassy, Lusaka. Papayannis, T. (2008). Action for Culture in Mediterranean Wetlands. Athens, Greece: Med-INA. Saleh, M.A. (2007). ‘Freshwater fish seed production in Egypt’. In: M.G. Bondad-Reantaso, (ed.). Assessment of freshwater seed resources for sustainable aquaculture. FAO Technical Paper. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Poulin, B., Duborper, E. and Lefebvre, G. (2010). ‘Spring stopover of the globally threatened aquatic warbler Acrocephalus paludicola in Mediterranean France’. Ardeola 57:167–173. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation 83 84 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FRESHWATER SPECIES FOR THE NORTHERN AFRICAN REGION Salhi, S., Fadli, M., Zidane, L. and Douira, A. (2010). ‘Etudes floristique et ethnobotanique des plantes médicinales de la ville de Kénitra (Maroc)’. Lazaroa 31:133–146. Smith, K.G., Diop, M.D., Niane, M. and Darwall, W.R.T. (2009). The status and distribution of freshwater biodiversity in Western Africa. Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK: IUCN. Stamati, F.E., Chalkias, N., Moraetis, D. and Nikolaidis, N.P. (2010). ‘Natural attenuation of nutrients in a Mediterranean drainage canal’. Journal of Environmental Monitoring 12:164–171. Strayer, D.L. and Dudgeon, D. (2010). ‘Freshwater biodiversity conservation: recent progress and future challenges’. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 29: 344–358. Thieme, M.L., Abell, R.A., Stiassny, M.L.J., Skelton, P., Lehner, B., Teugels, G.G., Dinerstein, E., Kamdem-Toham, A., Burgess, N. and Olson, D. (2005). Freshwater ecoregions of Africa and Madagascar: A conservation assessment. Washington, DC, USA: Island Press. Thieme, M.L., Turak, E., McIntyre, P., Darwall, W., Tockner, K., Cordeiro, J. and Butchart, S.H.M. (2010). ‘Freshwater ecosysytems under threat: The ultimate hotspot’. In: R.A. Mittermeier , T.A. Farrell , I.J. Harrison , A.J. Upgren and T.M. Brooks (eds) Fresh water: the essence of life, pp.118–151. Arlington, Virginia, USA: CEMEX and ILCP. Turpie, J., Smith, B., Emerton, L. and Barnes, J. (1999). Economic value of the Zambezi basin wetlands. Harare, Zimbabwe: IUCN Regional Office for Southern Africa. UNEP (2010). Blue Harvest: Inland fisheries as an ecosystem service. Bayan Lepas, Penang, Malaysia: WorldFish Center. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation USGS EROS (United States Geological Survey Earth Resources Observation and Science Center) (2011). HYDRO 1k Elevation Derivative Database. [web page] http://eros.usgs.gov/#/Find_Data/Products_and_D ata_Available/gtopo30/hydro. Accessed 17 April 2012. Vörösmarty, C.J., McIntyre, P.B., Gessner, M.O., Dudgeon, D., Prusevich, A., Green, P., Glidden, S., Bunn, S.E., Sullivan, C.A., Reidy Liermann, C. and Davies, P.M. (2010). ‘Global threats to human water security and river biodiversity’. Nature 467:553–561. Welcomme, R.L., Cowx, I.G., Coates, D., Béné, C., Funge-Smith, S., Halls, A. and Lorenzen, K. (2010). ‘Inland capture fisheries’. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 365:2881– 2896. Whittington, R. J. and Chong, R. (2007). ‘Global trade in ornamental fish from an Australian perspective: The case for revised import risk analysis and management strategies’. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 81 (1–3 Spec. Iss.):92–116. WHO/UNICEF (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water: 2010 Update. World Health Organization and United Nations Children’s Fund Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation. New York, USA: UNICEF, and Geneva, Switzerland: WHO. Zahran, M.A. and Willis, A.J. (2003). Plant Life in the River Nile in Egypt. Cairo, Egypt: Al Hadara Publishing. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation C/ Marie Curie 22 29590 Campanillas Malaga, Spain Tel: +34 952 028430 Fax: +34 952 028145 www.iucn.org/publications Core support for the IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation is provided by